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THE 


AMERICAN CYCLOPADIA. 


VOL. XI. 
MAGNETISM—MOTRIL. 


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AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA: 
Hopwlar Dictionary 


OF 


GENERAL KNOWLEDGE. 


EDITED BY 


GEORGE RIPLEY ann CHARLES A. DANA. 


WITH SUPPLEMENT. 


VOLUME XI. 
MA GNEEEISOM—MOTRIL. 


NEW YORK: 

DieeAebd hea ACN Db C.O MP AN Y, 
1, 3, 48376 BOND STREET. , 
LONDON: 16 LITTLE BRITAIN. 
1883. 


Enrerep, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1861, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in the 
Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. 


Enrerep, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in the 


Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 


Knrérep, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in the 
Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 


Entrrep, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in the 


Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
. 


030 
A am 31 


vill 


Among the Contributors to the Eleventh Volume of the Revised Edition are 
the following : . 


Prof. CLevELAND ABBE, Washington, D. OC. 
METEOROLOGY. 


Rey. R. W. Atten, Cliftondale, Mass. 


MASSASOIT. 


Henry Carry Barrp, Philadelphia. 
Mint. 
Money. 
Prof. C. W. Bennett, D. D., Syracuse Univer- 
sity. 


METHODISM. 


Jutius Brine. 


Marre ANTOINETTE, 

MAxIMILian, Emperor of Mexico, 

Motrke, HeLMutTH KARL BERNHARD VON, Count, 
and other articles in biography, geography, and 
history. 

Franois ©. Bowman. 


MAReENzI0, Luca. 
MARSCHNER, HEINRICH. 
Marx, Apotex BrRNHARD. 


Epwarp L. Burrryeame, Ph. D. 


Monk, Grorae, Duke of Albemarle, 
and other articles in biography and history. 


Rey. Cuartes P. Busu, D. D. 


Missions, Foreten (Protestant). 


RosBert CARTER. 


Manmovp, 
MAMELUKES, 
Mann, Horace, 
Mormons, 
and other articles in biography and history. 
JouHn D. Camp in, Jr. 


MANUSCRIPT, 
MNEMONICS, 
Morocco, 
Moscow, 
and other articles in biography and geography. 


Prof. Joun A. Cuuron. 
MINERALOGY. 


Prof. E. H. Crarxe, M. D., Harvard University. 


Mercury (in Medicine), 
_and other articles in materia medica, 


T. M. Coan, M. D. 


Maott. 
Mauna Kaa. 
Mauna Loa. 2 

Monovre D. Conway, London, Eng. 
Mortey, Henry. 
Morey, Joun. 

Joun Esten Cooks, Richmond, Va. 
Monzoz, JAMES. 


Prof. Jostan P. Cooke, Jr., Harvard University. 


- MOLECULE. 


Hon. T. M. Coorry, LL. D., Michigan Univer- 
sity, Ann Arbor. 


MASTER AND SERVANT, 
MILITIA, 
MITTIMUS, 
MorTGAGE, 
and other legal articles, 


Prof. J. CO. Darron, M. D. 


MALpPicui, MARCELLO, 
Marrow, 
and medical and physiological articles, 
Eaton S. Drone. 


MAINE, 
MASSACHUSETTS, 
MINNESOTA, 
Missouri, 
and other articles in American geography. 


Prof. Tuomas M. Drown, M. D., Lafayette 
College, Easton, Pa. 


METAL. 
METALLURGY. 


Rozerr T. Epes, M. D., Harvard University. 


Articles in materia medica. 


W. M. Ferriss. 


MATHEMATICS, 
MoHAMMEDANISM. 


Pres. Wittram W. Fotwert, University of 
Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. 
Minnesota, UNIVERSITY OF. 


Prof. W. E. Grirris, Imperial College, Tokio, 
Japan. 


MATSUMAE. 
Mikapo. 


J. W. Hawes. 


MANITOBA, 
MARYLAND, 
MICHIGAN, 
MIssISssIPPr, 
Montana, 
and other articles in American geography. 


Hon. Onartes OC. Hazewert, Boston, Mass. 
Mary Stuart, Queen. 


M. Herprin. 


* Marmonipes, Moses. 
MARsrI. 
Masinissa, King. 


Prof. JosepH Henry, LL. D., Smithsonian In- 


stitution, Washington. 
MAGNETISM. 


Cuartes L. Hocrsoom, M. D. 
MEOHANICS. 


RossitER JOHNSON. 


May, SAMUEL JOSEPH, 
Merapeg, RicHARD WoRSAM, 
Mosiz (war history), 
Morris, WILLIAM, 
and other articles in biography and geography. 


Prof. C. A. Joy, Ph. D., Columbia College, 
New York. 


MANGANESE, 
MOLYBDENUM, 
and other chemical articles. 


Prof. S. Kwrrnanp, M. D., Massachusetts In- 
stitute of Technology, Boston. 


MAMMALTA, 
MAMMOTH, 
MoLivusca, 
aud other articles in zodlogy. 


vl CONTRIBUTORS TO THE ELEVENTH VOLUME. 


Rey. Samurt Locxwoon, Freehold, N. J. 
Mayer, ALFRED MaRsHALL. 


JAMES MoCarrott, Esq., Montreal, Canada. 
MONTREAL. 


Prof. A. M. Mayer, Stevens Institute of Tech- 
nology, Hoboken, N. J. 


MiIcROSCOPE. 


Prof, J. S. Newserry, LL. D., Columbia Col- 
lege, New York. 
MINERAL DEPOSITS. 


Rev. Franxiurn Nostez. 


MANDELAY, 
Meropacu, 
MESSAPIA, 
Monza, 
and other articles in biography and geography. 


Rev. Bernarp O’Rerty, D. D. 


Martin, Popes, 
Missions, Forrrgn (Roman Catholic), 
MonacuisM, 

and other articles in ecclesiastical history. 


Prof. S. F. Preoxnam, University of Minnesota, 
Minneapolis, Minn. 
MALTHA. 


Count L. F. pz Pourraris, Museum of Com- 
parative Zodlogy, Cambridge, Mass. 
MEDITERRANEAN SEA. 


V. PRreont, 


MINERAL SPRINGS. 
MINERAL WATERS, ARTIFICIAL, 


Rionarp A. Proctor, A. M., London. 


Mars, 
MERCURY, 
METEOR, 
Moon, 
and other astronomical articles. 


Prof. A. Rauscuensuscn, Rochester Theologi- 
cal Seminary, Rochester, N. Y. 
MENNONITES. 
MENNO Symons. 


Prof. Rosstrrer W. Raymonp, Ph. D. 


MERCURY. 
METALLURGY (Ore Dressing). 
MINE. 


Puiuie Rrecrey. 


Manrrerte, Avcuste Epovarp. 
Mont pe Prierh. 
Moreaue. 


Prof. Putrip Scuarr, D. D., Union Theological 
Seminary, New York. 
MELANCHTHON, PHILIPP. 


Prof, A. J. ScHEM. 


Marx, SAINT, 
and other articles in biography and history. 
Rev. Epmonp Scuwernitz, D. D., Bethlehem, 
Pa. 


MOoRAVIANS. 


J. G. Suea, LL. D. 


MINNETAREES. 
Mopocs. 
MOHEG ANS. 
Mogulis. 


Rev. E. L. Surrn. 


Mason, FRANCIS. 


Prof. J. A. Spenorr, D. D., College of the 
City of New York. 
MAITLAND, SAMUEL ROFFEY, 


MASKELL, WILLIAM, 
and other articles in eccleeiastical biography. 


Rey. Wuuram L. Symonps, Portland, Me. 


Manzoni, ALESSANDRO, Count. 
MASSINGER, PHILIP, 

MOLIERE. 

MontTaicne, Micuen, Seigneur de. 


Prof. GEorcrE THURBER. 


MAGNOLIA, 
MAPLE, 
MELON, 
and other botanical articles. 


Prof. G. A. F. Van Ruyn, Ph. D. 


MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RAcES AND LANGUAGES, 
MANICHZANS, 
Moas, 
and cee archeological, oriental, and philological 
articles. 


I. pE VEITELLE. 


MALAGA, 
MANILA, 
MEXICO, 
and other geographical and biographical articles. 


C. S.. WEYMAN. 


MINIATURE PAINTING. 
Mosarc, 


Prof. J. H. Worman, A. M., Assistant Editor 
of “Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, 
and Ecclesiastical Literature.” 


Morrat, ROBERT. 
MoeiLa, PETER. 


Gen. James Harrison WILSON, 
Mississtppr RIvER. . 


THE 


Pein Ni Cy © © iP AD DT AY 


MAGNETISM 


AGNETISM, the name given to the phenom- 

ena displayed by magnets. If a bar of 
slightly tempered steel be held vertically and 
struck several blows with a wooden mallet, it 
will acquire the property of attracting iron 
filings at its two extremities, The same prop- 
erty may be communicated from one bar of 
steel to any number of similar bars, by rub- 
bing one half of the length of each of the lat- 
ter with the end of the former which was to- 
ward the earth in the experiment above men- 
tioned, and the remaining half with the other 
end of the same bar. In this process a remark- 
able fact becomes evident, namely, that the 
bar which is employed to impart the magnetic 
property loses none of its own power; on the 
contrary, if the process is properly performed, 
it will become stronger; and hence we deduce 
the conclusion, that in magnetization there is 
no transfer of any substance from one body to 
another, but the development of a latent prin- 
ciple. If a magnetized bar be suspended by a 
fibre of untwisted silk, in such a manner as to 
have perfect freedom of motion, it will assume 
a N. and S. direction; that is, it will exhibit 
the phenomena called polarity. If to either 
end of a magnetized bar thus suspended a 
piece of soft iron be approached, attraction 
will be exhibited between them; when a simi- 
lar bar is rolled in iron filings, the latter will 
be found to adhere in thick clusters at the two 
ends or poles, while none will attach them- 
selves to the middle of the bar. If, instead of 
presenting to the suspended magnet pieces of 
soft iron, we bring near to its two ends in suc- 
cession the two poles of another magnetized 
bar, repulsion as well as attraction will be 
exhibited; and by an attentive study of the 
phenomena we shall find that similarly mag- 
netized ends repel, and dissimilarly magnetized 
ends attract each other. These forces act at 
great distances, through all interposed bodies, 


and like gravitation diminish in intensity with 
the square of the distance from each pole. If 
a number of bars of soft iron be placed near 
each other in the same straight line, and the 
N. end, for example, of a strongly magnetized 
steel bar be brought near one end of the series, 
each piece of iron will become magnetic and 
exhibit polarity. The near end of the first 
magnet will be aS. pole, the far end a N. pole, 
and so on throughout the series, as follows : 


8. Pct ek ae ena Cie Ne ee des: She, oN 
When the magnet is removed, the polarity of 
the iron bars ceases; and when the pole of the 
developing magnet is reversed, the polarity of 
the whole series is also reversed. The develop- 
ment of magnetism in this way is called induc- 
tion, and by it we are enabled to explain many 
facts which would be otherwise perplexing. In 
accordance with this principle, we can assert 
that a magnet does not attract soft iron in its 
natural state, but that it first renders the metal 
magnetic, and then the attraction takes place 
between the dissimilar poles of two magnets. 
Again, when we sprinkle iron filings on a paper 
placed over a magnetic bar, they arrange them- 
selves in beautiful curves radiating from each 
pole and joining near the equator of the bar. 
These lines result from the fact that each 
particle of iron becomes by induction a sepa- 
rate magnet, and attracts the adjacent filings, 
their arrangement in this case being the same 
as that of a series of small needles when under 
the influence of the two poles of a magnetic 
bar. The induction takes place readily in soft 
iron, and disappears as soon as the inducing 
magnet is removed, but not so with hardened 
steel; though the effect is less powerful in 
this, the polarity is permanent.—The method 
of making steel magnets of great power, which 
we have found from long experience the sim- 


6 MAGNETISM 


plest and most efficient, is as follows: Procure 
say ten flat bars of good steel bent into the 
usual form of a horse shoe; let these be well 
hardened and fitted with their flat sides to- 
gether so as to form a compound magnet. 
Each of the members of this bundle may be 
magnetized separately to a small degree by 
supporting one of the legs on the lower end of 
a long rod of iron held nearly perpendicular in 
this latitude, and the other leg on the upper 
end of the same rod; or by rubbing one leg 
with the N. pole of a magnetized bar and the 
other with the S. pole. The several shoes, or 
bars, being in this way feebly magnetized, 
eight of them are joined together with their 
similar poles in contact, forming a compound 
magnet with which the remaining two bars are 
to be magnetized to a higher degree. For this 
purpose the latter are placed on a table on 
their flat sides, the N. pole of the one in con- 
tact with the S. pole of the other, so as to form 
a closed circuit; on any part of this circuit 
the compound horse shoe is placed perpendicu- 
lar to the plane of the table, with its N. pole 
in the direction of the S. pole of the bar or 
shoe on which it rests, and then caused to 
slide in either direction entirely, around the 
circuit, care being taken to retain its per- 
pendicularity. After having gone over the 
surface of the two shoes in this way several 
times, they are turned over without separating 
their ends, and the process is repeated on the 
side which was previously under. By this 


method the two bars will receive a magnetic 


power nearly equal to the sum of the powers 
of the eight magnets in the bundle. Next 
these two bars are placed in the bundle, and 
two others are taken out and subjected to the 
same process. These in turn are put into the 
bundle, and two others are taken out and 
rubbed in the same way, until each pair of 
bars has been gone over two or three times in 
succession. By this method, with the most 
feeble beginning, the magnetism of the several 
shoes may be developed to their full capacity, 
and a magnetic battery produced of great 
power. A compound horse shoe of this kind 
is the most convenient instrument for magnet- 
izing straight bars of hardened steel for prac- 
tical uses. Suppose, for example, we wish to 
magnetize four bars, each 16 inches long, an 
inch wide, and an eighth of an inch thick; 
these are placed on their flat sides in the form 
of a rectangular parallelogram with their ends 
in contact; the compound horse shoe is then 
placed perpendicularly on the middle of one of 
the bars, and slid entirely around the parallel- 
ogram several times in succession ; each bar is 
then turned over in its place so as to bring its 
lower side upward, and the process repeated, 
care being taken to keep the horse shoe per- 
pendicular to the plane of the parallelogram, 
and its poles in the same relative positions 
to those of the bars. By this method, if the 
compound horse shoe is sufficiently powerful, 
the four bars gan be magnetized to saturation 


in the course of a few minutes. If there are 
but two bars to be magnetized, the parallel- 
ogram is completed by joining the ends of 
these with two similar bars of soft iron, and 
the same process of rubbing performed as 
before.—We have seen, in the article ELEcrRo- 
Maaenettsm, that the most powerful magnetic 
induction is produced in soft iron by trans- 
mitting around a bar of this metal a current 
of galvanism, and that temporary magnets 
of great power can be produced in this way. 
The same method affords the readiest means 
of strongly magnetizing steel bars. Whatever 
may be the nature of the change which takes 
place in iron at the moment of magnetization, 
we are certain that it pertains to the atoms or 
molecules of the body, and not to the assem- 
blage of these as a whole. To be convinced of 
this, it is only necessary to magnetize a steel 
rod, for example a thick knitting needle, the 
polarity of which will be exhibited near its two 


‘ends, while no attraction will be manifested 


near the middle. If however we break this 
into two pieces, we shall find each half is a 
perfect magnet ; the separated ends which 
were previously joined together in the middle 
of the whole length will now exhibit polarity. 
If each of these pieces be again broken in two, 
we shall have four perfect magnets; and how- 
ever frequent the division or small the parts 
into which the needle is divided, each part will 
still exhibit a N. and S. pole. We may con- 
tinue, at least in thought, this division, and we 
have no reason to doubt that however far it 
might be carried, the same result would be 
produced. We infer from this experiment that 
the reason why the middle of a bar exhibits no 
magnetism is not that none really exists there, 
but that it is neutralized by opposite polarities. 
Weare also certain that magnetization is at- 
tended with at least a momentary motion of 
the atoms of the iron. This is proved by the. 
fact that during the sudden magnetization of a 
bar of iron, by means of a current of elec- 
tricity transmitted through a spiral conductor 
enclosing the bar, a sound is emitted; and if 
the bar be rapidly magnetized and demagnet- 
ized by an interruption of the current, a mu- 
sical sound will be produced. This fact was 
first noted by Dr. Page of the United States, 
and subsequently experimented upon by De la 
Rive, Becquerel, and others in Europe. The 
fact that a change takes place in the molecules 
is also rendered evident by an experiment of 
Mr. Joule of Manchester, England, in which he 
found that, although the whole capacity of the 
iron bar did not change on being magnetized, 
yet its dimensions varied, its length being in- 
creased and its width correspondingly dimin- 
ished. That the magnetic force resides on or 
very near the surface of a magnet has been 
shown by Jamin, who finds that for every 
magnet there is a certain relation between the 
quantity of magnetism and the solid and super- 
ficial contents, such as to establish a limit be- 
yond which a given bar cannot exert magnetic 


MAGNETISM 


power. (See Comptes rendus, Paris, June, 
1874.) Again, in the magnetization of iron, it 
is found that time is required to produce a full 
effect, as if it were necessary that inertia 
should be overcome; and Mr. Grove has shown 
that, in rapidly changing the polarity of a bar 
by means of an alternating current of electri- 
city, the iron increases in temperature. The 
fact that a magnet heated to a white heat per- 
manently loses its magnetism is well known; 
and in general the magnetism is diminished 
by any elevation of temperature. Dr. Maggie 
of Verona asserts that a circular plate of ho- 
mogeneous iron, when magnetized, conducts 
heat better in a direction perpendicular to the 
line joining the poles than in the direction of 
this line itself. It is also stated that iron 
strongly magnetized resists the action of the 
file in a greater degree than in its ordinary 
state.—It was formerly supposed that mag- 
netism could be developed only in iron, nickel, 
and cobalt; but we now know from the re- 
searches of Faraday, that all bodies exhibit 
signs of an inductive influence, provided the 
magnetic power applied be sufficiently great. 
From the results of his experiments, Faraday 
was led to divide all bodies into two great 
classes: those like iron, nickel, and cobalt, 
which, on being suspended between the poles 
of an electro-magnet, assume an axial direc- 
tion, were denominated magnetic bodies, or 
paramagnetic; while those which arrange 
themselves at right angles to the magnetic 
meridian were denominated diamagnetic. (See 
Dramaenetism.) The following series exhib- 
its some of the last results obtained by Fara- 
day on the magnetic and diamagnetic powers 
of bodies, in which the angle of torsion neces- 
sary to balance the force of a magnet expresses 
the power of the various substances, volume 
for volume, + representing the paramagnetic 
bodies, and — the diamagnetic: proto-ammo- 
niate of copper, +184°23°; oxygen, +17°5°; 
air, +3°4°; nitrogen, +0°3°; carbonic acid 
gas, 0°0°; hydrogen, —0°1°; glass, —18-2°; 
pure zinc, —74°6°; alcohol, —78°7°; wax, 
—86°73°; nitric acid, —87:96°; water, —96°6°; 
sulphuric acid, —104°47°; sulphur, —118°; 
bismuth, —1967°6°. 
other remarkable evidence of the action of 
magnetism on liquids and solids, as manifest 
in the effect produced on a polarized beam of 
light. Let a piece of gas pipe 18 inches long 
be closed at each end with a plate of tourma- 
line and filled with water. Let the axes of 
the tourmalines be placed transversely, so that 
the polarized beam of light which passes 
through the first may not be transmitted 
through the second. If while the apparatus 
is in this condition the iron be magnetized by 
a current of electricity passing through a long 
wire helix surrounding the tube, the beam of 
light will be partially transmitted by the sec- 
ond tourmaline. It is evident from this result 
that the magnetization of the iron has pro- 
duced an effect on the particles of the liquid, 


Faraday discovered an- 


TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM yi 


which has enabled them to react on the polar- 
ized beam of light and to produce as it were 
a twist in its plane of polarization. A simi- 
lar result will be produced if the liquid be con- 
tained in a tube of glass or any other sub-— 
stance, and placed between the poles of a pow- 
erful magnet. To observe the effect however 
in this case, the poles of the magnet should be 
perforated for the transmission of the light. 
A similar effect is produced upon solid trans- 
parent bodies, and particularly upon heavy 
glass of the silicio-borate of lead. The phe- 
nomena of magnetism admit of being investi- 
gated quantitatively and mathematically with- 
out adopting any particular ideas as to the 
fundamental nature of this force; the most 
complete investigations of this-kind have been 
those of J. Clerk Maxwell (‘‘ Treatise on Elec- 
tricity and Magnetism,” Oxford, 1873), who 
has been able thus to show the profound sig- 
nificance of Faraday’s lines of force, and to 
make some progress in the reduction of this 
study to a dynamical science. Quite recently 
Bichat has published a very extended experi- 
mental investigation of this subject, and among 
other things has established the fact that the 
power of this magnetic influence diminishes as 
the temperature rises. Faraday also discover- 
ed the fact that crystallization exerts a con- 
siderable influence upon the direction of crys- 
tallized bodies placed between the poles of a 
powerful electro-magnet; Plucker found that 
the axis of crystallization tended to assume the 
axial or equatorial direction; and Tyndall and 
Knoblauch established the fact that if the mole- 
cules of any body are more condensed in one 
direction than in any other, the magnetism will 
act along this direction with greatest intensity. 
If the substance is paramagnetic, the line of 
greatest condensation will assume an axial posi- 
tion; if diamagnetic, the same line will come 
into a state of rest in the equator. This is 
shown by mixing carbonate of iron with gum 
into a stiff paste, a disk of which being com- 
pressed between the fingers, so as to give a 
greater density in one direction, and afterward 
suspended between the poles of a powerful elec- 
tro-magnet, will settle with its line of greatest 
condensation in the axial direction. If a simi- 
lar experiment be made with a compound of 
powdered bismuth and gum, the line of great- 
est condensation of this factitious substance 
will assume an equatorial position.— Various 
attempts have been made to show a direct 
magnetizing influence in the solar beam to 
develop magnetism in soft iron needles, and it 
has even been asserted that the direct radia- 
tion from the moon has a powerful disturbing 
effect upon the needle of the mariner’s com- 
pass; but the most delicate experiments made 
by those best qualified for such investigations 
have failed to exhibit any result of this kind. 

MAGNETISM, Animal, See Anima MacGner- 
ISM. 

MAGNETISM, Terrestrial. Gilbert in 1600 was 
the first to announce the bold hypothesis that 


8 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 


the earth is a great magnet, and that the needle 
assumes a N. and §. direction because it is at- 
tracted by the dissimilar and repelled by the 
similar poles of the terrestrial sphere. He 
illustrated this hypothesis by magnetizing small 
globes of steel; but this illustration, though it 
served in a general way to represent the phe- 
nomena, is not strictly correct. In the first 
place, the magnetism of the earth is not sym- 
metrical like that of a steel magnet, but is to a 
considerable degree irregular; and secondly, it 
is not permanent, but subject within certain 
limits to almost continual changes both in di- 
rection and intensity. Indeed, the magnetic 
needle is scarcely ever absolutely stationary 
from one moment to another, but is constantly 
exhibiting minute variations. If the earth is a 
magnet, the free needle at any place should as- 
sume a definite direction; but it does not fol- 
low from the hypothesis that this direction 
must be the true north and south, since the 
magnetic poles of the earth do not necessarily 
coincide with its geographical poles. If the 
two poles be in the same meridian with a given 
place, the needle will at that place point to the 
true north; but if the magnetic pole lie either 
W. or E. of the meridian of a given place, the 
N. end of the needle will deviate either E. or 
W. of the true north, and the phenomenon 
of the declination or variation of the compass 
will be exhibited. That the needle does not 
point to the true north had long been known, 
and it was observed by Columbus in his first 
voyage of discovery that the direction of the 
needle is not the same for all portions of the 
earth. Thousands of observations have since 
been made to obtain the data for constructing 
charts to represent for the use of the mariner 
the declination in various parts of the earth. 
Again, if we assume that the earth is a great 
magnet, it will follow that in passing from the 
magnetic equator, the needle which is accu- 
rately balanced, so as to settle horizontally at 
the former place, will incline or dip as we ad- 
vance to either pole. That this is really the 
fact was first discovered by Robert Norman in 
1576. Furthermore, if the earth is a magnet, 
we should expect that the magnetic intensity 
or the strength of the action would not be the 
same at all points of its surface, and this infer- 
ence has also been found to be true. By count- 
ing the vibrations of a delicate dipping needle, 
we find that the strength of the magnetism of 
the globe increases as we go from the equator 
toward the pole. The magnetic intensity, how- 
ever, exhibited by observations of this kind, 
does not indicate as rapid an increase of force 
as we approach the magnetic pole as might be 
expected from such a distribution of magnet- 
ism as would result from a magnetized sphere 
of iron. In conformity with the three mag- 
netic elements we have mentioned, namely, the 
variation, the dip, and the intensity, it is cus- 
tomary to represent the magnetic condition of 
the earth at a given time by three systems of 
lines supposed to be drawn on the surface of 


the globe. These are as follows: 1, the line 
drawn through all places where the needle 
points to the true north or south, to 5° W., to 
5° E., 10° W. and 10° E., and so on, called the 
isogonic lines, or lines of equal variation or de- 
clination; 2, lines nearly at right angles to the 
former, drawn through all places exhibiting 
the same angle of dip of the needle, called iso- 
clinal lines; and 3, a system of lines joining 
all places having the same magnetic intensity, 
and consequently known by the name of iso- 
dynamic lines. It is a problem of much prac- 
tical importance in regard to the art of navi- 
gation, as well as to the study of the phenome- 
na of terrestrial magnetism, that these three 
systems of lines should be accurately deter- 
mined; and accordingly expeditions have been 
fitted out by different nations almost expressly 
for this purpose. All the observations, how- 
ever, which have been made in regard to them, 
indicate the fact that they are not permanent, 
but are constantly undergoing a change, of 
which the law is exceedingly complex. Hal- 
ley’s chart of declination for 1700 is very dif- 
ferent from that of Barlow for 1838; and Han- 
steen’s dip chart for 1780 does not represent 
the isoclinal lines of the present day. The 
great practical object then of investigation in 
this branch of science is to discover the law of 
these changes, in order that, the position and 
form of these lines being determined for a 
given epoch, they may be calculated for any 
future time. The phenomena were first refer- 
red to a very small magnet at the centre of the 
earth, the direction of which is subject to 
irregular changes. Tobias Mayer, instead of 
supposing a magnet to be placed at the centre 
of the earth, conceived one to be situated at 
about the seventh part of the earth’s radius 
from the centre, and from this hypothesis he 
was enabled to calculate the variation and dip 
in places not far distant from those in which 
these quantities had been determined by actual 
observation. Hansteen of Norway, who col- 
lected an immense number of observations, en- 
deavored to represent the phenomena by the 
hypothesis of two small eccentric magnets of 
unequal strength placed at the centre of the 
earth, giving rise to four magnetic poles, two 
in each hemisphere. In order to represent the 
variations of the needle, the poles of each of 
these two magnets were supposed to perform 
a revolution around an intermediate line, with 
different velocities. Gauss of Gottingen, how- 
ever, made the first rigid investigation of the 
problem in accordance with a definite plan. 
He founded his research on the assumption 
that the terrestrial magnetic force, or that 
which is exerted on a needle freely suspended 
by its centre of gravity, is the resultant action 
of all the magnetized particles of the earth’s 
mass. According to this assumption, the gov- 
erning power which affects the needle is due 
to the magnetism of the earth itself, while the 
different perturbations to which the needle is 
subjected are the results of extraneous forces. 


TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM | 9 


To give clearness of perception, he represents 
magnetization as consisting in the separation 
of two magnetic fluids, giving magnetic polari- 
ty to each particle, or in other words in a re- 
pulsive and attractive force acting inversely as 
the square of the distance. No change would 
be produced in the result by adopting the hy- 
pothesis of Ampére, in which magnetism is 
held to consist of constant magnetic currents; 
nor would there be any difference if terrestrial 
magnetism were ascribed to a mixed origin, as 
consisting partly of actual electrical currents 
and partly of permanently magnetized masses. 
Starting from these assumptions, Gauss obtain- 


ed a general mathematical expression for the 


action of the whole globe on a magnetic needle, 
however irregular might be the distribution of 
the magnetism of theformer. In other words, 
he obtained an expression by which, if the dis- 
tribution of the magnetism of the earth were 
known, and the intensity of its action ascer- 
tained with reference to a unit of distance and 
intensity, the position of the needle and the 
magnetic force by which it was acted upon 
at any point could be determined; and con- 
versely, if the action of the earth on the needle 
were known for a large number of places on 
the surface of the earth, the distribution of the 
magnetism might be considered the unknown 
quantity, and might be approximately found 
from the data thus afforded by observation. 
In this way Gauss was enabled to give a meth- 
od of constructing general charts to represent in 
every part of the earth the magnetic declina- 
tion, inclination, and isodynamic lines, the in- 
tensity and direction of the magnetic force be- 
ing known at a given number of places. The 
data necessary for improved charts of this kind 
have been furnished by the magnetic surveys 
made in various parts of the world in recent 
times, at the suggestion and principally under 
the direction of the British association. By 
repeating the construction of such charts for 
different epochs, the secular changes in dif- 
ferent parts of the earth will become known; 
and it is hoped that, in due time, if the sys- 
tem of magnetic observations which has been 
established should be continued, the law of the 
changes will ultimately be fully ascertained. 
The investigations of Gauss have shown that 
the hypothesis of two movable magnets at the 
centre of the earth does not explain the phe- 
nomena of terrestrial magnetism. He defines 
a magnetic pole to be the place at which the 
needle points directly downward, or at which 
the dip is 90°. Indeed, he has pointed out 
the very obvious fact, that if there be two 
such points in the northern hemisphere, then 
there must be somewhere between the two 
a third point at which the needle would also 
assume the vertical position. Gauss, how- 
ever, arrives at the remarkable conclusion that 
the place of greatest magnetic intensity does 
not coincide with that which is usually de- 
nominated the pole; and it would appear that 
there may be a diffused space in the northern 


hemisphere around which the isodynamic lines 
may be drawn, representing apparently at least 
two centres of greater magnetic attraction. 
These phenomena are best represented by the 
hypothesis of magnetism due to currents of 
electricity in the earth, but as yet no definite 
hypothesis has been advanced as to the nature 
of such currents. It is true, they have been 
referred to thermo-electricity; but how the 
varying heat of the sun or the high tempera- 
ture of the interior can give rise to currents 
constantly circulating round the earth, of such 
intensity and such flexures as would account 
for the observed direction and intensity of ter- 
restrial magnetism, has not yet even approxi- 
mately been made out.—What we have said in 
regard to the magnetism of the earth princi- 
pally relates to its state at a particular time. 
We shall now briefly give an account of the 


‘discoveries which have been made in regard to 


the changes to which terrestrial magnetism is 
subject; and for the data from which these 
have been deduced science is indebted to the 
several magnetic observatories established in 
different parts of the earth. These are fur- 
nished with improved instruments, which in 
their present perfect state constantly record, 
by means of photography, the minutest changes 
in intensity and direction of the magnetic force. 
The magnetic perturbations were at first sup- 
posed to consist of two classes, namely, peri- 
odical and fitful. Many perturbations, how- 
ever, which had been regarded as fitful are 
now known to recur at regular periods, and 
are therefore not properly designated by this 
term. The changes of terrestrial magnetism 
are of three classes. The first consists in a 
movement of the magnetic poles, around the 
true poles of the earth, from E. to W. in both 
hemispheres, This motion is inferred from 
the secular changes which have been found to 
affect the position of the magnetic lines, as 
well as from the secular changes in the posi- 
tion of the magnetic needle at any given sta- 
tion. The magnetic lines at any given epoch 
present great irregularity of shape, because 
very slight differences of magnetic declination, 
due to local peculiarities, may largely affect 
the position of the magnetic lines. But when 
the changes of declination at any given station 
are considered, they are found to correspond, 
at least during the period within which sys- 
tematic observations have been made, to an 
oscillation such as would result from the mo- 
tion of the magnetic poles around the true 
poles of the earth in a period of between six 
and seven centuries. Thus in 1576 the decli- 
nation needle in London pointed 11° 15’ E.; 
in 1657 or thereabouts the needle pointed due 
N.; in 1760 it pointed W. by 19° 30’. The 
westerly declination attained its maximum in 
1819, when it amounted to 242°. Since then 
the needle has been slowly travelling east- 
ward, the present annual rate of decrease be- 
ing more than 8’. The mean westerly decli- 
nation for the year 1873 was 19° 30’. Again, 


10 


in Paris, which lies 2° 20’ E. of London, the 
needle pointed due N. in 1663. Its subsequent 
motions have closely resembled those of the 
London needle; but the Paris needle ceased to 
move westward as early as 1817, and attained 
a maximum declination of only 224°. Now if 
we combine these facts with the changes of 
the inclination, we see at once that they point 
to a movement of the northern magnetic pole 
from a position between London and the N. 
pole in the middle of the 17th century to its 
present position in the extreme north of the 
American continent (or rather in the archi- 
pelago which lies beyond those parts north- 
ward). For in the middle of the 17th century 
the needle pointed northward, while afterward 
it pointed westward. Then the magnetic pole 
lay at that time either directly beyond the N. 
pole of the earth, or somewhere on (or near) 
the are joining London and the N. pole. But 
if the magnetic pole had lain beyond the true 
pole, the inclination would have been much 
less than that corresponding to a magnetic pole 
at the true pole of the earth, that is, less than 
514°. Instead of this, however, the inclina- 
tion was much greater. Moreover, the incli- 
nation, which would then have been at a mini- 
mum had the magnetic pole been beyond the 
true pole, appears to have then been at a maxi- 
mum. For though exact observations of the 
inclination have not been made during so many 
years as observations of the declination, we 
find that in 1720 the inclination was 74° 42’ in 
London ; in 1800, 70° 35’; in 1865, 68° 9’; in 
1870, 67° 55’: and in 1878, 67° 45’. The 
northern magnetic pole was therefore between 
London and the N. pole of the earth in the 
middle of the 17th century, and has since tray- 
elled westward, or in a direction from E. to 
W. around the true pole. If we assume the 
motion to be uniform (which is probably not 
the case), and that the needle at Greenwich 
responds uniformly to such motion (which is 
certainly not the case), we may calculate the 
period of polar revolution. Thus, taking the 
magnetic pole as due N. in 1657, and in 1833, 
according to Ross’s observations, as 95° W. of 
Greenwich, we have for the period of revolu- 
tion => (18831657) years = 667 years about. 
Combining Ross’s estimate with the Paris 
=, (1888—1668) 
years = 644 years about. We may take 650 
years as a not improbable period of revolution. 
It may be added, as confirming the above, that 
in Russia the magnetic inclination has now 
reached a minimum, while in Peking it is in- 
creasing. The cause of this change is at pres- 
ent entirely unknown; it has no analogy with 
any other class of physical phenomena with 
which we are acquainted. By a rough com- 
parison of the isothermal lines and the lines of 
equal magnetic intensity, a general similarity 
has been observed, and hence the two have 
been considered as referable to the same cause; 


epoch, we get a period of 


TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 


but it will be perceived that this analogy does 
not hold, since the magnetic lines are in con- 
stant motion, while the isothermal lines retain 
very nearly a fixed position, or at least change 
in comparison with the other lines with ex+ 
treme slowness.—The second system of changes 
has evident relation to the annual position of 
the earth in its orbit round the sun, and its 
revolution on its axis. These were at first 
ascribed to the influence of the heat of the sun 
on different parts of the earth; but they have 
the remarkable characteristic of exhibiting 
notably the same amount in the southern 
hemisphere as in the northern, and in the 
tropical as in the temperate zones. The mag- ~ 
netic force is found to be greater in the months 
of December, January, and February, when 
the sun is nearest to the earth, than in those 
of May, June, and July, when it is most dis- 
tant from it; whereas, were the effect due to 
temperature, the two hemispheres would be — 
oppositely instead of similarly affected in each 
of these two periods. We must therefore 
ascribe the effect to the direct magnetism of 
the sun itself, and consider it established that 
this luminary like the earth possesses attract- 
ing and repelling poles, and that the effects on 
the needle result from the different positions 
of the earth in regard to these centres of ac- 
tion. The pole of the needle which is least 
distant from the sun makes a double diurnal 
movement in the following manner. It arrives 
at its greatest western excursion four or five 
hours before the sun passes the meridian of the 
place, as if it were repelled; it then turns east- 
ward with increasing celerity, and reaches the 
limit of its eastern excursion one or two hours 
after that passage. As the sun passes the in- 
ferior meridian, there is repeated in the night 
the same variation as that which took place in 
the day. To illustrate the action, let us sup- 
pose two globes, a larger and a smaller, placed 
upon the same plane, with their axes of revo- 
lution not precisely parallel to each other, as 
in the case of the earth and the sun; and let 
us further suppose that one globe is made to 
revolve round the other, the axis of the former 
being constantly parallel to itself. It is evi- 
dent that in one half of the orbit of the mov- 
ing globe the northern poles will be inclined 
toward each other, while in the other half of 
the orbit the southern poles will be similarly 
inclined; and if we further suppose that the 
magnetic axis of the sun, as in the case of the | 
earth, does not differ very much from the axis 
of rotation, we shall have an explanation of 
the effects observed in the records of the diur- 
nal motions of the needle. The N. end of the 
needle, which is attracted by the N. pole of 
the earth, will be repelled by the N. pole of 
the sun, provided it has dissimilar magnetism 
to that of the earth, and consequently will de- 
cline from the sun; and as, on account of the 
revolution of the earth on its axis, this lumi- 
nary appears on the E. of every place in the 
northern hemisphere in the morning and on 


TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 


the W. side in the afternoon, corresponding 
variations in the needle will be exhibited. In 
the other half of the year, for a similar reason, 
the S. end of the needle will be affected in an 
analogous but opposite manner; the strength 
of the magnetism of the earth will be increased 
by the nearer approach of the sun, in the same 
way that two magnets having their dissimilar 
poles opposite each other are increased or 
diminished in magnetic power by a diminu- 
tion or decrease of distance: We are indebted 
for the interesting discovery of the polar ac- 
tion of the sun to Gen. Sabine of England, 
who has had charge of the reduction of all the 
magnetic observations of the English colo- 
nial observatories; and to Dr. Kriel of Aus- 
tria for another of the same character, which 
leads us to extend the principle of magnetism 
to the moon. It is found that there is a varia- 
tion of each of the magnetic elements corre- 
sponding with the diurnal position of the moon 
in regard to the earth; but this resembles the 
tides in exhibiting two maxima and two mini- 
ma in the course of 24 hours, regularly chang- 
ing in time with the motion of the moon in her 
orbit around the earth. These phenomena in- 
dicate that the moon is not magnetic per se, 
that is, possessed of permanent magnetism, but 
its magnetic condition resembles that of soft 
iron developed by the continued but varying 
inductive influence on account of change of 
distance of the earth and the sun. That these 
changes in the magnetic elements cannot be 
due to heat in this case, must be evident, since 
the temperature of the moon as a mass is but 
little greater than that of celestial space.—The 
third class of variations, which was formerly 
denominated fitful, is now known in a cer- 
tain sense to be periodical. They were called 
by Humboldt magnetic storms, and were found 
by Arago to accompany the appearance of 
the aurora borealis. Although it is impos- 
sible to predict from our present knowledge 
the recurrence of individual cases of these great 
perturbations in the intensity and direction of 
the magnetism of the earth, yet they are known 
to increase in number and magnitude of ac- 
tion within the period of a little more than 
five years, and gradually to diminish through 
nearly an equal period, the whole cycle being 
completed in a little more than 11 years, The 
magnetic storms have been observed in the 
most distant parts of the earth, and no doubt 
can now exist as to their cosmical character. 
’The lunar influence of which we have just 
spoken does not appear to participate in or be 
connected with this inequality. The period- 
icity of these apparently fitful variations of 
magnetism was first pointed out by Gen. Sa- 
bine, and has since been established by the in- 
vestigations of Prof. Lloyd of Ireland, Dr. La- 
mont of Germany, and by those of Prof. Bache 
from the observations made under his direc- 
tion at Girard college. But the most astonish- 
ing result in regard to this class of perturba- 
tions is that they coincide with the periodical 


MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY vt 
recurrence of the maxima and minima of the 
spots on the sun. A German astronomer, 
Schwabe, has established, by nearly 80 years of 
unremitting daily observation, the periodicity 
of this phenomenon. He finds that the solar 
spots increase in magnitude for about 54 years, 
and diminish through an equal period, the cy- 
cle, as in the case of magnetic storms, being 
completed in about 11 years. The discovery 
of a connection of this remarkable kind gives 
to magnetism a high position in the scale of 
distinct natural forces, and assigns to it equally 
with gravitation .a truly cosmical character. It 
is not impossible that the spots on the sun may 
be connected with the falling into its gaseous 
envelope of meteorites, and this suggestion is 
favored by an observation of Mr. Carrington 
of England, in which a remarkable appear- 
ance was observed on the surface of the sun, 
analogous to that which would have been pro- 
duced by an occurrence of the kind we have 
mentioned. Recently Prof. Loomis of Yale 
college has published his analysis of the obser- 
vations of many past years, apparently placing 
beyond all question the existence of a connec- 
tion between the sun-spot period, terrestrial 
magnetic disturbances, and the frequency of 
auroras. One of the most interesting ques- 
tions belonging to the future of this subject, is 
the possible existence of an association be- 
tween the phenomena of the sun’s colored 
prominences and the magnetic activity of the 
earth. Observations by Prof. Young of Dart- 
mouth college seem to show the extreme prob- 
ability of such an association. Moreover, the 
observations which have been made on. the 
prominences, by showing a connection between 
these objects and the solar spots, seem to force 
upon us the conclusion that some relation ex- 
ists between the colored flames and the phe- 
nomena of terrestrial magnetism, since the 
partial dependence of these upon the sun’s con- 
dition as to spots has been very nearly if not 
quite demonstrated.—It is not intended by 
what has been said.to convey the idea that 
meteorological changes may not affect the po- 
sition of the needle, and that even the magnet- 
ic condition of the atmosphere, according to 
the hypothesis of Faraday, may not produce 
appreciable results; but as yet the actions of 
these appear to neutralize each other, and to 
leave no definite record of their existence in 
the course of periods of considerable length. 
It is probable, however, that with the im- 
proved photometrical instruments and a more 
minute scrutiny of their records, the effects 
due to these causes will be shown. Since the 
agitation of the atoms of an iron bar is found 
to favor the development of magnetism by in- 
duction, it is not improbable that the magnet- 
ism of the earth may be disturbed during the 
continuance and shortly after the occurrence 
of an earthquake. 

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY. As shown in the 
article Exrorro-Mag@netism, great magnetic 
power is developed by passing a current of 


12 


galvanism around a bar of soft iron; and since 
in all cases a mechanical action is accompanied 
by an equal amount of reaction, it is reasonable 
to suppose that electricity ought to be evolved 
by magnetism. Various fruitless attempts 
were however made to obtain this result; the 
form in which the effect was to appear was 
unknown, and it was not till 1831 that Faraday 
succeeded in exhibiting currents of electricity 
in a wire by means of magnetic reaction. It 
has also been stated in the same article that, 
in accordance with the theory of Ampére, all 
the mechanical properties of an ordinary mag- 
net may be exhibited by currents of electricity 
transmitted through spiral conductors; and 
hence, in order to present the phenomena of 
this class in the simplest form, we shall begin 
with stating the fundamental facts of what is 
called electro-dynamic induction, or electricity 
induced by a galvanic current. 1. Let a por- 
tion of a copper wire be extended in a straight 
line horizontally, and the two ends at a dis- 
tance be connected with a galvanometer so as 
to form a closed circuit in which acurrent may 
be induced. Let also a portion of another 
wire, connected with a galvanic battery, be 
placed parallel to the first, and a current sent 
through it. If the wire transmitting the bat- 
tery current be suddenly brought near the wire 
connected with the galvanometer, during the 
approach of the second wire toward the first a 
current of .the natural electricity of the latter 
will pass through the galvanometer in a direc- 
tion adverse to that of the inducing current. 
2. The induced current continues only during 
the motion of the inducing conductor; when 
the motion of this is stopped, the induced cur- 
rent ceases, and while the current of the bat- 
tery remains stationary and continues the same 
in quantity and intensity, no perceptible effect 
is exhibited in the adjoining wire. 8. When 
the inducing current is suddenly moved away 
from the first wire, a current is observed to pass 
through the galvanometer in the opposite direc- 
tion to the former induced current, or in the 
same direction as the battery current. 4. Let 
the two wires be placed parallel and near to 
each other, while the circuit of the battery 
current is interrupted. If in this condition the 
current from the battery be suddenly estab- 
lished through the inducing conductor, an in- 
duced current of electricity will pass through 
the galvanometer in a direction adverse to that 
of the battery current; or in other words, the 
effect will be the same as that of the approach 
of the battery current to the inducing wire, as 
in case 1. 5. During the continuance of the 
battery current of unimpaired strength and 
intensity, no disturbance of the natural elec- 
tricity of the adjoining wire is perceived; but 
at the moment the current of the battery is 
stopped by a rupture of the circuit, a current 
passes through the galvanometer in the same 
direction as that of the current of the battery. 
All these phenomena are in accordance with 
the hypothesis that during the transmission of 


MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY 


a current of electricity through a wire, there is 
exerted in space on every side an inductive 
action diminishing with the distance which 
disturbs the natural electricity of any conduct- 
ing matter which may be brought within its 
influence; that while the conductor remains at 
rest within this influence an abnormal equi- 
librium exists; and when the conductor is 
removed from this influence, or when the lat- 
ter ceases, the usual equilibrium is established 
by a reverse motion. Since, according to the 
theory of Ampére, magnetism consists of cur- 
rents of electricity revolving at right angles to 
the length of the magnetized bar, it follows 
that analogous results ought to be produced 
by magnetism; and for this purpose, instead 
of the battery current in the last series of ex- 
periments, let there be substituted a magnetized 
bar held at right angles to the wire connected 
with the galvanometer. 1. If this bar be sud- 
denly brought down upon the wire perpendicu- 
lar to its length, the galvanometer will indicate 
a current in an opposite direction to the hy- 
pothetical current in the lower side of the mag- 
net. If the wire be E, and W. and the magnet 
be held across it with its N. pole toward the 
north, the current in-the lower side of the mag- 
net will be from the E. to the W., while the in- 
duced current will be in an opposite direction, 
i. e.,from W.to E. 2. When the motion of 
the magnet toward the wire is stopped, the in- 
duced current ceases, and no sign of electricity 
is exhibited so long as the magnet remains at 
rest. 3. When the magnet is suddenly removed 
from its proximity to the wire, a current in the 
opposite direction to that of the first, that is, in 
the same direction as the current in the lower 
side of the magnet, is indicated by the galvan- 
ometer. 4. When a bar of soft iron is placed 
across the wire at right angles, and this is sud- 
denly magnetized, either by a galvanic current 
or by touching its ends to the poles of a horse- 
shoe magnet, a momentary current is produced 
in the wire in a direction opposite to that of the 
hypothetical currents of the near side of the 
magnet. 5. So long as the soft iron bar re- 
mains at rest and its magnetism suffers no 
change, no current is indicated by the galvan- 
ometer; but the moment the bar is unmag- 
netized a reverse current takes place. The 
two series of results we have given above are 
precisely analogous; the latter being merely a 
case of the former, in which the hypothetical 
currents of the magnet are substituted for the 
real current of the battery.—All the effects 
that we have described are produced with 
much more intensity, when, instead of using 
extended wires parallel to each other, we em- 
ploy wires in the form of spirals, either flat or 
cylindrical. For example, to obtain an induced 
current of considerable intensity by means of 
magnetism, we place on a rod of iron, say four 
inches long, a spool of long wire covered with 
silk, which may occupy two inches of the 
length of the middle of the iron. If the two 
ends of this rod projecting beyond the spool 


MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY 


be suddenly brought into contact with the two 
poles of a horse-shoe magnet, an induced cur- 
rent will be developed for a moment in the sur- 
rounding wire; and when the same rod is sud- 
denly detached from the poles, a current in an 
opposite direction will take place; and in this 
way a continued series of alternate currents 
may be developed by alternately making and 
severing the contact of the poles of the magnet 
and the ends of the rod. A still greater effect 
may be produced by causing the rod to revolve 
on an axis at right angles to the middle of its 
length, before the poles of the magnet, so that 
each end in rapid succession may be brought in 
contact first with the N. and then with the S. 
pole, and so on.—Shortly after the discovery 
by Faraday of the laws we have stated, Mr. 
Joseph Saxton of this country, then a tem- 
porary resident of London, afterward attached 
to the United States coast survey, invented 
(1832) the first machine for giving sparks and 
shocks in accordance with the arrangement we 
have just described. Instead of a single bob- 
bin of wire on the middle of a straight bar, 
he employed two, one on each leg of a bar of 
soft iron bent into the form of a horse shoe, 
which were made rapidly to revolve by means 
of a multiplying wheel before the poles of a 
magnet. At each half revolution the mag- 
netism of the soft iron was entirely reversed, 
and in this way a series of currents was in- 
duced, of sufficient intensity to decompose 
water, fire combustible bodies, and powerfully 
to affect the nervous system. An instrument 
maker in London, who was employed to con- 
struct these machines, made a slight change in 
the arrangement, which principally consisted in 
placing the inducing horse-shoe magnet in a 
vertical position, and in causing the spools of 
wire to revolve in a plane parallel to its flat 
side, instead of parallel to its poles. This 
change, instead of improving the instrument, 
produced an opposite effect, since the strength 
of the induction was much diminished. The 
author of it, however, succeeded by advertise- 
ments, and an actual exhibition of it in France, 
in attaching his name to the invention, to the 
exclusion of that of Saxton. It is, however, 
gratifying to see that in the German works on 
the subject, and also in the better class of Eng- 
lish publications, justice is done to the original 
inventor. The next important series of inves- 
tigations on this subject, after the original dis- 
covery of Faraday, was by Professor Henry of 
Princeton, now secretary of the Smithsonian 
institution at Washington. He found that at 
the beginning and ending of the galvanic cur- 
rent in a long wire, an induced current was 
produced by an action which has sometimes 
been called the induction of a current on itself. 
To illustrate this, let the circuit of a small 
battery of a single elements be closed by a short 
wire of about a foot in length, dipping into 
acup of mercury. When the circuit is broken, 
no spark, or but a very feeble one, will be ob- 
served; but if we now substitute for the short 


13 


wire one of say 100 feet in length and of con- 
siderable thickness, a vivid spark will be ex- 
hibited when the circuit is interrupted. To 
obtain this result in the most striking manner, 
we should employ a copper ribbon at least an 
inch and a half wide and 100 ft. long, well 
covered with two thicknesses of silk, and rolled 
into the form of a flat spiral. At the rupture 
of a battery circuit of which this forms a part, 
aloud snap and deflagration of the metal will 
be produced, when with a short wire, the bat- 
tery remaining the same, scarcely any but a 
very feeble spark would be observed. By this 
arrangement several spires of ribbon react on 
each other, and increase the effect. By coiling 
a bell wire covered with silk of 600 or 700 ft. 
in length into a spiral ring, the intensity will 
be so much increased that shocks may be ob- 
tained by means of a small galvanic battery of 
a single element. If the same wire be coiled 
into the form of an elongated spiral, and in 
the centre of this a rod of soft iron be placed, 
or what is better, a bundle of iron wire, the 
intensity is still more exalted. In this case the 
magnetic reaction is combined with that of the 
current of galvanism, and the two actions be- 
ing in the same direction conspire to increase 
the effect. To produce, however, the most 
powerful inductive apparatus, a bundle of var- 
nished iron wires of about 15 in. in length, and 
together forming a diameter of about an inch, 
is surrounded with a coil of thick copper wire 
well covered with silk of 300 or 400 ft. in 
length. Around this, but separated from it by 
a cylinder of glass or pasteboard soaked in 
shell lac, is coiled a fine copper wire of 4 or 5 
m. in length, care being taken that each spire 
be well insulated from every other. When a 
current of galvanism from a battery of even 
a single element is transmitted through the 
thick copper wire which surrounds the inner 
core or bundle of iron wire, the latter becomes 
magnetic; and at the instant the rupture is 
made in the battery current, a ‘sudden cessation 
of the magnetism, as well as that of the cur- 
rent itself, induces a current of great intensity, 
though of small quantity, in the outer sur- 
rounding fine wire. Each spire of the long 
wire in this arrangement is subjected to the 
inductive influence; and the rapidity of mo- 
tion of the electricity of the wire, were it not 
for the increased resistance, would be in pro- 
portion to the number of spires, or in other 
words to the length of the wire. This appa- 
ratus has received various ingenious improve- 
ments, the principle in all cases remaining the 
same. Dr. Page was the first to invent an ap- 
paratus on this plan by which the rupture of 
the battery current was rendered automatic ; 
the magnetization of the iron core caused the 
attraction of a small magnet attached to one 
end of a lever which broke the circuit, and the 
consequent disappearance of the same magnet- 
ism allowed the end of the lever to fall into a 
cup of mercury and thus again complete the 
circuit. This instrument was much enlarged 


14 MAGNETO-ELECTRIOCITY 


can thus be instantaneously generated, produ- 
cing light, heat, or other effects in any locality 
whither the conducting 
wires are led. The ac- 
companying figures il- 
lustrate the forms of the 
most notable machines 
that have been con- 
structed. The first is 
the machine construct- 
ed by the compagnie 
@Malliance of Paris on 
the plans of Clarke and 
Nollet. In Clarke’s ma- 
chine, which is but a 
slight modification of 
Saxton’s, two soft iron 
cores, connected by cop- 
per and iron bars, re- 
volve rapidly in front 
of the poles of a power- 
ful horse-shoe magnet. 
Around these cores is 
coiled an insulated cop- 
per wire, whose ends 
Fra. 1.—Lighthouse Machine. are so connected with 
a “commutator” that 
can artisan, E. 8. Ritchie of Boston. The es- | the alternating currents of electricity circulate 
sential desideratum in the construction of this | always in the same direction through the exter- 
instrument is the perfect insulation of the sev- | nal circuit. In the machines of the Alliance 
eral spires of wire, so that the | company the use of the commutator may be 
intense electricity which is pro- 
duced may not strike across 
from one spire to another; and 
Mr. Ritchie effected this by 
means of an ingenious process 
of winding, together with an 
improved insulation. An ap- 
preciable time is required to 
overcome the resistance of the 
wire and to give it a full charge < 
of the current of electricity, ca y 
and also to magnetize iron ; ZZ Zz 
hence in the instrument we 
have described, when a single 
battery is employed, the in- 
duced current, which gives the 
intense spark, is that which is 
produced at the rupture of the 
battery current. We can how- 
ever increase the intensity at 
the beginning of the current, 
by employing a battery of a 
number of elements, which, 
producing electricity of greater 
intensity, more suddenly estab- 
lishes the current in the wire, 
and more rapidly develops the 
magnetism of the iron.—The 
improvements that have been 


and improved by Ruhmkorff of Paris, and was 
still further perfected by an ingenious Ameri- 


Hi 


s made of late in the construc- Fig. 8.—Wilde’s Machine. 
ee tion of magneto-electric or in- 
mature. duction machines have been so | omitted if the currents are designed only for the 


striking as to warrant the hope | production of light, since in this case tne rapid 
that we shall eventually derive great advan- | reversals of the current are an advantage. In 
tages from the powerful electric currents that | Siemens’s machine, fig. 2, invented in 1854, a 


peculiar core replaces the double iron armature 
of Saxton and Clarke; this is a long cylinder 
around which a wire is wound lengthwise. 
The cylinder is made to revolve rapidly be- 
tween the opposite poles of a series of horse- 
shoe magnets; the perpetually reversing mag- 
netism induced in the core by the magnets is 
carried in successive currents by the insulated 
wire coil to the commutator, and thence through 
the external circuit. In Wilde’s machine, fig. 
3, the external current from a small Siemens 
machine, M, is made to pass through a large 
coil, A B, enclosing a soft iron horse-shoe bar, 
which is thereby magnetized and acts as a per- 
manent magnet on a second revolving core, F, 
larger than but similar to that of the smaller 
apparatus. The latter core collects a much 
more powerful current than that first pro- 
duced, and this can be used to generate a third 
or higher order of current; but with each 
such increase of current we increase the power 
required to turn the cores; and though the 
heat and light are magnificent, yet in no case 
can we convert into electrical energy more than 
a certain per cent. of the mechanical energy 
consumed. In the machine devised by Ladd 
in 1867, as shown in fig. 4, a principle has been 
introduced suggested a short time previously 
by both Siemens and Wheatstone. Two plates 
of soft iron, B B’, are so placed that if they 
possess the least initial magnetism, as is ordi- 
narily the case, then the rotation of the Sie- 
mens armature, a’, collects the currents, which 
are at once led into the coils about B and B’, 
and thus elevate the original magnetism of the 
plates to a high degree of intensity. Between 
the opposite poles of the magnets rotates a 
second Siemens armature, a, which collects the 


Fig. 4.—Ladd’s Machine. 


current for the external circuit. Gramme’s ma- 
chine, invented in 1871, two views of which are 
given in figs. 5 and 6, differs materially from 
its predecessors in that it offers a really con- 
tinuous current instead of rapid alternations. 
This is effected by using a circular ring of soft 
iron, A A, for the core in which the magnetism 
is to be induced. The coil of wire around the 
core offers a continuous metallic circuit, di- 
vided into numerous sections, the ends of the 
wires in each so connected with radial metallic 


523 VOL. xI.—2 


MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY 


15 


arms, R R, that as the ring rotates the induced 
current flows continuously from these arms to 
certain fixed metallic pieces in frictional con- 
tact with them, and thence to the external cir- 


Fie. 5.—Gramme’s Machine. 


cuit. By dividing the current, one half may 
be led back to the exciting magnets, S ON, 
and be used to increase the power of the ma- 
chine. The effect produced by these machines 
increases proportion- 
ately to the velocity 
of rotation up to an 
unknown limit; it 
also increases with 
the number of coils 
encircling the ring 
core. The machines 
of the Alliance com- 
pany have been em- 
ployed for illumina- 
ting purposes at some 
French lighthouses, 
and those of Wilde 
have been similarly 
employed in Great Britain. The Gramme ma- 
chine has been used for the illumination of the 
Victoria tower in London, and in the galvano- 
plastic works of M. Christofle in Paris.— Cur- 
rents of different Orders. An induced cur- 
rent, by its action on a third conductor, may 
produce another current, and this another, and 
soon. If we call the current of the battery 
a current of the first order, the first induced 
current is named that of the second order, and 
so on. The discovery and investigation of the 
principle and properties of currents of the dif- 
ferent orders is mainly due to Prof. Henry. 
On reflecting a little, it will be evident that 
these currents cannot be produced immediately 
by placing several straight wires parallel to each 
other and passing a current of electricity through 
one of them; in this case the battery current 
would act on the surrounding wires, and simply 
produce in each of them an induced current of 
the second order. To obtain, therefore, cur- 
rents of the different higher orders, we employ 
a number of flat spirals, through one of which 
placed horizontally on a table is transmitted 
the current from the battery. Immediately 
above this, and separated from it by a stratum 
of air or a plate of glass, is a second flat spiral, 


gis 
eo 


Fig. 6.—Gramme’s Machine. 


the ends of which are connected with a third 


16 


spiral placed at such a distance as to be entire- 
ly out of the influence of the battery current. 
Placing on the third a fourth (the two being 
separated as before by a plate of glass), and 
joining the ends of this with the ends of a fifth 
spiral, and so on, we shall have a series of 
successive currents. The current of the first 
order induced by the battery current induces a 
secondary current in the second spiral, which 
passes through the third spiral, and, thus free 
from the influence of the battery current, in- 
duces a current of the third order in the fourth 
spiral, which in turn, passing through the fifth 
spiral, induces a current of the fourth order in 
the sixth, and so on. Since each induced cur- 
rent must have a beginning and an ending, the 
current of the third order must in reality con- 
sist of two currents in immediate succession 
and in opposite directions, one produced at the 
beginning and the other at the ending; and for 
a similar reason a current of the fourth order 
must consist of four currents in immediate suc- 
cession and opposite directions. On this ac- 
count currents of the higher orders do not 
definitely deflect the needle of the galvanome- 
ter, but merely give it a slight tremor; the im- 
pulses in opposite directions follow each other 
so rapidly that the inertia of the needle is not 
overcome in the interval between the two. 
The existence therefore of currents of differ- 
ent higher orders could not be determined by 
the galvanometer; they however give intense 
shocks, and also permanently magnetize steel 
needles. This latter effect will be understood 
when it is recollected that, although the series 
of waves in different directions are the same in 
quantity, they differ very much in intensity ; 
that at the beginning of the agitation they 
have much the greatest energy. Hence the 
currents of different orders exhibit dominant 
impulses in definite directions. If the direc- 
tion of the battery current be represented by 
+, the current of the second order at the be- 
. ginning of the battery current will be repre- 
sented by —; the dominant current of the 
third order +, of the fourth —, and so on; 
while the series of dominant impulses at the 
ending of the battery current will be +, +, 
—, +,—, +. When acircular plate of cop- 
per or any other conducting substance is inter- 
posed between two spirals placed one above 
the other, and a current from the battery is 
transmitted through, for example, the lower 
one, the induced current at the ending of the 
current of the battery, in the upper spiral, will 
affect the galvanometer as if no plate were in- 
terposed, while the physiological effect, or the 
power of giving shocks, will be entirely neu- 
tralized. This remarkable effect is due to an 
induced current in the interposed conductor, 
which is rendered evident by cutting out a slip 
of the metal extending from the centre to the 
circumference of the plate; or in other words, 
by removing one of the:radii of which the cir- 
cular plate may be conceived to be made up, 
and thus interrupting the circuit, in which an 


MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY 


induced current otherwise could be produced ; 
the shocks with the plate thus cut will be near- 
ly as intense as when the plate is entirely re- 
moved. The same effect takes place when in- 
stead of the plates a third flat spiral is intro- 
duced between the first and second spirals; so 
long as the ends of this spiral are separated, its 
presence produces apparently no effect; but if 
the ends be closed so as to form a perfect cir- 
cuit which can be traversed by the induced cur- 
rent, the power of giving shocks is neutralized. 
But the question naturally arises as to how the 
current in the plate affects the current in the 
upper spiral so as to destroy its power of giving 
shocks. The explanation of this is to be found 
in the fact, that while the current in the battery 
tends toinduce a current both in the plate and 
in the spiral above it, each of these currents 
tends to induce an opposite current in the con- 
ductor of the other; we may therefore consider 
the upper spiral as being under the + influence 
of the current from the battery, and the — 
influence of the current of the plate; but asthe 
current in the plate produces an equal inductive 
action in opposite directions at its beginning and 
ending, the only effect of it will be to prolong 
the action of the induced current in the upper 
spiral, or in other words, to diminish its inten- 
sity, and hence to neutralize its power to give 
shocks without perceptibly diminishing its ef- 
fects on the galvanometer. These facts are 
of importance in the construction of the induc- 
tive apparatus previously described; for if two 
points of two adjacent spires of the long wire 
happen to be in metallic contact, so as to form 
a closed circuit, the effect is the same as that of 
the interposition of a plate or spiral between 
the battery current and the induced current ; 
the intensity of the latter will be neutralized, 
and hence the necessity of the perfect insula- 
tion of the several spires of the long wire. 
For the same reason, if the iron core be en- 
closed in a hollow cylinder of copper or any 
other conducting metal so as to separate it 
from the outer coil of long wire, the great in- 
ductive power of the instrument will be neu- 
tralized; and it is also on this account that a 
bundle of varnished iron wires is employed 
for the core instead of a solid rod of iron. If - 
however the copper cylinder we have just 
mentioned be interrupted by sawing out a thin 
slip parallel to its axis, and the solid iron core 
sawed down from its circumference to its cen- — 
tre, forming a saw-gash in the direction of the 
radius and in the plane of the axis, the inter- 
fering induced currents will be prevented. We 
have stated that an induced current of con- 
siderable intensity is generated in the conduc- 
tor of the battery itself at the moment of the 
rupture of the circuit. This also produces, on 
the principle of the interposed plate, an ad- 
verse action which tends to diminish the ener- 
gy of the induction apparatus; a defect in the 
instrument which M. Fesso has remedied by 
causing the rupture to take place in a cup of 
mercury the surface of which is covered with 


MAGNETO-ELECTRIOITY 


oil; the current of the battery is interrupted 
by drawing the end of the conductor out of 
the mercury while it still remains in the oil, 
which being a bad conductor stops in part the 
induced current. <A similar effect is pro- 
duced by suffering the extra current to expend 
itself on a large sheet of metal called a conden- 
ser. The facts we have here stated have been 
confirmed and extended by Masson, Verdet, and 
Acre of France, Dove, Wartmann, Riess, and 
Lentz of Germany, Marianini of Italy, and De 
la Rive of Geneva.—Induced Currents from 
Discharges of ordinary Electricity. When a 
‘discharge from a Leyden jar is transmitted 
through two spiral conductors separated by a 
pane of glass or a stratum of air, induced cur- 
rents analogous to those we have described are 
generated of great intensity, and under favor- 
able circumstances the effect may be exhibited 
at a great distance. Prof. Henry succeeded in 
magnetizing needles with induced currents at 
the distance of several hundred yards, by stretch- 
ing two long wires parallel to each other, and 
transmitting a discharge from a Leyden jar 
through one of them. He also obtained induc- 
tive effects of the same kind from the discharges 
of the thunder cloud at a distance of several 
miles. The direction of induced currents from 
discharges of the Leyden jar is apparently very 
capricious; they do not deflect the needle of 
the galvanometer, and the direction indicated 
by the magnetization of needles, enclosed in a 
small helix which forms a part of the circuit, is 
subject to very complex variations. For exam- 
ple, when the two conductors are near each 
other, the direction indicated by the magnetiza- 
tion of the needle is opposite to that of the cur- 
rent from the jar. If the two parallel wires or 
flat spirals be separated to a greater distance, the 
magnetization of the needle will indicate either 
a feeble current or one in an opposite direction ; 
and if the distance be still further increased, 
the opposite polarity of a greater intensity will 
be exhibited. A change also in the direction 
of the magnetization of the needle will be pro- 
duced by an interruption in the circuit of the 
induced current, or by the proximity of another 
closed circuit. These results have led European 
physicists to attempt to ascertain the direction 
of the current by chemical decomposition and 
other effects, but the results do not settle the 
question or throw much additional light on the 
character of the phenomena. Prof. Henry, 
however, after a very extended series of experi- 
ments, was enabled to refer them all to the pe- 
culiarity of the electrical discharge from the 
Leyden jar. This does not consist of a single 
discharge from the inside to the outside of the 
jar, as has been generally supposed, but in a 
series of discharges forward and backward 
alternately, until an equilibrium, as it were, is 
established by a series of oscillations, decreas- 
ing in intensity on account of the resistance 
of the wire, until the normal electrical equi- 
librium is attained.—Jnduction in Masses of 
Metal in motion. 


Arago in 1824 discovered | 


17 


that when a copper plate is made to revolve 
rapidly immediately under a magnetic bar freely 
suspended by an untwisted thread, the motion 
will be communicated to the latter even through 
a plate of glass; and also that when a magnetic 
needle is made to vibrate immediately over a 
plate of copper, it will come to rest much sooner 
than when the metal is removed. These facts 
remained entirely isolated until Faraday showed 
that they were the results of currents induced 
in the plate by the action of the magnet. We 
have seen that when a wire is made to approach 
at right angles to a magnetized bar, a current is 
produced in the former opposite to that of the 
hypothetical current in the near side of the 
magnet. A similar result must be produced 
when a plate of metal is moved in the vicinity 
of a magnetic pole. To illustrate this, let the 
N. pole of a strong magnetic bar be placed 
perpendicularly on the middle of an oblong 
plate of copper, extended in a N. and S. direc- 
tion; while the bar retains this position, let 
the plate be drawn in the direction of its 
length, say southward, under the magnetic 
pole. A magnetic bar thus placed with its N. 
pole. downward has hypothetical currents re- 
volving around it from W.to E. on the N. 
side, and from E. to W. on the S. side. If the 
plate therefore be moved southward, the N. 
part, which is approaching the pole, will have 
induced in it a current in an opposite direction 
to that of the current in the magnet, which will 
in this case be a current directed toward the 
west, while the S. part of the plate receding 
from the magnet will have currents produced 
in it in the same direction as those in the mag- 
net; but the currents on the S. side of the 
magnet are moving toward the west, and hence 
we shall have on both sides of the magnetic 
pole of the bar currents directed toward the 
west during the time the plate is drawn from 
the north toward the south. If we reverse 
the motion of the plate, the direction of the sys- 
tem of currents will also be reversed. If the 
poles of a horse-shoe magnet be furnished with 
two pieces of iron so as to form acting poles at 
a small distance from each other, and nearly in 
the same line, and between these a circular disk 
of copper be made to revolve on an axis parallel 
to the line joining the poles, so that the latter 
shall be near the outer circumference, a system 
of currents from the centre to the circumference 
of the plate will be produced; the radii of the 
plate which are approaching and those which 
are receding from the line joining the magnetic 
poles will both conspire to produce this effect. 
If one end of agalvanometer be brought in con- 
tact with the axis of the circular plate, and the 
other made to touch the circumference while it 
is thus revolving, a constant current will be in- 
dicated by the instrument. If the direction of 
the revolution of the disk be changed, an oppo- 
site current will be produced; or if the velocity 
of the rotation be increased, a corresponding 
increase will be observed in the intensity of the 
current. If the magnet employed in this ex- 


18 MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY 


periment be one of soft iron and suddenly ex- 
cited by a galvanic current, the copper disk pre- 
viously put in rapid motion will instantly be 
stopped. The current in the radii of the plate 
which are approaching the magnetic pole, being 
in an opposite direction to those in the magnet, 
will be repelled ; while those in the radii on the 
other side of the pole, being in the same direc- 
tion with the current in the magnet, will be at- 
tracted; and hence the resultant action of all the 
induced currents will be to stop the plate. <A 
similar result is produced when a cube of cop- 
per of about an inch in diameter is suspended 
between the poles of a powerful electro-magnet, 
and caused rapidly to revolve, from the un- 
twisting of a thread by which it is suspended; 
when the magnet is suddenly excited, the revo- 
lution of the cube is instantaneously arrested, 
and brought to rest without the least oscillation, 
as if the momentum and consequently the iner- 
tia of the mass were instantly annihilated. If, 
in the case of the arrangement. of the revolving 
disk we have mentioned, a rapid motion be 
communicated to it by a train of wheels in op- 
position to the resistance between the induced 
currents and the magnet, a considerable exer- 
tion will be required to continue the motion; 
and since, according to the principle of the con- 
servation of force, the muscular power expend- 
ed must produce some effect, and no change 
is found in the condition of the metal after 
the experiment, the conclusion was drawn that 
the energy exerted was expended in generating 
heat, the truth of which was established by 
Foucault. The disk thus made to revolve in op- 
position to the force of the magnet increases in 
temperature, and soon becomes sufficiently hot 
to set fire to an ordinary match.— The Magnet- 
ism induced from the Earth and the Sun. The 
earth being a great magnet, currents of elec- 
tricity must be induced in all conducting ma- 
terial in which motion takes place at its surface. 
These currents are, however, of feeble intensity, 
but their existence may be shown by connect- 
ing the ends of a copper wire several hundred 
yards in length, covered with silk and wound 
around a wooden cylinder of about 2 ft. in 
length, with a galvanometer, and by suddenly 
turning the axis of the former from a horizontal 
position into the direction of the dipping needle. 
During the downward motion of the N. end of 
the cylinder, the galvanometer will indicate an 
induced current in an opposite direction to that 
of the hypothetical current of the earth, and, 
when the motion is reversed, an induced cur- 
rent in the same direction as that of the current 
in the earth. From this result it must be in- 
ferred that electrical currents are constantly 
produced by the magnetism of the earth, since 
no change in the direction and position of a 
conducting body can take place without devel- 
oping the inductive action. Moreover, since 
the sun has been proved to be a great magnet, 
exerting a powerful action on the earth, the 
daily rotation of the latter must subject it to an 
inductive action, similar to that we have de- 


MAGNOLIA 


scribed in the revolving plate of copper. There 
can be no doubt, in the present state of science, — 
that such currents actually do take place, but 
their direction and intensity have not yet been 
ascertained. But from the association of the 
magnetic storms we. have previously described 
with the occurrence of the aurora borealis, and 
also with that of the maximum number of 
spots on the sun, we are led to the conclusion 
that the three classes of phenomena are inti- 
mately connected, and that they furnish a sub- 
ject of cosmical research of perhaps as great 
interest as any which have ever occupied the 
attention of the scientific world. 

MAGNIFYING GLASS. See Microscope. 

MAGNIN, Charles, a French author, born in 
Paris, Nov. 4, 1793, died there, Oct. 7, 1862. 
He received a brilliant education, and became 
in 1813 assistant in the imperial library, and in 
1832 one of the directors of that institution. 
His theatrical criticisms in the Globe (1826- 
’30), his lectures at the Sorbonne (18345) on 
the origin of the modern stage, and his various 
writings won for him the praise of Sainte- 
Beuve, and a seat in the academy of inscrip- 
tions and belles-lettres. He also wrote poetry 
and plays. His principal works are: Origines 
du théétre moderne (1838); Causeries et médi- 
tations (2 vols., 1843); Thédtre de Hroswitha 
(1845, with text and translation): and Histoire 
des marionettes (1852). 

MAGNOLIA, a genus of trees and shrubs dedi- 
cated by Linneus to Pierre Magnol, professor 
of botany at Montpellier, France, at the close 
of the 17th century, and who was the first to 
apply the term ‘‘ family” to designate groups 
of botanical genera. The genus is the type of 
the Magnoliacee, a family as to the limits of 
which botanists are not agreed; as accepted by 
Bentham and Hooker (Genera Plantarum), it 
includes nine genera, four of which, Magnolia, 
liriodendron, illiciwm, and schizandra, are rep- 
resented within the United States. In Mag- 
nolia there are fourteen species, six of which 
belong to Japan, China, and the Himalayas, 
and the remainder to North America, including 
Mexico. While afew are low shrubs, the ma- 
jority are fine trees, some reaching the height 
of 50, 60, and even 100 ft.; there are both 
evergreen and deciduous species, and nearly 
all are ornamental by reason of their fine foli- 
age and flowers. The leaves are alternate, 
sometimes so crowded upon the stem as to ap- 
pear whorled, entire, furnished with stout pe- 
tioles, which when they fall leave broad scars 
upon the stems; the leaves proceed from cylin- 
drical, acute buds, the integuments or protect- 
ing bud scales of which consist of the large 
deciduous stipules, which are adherent to the 
base of the petioles; the stipule of each leaf 
envelops the succeeding leaf next above it, 
which is folded lengthwise and rests against 
the next stipular sheath, and so on; the stipules 
fall away as the leaves unfold. The flowers, 
usually large, are solitary and terminal, and 
are white, greenish yellow, or purple; they 


MAGNOLIA 


have three petal-like sepals, which fall early, 
and six to twelve petals in two to four series; 
the numerous stamens are in many series upon 
the base of the receptacle, which is prolonged 
into the centre of the flower; the anthers are 
linear, longer than the filaments, and open in- 
ward; the pistils are numerous, consisting of 
a one-celled, two-ovuled ovary, pointed with a 
short style; they are densely crowded upon 
the upper part of the receptacle; in maturing, 
the ovaries become red, fleshy, and coalesce to 
form a compound cone-like fruit; when ripe 
each carpel (ovary) opens and liberates the 
two seeds, which have a fleshy bright red coat, 
and are for a while suspended by extensile cob- 
webby threads, which the microscope shows 
to be uncoiled spiral vessels. Bitter and some- 
what aromatic properties pervade the genus, 
and the flowers of some species are highly fra- 
grant.—Our most widely distributed species 
is the small or laurel magnolia, or sweet bay 
(Ml. glauea), growing in swamps from Cape 
Ann, Mass., to Florida, usually not far inland ; 
in its northern localities it is only a shrub or 
low tree with numerous stems from the same 
root, and is deciduous; but in some of the 
southern states it grows 50 ft. or more high 
and becomes an evergreen. The bark of the 
young shoots is green, and the oblong leaves 
are dark green above and pale or glaucous 
beneath; the globular white flowers are about 
2 in. across and delightfully fragrant. The 
fruit is 2 in. long. The bark of the root, the 
cones, and the seeds, made into a tincture 
with spirits, are popularly used in some parts 
of the country as a remedy in rheumatism, 
and have also been successful in diseases of a 


typhoid character in the hands of physicians. 


In the southern states, where the tree grows 
sufficiently large, the wood has been used for 
finishing the interiors of houses, for furniture, 
and similar work; it is of a mahogany color 
and takes a good polish. The terminal shoots, 
bearing a flower and a cluster of leaves, are 
sold in large numbers in the streets of New 
York and other cities. Like many other plants 
which grow naturally in swamps, the small 
magnolia flourishes when transferred to the 
drier soil of the garden, and may be trained to 
form a perfectly symmetrical little tree. It is 
surprising that a native plant of such great 
merit should be so seldom seen in cultivation; 
there is a popular impression that it is difficult 
to manage, which is no doubt due to the fact 
that large numbers of plants, pulled up rudely 
from the swamp, are each year sold in cities 
by itinerant vendors; such plants when set out 
are sure to die. All of the magnolias are dif- 
ficult to transplant from their native localities, 
but trees raised from the seed in nurseries, and 
several times transplanted, are quite sure to 
succeed. The manner of propagating the spe- 
cies in general will be found below. This spe- 
cies blooms when only 4 or 5 ft. high; it has 
produced several garden forms, which differ 
- from the original in the size and shape of their 


19 


leaves; one of these, Thompson’s magnolia (M/. 
Thompsoniana), is said to be a hybrid between 
M. glauca and some other, but it is apparently 
only a large-leaved variety; it is valuable on 
account of its fine foliage and long continued 
bloom. The next northernmost species, known 


iM} 


(a9/)) 


Laurel Magnolia (M. glauca). 


as the cucumber tree (AZ. acuminata), is found 
from western New York westward to Illinois 
and southward to Georgia, and with one ex- 
ception is the largest of all our magnolias, 
reaching from 60 to 90 ft.; it grows rapidly, 
assumes a fine shape, and its abundant foliage 
renders it valuable as an ornamental or shade 
tree; the leaves are thin, 5 to 10 in. long, ob- 
long, pointed, and slightly downy beneath. In 
this species the flowers add nothing to the 
beauty of the tree; they are bell-shaped, about 
8 in. broad, and consist of twisted or straggling 
glaucous green petals which are tinged with 
yellow ; the fruit, which is about 3 in. long, 
resembles when young a small cucumber; the 
wood is like that of the tulip tree, but is less 
valuable, and with builders ranks in usefulness 
with that of the linden; it is somewhat used 
for the inside work of houses; in the western 
states it is valued above all other woods for 
making pumps and for pipes for conveying 
water. The great-leaved magnolia (1/. ma- 
crophylla) is a still more southern species, 8. 
E. Kentucky being its northernmost locality, 
whence it extends to Georgia and Florida, but 
is rare everywhere; it grows to the height of 
30 or 40 ft., its trunk and branches clothed 
with a white bark. This species is the most 
remarkable in the genus for the size of its 
leaves and flowers; the ovate-oblong leaves are 
narrow and heart-shaped at the base and from 
2 to 34 ft. long; the petals are 6 in. long, and 
the open, bell-shaped flower 8 or 10 in. across, 
pure white, with a purple spot at the base of 
each petal, and somewhat fragrant; fruit ovate. 
It is quite hardy in New York and in some 
parts of New England, and is worthy of being 


20 


planted wherever it will endure the climate. 
The umbrella tree (A. wmbrella), also a large- 
leaved species, has York and Lancaster coun- 
ties, Pa., for its northern limit, and is found 
in most of the southern states; it rarely ex- 
ceeds 30 ft. in height; the leaves are pointed 
at both ends and from 1 to 3 ft. long; as they 
are crowded ina circle at the ends of the irreg- 
ular branches, the tree presents the appearance 
expressed in its common as well as its specific 
name; the flowers are 6 to 8 in. broad, pure 
white, and have a sweet, heavy odor, which is 
disagreeable to most persons; its large, rose- 
colored cones are 4 to 5 in. long and showy. 
Being a rather straggling tree, it can hardly be 
considered as very ornamental, although it is 
an interesting species; it is hardy near Bos- 
ton; it was formerly called I. tripetala. The 
ear-leaved umbrella tree (If. Frasert, and for- 
merly I. auriculata) occurs in Virginia, Ken- 
tucky, and southward along the mountains; it 
grows 40 to 50 ft. high, and though it has some 
resemblance to the preceding, it is handsomer 
in all respects; its oblong-obovate or spatulate 
leaves are auricled or have an ear-lobe-like 
appendage on each side at the base; they are 
seldom over a foot long, and are crowded at 
the ends of the branches in an umbrella-like 
cluster; the flower is about 6 in. across, white 
and pleasantly fragrant. The only other de- 
ciduous native species is the yellow cucumber 
tree (I. cordata), a native of North Carolina 
and Georgia; it grows 40 or 50 ft. high, and 
has oval or roundish leaves, sometimes slight- 
ly heart-shaped at base, about 6 in. long; the 
flowers are 4 to 5 in. wide and of a lemon-yel- 
low color, which contrasts finely with the rich 
green of the foliage; though a peculiarly south- 
ern species, this has proved hardy in New 
England.—Onr only perfectly evergreen spe- 
cies is the great-flowered magnolia (I. grandi- 
Jiora), also called the great laurel magnolia, 
which grows from North Carolina to Florida 
and westward to Louisiana. Probably no other 
American tree has had so much written in its 
praise as this, and it is deserving of all the 
encomiums that have been bestowed upon it; 
for whether we regard it as a forest tree or 
as a garden ornament, it is unsurpassed for 
nobleness and beauty. It reaches its greatest 
perfection in light fertile soils, and those who 
have only seen the few poor starved specimens 
that linger along on its northern limits can 
have no idea of the beauty of well developed 
specimens. It grows to the height of 60 to 
100 ft., and when not crowded by other trees 
assumes a form as regularly pyramidal as if it 
had been shaped by art; its oblong or obovate 
leaves are very thick and leathery, of the dark- 
est shining green above and rusty-colored be- 
neath, from 6 to 12 in. long; the flowers, 6 to 
9 in. across, are of the purest white and deli- 
ciously fragrant; they are produced during 
April and May, and after they are gone the 
red cones show with fine effect against the 
dark-green foliage. The flowers turn brown 


MAGNOLIA 


in fading, and the slightest injury to the petals 
shows itself as a brown spot; if the petals of 
this or any others of the white-flowered mag- 
nolias be written upon with a sharp point, the 


Great-flowered Magnolia (M. grandiflora). 


writing will soon become legible in distinct, 
dark-brown characters. In some situations in 
England this tree endures without protection, 
but generally it needs the shelter of a wood or 
buildings; in this country Philadelphia seems 
to be its northern limit, and there its flowering 
is of rare occurrence; in more northern locali- 
ties it must be regarded as a greenhouse plant; 
in those states where it will not only live but 
thrive, it is deservedly popular, whether planted : 
as single specimens or to line an avenue. A 
number of well marked varieties have been 
raised from seeds, differing from the type in 
form of the leaves, 
size of the flowers, 
and other particu- 
lars; one of these 
raised in Georgia is 
an almost continu- 
ous bloomer.—Sev- 
eral of the exotic 
species are common 
in cultivation, while 
others, at the north 
at least, are only 
greenhouse plants; 
some botanists have 
placed these in sep- 
arate genera, but 
they are proper 
magnolias. The best 
known of these is 
the yulan (M. conspi- 
cua), a Chinese name 
signifying lily tree, which is often met with as 
a shrub flowering when only 8 or 4 ft. high, 
but which grows to a handsome tree of 30 
to 50 ft.; the flowers, which appear in early 


Magnolia conspicua. 


MAGNOLIA 


spring (April), before the leaves, are large, 
white, and fragrant; the leaves are obovate, 
pointed, and downy when young; the fruit, 
by the suppression of some of the carpels, is 
often contorted into most grotesque shapes. 
This tree is quite hardy in a much colder 
climate than that of New York, and for its 
large, early, fragrant flowers is a favorite with 
many, while others object to it on account of 
its naked appearance when in flower; there is 
a celebrated specimen near Newburgh, over 80 
ft. high, symmetrical in form, and when in 
bloom its flowers are estimated by thousands. 
It is a great favorite with the Chinese, who 
dwarf it, as they do other trees, by cramping 
the roots in small pots. A row of seedlings of 
this magnolia presents a great variety in foli- 
age, and some of these are retained in cultiva- 
tion under distinct names. The purple mag- 
nolia (1. purpurea) is a native of Japan; in 
cultivation it seldom reaches above 10 ft.; it 
has the same habit of early flowering with the 
preceding species; the large flowers are pink- 
ish purple outside and white within; the leaves 
are of a bright dark green; it is somewhat less 
hardy than the preceding, and in cold localities 
is treated as a greenhouse plant. Soulange’s 
magnolia (LM. Soulangeana of the nurseries) is 
a hybrid between the two just noticed; the 
tree has the habit and hardiness of M. con- 
spicua, while the purple tinge in the petals 
shows its relationship to M. purpurea. Lenne’s 
magnolia, of comparatively recent introduction, 
is supposed to be a variety of I. purpurea, 
from which it differs in its finer foliage and 
larger and more deeply colored flowers. Sev- 
eral other species or varieties of this group are 
in cultivation, but their value remains to be 
ascertained. There are a few other exotic spe- 
cies, but they are rare in our gardens. Camp- 
bell’s magnolia (AZ. Campbelliz), of the Sikkim 
Himalayas, is described as a large tree with fine 
foliage, and crimson and white flowers rivalling 
those of MW. grandiflora in size and exceeding 
them in beauty. I. Kobus and M. obovata are 
Japanese species grown in greenhouses. . I. 
JSuscata is a small evergreen shrub with much 
the appearance of a camellia; its brown stems 
are hairy, and its flowers, which are brownish 
red or purple, are exceedingly fragrant; the 
French call it the black-wooded magnolia on 
account of the dark color of its wood. This 
species grows in the open air in Georgia and 
other southern states, where it is highly prized 
for its fragrance, and is generally known as 
the banana shrub; it there forms a dense bush 
8 or 10 ft. high.—The magnolias are readily 
raised from seeds, which germinate better if 
sown as soon as ripe; if they are to be kept 
till spring, they must be preserved in slightly 
damp sand, for if allowed to become perfectly 
dry they will not germinate. The difficulty of 
removing wild trees has already been alluded 
to; they form but few fibrous roots, and hence 
are usually looked upon by nurserymen as 
plants very difficult to handle; but if nursery- 


MAGNUSSON 21 


grown plants are frequently transplanted du- 
ring their growth, fibrous roots are formed, 
and they can be removed with safety; in some 
nurseries the trees are grown in pots, and 
these, though necessarily small, are quite safe 
for the planter to purchase, as they may be 
turned into the open ground without disturb- 
ing their roots. Magnolias are also multiplied 
by layers, but the tall-growing ones thus treat- 
ed never produce handsome-shaped trees, and 
those from seed are preferable. The rarer 
kinds, especially the Chinese, are grafted upon 
some species which grows readily from seed, 
the cucumber tree (Af. acuminata) being usu- 
ally selected as the stock upon which to graft. 
Inarching is also sometimes resorted to to mul- 
tiply these plants: (See Grarrine.) 

MAGNUS, Eduard, a German painter, born in 
Berlin, Jan. 7, 1799, died there, Aug. 9, 1872. 
He studied in Berlin and in Rome, and became 
known as a member and professor of the Ber- 
lin academy and as a portrait painter. He pub- 
lished Ueber Hinrichtung und Beleuchtung von 
Réumen zur Aufstellung von Gemdlden und 
Sculpturen (Berlin, 1864), and Die Polychromie 
vom kinstlerischen Standpunkte (Bonn, 1872). 

MAGNUS, Heinrich Gustav, a German chemist, 
born in Berlin, May 2, 1802, died there, April 
4, 1870. He graduated at the university of 
Berlin in 1827, where he became in 1884 ex- 
traordinary, and in 1845 ordinary professor of 
physics and technology. In 1828 he discovered 
the compound formed of the elements of chlo- 
ride of platinum and of ammonia, the first of a 
series of combinations of the same substances, 
and known as the green salt of Magnus. He 
afterward published ‘‘ Researches on Capil- 
larity’ and observations upon evaporation in 
capillary tubes. Almost simultaneously Mag- 
nus and Regnault made public the results of 
their experiments upon the coefficient of the 
dilatation of gases, the former on Nov. 25, 
1841, and the latter on Dec. 18, 1841. In 
1860-61 Magnus published his experiments on 
the transmission of heat through gases in the 
double aspect of conductibility and radiation, 
which led to a protracted controversy with 
Tyndall. His last publication was a memoir 
on the emission, absorption, and reflection of 
heat by bodies at low temperatures. His lec- 
tures continued till near the close of his life, 
and for their illustration he formed the physi- 
cal cabinet of the university. 

MAGNUSSON, or Magnusen, Finn, an Icelandic 
scholar, born in Skalholt, Aug. 27, 1781, died in 
Copenhagen, Dec. 24,1847. He studied at the 
university of Copenhagen, returned to Iceland 
in 1808, and practised as an advocate. In 1812 
he went again to Copenhagen, where in 1815 
he was appointed professor, and in 1819 began 
to lecture in the university and the academy 
of fine arts on the old Norse literature and 
mythology. In 1842 he was made keeper of 
the archives. He was the author of many ar- 
chesological works, of which the most impor- 
tant are: Bidrag til nordisk Archeologie (Co- 


22 MAGOFFIN 

penhagen, 1820), in which he maintained the 
plastic symbolical ideality of the Norse myths, 
which makes them as appropriate as those of 
the Greeks for artistic representation; Prisca 
Veterum Borealium Mythologie Lexicon et 
Gentile Calendarium (1828); a translation and 
explanation of the elder Edda, /ldre Edda, 
oversat og forklaret (4 vols., 1821-3); and 
Eddaleren og dens Oprindelse (4 vols., 1824— 
6), an exposition of the whole doctrine of 
the Edda from the standpoint of comparative 
mythology. In connection with Rafn he pro- 
duced Granlands historishe Mindesmearker (8 
vols., 1838-42), and Antiquités russes (2 vols., 
1850-52). He also wrote a work on runes, 
Runamo og Runerne (1841). 

MAGOFFIN, an E. county of Kentucky, wa- 
tered by Licking river; area, about 600 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 4,684, of whom 179 were 
colored. 
moderately fertile. The chief productions in 
1870 were 5,971 bushels of wheat, 174,591 of 
Indian corn, 17,488 of oats, 10,660 of potatoes, 
13,774 lbs. of wool, and 45,537 of butter. 
There were 1,063 horses, 1,532 milch cows, 
2,908 other cattle, 6,130 sheep, and 5,848 
swine. Oapital, Salyersville. 

MAGOON, Elisha L., an American clergyman, 
born at Lebanon, N. H., Oct. 20, 1810. He 
was the son of an architect who was impoy- 
erished by sickness, and obtained a good edu- 
cation by his earnings as a bricklayer. He 
was ordained in 1840, and immediately settled 
at Richmond, Va., as pastor of the second 
Baptist church, where he remained six years, 
and then made the tour of Europe. On his 
return he became pastor of a church in Cin- 
cinnati. Here he remained till 1849, when he 
became pastor of the Oliver street Baptist 
church, New York. In 1857 he was called to 
the pastorate in Albany, and about 1860 re- 
moved to Philadelphia, where he now resides 
(1874). He formed a valuable collection of 
pictures, especially in water colors, which he 
sold to Vassar college, Poughkeepsie. In 1853 
Rochester university conferred upon him the 
degree of D. D. His published.works are: 
‘Orators of the American Revolution” (New 
York, 1848); ‘Living Orators in America” 
(New York, 1849) ; “Proverbs for the Peo- 
ple” (Boston, 1848); ‘Republican Chris- 
tianity ” (Boston, 1849); and ‘‘ Westward Em- 
pire” (New York, 1856). a 

MAGOT. See Macaque. 

MAGPIE, a conirostral bird of the crow fam- 
ily, and the genus pica (Briss.). The bill is 
long and strong, about as high as broad at the 
base, with compressed sides, hooked tip, and 
covered with bristly feathers nearly to its mid- 
dle; wings long and rounded, with the first 
quill short, falcate, and attenuated, and the 
fourth and fifth nearly equal and longest; 
the tail is very long and graduated, the late- 
ral feathers scarcely more than half the mid- 
dle; tarsi longer than the middle toe, strong 
and covered with broad scales in front; toes 


The surface is hilly and the soil 


MAGPIE 


strong, and the hind one long, with curved 
sharp claws; a naked patch behind and below 
the eye; head without crest; nostrils circular. 
Nearly a dozen species are described, inhabit- 
ing the old world and North America; they 
are seen generally in pairs, but sometimes in 
flocks, noisy and restless; they will eat vege- 
tables, grains, mollusks, worms, insects, and 
even carrion, and destroy eggs and young 
birds. The nest is made upon high trees or in 
thick bushes, of large size, of coarse materials 
plastered with clay, and softly lined with wool, 
hair, and feathers; there is generally a kind of 
roof over the nest, with a narrow entrance for 
the birds. The common magpie of Europe 
(P. melanoleuca, Vieill.) is 18 in. long, with 
an extent of wings of 2 ft., the tail 10 in., 
and bill 14 in.; the plumage of the head, 
neck, back, anterior part of breast, and abdo- 
men black; the rest of the breast and the out- 
er scapulars white; the tail and wings splen- 
dent with green and purple, most of the inner 
web of the outer quills white; iris dark. This 
elegantly formed and handsome bird is gen- 
erally distributed in the wooded districts of 
Europe; in form it approaches nearest to the 
jackdaw, but the wings are shorter and the 
tail much longer. It is fond of coming near. 
human habitations; the flight is rather heavy, 
but moderately rapid; the notes are almost 
incessant and hard; the tail is elevated while 
walking. The eggs are from three to six, about 
14 by 1 in., of a pale green with brown and 
purplish freckles, or pale blue with smaller 
spots resembling those of the jay; it is fond of 
building in the same locality, and frequently in 
the same nest. From its docility it is an agree- 
able pet, though it has the propensity common 
to the crow family of stealing whatever objects, 


American Magpie (Pica Hudsonica). 


and especially bright ones, may attract its at- 
tention. The American magpie (P. Hudsonica, 
Bonap.), though closely resembling the Euro- 
pean, is a distinct species; it has a much 


MAGUIRE 


Jonger tail, is of larger size, with a thicker bill, 
grayish blue outer ring to the iris, the feathers 
of the throat spotted with white, and the hind 
part of the back grayish. It is found in the 
arctic regions, and, in the United States, down 
to California. 

MAGUIRE, John Francis, an Irish journalist, 
born in Cork in 1815, died there, Oct. 31, 1872. 
He was called to the Irish bar in 1848. He 
was member of parliament for Dungarvon 
from 1852 to 1865, and afterward for Cork 
until his death. He was mayor .of Cork at 
several periods from 1853 to 1864, was pro- 
prietor and editor of the ‘‘ Cork Examiner,” a 
leading journal of the south of Ireland, and 
took a prominent part in promoting the linen 
industry. He published ‘‘ The Industrial Move- 
ment in Ireland in 1852” (1853); ‘‘ Rome and 
its Ruler” (1857; enlarged ed., 1859), which, 
still further enlarged, was published in 1870 
under the title, ‘‘ The Pontificate of Pius [X.,” 
and for this he received a gold medal from 
the pope; ‘The Irish in America” (1858) ; 
‘“‘ Life of Father Mathew” (1863); and ‘ The 
Next Generation,” a political novel (1871). 

MAGYAR, Laszl6, a Hungarian traveller, born 
in Szabadka in 1817, died in south Africa, 
Nov. 6, 1864. He attended the naval school 
at Fiume, entered the Brazilian navy in 1844, 
and took part in the war between Rosas and 
Uruguay. He went in 1847 to the Portuguese 
settlements on the W. coast of Africa, and 
became commander of the fleet of the negro 
ruler of Calabar. Having familiarized him- 
self with several negro languages, he left Sao 
Felipe de Benguela, Jan. 15, 1849, and crossed 
the table land of Nano to a comparatively low 
country, Bihé, where he married the daughter 
of achief. On Feb. 20, 1850, he left his new 
home with his wife and nearly 300 armed men, 
crossed the river Kokema, and explored the 
interior, reaching in 1851 the Cazembe river. 
He went westward as far as the Liba river, 
and thence northward to the city of Matiamvo, 
testing his observations by travelling over the 
same region in different directions. The Por- 
tuguese government gave him a high civil of- 
fice at Sao Paulo de Loanda, with the rank of 
major. The first volume of his travels from 
1849 to 1857 was published at Pesth in 1859 at 
the expense of the Hungarian academy, and 
was translated into German by J. Hunfalvy. 

MAGYARS. 
and 62. 

MAHAFFY, John P. See supplement. 

MAHAN, Asa, an American clergyman, born 
in Vernon, N. Y., in 1799. He graduated at 
Hamilton college in 1824, and at Andover the- 
ological seminary in 1827, and was ordained 
pastor of the Presbyterian church in Pitts- 
ford, N. Y., Nov. 10, 1829. He was pastor of 
the Sixth street Presbyterian (now the first 
Congregational) church, Cincinnati, from its 
organization in 1881 till 1835, when he became 
president of Oberlin college, and professor of 
intellectual and moral philosophy and assistant 


See Huneary, vol. ix., pp. 55 


MAHAN 93 


professor of theology. In 1850 he was chosen 


president of the Cleveland university, in 1856 
became pastor of the Congregational church in 
Jackson, Mich., and in 1858 of the Congrega- 
tional church in Adrian, Mich., and in 1861 
president of Adrian college, which post he re- 
signed in 1871, continuing to reside in Adrian. 
He has been a distinguished advocate of the 
religious views known as Perfectionist, and 
has published a work entitled ‘‘ Christian Per- 
fection.” His other works are: ‘‘ The Science 
of Intellectual Philosophy ” (New York, 1845) ; 
“The Doctrine of the Will” (1846); ‘ The 
True Believer” (1847); ‘‘ Modern Mysteries 
Explained and Refuted,” relating to spiritual- 
ist manifestations (Boston, 1855); ‘The Sci- 
ence of Moral Philosophy” (Oberlin, 1856) ; 
and ‘‘ The Science of Logic” (New York, 1857). 
He has of late been engaged upon a work en- 
titled ‘‘ A Critical History of Philosophy.” 
MAHAN. I. Dennis Hart, an American mili- 
tary engineer, born in New York, April 2, 
1802, drowned in the Hudson river, near Stony 
Point, Sept. 16, 1871. He graduated at West 
Point in 1824, was appointed second lieutenant 
in the corps of engineers, and was made assistant 
professor of mathematics in the military acad- 
emy. In 1825 he became assistant professor 
of engineering, and in 1826 was sent by the 
war department to study in Europe, where he 
remained four years. In 1832 he was appoint- 
ed professor of military engineering, which 
post he held till his death. He received the 
degree of LL. D. from William and Mary and 
Dartmouth colleges and Brown university. His 
death was by suicide, during a temporary in- 
sanity resulting from his distress on learning 
that the board of visitors had recommended 
that he should be put on the retired list. He 
published ‘‘ Treatise on Field Fortifications” 
(1886); “Elementary Course of Civil En- 
gineering’ (1837; rewritten, 1868); ‘‘ Ele- 
mentary Treatise on Advanced Guard, Out- 
post, and Detachment Service of Troops” 
(1847; improved ed., 1862); ‘ Elementary 
Treatise on Industrial Drawing” (1853) ; ‘‘ De- 
scriptive Geometry, as applied to the Drawing 
of Fortification and Stereotomy ” (1864); and 
‘Military Engineering: Part I., Field Forti- 
fications, Military Mining, and Siege Opera- 
tions” (1865), and ‘‘ Part IJ., Permanent For- 
tifications”” (1867). He edited, with addi- 
tions, an American reprint of Moseley’s ‘‘ Me- 
chanical Principles of Engineering and Archi- 
tecture” (1856). II. Milo, an American clergy- 
man, brother of the preceding, born at Suf- 
folk, Nansemond co., Va., May 24, 1819, died 
in Baltimore, Sept. 8, 1870. He was educated 
at St. Paul’s college, Flushing, L. I., took or- 
ders in the Protestant Episcopal church in 
1845, became rector of Grace church, Jersey 
City, in 1848, and two years later assistant 
minister in St. Mark’s church, Philadelphia. 
He was elected professor of ecclesiastical his- 
tory in the general theological seminary of 
the Episcopal church in 1851, a post which he 


24 MAHANOY CITY 


held for 18 years. In July, 1864, he became 
rector of St. Paul’s church, Baltimore. Dr. 
Mahan published “The Exercise of Faith” 
(1851); “History of the Church, first Three 
Centuries” (1860; new ed., first seven centu- 
ries, 1872); ‘‘ Reply to Colenso ” (1863); ‘‘ Pal- 
moni, a Free Inquiry” (1863); and ‘‘ Comedy 
of Canonization” (1868). His works have 
been collected, with a memoir by the Rev. J. 
H. Hopkins, jr. (8 vols., New York, 1872-’5). 

MAHANOY CITY, a borough of Schuylkill co., 
Pennsylvania, 80 m. N. W. of Philadelphia 
and 56 m. N.E. of Harrisburg; pop. in 1870, 
5,583; in 1874, including suburbs, about 10,- 
000. It is in the Mahanoy valley, 1,211 ft. 
above the sea, near the watershed between the 
Delaware and Susquehanna, in the midst of a 
rich anthracite region. It has railroad com- 
munication with Philadelphia, Harrisburg, and 
New York, by means of the Lehigh Valley 
and Philadelphia and Reading lines. It is sup- 
ported by the neighboring mines, which dis- 
burse nearly $200,000 in wages monthly. It 
has a large foundery, a national and a state 
bank, two insurance companies, two public 
halls, three large school houses, a public li- 
brary, two weekly newspapers, and 13 church- 
es. The first houses were erected in 1859. 

MAHANUDDY, a river of India, rising about 
lat. 21° N., lon. 81° E. It flows N. E., 8S. E., 
and E., through the provinces of Berar and 
Orissa, and falls into the bay of Bengal through 
numerous deltoid arms which divide just be- 
low Cuttack, where during the rainy season it 
is 2 m. broad; its principal mouth is in lat. 20° 
18’, lon. 86° 40’. It is about 480 m. long, and 
is navigable during the rains 300 m.; but during 
five or six months of the year a large part of 
its channel is dry, and it is fordable even at 
Cuttack. Diamonds of the finest quality are 
found in it and in its tributaries. 

MAHASKA, a S. E. county of Iowa, inter- 
sected by the Des Moines and ‘the N. and 8S. 
forks of Skunk river; area, 576 sq. m.; pop. 
in 1870, 22,508. The surface consists in great 
part of level or undulating prairies, diversified 
with woodlands, and the soil is productive. 
Coal and limestone abound. The Des Moines 
Valley railroad and the Central railroad of 
Iowa pass through it. The chief productions in 
- 1870 were 354,732 bushels of wheat, 1,861,282 
of Indian corn, 197,109 of oats, 127,145 of po- 
tatoes, 138,512 lbs. of wool, 582,402 of butter, 
and 28,132 tons of hay. There were 8,924 
horses, 6,970 milch cows, 11,302 other cattle, 
31,652 sheep, and 33,501 swine; 7 manufac- 
tories of carriages and wagons, 2 of marble and 
- stone work, 2 of sash, doors, and blinds, 4 
woollen mills, 9 flour mills, and 4 saw mills. 
Capital, Oskaloosa. 

MAHMOUD I., sultan of Turkey, a son of 
Mustapha II., born in Constantinople, Aug. 6, 
1696, died Dec. 13, 1754. He was raised to 
the Ottoman throne in 1730, after the deposi- 
tion of his uncle Ahmed III.. The janizaries, 
who had revolted against the latter and made 


MAHMOUD II. 


Mahmoud sultan, exacted from him a promise 
to continue the war begun against Nadir Shah 
of Persia. His military operations, however, 
were disastrous, and he finally concluded a 
peace in 1736. In the mean while the Rus- 
sians had begun hostilities, and in 1737 they 
took Otchakoy and Kinburn, while their Aus- 
trian allies invaded Wallachia. The latter were 
however defeated by the Turks at Krotzka 
on the Danube in 1739, upon which the 
court of Vienna made peace on disadvanta- 
geous terms, relinquishing not only what its 
forces had recently taken, but also Belgrade, 
captured during a former war. The Russians 
obtained a more favorable treaty, retaining 
all their conquests. In 1743 hostilities again 
broke out between Persia and Turkey, and 
were closed by a treaty unfavorable to the 
latter. Notwithstanding the wars in which 
his army was engaged, Mahmoud was a man 
of peaceful disposition, and Turkey was com- 
paratively well governed under him. He was 
succeeded by his brother Osman III. 
MAHMOUD IL, sultan of Turkey, the young- 
er son of Abdul Hamed, born in Constanti- 
nople, July 20, 1785, died there, July 1, 1839. 
During his youth, passed in the seraglio, he 
became familiar with Persian and Turkish lit- 
erature, and is said to have manifested at an 
early age a character of great firmness not un- 
mingled with cruelty. His elder brother Mus- 
tapha IV., who ascended the throne in 1807, 
had ordered him to be put to death as a possi- 
ble rival, when Ramir Effendi, paymaster of 
the army, rescued him. Bairaktar, the pasha 
of Rustchuk, raised an insurrection, deposed 
Mustapha, and placed Mahmoud on the throne, 
July 28,1808. Bairaktar became grand vizier, 
and with the sultan boldly attempted to carry 
out those European military reforms for pro- 
moting which Selim II., the predecessor of 
Mustapha, had been deposed. The janizaries, 
whose organization was threatened by this, 
rose in rebellion, and stormed the seraglio. 
Bairaktar blew himself up with his enemies, and 
Mahmoud as a desperate measure ordered Mus- 
tapha IV. and his infant son to be strangled, 
and his four pregnant sultanas to be sewn in 
sacks and thrown into the Bosporus. After a 
long struggle amid pillage and conflagrations, 
the rebels gained a victory, and the sultan was 
obliged to submit to their demands. As he 
was however the only living descendant of 
Osman, they recognized him as their: ruler, 
dreading the anarchy which must ensue should 
the royal family become extinct. He now, un- 
der very unfavorable circumstances, and with- 
out resources, continued the war with Russia 
and the Servians, until, when totally exhausted, 
his divan concluded a treaty with the Russians 
at Bucharest, May 28, 1812, by which the Pruth 
became the boundary of the two empires, the 
Servians receiving the promise of an amnesty. 
From this time the daring and despotic charac- 
ter of Mahmoud manifested itself with striking 
effect, both in reforms at home and in wars 


MAHMOUD 


abroad. The Wahabees of Arabia were sub- 
dued by Ibrahim Pasha, the son of the viceroy 
of Egypt, Mehemet Ali. Dreading the increas- 
ing power of Ali Pasha of Janina, Mahmoud 
made war on him and crushed him in 1822. 
In 1821 his Greek subjects revolted. By the 
aid of Mehemet Ali he carried on a successful 
war against them, but with such extreme cruel- 
ty that France, Russia, and Great Britain re- 
monstrated. Their mediation being disregard- 
ed by Mahmoud, they attacked and destroyed 
his fleet at Navarino, Oct. 20, 1827. In 1826, 
after a desperate struggle, in which he dis- 
played great courage and ability, he had over- 
thrown the janizaries, and organized an army 
on European principles. With full confidence 
in its power, he did not shrink from a war 
against Russia, but was defeated, Diebitsch 
even crossing the Balkan; and in consequence 
of the mediation of England, France, and 
Prussia, he signed the treaty of Adrianople, 
Sept. 14, 1829. In 1832, Mehemet Ali having 
refused to withdraw his troops from Syria, 
which he had occupied, Mahmoud made en- 
' ergetic preparations against him, but was de- 
feated by Ibrahim Pasha at Hems and Konieh, 
and was only saved by Russian intervention 
from being dethroned. The result was an alli- 
ance for mutual defence between Turkey and 
Russia. In the mean time Mahmoud had done 
much to improve the domestic condition of 
his kingdom. Roads were made, postal com- 
munication was established, ambassadors were 
appointed to the European courts, and women 
were allowed to appear in public; measures 
which did not fail to make him many enemies 
among the conservative party. Justice was 
speedily and severely administered, and an en- 
ergetic though unscrupulous police, often aided 
by the sultan himself, disguised, did much to es- 
tablish order. But his oppression of all the high- 
er officers of his kingdom, and the frequency 
with which he plundered, displaced, or slew 
them, sacrificing men of ability to unworthy 
favorites, deprived him of trustworthy aid, and 
his reign was a succession of revolts and trea- 
sonable attempts. In 1839, being still deter- 
mined to reduce Mehemet Ali, he drove him 
into a new rebellion. His army was again de- 
feated by Ibrahim at Nizib, but he died before 
the news reached him. He was succeeded by 
his son, Abdul Medjid. 

MAHMOUD, sultan of Ghuzni. See Guuzni. 

MAHOGANY (Swietenia mahagoni), a tree of 
the natural order meliacea, a native of South 
America, Honduras, and the West India islands, 
and among the most valuable of tropical tim- 
ber trees. The genus is named in honor of 
Baron Gerard van Swieten. The mahogany is 
a large, spreading tree, with pinnate shining 
leaves. The trunk often exceeds 50 ft. in 
height and 4 or 5 ft.indiameter. The flowers, 
in axillary panicles 3 or 4 in. long, are small 
and greenish yellow, and are succeeded by 
fruit or capsules of an oval form and the size 
of aturkey’s egg. Though the growth is very 


? 


MAHOGANY OR 


rapid, the wood is hard, heavy, and close- 
grained, of a dark, rich, brownish red color. 
The so-called Spanish mahogany, which in- 
cludes all the above, except that from Hondu- 
ras, is imported in logs about 10 ft. long and 
2 ft. square. The Honduras mahogany is 
usually larger, the logs being from 12 to 18 ft. 
long, and from 2 to 3 ft. square. It is chiefly 
obtained upon low moist land, and is general- 
ly soft and coarse. The trees which grow on 
rocky elevated grounds are of smaller size, but 
the wood is harder and more beautifully veined. 
The collection of mahogany for commerce is 
a most laborious business, often involving the 
construction of a road through a dense forest 
and in a most difficult country, upon which 
the wood may be drawn to the nearest water- 
course; the logs are roughly squared to prevent 
them from rolling off of the low rude trucks 
upon which they are drawn. The natives make 
this wood serve many useful purposes, as canoes 


ae 


LOWS 


Mahogan y: 


and handles for tools. Some have supposed 
the Honduras to be a different species from the 
Spanish, from its being lighter in color, as well 
as porous in texture; but it is now ascertained 
that these differences arise from the different 
situations in which the trees are found. The 
largest log ever cut in Honduras was 17 ft. 
long, 57 in. broad, and 64 in. deep, measuring 
5,421 ft. of inch plank, and weighing upward of 
15 tons. The mahogany brought from Africa 
and the East is decidedly inferior to either of 
the above; but a fine specimen sent from Cal- 
cutta to the London exhibition of 1851 proves 
that the best quality may be raised in the East 
Indies. The Spanish mahogany is one of the 
most useful of all woods for household furni- 
ture, for which it is adapted especially by its 
durability, beauty, hardness, and susceptibility 
of polish, though of late years it has been less 
fashionable than some other woods. The finer 
kinds of furniture are of solid mahogany, but 


26 MAHOMET 

the greater part of that in use is made of 
cheaper woods covered with a thin veneer of 
mahogany. Alkalies are often applied to the 
lighter colored wood in order to deepen the 
shade, but the best effect is produced by using 
a colorless varnish, which brings out in fresh 
beauty the rich veins, and leaves its natural 
tints unchanged. The grain, or curl as it is 
called, is sometimes so beautiful, that it in- 
creases the value of the log to an enormous 
price; several logs have been sold for over 
$5,000 each; in one instance three logs, each 
15 ft. long and 88 in. square, produced from a 
single tree, brought $15,000. It is usually a 
difficult matter for dealers to judge with pre- 
cision of the worth of the wood in logs by in- 
spection of the exterior. Mahogany is said to 
have been employed about the year 1595 in 
repairing some of Sir Walter Raleigh’s ships, 
but it was not used for cabinet work till 1720, 
when a few planks from the West Indies were 
given to Dr. Gibbons of London. A man 
named Wollaston, employed to make some ar- 
ticles from this wood, discovered its rare quali- 
ties, and it was soon in high repute.—See 
Hooker’s “ Botanical Miscellany,” vol. i. (Lon- 


don, 1830). 
MAHOMET. See MonAmMeEn. 
MAHON. See Port Manon. 


MAHON, Lord. See Stannops, Ear. 

MAHONING, a N. E. county of Ohio, bor- 
dering on Pennsylvania, drained by the Ma- 
honing and Little Beaver rivers; area, 422 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 31,001. It has an undula- 
ting surface and a highly productive soil. Coal 
and iron ore are found. It is traversed by the 
Atlantic and Great Western and the Pittsburgh, 
Fort Wayne, and Chicago railroads. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 175,907 bushels of 
wheat, 361,439 of Indian corn, 449,385 of oats, 
124,758 of potatoes, 31,000 of flax seed, 2,684,- 
531 lbs. of flax, 91,757 of maple sugar, 295,- 
467 of wool, 963,557 of butter, and 45,371 tons 
of hay. There were 7,312 horses, 18,582 cat- 
tle, 68,055 sheep, and 8,667 swine; 3 manufac- 
tories of machinery, 3 of woollen goods, 2 of 
bolts and nuts, 1 of nails and spikes, 7 iron 
furnaces, 4 founderies, 2 rolling mills, 12 tan- 
ning and currying establishments, 5 flour mills, 
and 27 saw mills. Capital, Canfield. 

MAHONY, Francis, an Irish journalist, born 
in Cork about 1805, died in Paris, May 19, 
1866. He studied at a Jesuit college in Paris, 
and subsequently in Rome, where he remained 
for seven years, and took orders. He after- 
ward abandoned the clerical profession, and 
jomed the staff of ‘‘ Fraser’s Magazine,” his 
contributions to which were published in book 
form, under the title of “ Reliques of Father 
Prout,” in 1836, and republished, with etch- 
ings by Maclise, in 1860. He was also one 
of the earliest and most popular contribu- 
tors to ‘‘ Bentley’s Miscellany” in 1837. <Af- 
ter travelling through Hungary, Greece, Egypt, 
and Asia Minor, he originated the Roman cor- 
respondence of the London “ Daily News,” 


MAHRATTAS 


in which he powerfully advocated the cause 
of Italy. His letters were collected under the 
title ‘Facts and Figures from Italy, by Don 
Jeremy Savonarola, Benedictine Monk” (Lon- 
don, 1849). He was also for many years Paris 
correspondent of the London “Globe.” In 
1864 he retired to a monastery in Paris, where 
he passed the rest of his life. The ‘ Final 
Reliques of Father Prout” was edited by 
Blanchard Jerrold (London, 1874). 
MAHRATTAS (Maha-rashtra, great people), a 
people inhabiting the region in central and 
western India bounded N. by the Satpoora 
mountains, E. by the Wyne-Ganga and Manjera 
rivers, S. by the Kistnah and Malpurda, and W. 
by the Indian ocean. They eventually spread 
themselves across the whole peninsula, through 
the dominions of Holkar, Sindia (Gwalior), and 
the guicowar, and the country of Nagpore, 
where they still form an important element in 
the population. Some writers, however, regard 
them as foreigners who emigrated from the W. 
part of Persia about the 7th century, and Pick- 
ering assigns them an Arabian or Egyptian ori- 
gin. They are of Hindoo race, and are hardy, 
active, and well proportioned, but very ill-fa- 
vored; their stature is small, their skin is dark, 
and their features are irregular. They are much 
given to athletic exercises, and are excellent 
horsemen, but turbulent and predatory, and un- 
fit for regular military service. They are cruel 
and perfidious, and have exercised a disastrous 
influence upon the countries they have conquer- 
ed. They are devout Brahmans. They first 
become conspicuous in history about the middle 
of the 17th century, when they possessed a nar- 
row tract of territory bordering on the Arabian 
sea and extending nearly from Goa to Guzerat. 
Sevajee (born in 1627, died in 1680), the son of 
an officer in the service of the last Mohamme- 
dan king of Bejapoor, was the founder of the 
Mahratta empire. Having collected an army 
among the mountains, he overthrew the king- 
dom of Bejapoor, and gradually united under 
his own rule the multitude of petty states 
among which the Mahrattas were divided. His 
son Sambajee extended his conquests, but was 
finally put to death by Aurungzebe in 1689. 
Under Saho, grandson of Sevajee, the heredi- 
tary prime minister or peishwa became the ac- 
tual ruler of the Mahrattas, and maintained 
their supremacy against the repeated assaults 
of Nizam ul-Mulk, the representative of the 
Mogul emperor in the Deccan. At the culmi- 
nation of their power, in the middle of the 18th 
century, the peishwa, with his capital at Poo- 
nah, was the recognized head of the confeder- 
acy of great chiefs who ruled the several Mah- 
ratta states. Guzerat, where subsequently arose 
the independent power of the guicowar, and 
a great part of Malwa, were overrun by the 
Mahrattas, and about 1760 they made them- 
selves masters of Delhi. Defeated however by 
Ahmed Khan of Afghanistan in the great battle 
of Paniput (1761), their downfall began; and 
though they again occupied Delhi (1772), they 


MAI 


lost valuable possessions to the armies of Tip- 
poo Sahib, and were driven from the Moham- 
medan metropolis by the British in 1808. A 
few years later two other Mahratta chiefs, Hol- 
kar and Sindia, who ruled the independent 
states of Indore and Gwalior, founded some 70 
years before, entered into a confederacy with 
the peishwa and the rajah of Berar against the 
British. After a protracted war the Mahratta 
power was finally overthrown (1819), the pe- 
ishwa became a fugitive, and his authority was 
abolished.—See Grant Duff’s ‘‘ History of the 
Mahrattas” (8 vols. 8vo, London, 1826), and 
Owen’s “ India on the Eve of the British Con- 
quest” (London, 1872). 

MAI, Angelo, an Italian scholar, born near Ber- 
gamo, March 7, 1782, died at Albano, Sept. 8, 
1854. He entered the novitiate of the society of 
Jesus, and in 1813 was named an associate of the 
Ambrosian college, and soon after one of the 
sixteen attached to the Ambrosian library at 
Milan. When the society of Jesus was formal- 
ly revived by Pope Pius VII. in 1814, Mai, who 
had never taken the solemn vows of the order, 
was induced to remain a member of the secu- 
lar clergy. In 1819 he became chief keeper of 
the Vatican library at Rome, soon after libra- 
rian, and in 1825 supernumerary prothonotary 
apostolic. In 1838 he was appointed secretary 
of the propaganda, and in 1888 prefect of the 
congregation of the Index and cardinal. His lit- 
erary reputation was established by his careful 
exploration of the Ambrosian library, and by 
several important discoveries in the then almost 
unknown department of palimpsests. Among 
his discoveries in Milan were fragments of the 
orations of Cicero in defense of Scaurus, Tullius, 
and Flaccus, and against Clodius (Milan, 1814) ; 
several orations of Cornelius Fronto, and sev- 
eral letters of the emperor Marcus Aurelius and 
of Lucius Verus (Milan, 1815; new ed., Rome, 
1846); a fragment of eight orations of Q. Aure- 
lius Symmachus (Milan, 1815; new ed., Rome, 
1846); the complete oration of Iszus on the 
inheritance of Cleonymus.(Milan, 1815); an 
oration of Themistius (1816); several books of 
the ‘‘ Roman Antiquities” of Dionysius of Hali- 
carnassus (1816); an Jtinerarium Alexandri, 
and a work of Julius Valerius, Res (este Alea- 
andri (1817); fragments of Eusebius and Philo, 
and of Eusebius’s Chronicorum Canonum Libri 
duo (1818), which he restored, in conjunction 
with Dr. Zohrab, from an Armenian manu- 
script; and fragments of the Iliad from the 
oldest known manuscripts (Milan, 1819). He 
also discovered at Rome the long-sought work 
of Cicero, De Republica (Rome, 1822). As 
keeper of the Vatican library, Mai resolved to 
publish collections of the unpublished sacred 
as well as profane authors from the Vatican 
manuscripts, similar to those of Muratori, Ma- 
billon, and Montfaucon, leaving to future 
scholars the task of critically editing, com- 
menting, and translating. On this plan he pre- 
pared the magnificent Scriptorum Veterum 
Nova Collectio e Vaticanis Codicibus edita (10 


MAIMONIDES oT 


vols. 4to, Rome, 1825-88), Auctores Olassici ¢ 
Vaticanis Codicibus editi (10 vols. 8vo, 1828- 
88), and the Spicilegium Romanum (10 vols., 
1839-'44). His last publication, Nova Patrum 
Libliotheea (6 vols., 1845-58), forms an in- 
dispensable supplement to almost all collective 
editions of the church fathers. He had also 
prepared an edition of the celebrated Biblical 
Codex Vaticanus, but died before the comple- 
tion of the work, which was published by Ver- 
cellane (Rome, 1857). 

MAIDSTONE, a municipal and parliamentary 
borough and market town of Kent, England, 
on the Medway, 27 m. W. by S. of Canterbury, 
and 82 m. 8. S. E. of London; pop. in 1871, 
26,196. The principal manufacture is of paper. 
It consists chiefly of four principal streets, in- 
tersecting at the market place, well paved, and 
lighted with gas. It contains a county jail oc- 
cupying an area of 13 acres, one of the largest 
parochial churches in England, supposed to be 
of the 14th century, several other churches, 
schools, and charitable institutions. All Saints’ 
college, founded in 1846, is kept in the build- 
ing of the old college of All Saints, suppressed 
by Edward VI. The navigation of the Med- 
way has been improved, so that vessels of 
above 70 tons can reach Maidstone. 

MAIL, and Mail Coaches. See Post. 

MAIL, Coat of. ‘See Armor. 

MAILATH, Janos Nepomuk, count, a Hungarian 
historian, born in Pesth, Oct. 5, 1786, died Jan. 
8, 1855. He was employed in the public ser- 
vice of Hungary until a diséase of the eyes 
compelled him to relinquish his post; he re- 
sumed it at a subsequent period, but was final- 
ly thrown out of office by the revolution of 
1848. Poverty induced him to emigrate with 
his daughter Henrietta to Vienna, and subse- 
quently to Munich; and to escape becoming a 
burden to their friends, father and daughter 
drowned themselves in the lake of Starnberg. 
He wrote Geschichte der Magyaren (5 vols., 
Vienna, 1828-381); Der ungarische Reichstag 
1830 (Pesth, 1831); Geschichte der Stadt Wien 
(1882); Geschichte des ésterreichischen Kaiser- 
hauses (5 vols., Hamburg, 1834-50) ; and other 
works, including original poems and numer- 
ous translations from the Hungarian. 

MAIMACHIN. See Kracura. 

MAIMBOURG, Louis, a French historian, born 
in Nancy about 1620, died in Paris, Aug. 18, 
1686. At the age of 16 he entered the society of 
Jesus, and in 1682 he was expelled for defend- 
ing the tenets of the Gallican party ; but Louis 
XIV. settled a pension on him. At the time 
of his death he was writing a history of the 
English reformation. He published 7razté his- 
torique sur les prérogatives de V Eglise de Rome 
(1681; new ed., 1831); Histoire du Wiclifia- 
nisme (the Hague, 1682); Histoire du Luthe- 
rianisme (1686); and Histoire du Calvinisme 
(Paris, 1686). A uniform edition of his his- 
tories appeared in 1686~-’7 (14 vols. 8vo, Paris). 

MAIMONIDES, Moses (Heb. Rabbi Mosheh ben 
Maimon, commonly abridged into the initial 


98 MAIMONIDES 


name RaMBaM; Arab. Abu Amram: Musa 
ibn Abdallah ibn Maimon al-Kortobi), a Jew- 
ish theologian and philosopher, born in Cor- 
dova, Spain, March 30, 1135, died in Cairo, 
Egypt, Dec. 18, 1204. He was the descendant 
of a family distinguished in the annals of the 
Jewish community of his native city, at that 
period a principal seat of Arabic learning, and 
received from his father Maimon, a theological 
and astronomical writer in Arabic, a superior 
education. He was distinguished by a rare 
proficiency in mathematics, astronomy, medi- 
cine, philosophy, and theology, as well as by a 
surpassing ability as a writer in Arabic and 
Hebrew. In consequence of the great persecu- 
tion of Jews, Christians, and sectarian Moham- 
medans by the dynasty of the Almohades in 
Cordova, he retired with his father to Fez, and 
subsequently proceeded to Egypt (1165), pass- 
ing through Acre and Jerusalem, where his 
father died. He established himself in Mitzr 
or Fostat (Old Cairo), where he maintained 
himself for some time by trade, until his sci- 
entific acquirements secured his appointment 
as physician to the court of Saladin, which 
office he also held undertwo succeeding reigns. 
At the same time he was active as a rabbi in 
the Jewish congregation of Cairo, and espe- 
cially as a theological teacher, his fame at- 
tracting numerous pupils even from the most 
distant countries of the West. But he exer- 
cised a far more powerful influence upon his 
brethren by his numerous writings, with few 
exceptions in Afabic, almost all of which have 
since been acknowledged as standard works. 
The most distinguished Hebrew translators of 
the age vied in spreading his masterpieces all 
over the Jewish world, and thus enabled him 
to become almost the second lawgiver of his 
people, and to inaugurate among them a period 
of literary and philosophical activity, which is 
still regarded as the golden age of the Jews in 
exile. Of his works, of which numerous origi- 
nal MSS. are extant in the libraries of Oxford, 
Rome, Parma, &¢., embracing among others 
treatises on medicine, mathematics, and as- 
tronomy, the most frequently reprinted (in 
Hebrew translations or original) are: Perush 
hammishnah (“Commentary on the Mishnah”), 
including an introduction and an ethical trea- 
tise known under the title of Shemonah pera- 


kim (“‘ Eight Chapters”); Sepher hammitzvoth , 


(“The Book of the Commandments”), a sys- 
tematic compend of the Biblical command- 
ments, both positive and negative, according 
to the rabbis amounting to the number of 613; 
Milloth hahiggayon (“The Terms of Logic 4) 
Mishneh torah (‘The Copy of the Law”), a 
general code of Jewish observances, written 
originally in Hebrew, in many respects the 
most extraordinary strictly rabbinical produc- 
tion, generally known under the appellation of 
Yad ‘hazakah (“The Strong Hand”), from its 
14 divisions, Yad signifying hand, and the nu- 
merical value of the letters of which the word 
is composed being 14; and Moreh nebukhim 


MAINE 


(‘The Guide of the Perplexed’), a philosophy 
of Judaism, which from its influence on the de- 
velopment of Jewish science and genius is the 
most important production of the author. The 
original Arabic text of the last named work, 
in Hebrew letters, from an Oxford manuscript, 
was published with a French translation and 
notes by S. Munk (Le guide des égarés, traité 
de théologie et de philosophie par Moise ben 
Maimoun, 8 vols., Paris, 1856-66). Some of 
the views of Maimonides having been violently 
attacked by various western rabbis, his ortho- 
doxy and the rights of philosophy in the syna- 
gogue were vindicated among others by his 
learned son and successor as physician to the 
Egyptian court, Abraham ben Moses. 

MAIN (Lat. Menus), a river of Germany, 
formed by two streams rising in N. E. Bavaria, 
the White Main in the Fichtelgebirge and the 
Red Main in the Franconian Jura, which unite 
about 138 m. N. W. of Baireuth. From the 
junction the river flows W., but with several 
long bends S. and N., into the Rhine at Castel, 
opposite Mentz; length about 250 m. It is 
navigable for nearly 200 m. to its junction with 
the Regnitz, and the Ludwig’s canal connects 
it with the Danube. The principal towns on 
its banks are Schweinfurt, Wiirzburg, Aschaf- 
fenburg, Offenbach, and Frankfort. 

MAINE, one of the New England states, the 
most easterly of the American Union, and the 
tenth admitted under the constitution, between 
lat. 42° 57’ and 47° 82’ N., and lon. 66° 52’ and 
71° 6’ W.; extreme length N. and S. 803 m., 
extreme width 212 m.; area, 35,000 sq.m. It 
is bounded N. W. and N. by Quebec, E. by 
New Brunswick, 8. E. and S. by the Atlantic 
ocean, and W. by New Hampshire. As estab- 
lished by the treaty of 1842, the boundary on 
the east is the St. Croix river and a line run- 


State Seal of Maine. 


ning due N. from a monument at its source 
to St. John river; on the north the line fol- 
lows the St. John and St. Francis rivers to 
a monument at the outlet of Lake Pohena- 
gamook; and on the northwest it follows the 
highlands from this lake in a S. W. direction 


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MAINE 


to the N. E. corner of New Hampshire. Maine 
is divided into 16 counties, viz.: Androscog- 
gin, Aroostook, Cumberland, Franklin, Han- 
cock, Kennebec, Knox, Lincoln, Oxford, Pe- 
nobscot, Piscataquis, Sagadahoc, Somerset, Wal- 
do, Washington, and York. The cities are 
Augusta, the capital (pop. in 1870, 7,808), Au- 
burn (6,169), Bangor (18,289), Bath (7,371), 
Belfast (5,278), biddeford (10,282), Calais 
(5,944), Ellsworth (5,257), Gardiner (4,497), 
Hallowell (3,007), Lewiston (13,600), Portland 
(31,418), Rockland (7,074), and Saco (5,755). 
Portland is the leading commercial city. The 
largest towns are Brewer (8,214), Brunswick 
(4,687), Bucksport (8,483), Camden (4,512), 
Cape Elizabeth (5,106), Deer Isle (8,414), East- 
port (8,736), Ellsworth (5,257), Farmington 
(3,251), Gorham (8,351), Hampden (3,068), 
Kittery (8,333), Skowhegan (8,893), Thomas- 
ton (8,092), Waldoborough (4,174), Waterville 
(4,852), and Westbrook (6,583).—The popula- 
tion of Maine and its rank in the Union, ac- 
cording to the federal enumerations, have been 
t:3 follows: 


White Colored |» Total 


DATE OF CENSUS. , Rank, 
. persons, | persons. | population. 
LUGO Rhee. datersthe Sle aerate 96,002 538 96,540 11 
TOU MA cents D0 150,901 | 818 | 151,719 | 14 
LRG eee meee Sates ae ec ais 227,736 969 228,705 14 
OZ er cistciets, oe einen ell 29. 1.040 929 298,269 12 
SOULE Pa ee ie atlelae tvs 898,263 | 1,192 899,455 12 
SS Reree pe terete piece 500,488 | 1,855 501,793 13 
Leh aie Rc aas See Senet 581.813 | 1,856 583,169 16 
PEG MR emer tte cask eee 626,947 | 1,827 628,279 22 
cea ae Vc ee Cae 624,809 | 1,606 | 626,915 | 28 


Of the total population in 1870, 313,103 were 
males and 313,812 were females ; 578,034 were 
native and 48,881 foreign born; and there were 
499 Indians and 1 Chinaman enumerated. Of 
those of native birth, 550,629 were born in 
Maine, 11,139 in Massachusetts, and 9,758 in 
New Hampshire. Of the foreigners, 26,788 
were born in British America, 15,745 in Ire- 
land, and 8,650 in England. The density of 
population was 17°91 to a square mile. There 
were 131,017 families, with an average of 4°78 
to each, and 121,958 dwellings, with an aver- 
age of 5°14 to each. Between 1860 and 1870 
there was a decrease of 1,364 or 0°22 per cent. 
in the total population, this being the only 
state except New Hampshire in which there 
was a loss. The number of male citizens 21 
years old and upward was 153,160. There 
were 175,588 persons from 5 to 18 years of 
age; the total number attending school was 
155,140. Of persons 10 years of age and over, 
13,486 were unable to read, and 19,052 could 
not write, of whom 9,646 were males and 9,406 
females, making the percentage of illiterates 
10 years old and over, to the total population 
(493,847) of the same age, 3°86, which is less 
than in any other state except Nevada, where 
the percentage was 2°38, and New Hampshire, 
where it was 3°81. In the total number (169,- 
823) of male adults, 6,585, or 3°88 per cent., 
were illiterates; and of 174,068 adult females, 


29 


6,834, or 3°91 per cent. The number of pau- 
pers supported during the year ending June 1, 
1870, was 4,619, at a cost of $367,000. Of the 
total number (8,631) receiving support, June 
1, 1870, 3,188 were natives and 448 foreigners. 
The number of persons convicted of crime 
during the year was 431. Of the total num- 
ber (871) in prison June 1, 1870, 261 were of 
native and 110 of foreign birth. There were 
324 blind, 299 deaf and dumb, 792 insane, and 
628 idiotic. Of the total population 10 years 
of age and over (498,847), there were engaged 
in all occupations 208,225, of whom 179,784 
were males and 28,441 females; in agricul- 
ture, 82,011, of whom 24,738 were agricultural 
laborers, and 56,941 farmers and planters; 
in professional and personal services, 36,092, 
including 890 clergymen, 11,321 domestic ser- 
vants, 13,838 laborers not specified, 558 law- 
yers, 818 physicians and surgeons, and 4,183 
teachers not specified; in trade and transpor- 
tation, 28,115, of whom 11,670 were sailors; 
in manufactures and mechanical and mining 
industries, 62,007, including 2,697 blacksmiths, 
8,757 boot and shoe makers, 6,474 carpenters 
and joiners, 3,896 fishermen and oystermen, 
1,765 lumbermen and raftsmen, 4,187 saw-mill 
operatives, 2,256 ship carpenters, 2,482 wool- 
len-mill operatives, 8,774 cotton-mill opera- 
tives, and 1,131 mill and factory operatives not 
specified. The total number of deaths from all 
causes was 7,728; from consumption, 1,991, 
there being 3°9 deaths from all causes to 1 
from consumption; from pneumonia, 495, or 
15°6 deaths from all causes to 1 from pneu- 
monia; from diphtheria and scarlet fever, 502 ; 
from intermittent and remittent fever, 39; 
from cerebro-spinal, enteric, and typhus fe- 
vers, 641; from diarrhoea, dysentery, and en- 
teritis, 269. According to the census of 1870, 
there was a greater number of deaths from 
consumption in Maine, in proportion to the 
total mortality, than in any other state, the 
ratio being 25,598 deaths from consumption in 
100,000 deaths from all causes; while in New 
Hampshire, the state ranking next in this re- 
spect, the ratio was 22,209 in 100,000.—The 
coast of Maine extends in an E. N. E. direc- 
tion, from Kittery point on the west to Quoddy 
head on the east, about 218 m. in a straight 
line; but following its exact outline, and in- 
cluding the islands, the length of shore line is 
2,486 m. It is studded with numerous islands, 
and indented by many bays and inlets, forming 
excellent harbors. The largest island is Mount 
Desert, having an area of 60,000 acres, and 
lying: W. of Frenchman’s bay. Its formation 
is very peculiar, and its scenery picturesque 
and striking. Thirteen peaks, the highest of 
which has an elevation of about 1,800 ft., rise 
from its surface from W. to N. Besides this, 
the principal islands are Isle au Haut, off the 
entrance of Penobscot bay, in which are Deer, 
Long, and Fox islands, and the Isles of Shoals, 
a group of eight belonging partly to New 
Hampshire. Among the largest bays are Pas- 


30 


samaquoddy, Machias, Pleasant, Frenchman’s, 
Penobscot, Muscongus, Casco, and Saco. Maine 
is abundantly supplied with watercourses. The 
Walloostook, flowing into the St. John in 
the north, and the Aroostook in the east, 
each with numerous tributaries, drain the N. 
portion of the state. The St. Croix, which 
fiows S. into Passamaquoddy bay, forms a por- 
tion of the E. boundary between Maine and 
New Brunswick. The Penobscot, flowing into 
Penobscot bay, is the largest river, draining 
with its branches and connecting lakes the 
centre of the state, and navigable for large 
vessels to Bangor, 55 m. from its mouth. The 
Kennebec, W. of the Penobscot, affords great 
and valuable water power, and is navigable 
for ships to Bath, 12 m., and for smaller boats 
to Augusta, 50 m. from its mouth. Further 
W. are the Androscoggin and Saco. On the 
southwest the Piscataqua separates Maine from 
New Hampshire. Several of the rivers have 
falls of considerable note. Scattered over the 
surface of the state is a great number of 
lakes, the largest of which is Moosehead, 35 
m. long and from 4 to 12 m. wide; among 
others are Sebago, Umbagog, Chesuncook, Bas- 
kahegan, Long, Portage, Eagle, Madawaska, 
Pamédumcook, Millinoket, Sebec, and Schoodie. 
—The surface is generally hilly, mostly level 
toward the coast, but rising in theinterior. A 
broken chain of eminences, apparently an ex- 
tension of the White mountains of New Hamp- 
shire, crosses the state from S. W. to N. E., ter- 
minating in Mars hill on the borders of New 
Brunswick. The highest elevation in the range 
is Mt. Katahdin, 5,385 ft. above the sea. Sad- 
dleback, Bigelow, Abraham, North and South 
Russell, and Haystack are among the others 
best known.—Maine is almost exclusively a 
region of the azoic rocks. The W. portion of 
the state is granitic. The metamorphic rocks 
abound in a great variety of interesting min- 
erals, and Paris, Oxford co., is noted for its 
beautiful colored tourmalines; Parsonsfield, 
York co., and Phippsburg, on the coast of 
Lincoln co., for varieties of garnet and various 
other minerals; Brunswick and Topsham for 
feldspar, &c.; and Bowdoinham for beryls. 
Over the surface of the country the drift for- 
mation is everywhere spread in the form of 
bowlders and sand and gravel. Even upon the 
highest summits are found scattered rounded 
fragments of formations situated in places fur- 
ther N. Along the S. portion of the state 
deposits of tertiary clays are found in many 
localities beneath the drift. They are charac- 
terized by beds of shells of the common clam 
and mussel, and consequently belong to the 
newer pliocene. They extend into the interior 
as far as Augusta and Hallowell, and are pene- 
trated by wells sunk 50 ft. or more below the 
surface. Limestone quarries are worked in 
many places among the metamorphic rocks. 
Along the shore of Passamaquoddy bay are 
beds of red sandstone, probably of the age of 
the Connecticut river sandstone. It is pene- 


_of red hematite. 


MAINE 


trated by dikes of trap, and at the contact of 
the two rocks are developed many interesting 
minerals. On Campbell’s island and on the 
shores of Cobscook bay veins of galena are 
found of some promise at the contact of trap 
dikes and argillaceous limestone. Trap abounds 
in this portion of the state, and in the interior 
it forms hills of considerable extent. The 
sources of the rivers are in a wild mountain- 
ous territory spreading over the central portion 
of the state. The mountains are in scattered 
groups, with no appearance of regular ranges. 
Their structure is of the metamorphic rocks; 
and so far as explored they present little of 
economical importance. On the Aroostook are 
numerous beds of limestone and one large body 
Argillaceous slates and lime- 
stones prevail over the N. portion of the state. 
—Maine is said to be rich in minerals, espe- 
cially in Aroostook, Piscataquis, and Washing- 
ton cos. Besides marble, slate, granite, and 
limestone, which are sources of wealth, iron, 
lead, tin, copper, zinc, and manganese exist. 
There is also abundance of material for the 
profitable manufacture of alum, copperas, and 
sulphur. Granite is obtained in blocks of im- 
mense size, some weighing more than 100 tons 
each. It is of fine grain, beautiful in color, 
and very durable. The marble is better adapt- 
ed for building than for ornamental purposes. 
The principal belt of roofing slate, which is 
found in immense quantities, extends from the 
Kennebec to the Penobscot river, a distance of 
about 80 m. The principal quarries are in 
Piscataquis co. Most of the slate is suitable 
for tables, blackboards, writing slates, and 
pencils. Few attempts have been made to 
work metallic ores.—The climate is one of ex- 
tremes. In the year the temperature ranges 
between 20° or 80° below to 100° above zero; 
and the isothermal lines vary with the lati- 
tude from 454° to 87° F. The following me- 
teorological summary for Portland, lat. 48° 
40' N. and lon. 70° 14’ W., has been reported 
by the United States signal bureau: 


| Mean Total 


YEAR.! Month. —— thermom- | rainfall, Frovailing 
FOME‘EE> eter inches. b Loe 

1871.. October..... 80° 058 50°0° 6°55 Southwest. 
|November..| 29°926 | 83:0 6°3T | Northwest. 
[December...| 80°004 | 238-0 8°00 Southwest. 

1872.. January....| 29°910 | 22°5 0°77 | Southwest. 
February....| 29°924 | 23-0 0°35 | Northwest. 
| March.s-s0e 29-900 23°3 1°44 Northwest. 
Aprils 29-949 | 41°8 1°69 Northwest. 
\May-ac eames | 29°955 | 52°8 8°23 South. 
| June. eee 29-950 62°0 5°95 South. 
July:5.nee ee 29°919 68°7 2°9T South. 
|August..... 380° 007 67°1 6°97 Southwest. 
ee 30°020 | 59°8 8°12 | Southwest. 

ees pe Ae a 

‘Ann’l mean.| 29°963 | 43°9° | 42°32 | Southwest. 


In the extreme northern part of the state 
the temperature ranges from 5° to 10° lower. 
The winters are severe, but the temperature is 
uniform and not subject to violent changes. 
The snow lies on the ground for from three 


MAINE Bal 


to five months. The northeast winds from 
the Atlantic in the spring and early summer, 
charged with cold fogs, constitute an unplea- 
sant feature in the climate of a portion of 
the state.—The soil varies greatly, being sterile 
in the mountains and fertile in the valleys; 
the most. productive land lies between the 
Kennebec and Penobscot and in the valley of 
the St. John. Great forests cover the central 
and N. portions of the state, yielding immense 
quantities of timber, which constitutes one of 
the leading sources of wealth. The most prev- 
alent trees are the pine, spruce, and hemlock; 
maple, birch, beech, and ash are common, and 
the butternut, poplar, elm, sassafras, and a 
variety of others are found in particular dis- 
tricts. Apple, pear, plum, and cherry trees 
thrive, but the peach has not been cultivated 
with success. The dense forests still afford re- 
treats for the moose and caribou. There are 
also the bear, deer, wolf, catamount, wolverene, 
beaver, marten, sable, weasel, raccoon, wood- 
chuck, squirrel, &c. Wild geese and ducks, 
eagles, hawks, partridges, pigeons, owls, quails, 
crows, and humming birds are among the 
most common birds. The waters off the coast 
abound with fish, chiefly cod, herring, menha- 
den, and mackerel; and salmon, trout, pickerel, 
&ec., are found in great abundance in the lakes 
and rivers.—According to the census of 1870, 
there were 59,804 farms, containing 2,917,- 
793 acres of improved land, 2,224,740 of wood- 
land, and 695,525 of other unimproved land. 
The cash value of farms was $102,961,951; of 
farming implements and machinery, $4,809,- 
113; total amount of wages paid during the 
year, including the value of board, $2,903,- 
292; total (estimated) value of all farm pro- 
ductions, including betterments and additions 
to stock, $33,470,044; of orchard products, 
$874,569 ; of produce of market gardens, $366,- 
397; of forest products, $1,581,741; of home 
manufactures, $450,988; of animals slaughtered 
or sold for slaughter, $4,939,071; of all live 
stock, $23,357,129. The agricultural produc- 
tions were 278,793 bushels of wheat, 1,089,888 
of Indian corn, 34,115 of rye, 2,351,354 of oats, 
658,816 of barley, 466,635 of buckwheat, 264,- 
502 of peas and beans, 7,771,363 of potatoes, 
9,114 of grass and clover seed, 1,058,415 tons 
of hay, 5,435 lbs. of flax, 1,774,168 of wool, 
296,850 of hops, 11,636,482 of butter, 1,152,- 
590 of cheese, 160,805 of maple sugar, 155,640 
of honey, 5,253 of wax, 1,374,091 gallons of 
milk sold, 28,470 of maple molasses, and 7,047 
of wine. There were on farms 71,514 horses, 
336 mules and asses, 139,259 milch cows, 60,- 
530 working oxen, 142,272 other cattle, 484,- 
666 sheep, and 45,760 swine.—The leading in- 
dustries are directly connected with the natu- 
ral yield of land and water, the most charac- 
teristic being the production of lumber and 
lime, the packing of ice, fish, and vegetables, 
ship building, and stone quarrying. It is esti- 
mated that the forests cover 10,505,711 acres, 
or very nearly one half the entire area of the 
524 VOL. xI.—3 


uv 


state. This is not exceeded in any of the other 
great lumber-producing states except Michigan 
and Pennsylvania; while the ratio of the wood- 
land to the entire area is greater in Maine than 
in any other state. The abundant water power 
renders the use of steam necessary in only a 
small number of mills. The great lumber mart 
is Bangor, where the amount surveyed during 
the season reaches about 200,000,000 ft. The 
most important centres of this industry are 
Penobscot co., where a capital of about $2,- 
000,000 is employed; Washington co., about 
$1,500,000; Hancock, Kennebec, and Piscata- 
quis cos. According to the census of 1870, 
the number of saw mills was 1,099, having 76 
steam engines of 3,213 horse power, and 1,660 
water wheels of 38,898 horse power, and em- 
ploying 8,506 hands. The capital invested 
amounted to $6,614,875; wages, $2,449,182; 
materials, $6,872,723; products, $11,395,747. 
Ship building, which declined during the civil 
war, has within a few years attained a pros- 
perity exceeding that of former times. In 1870 
Maine ranked next to New York and Pennsyl- 
vania in the value of work completed, and next 
to New York in 1873. In the former year 116 
establishments were reported, employing 1,810 
hands, and a capital of $908,173; the value of 
materials used was $1,267,146, and of products, 
$2,365,745. During the year ending Jan. 1, 
1874, there were built in the state 276 vessels 
of 89,817 tons, being the largest tonnage ever 
built in one year. Among the vessels were 
10 ships of 14,594 tons, 25 barks, 12 brigs, 206 
schooners, 12 sloops, and 9 steamers. The 
principal yards are at Passamaquoddy, Machias, 
Frenchman’s Bay, Castine, Bangor, Belfast, 
Waldoborough, Wiscasset, Bath, Portland and 
Falmouth, and Kennebunk. According to the 
census of 1870, the products of the Maine fish- 
eries, exclusive of the whale fisheries, were 
exceeded only by those of Massachusetts, the 
value being $979,610. This included 79,873 
quintals of cod fish, 2,475 of haddock, 10,955 
of hake, 2,653 barrels of herring, 31,901 of 
mackerel, and 75,834 of miscellaneous fish, 
besides 40,011 barrels of fish oil. The value 
of fish cured and packed was $617,878. In 
1878, 861 vessels of 46,196 tons were en- 
gaged in the cod and mackerel fisheries. 
About 2,000 men are employed in this indus- 
try. The propagation of salmon and trout by 
artificial means in the interior waters is car- 
ried on with success under the direction of 
the state commissioners of fisheries. Along 
the coast, from Yarmouth to Cape Sable, the 
packing of fish, lobsters, clams, &c., is exten- 
sively carried on. The catching of lobsters is 
perhaps more extensive here than anywhere 
else inthe country. The canning of vegetables 
in the interior is an important industry. The 
value of canned products in 1873 was $1,842,- 
000; the number of cans was 735,700 dozens, 
embracing 475,000 dozen cans of corn, 7,500 
of succotash, 231,600 of lobsters, 20,000 of 
salmon, and 1,600 of clams. Ice is gathered 


32 ' MAINE 


chiefly in Kennebec and Knox cos. for exporta- 
tion to various parts of the world. In 1873, 
24 establishments cut 301,000 tons, valued at 
$552,000. Most of the granite quarries are 
on the coast, the principal ones being in Knox 
and Lincoln counties. Here the granite is 
dressed and shaped for use in buildings in dis- 
tant parts of the country. The stone quarried 
in 1870 was valued at $536,788, and the slate 
at $85,000. According to the census of 1870, 
Maine had more capital invested in the pro- 
duction of lime than any other state except 
New York, and produced more in value than 
any except Pennsylvania; the capital invested 
amounting to $1,058,000, and the products to 


$1,741,553. In the manufacture of cotton 
goods Maine in 1870 ranked sixth among the 
states. The manufacture of woollen goods is 
also an important industry. The census of 
1870 gives the number of manufacturing es- 
tablishments at 5,550, using 354 steam engines 
of 9,465 horse power, and 2,760 water wheels 
of 70,108 horse power, and employing 49,180 
hands, of whom 34,310 were males above 16 
years of age, 13,448 females above 15, and 
1,422 youth. The amount of capital invested 
was $39,796,190; wages paid during the year, 
$14,282,205; value of materials, $49,397,757 ; 
of products, $79,497,521. The leading indus- 
tries are indicated in the following statement: 


Steam 
To. is engines, 
INDUSTRIES. establish- is 
ments. . 
power. 
SLACK SIMIGhING 8 New. Seige sie eee rie.cs eielelel ok 604 22 
Bleaching and cdyeing. V's). os ae as as e's 16 BAB 
BOOts ANG BHOER Ise Hic/(c/a28 4 - cided. sen 393 388 
Carriages and wagons.................... 291 12 
MOLINE SIMON Nee. cco ee aachaseise mie ae 143 arse 
Cotton goods not specified................ 20 820 
“ batting and wadding.............. 1 sas 
“ thread, twine, and yarn........... 2 Sets 
Hdge tools'and axesz: ci. .'o. ccc ecle scion 9 180 
Hishs cured and! packed v2 0)i2..cen taste 40 ee 
Flouring and grist mill products.......... 205 200 
iron storzedand.rollgds.. yee. dene tseek ee 4 780 
** anchors and eable chains............ 2 6 
“ nails and spikes, cut and wrought.... 2 sts Ste 
“castings, not specified. .............. 44 850 
a Ag stoves, heaters, and hollow 
WEDS ie ctstecartialt.. siageack ss 3 10 
eather tanned se seus, ich seer 128 552 
ve CUrriGde tne. cama eee conan 76 109 
af morocco, tanned and curried..... LT acer 
Gard eh nea sine ee Cacia tae « 2 
ESTING as poactee Pye erciata vines ak srcie's, Staleve vlovere. iets 41 rita 
Gambersplanediys. te. wavsewtoeus «steel 18 828 
a BOWE. Soria ce tide ae uae lcs 1,099 3,218 
Molasses and sugar, refined............... 3 240 
CHT OOY CLORH i oer cle pies oh ete ed 6 98 
Vp Lishr eter (abate a oe aie sale Retls cat 28 111 
BADER Cee itnat tree check 4a) towels Mae ae 12 10 
Ship building, repairing, and ship mate- 
MAGI Was ioe esc we Mehee cake Vara teeta, 118 180 
Vibgetables, eannedede. which Poss did ce de eee 3 27 
Woollen PO0dS: 87. ss.cied +cat Ueno fafa 56 140 


. Water 

wheels, Hands 
horse jemployed. 
power. 


Capital. Wages. Materials. | Products, 


15 | 1,282 | $417,595 | $175,418 | $346,191 $1,012,117 
0G 175 | 268,500 | — 66,980 | 2,570,522 | 2,718,950 
19 | 2,786 | 871,683 | 994/837 | 2,261,229 | 3 
438 | 1,128 | 533,080] 356.207 | 985,544 | 1,051,488 
.... | 4563 | 551,610 | 509/018 | 1,868,391 | 2'8 
7,908 | 9,879 | 9,789,685 2,000,007 6,671,280 11,789,781 


8 ; ,500 5,000 
BT 48.000 14,000 71,000 98,800 
260 214,750 | 111,882 | 118,767 | 842,050 


160,920 70,230 


: 559 | 944.350 | 115,308 | 8,887/370 | 4,415,998 
120 468 | 550,000 | 272.958 | 1,051,890 | 1,591,196 
40 24 85.000 |. 17,400 |” 81,300 53,800 
60 Ey) 80,000 | 12,400 | 24,590 40,636 
224 501 | 704,718 | 242,654 | 845,427 | 749.275 
5 11 7,666 4,818 | 15.479 28,690 
1,318 781 | 1,606,740 | 285,882 | 3,021,127 | 8.779.297 
126 219 | 238209 | 64,244 | 894/862 | 1,082/554 


pes 20 20,000 | 10,000 | 40,850 50,000 
120 18 86,000 7,800 ; 
: 739 | 1,058,000 | 211.527 | 1,222'309 | 1,741'553 


107 129 | 107,800] 41,940 | ‘288.575 | ’329'875 
88,598 | 8,506 | 6,614,875 | 2,449,132 | 6,872,723 | 11,895,747 
A 185 | 775,000 | 117,000 | 2,958,118 | 31149,182 

Mi 297 | 525,000 | 149,500 | 859.200 | 1,314,000 
876 | 149,764 | 41,560 | 74.985] 172,017 

399,000 | 146.477 | 864,158 | 1,214.607 

1,802 | 904,473 | 627,185 | 1,268,821 | 2,858,445 

308 | 848,000 | 82,500 | ‘247,000 | 605,000 


The industrial interests of Maine have been 
greatly extended in recent years. The condi- 
tion of the most important industries in 1873, 
according to the state industrial statistician, 
is approximately given in the following state- 
ment, the number of establishments making 
returns being less than the actual number: 


ssl sh] a3 a 
INDUSTRIES. 648] 8 2 ay 33 
AE pol eA t= eB. 
Bleaching and dyeing... 8 180} $300,000 |$5,500,000 
Boots and shoes........ 112 | 5,894) 1,863,964 | 8,820,986 
Brick Joe nen lae oe Se 93 917| 817,185 | 520,574 
Canned goods.......... | . 83 | 4,087} 825,000 | 1,842,000 
Carriages, wagons, and 
sleighs........ : ee 59 261) 194,165 | 824,550 
Clothing,men’sand boys’| 42 | 8,693} 267,248 811,250 
Cotton goods........... 16 | 10,699) 12,252,000 |12,151,750 
Cotton batting, warp, 
and ‘yarn. 72k 252.958 5 145] 130,000 | 275,920 
Edge tools... 02.02.41. 20 828} 430,000 638,800 
Fish, cured and packed. 7 176; 21,860 245,256 


| 


8,867 | 2,925 | 4,092,685 | 1,085,483 | 8,761,715 | 6,150,620 
Ses 4 3 33 es 
INDUSTRIES. pee SR oe 23 
Z z 8/ x ey io) g S E 


Flouring and grist mill 


products .’;.. 9 aen 85 | 161) 620,600 | 2,276,122 
Ice, prepared for market] 24 160} 60,000 | 552,000 
Iron, cast, forged, and 

rolled. :, (aaa 22 472) 695,200 | 1,649,640 
Leather, tanned and cur- 

Fled..«:: i. sene eens 61 663) 1,529,380 | 8,187,800 
Lime .....3 oo eee 25 456) 1,099,500 | 1,585,025 
Lumber, long and short.| 1,086 | 7,476! 6,879,492 | 9,020,222 

rf planed 23. 25." 6 80 80,000 210,000 
Machinery, cotton and 

woollen... ss weneeece: 8 250) 212,800 | 815,500 
Machinery, steam en- 

gines, cars, &€....... 80 | 1,101) 1,097,500 | 2,501,247 
Oil fish i. nae ae 12 446} 828,500 852,550 

“' Kerosene! 5.1. 07. il 25) 200,000 | 254,500 
Paper, print’g and wrap- 

DING .5:5./6 sated ean ce 9 836) 1,500,000 | 3,041,600 
Printing and publishing.| 31 274} 440,262 801,600 
Sash, doors, and blinds.| 21 241! 870,000 | 864,450 
Shooks, box and hogs- 

Dead, 7.34 Rone 23 868} 149,950 652,013 
Woollen goods.........| 89 | 2,727 8,217,000 | 6,605,292 


ne ie at et ee 


SP See ae ei a est a 


Ce 


esiceeret ee 


gt SRE ees. 


soy 


MAINE 


According to the same authority, the total 
number of establishments devoted to manu- 
facturing and mechanical industry was 6,072, 
employing 55,614 hands; the capital invest- 
ed amounted to $48,808,448; materials used, 
$57,911,468; wages paid, $16,584,164; value 
of products, $96,209,1386.—The extensive sea- 
coast and numerous harbors of Maine give the 
state great facilities for commerce. The harbor 
at Portland is one of the best on the Atlantic 
coast. There are 14 United States customs dis- 
tricts, viz.: Aroostook (port of entry, Houl- 
ton), Passamaquoddy (port of entry, Eastport), 
Machias, Frenchman’s Bay (port of entry, Ells- 
worth), Castine, Bangor, Belfast, Waldobor- 
ough, Wiscasset, Bath, Portland and Falmouth, 
Saco, Kennebunk, and York. Theimports from 
foreign countries and domestic exports for the 
year ending June 30, 1874, were as follows: 


CUSTOMS DISTRICTS. Imports, Exports. 
ATOOBLOOKIE te Sheds es 2 ie Aes EP aly eT Sa ee 
BANG OY) ed, eres sd ease es 15,834 $298,367 
DAG ataye te aie cour states hee dates 21,744 79,071 
Beliasteeae ts Wat cose weeks 15,930 5,787 
OS titre cee soketee ours t eco < 2,919 7,719 
Wrenchmat’s) Bay ....<. <0 400 6,508 
IMaGhian Weis. ste, <eec eee 13,671 101,803 
Passamaquoddy......-....0 174,279 1,264,107 

_ Portland and Falmouth...... 2,733,569 8,581,502 
Wraldoborough....s- 2 sees OE CSEmer yt PNET oe ale 
Wiscasset iis Yeu. oss: 148 27,238 

SOUR sows wits acces ataele lero $3,628,425 $5,872,102 


The chief articles of import were coal, fish, 
iron, sugar, molasses, and wool; of export, cot- 
ton goods, canned fruit, fish, and vegetables, 
boots and shoes, bacon and hams, lard, and 


33 


ing for foreign countries, together with the 
vessels registered, enrolled, and licensed in the 
different districts, were as follows: 


CUSTOMS DIS. ENTERED. CLEARED, iw Puan 
TRICTS. 

No. | Tons. | No. Tons, No. Tons, 
Bangor'seece co 2% 4.171 74 ~ 19,827 240| 85,670 
Bath. M7, 2 6} 2,857) 22) 7,193} 9278 | 125.915 
Belfast ........... 10) 1,275} 20/8446} 837) 73,779 
Castine, 2) 5.505.0% 6; 1,515; 18] 2,501] 856] 26,7386 
Frenchman’s Bay.| 2 40 6 904); 817] 20,984 
Kennebunk....... Seve hanaenanes 2) 1,808 8T| 2,820 
posh et Ha a rane : 169) 25,717; 249] 84,595 

assamaquoddy... 860} 160,181] 215 é 
Portland and Fal- ; 8 
INOUTD ye aes 428) 218,851! 758! 280,788! 892 | 101,882 
BaCOnce tar a eee: sire licefera ereit 2 830 23) 8,766 
Waldoborough ....| 22] 1,910} 52) 8827] 588] 100,643 
Wiscasset......... sl 110 6) 1,885) 173] 9,808 
Pe EARL eee te ene Can Me | Scie 16 607 
Total.......... 750} 868,196 1,489) 512,287) 8,221 | 585,842 


Besides these, there were entered in the coast- 
ing trade and fisheries 2,291 vessels of 1,124,- 
127 tons, and cleared 1,526 of 847,178 tons. Of 
the total number registered, enrolled, and li- 
censed, 8,157 of 547,665 tons were sailing, and 
63 of 18,025 tons were steam vessels. The 
transit and transshipment trade at Portland is 
larger than that of any other port in the United 
States.—Maine had 11 miles of railroad in 1841, 
293 in 1851, 472 in 1861, 871 in 1871, and 945 
in 1874. A board of three railroad commis- 
sioners, appointed by the governor and council, 
are required to examine into and report upon 
the condition of the railroads in the state, the 
cause of accidents, &c. The lines in operation 
at the beginning of 1875, with their mileage, 


lumber. The vessels entering from and clear- | were as follows: 
Miles in Length be- 
i wrotmaes operation in| tween termini 
RAMS, OF CORPORATION. the state in | when different 
From To 1874. from preceding, 
PATA TORCOR CINK setae af osteo cies = ie sin's ale cel Meteor ai< IBEUNSWICKaG se. eeleis clare Leeds Junction....... 28 
EN CN Re siete esi olagce Ieisj6 5 01s o.o)0 + aera: wel etagmaetranrate Crowley’s Junction...| Lewiston............. 5 oe 
ALATIteG and Ste WAWLENCO. c5 05. 32s vsledbmantonies Portland waassenantan Island Pond, Vt...... 82 149 
LSS g let Oat oS OO een RIIMr Ee Cece Oe te MMAImGlIn 55, derseiss\ 0130 JSC WISTOM ES de. sels -as ore 6 rae 
pall MOK, ALk) ETICKEPOLG, © oa cies sicis.s. alu ale ls saeepilese BueKsport ses sjcvele'« «1 IBrewelaicastiass s/s 18 
PANG OL ANG PISCHLACUIS. »'. s.1< 0). 0 se «'s sib woe decane Oldtown . 25 stis.ta)s/o28 A DDOE I.” sole Mote tete 54 
Belfast and Moosehead Lake...............--0-06 Belfast.e vcichiveeaecs ss Burpham saga scicte «2 383 Oe 
OSLO ANGE BING. eke Bain vnrare a ni0's-s-0 a0 ne eeialemumete Boston, Mass......... Portlandascscdate es 45 116 
European and North American................000. (Bancomin alsa ert. aere os Se) OLN cpbbiee sees 114 206 
WENOX SNC) EANCOLMa yack ine ce doe elslvis «cd dc cue eee BUTE ae PR Sarde ae Rockland sige acesuies 49 ies 
RCO UR ATIC) PALIN P LOM ait, eaiad jisimi<is '<)a/< bo ieieleisherpins Leeds Junction....... Farmington..... 89 
MAINO CAD I LA ies cee cles sc earcecletieel ss, /+.0, 0.45 os 9 serene Cumberland.......... Bangor en recse ieee cs 129 
Ope Dh MNO MIOXIGR To eare rts to bcc cases ss cseeeen 14 
Portland and KR ennepeG. sca fii cs /clas of hd 20125 pate 100 
PS PACME eee cits Soca sha aests ce cf Se cuebeee 10 Brive 
BOTHaNa ANU CUCUSDUTE ee sca cece Cn. cecs sae ckes 52 110 
Portland and Oxford Central 27 ore 
Wartlandednd smOCREBLCE: sores eras oli e'cicere 40 s.¢ 00:0 « bere TROUELANIG Sr siete fe eels nee Rochester, N.H...... 49 52 
Portland, Saco, BUd FOrtsmouth,).s 55.5... eeas.s 02 a0 POTUIANIG seis's\adsclestye cy Portsmouth, N. H.... 52 See 
Portsmouth, Great Falls, and Conway............. Conway Junction..... North Conway, N. H.. 4 71 
Bra CroixsandyPenopscot. dahisseidecnas Soie-sis detent Calaigye Wakes acne Brincetoniens. cs saste 22 Prot 
West Waterville ..... Norridgewock........ 18 


SE RETA Bites? Ba Se BABES CRebe Chr nGey een er oe 


Of the lines above mentioned, the Androscog- 
gin, Belfast and Moosehead Lake, Leeds and 
Farmington, Newport and Dexter, and Port- 
Jand and Kennebec are leased and operated by 
the Maine Central company; the Portland,’ 


Saco, and Portsmouth, by the Eastern of Mas- 
sachusetts; the Atlantic and St. Lawrence by 
the Grand Trunk of Canada; and the Bangor 
and Piscataquis by the European and North 
American railway company. Lines of steam- 


34 MAINE 


ers ply regularly between the larger cities and 
Boston. Steamers also ply between Portland, 
New York, St. John, N. B., and Halifax, and 
during the winter between Portland and Liver- 
pool and Glasgow.—The number of national 
banks in operation in 1874 was 64, having a 
paid-in capital of $9,840,000, and a circulation 
outstanding of $7,946,576. The circulation 
per capita was $12 67, while the ratio of cir- 
culation to wealth was 2°2 per cent., and to 
bank capital 80°8 per cent. Savings banks are 
well distributed throughout Maine, and are 
managed with great care. In 1874 there were 
58, with $31,051,963 deposits and 96,799 de- 
positors, the average amount on deposit by 
each being $320. The deposits in these in- 
stitutions amount to nearly $6,500,000 more 
than the circulation and deposits of the na- 
tional banks of the state. The number of 
fire, marine, and fire and marine insurance 
companies doing business in the state, Jan. 1, 
1874, was 120, of which 41 were Maine com- 
panies.—The government of Maine is founded 
on the constitution of 1820. Every adult male 
citizen of the United States, not a pauper or 
criminal, who has resided in the state three 
months, is entitled to vote at elections. The 
legislature is composed of a senate of 31 mem- 
bers and a house of representatives of 151 
members, all elected annually by the people. 
The general election is held on the second 
Monday in September, and the legislature meets 
in Augusta on the first Wednesday in January 
annually. The governor (salary $2,500) is also 
elected annually, and is assisted in his executive 
duties by a council of seven members, elected 
on joint ballot by the legislature. The secretary 
of state (salary $1,500) and the state treasurer. 
(salary $1,600) are also elected by the same 
body and in the same way. Other state officers 
are the attorney general, adjutant general, su- 
perintendent of common schools, land agent, 
insurance commissioner, bank examiner, three 
railroad commissioners, superintendent of pub- 
lic buildings, librarian, two assayers, inspector 
general of beef and pork, inspector general of 
fish, two commissioners of fisheries, industrial 
statistician, and two Indian agents. The goy- 
ernor appoints, with the advice and consent 
of the council, besides certain judicial officers, 
the attorney general, the sheriffs, coroners, 
registers of probate, and notaries public, 
The judiciary consists of a supreme court of 
eight judges, who are appointed by the gov- 
ernor and council for a term of seven years, 
and receive a salary of $3,000 a year each; the 
superior court of Cumberland co., held in Port- 
land, with one judge appointed in the same 
way and for the same term; probate courts 
in each county, the judges being elected by 
the people for terms of four years; municipal 
and police courts; and trial justices, appointed 
by the governor and council for seven years, 
with jurisdiction where the amount does not 
exceed $20. The state is divided into three 
judicial districts, eastern, middle, and western, 


in each of which the supreme court holds an 
annual session as a court of law. Trial terms 
are also held in each county for civil and 
criminal business, except that in Cumberland 
co. the superior court has exclusive criminal 
jurisdiction. In each county there is a judge 
and register of probate. There is a state board 
of immigration, consisting of the governor, 
secretary of state, and land agent, who are re- 
quired to appoint a commissioner of immigra- 
tion. The board may give to each male adult 
immigrant 100 acres of the public land on which 
to settle. It is the duty of the industrial sta- 
tistician, which office was created in 1873, to 
collect and publish statistical information con- 
cerning the manufacturing, mining, commer- 
cial, agricultural, and other industrial interests, 


‘together with the valuation and appropriations 


for various purposes of the several towns and 
cities of the state. Maine is represented in 
congress by two senators and five representa- 
tives, and has therefore seven votes in the 
electoral college.—The laws for the prevention 
of intemperance in Maine have always been of 
a rigid character. The present law vests the 
sale of intoxicating liquors in special agents 
appointed by the state, and prohibits all other 
persons from selling such liquors, including 
ale, porter, strong beer, lager beer, and other 
malt liquors, wine, and cider, as well as all dis- 
tilled spirits. The manufacture of intoxicating 
liquors for unlawful sale is also forbidden. 
The provisions of the law, however, do not 
extend to the manufacture and sale of unadul- 
terated cider or wine made from fruit grown 
in the state. The lawful sale of liquors is un- 
der the direction of a commissioner who is ap- 
pointed by the governor, and who is required 
to furnish municipal officers of towns in Maine, 
and duly authorized agents of other states, with 
pure unadulterated intoxicating liquors, to be 
sold for medicinal, mechanical, and manufac- 
turing purposes. If an authorized agent vio- 
lates the law, he is subject to a fine not exceed- 
ing $30, and imprisonment not exceeding three 
months; while the penalty for a violation by 
a common seller is $100 fine or three months’ 
imprisonment for the first, and $250 fine and 
four months’ imprisonment for the second and 
each subsequent offence. Any one having been 
injured by an intoxicated person may maintain 
an action for damages against the person who 
sold the liquor; and the owner or lessee of the 
building in which the liquor was sold is jointly 
liable if cognizant that it was used for such 
purposes. A married woman may hold in her 
own right real and personal estate acquired by 
descent, gift, or purchase, and may convey or 
devise the same by will, without the consent 
of her husband, except such real estate as has 
been directly or indirectly conveyed to her by 
her husband or his relatives, in which case the 
husband must join in the conveyance. A wo- 
man does not lose and a husband does not ac- 
quire rights to her property by marriage. The 
husband is not liable for the debts of the wife 


ee ee 


ra 


‘ 

- 
v 
Pia 


MAINE 


contracted before marriage, nor for those after- 
ward contracted in her own name; but she is 
liable in both cases, and may be sued. Mar- 
riages, births, and deaths must be registered in 
every town, and reported to the secretary of 
state. Intention of marriage must be recorded 
in the office of the town clerk at least five days 
before the certificate is granted, and the mar- 
riage must be solemnized by a minister or jus- 
tice of the peace. White persons are prohib- 
ited from marrying negroes, Indians, or mulat- 
toes. Treason, murder in the first degree, and 
arson of an occupied dwelling in the night, are 
punishable with death; so also is killing in a 
duel, and the seconds are liable to the same 
punishment as the principals. Rape, arson of a 
dwelling in the day time, and burglary at night 
by a person armed with a weapon, or making 
an assault, are punishable with imprisonment 
for life. Adultery is punished with imprison- 
ment for not less than one nor more than five 
years.—The receipts into the state treasury 
during the year ending Jan. 1, 1875, amounted 
to $1,423,473, and the expenditures to $1,524,- 
497. Of the receipts, $142,258 was from the 
tax on savings banks, and $67,996 on public 
lands, while nearly all of the remainder, about 
$1,170,000, was from direct taxation. Of 
the expenditures, $432,200 was on account of 
interest, and $238,276 on account of sinking 
fund and principal of public debt; about $82,- 
000 for special and exceptional appropriations; 
$407,477 to towns for common schools; and 
about $320,000 for general state purposes. 
On Jan. 1, 1875, the entire amount of the pub- 
lic debt was $7,088,400, of which $2,223,000 
was in registered and $4,865,400 in coupon 
bonds. Deducting the sinking fund ($1,514,- 
022) held for the payment of the debt, the 
liability of the state amounted to $5,574,378. 
While in many other states a large portion of 
the public revenues is raised by indirect taxa- 
tion, in Maine nearly the entire amount is de- 
rived from direct taxes. The rate on the val- 
uation of 1874 was five mills on the dollar. 
The total value of real and personal property 
in 1874, estimated on a true cash basis, was 
stated at $254,000,000. The assessed value of 
real estate, as returned by the census of 1870, 
was $134,580,157, and of personal property 
$69,673,623; the true valuation of real and 
personal estate was $348,155,671. The total 
amount of taxation not national was $5,348, - 
645, of which $1,350,305 was state, $315,199 
county, and $3,683,141 town, city, &c.—The 
institutions supported wholly or in part by the 
state are the insane hospital, reform school, 
state prison, soldiers’ orphans’ home, and two 
normal schools. The insane hospital in Au- 
gusta was opened in 1840, since which time 
4,404 patients have been received, of whom 
4,011 have been discharged, 1,770 recovered, 
767 improved, 675 unimproved, and 799 have 
died. The daily average under treatment in 
1874 was 406. Of the 393 in the hospital at 
the close of the year, 48 were supported by the 


35 


state, 291 were receiving state aid of $1 50 per 
week, and 59 were supported by their friends 
at the rate of $4 or $7 per week, according 
to accommodations. The capacity of this in- 
stitution is inadequate to the needs of the state, 
and provision has been made for the erection 
of another. The total expenditures on account 
of the hospital in 1874 were $108,917, of which 
the state paid about $34,000 for the support 
of indigent insane, and towns and individuals 
about $56,000. Maine has no state institutions 
for the care of the deaf and dumb or the blind; 
but $14,179 was paid from the treasury in 1878 
for the education in other institutions of 55 
deaf and dumb and 11 blind beneficiaries. The 
state prison at Thomaston at the beginning of 
1874 contained 129 convicts, of whom 55 were 
under sentence for larceny, 20 for burglary, 
and 12 for murder. The average annual num- 
ber of commitments during the ten years end- 
ing with 1873 was about 51. With the ex- 
ception of a period of about eight years, the 
state has always employed the labor of the con- 
victs in manufacturing operations on its own 
account, producing carriages, harness, and boots 
and shoes. In 1873 the labor of the convicts 
defrayed all the expenses of the institution, 
and yielded to the state a net profit of $6,545. 
During the 20 years ending with 18738 the sales 
of the product of convict labor amounted to 
$614,028. A beginning has been made of in- 
troducing this system of industry into the va- 
rious county jails. The average number of 
convicts in the 13 jails of the state in 1873 was 
76, making with the average number in the 
state prison (146) a total of 222. The reform 
school, opened in 1852, is about 4 m. from 
Portland, where a farm of 160 acres is devoted 
to the purposes of the institution. Boys be- 
tween the ages of 8 and 16 years are received, 
and besides attending school four hours a day 
are occupied in farming, making bricks, shoes, 
and chairs, and in general housework. The 
average number of boys in 1874 was 137, and 
the appropriation by the state amounted to 
$20,000. An industrial school for girls was 
opened in Hallowellin 1875. The military and 
naval orphans’ asylum at Bath affords a home 
for the children of the soldiers who died in the 
civil war. The number of inmates at the close 
of 1874 was 55; state appropriation, $10,000. 
There is also a general orphan asylum in Ban- 
gor, which receives state aid. The Maine gen- 
eral hospital in Portland is aided by the state.— 
The educational interests of the state are un- 
der the supervision of a state superintendent, 
appointed by the governor and council, and 
there are city superintendents. Every city, 
town, and plantation is required to raise and 
expend annually for the support of schools 
therein not less than $1 for each inhabitant, 
under penalty of not receiving any share 
of the state school fund. The permanent 
school fund, derived chiefly from the sales of 
wild lands belonging to the state, amounts to 
$369,883. Besides the income of this fund, the 


36 MAINE 


chief sources of revenue for school purposes are 
a state tax of one mill per dollar of valuation, 
a town tax of 80 cents per capita, and a tax 
of one half mill per dollar of the deposits of sa- 
vings banks. The cost of supporting the public 
schools in 1874 (current expenses) was $1,237,- 
778, being about ‘005 on the state valuation, 
¢1 97 for each inhabitant, $5 49 for each per- 
son of school age, and $11 21 according to the 
average attendance. The school funds are ap- 
portioned among the several towns according 
to the number of persons between 4 and 21 
years of age. The chief facts relating to the 
schools of the state are as follows: 


Number of persons between 4 and 21 years of age. 225,219 
ee registered in summer schools,........... 122,458 
IA VOTATOBLLCNGSDCE sn Malas vie sieicies.c< ns 2 s(c\-lt lms a1s 98,744 
Number registered in winter schools...........-. 182,333 
FA VOPA SCI ALLONCANCO sens wie ce eaitele “imisiciniele.t cis sem © 108,478 
Average duration of schools for the year, 20 weeks and 2 days. 
Number of school districts...........-..eee+eeees 4,043 
- Spm HOUSER cat vils balsieiereislets'« eie\e 0 a\eis Fs 4,199 
Estimated value of all school property... ........ $3,079,311 
Male teachers in summer... ...........0ncecwoce 161 
Ap SS EEAIDU WATER ar sat gets hinsate ees neta eb Gin 1,928 
Female teachers in summer,..........00.--00000 4,366 
" o AM WHEEL, Syreietcte sc eee serie. carci 2,367 
Teachers, graduates of normal schools............ 294 
Average wages of male teachers per month....... $36 17 
vs ‘“* of female teachers per week...... $4 05 
Amount of school money voted. ..............+-- $673,314 
Excess above amount required by law............ $187,782 
Amount raised per scholar. 3. oi</c2 cases sc ais pee fe 9 


“ received from state treasury during 1874. $367,009 


By a recent act of the legislature a system of 
free high schools throughout the state has been 
established, the state defraying one half the 
cost of instruction upon certain conditions. In 
1874 there were 355 terms of free high schools 
open, with 14,820 pupils enrolled. The amount 
paid by the state in aid of these was $39,969. 
Sixteen teachers’ institutes were held in 1874, 
besides numerous educational conventions and 
associations. The normal schools are under 
the direction of seven trustees, five of whom 
are appointed by the governor, who, with the 
superintendent of common schools, is an ea 
officio member. The western state normal 
school at Farmington was established in 1868, 
and in 1873-4 had 8 instructors and 63 students 
during the autumn and 86 during the spring 
term, besides 31 in the model school. The 
course occupies two years, and tuition is free 
to those pledging themselves to teach in the 
public schools of Maine for as long a period 
as they have been connected with the normal 
school. The eastern state normal school at 
Castine was opened in 1867, and in 1873-4 had 
8 instructors and 94 students in the autumn, 58 
in the winter, and 130 in the spring term; 170 
of the total were females, and 112 males. Tu- 
ition is free, but graduates are expected to be- 
come teachers in the public schools of the state. 
In 1878 the state appropriated $17,500 for nor- 
mal schools. The state college of agriculture 
and the mechanic arts, at Orono, has received 
the grant of public lands made by congress for 
the establishment and maintenance of such in- 
stitutions in the several states. A farm of 870 
acres of superior land affords excellent facilities 


for the experimental purposes of the institu- 
tion. Five courses of instruction are offered : 
in agriculture, civil engineering, mechanical en- 
gineering, chemistry, and an elective course. 
The studies of the several courses are essen- 
tially in common during the first two years. 
Prominence is given to military instruction, and 
the students are required to devote not exceed- 
ing three hours a day for five days in the week 
to manual labor, for which they receive com- 
pensation. This institution was opened in 1868, 
and in 1874 had 8 instructors and 121 students. 
It is provided with valuable apparatus and a 
library of 2,000 volumes. The most promi- 
nent educational institutions are Bowdoin col- 
lege in Brunswick (see BowpoIn COLLEGE), 
Colby university (Baptist) at Waterville, and 


‘Bates college (Freewill Baptist) at Lewiston. 


Colby university was organized in 1820, and 
in 1874 had 7 instructors and 62 students; 
the library contains about 10,000 volumes; 66 
scholarships, each yielding from $36 to $60 
per annum, have been founded for the ben- 
efit of students needing aid; the university is 
open to students of both sexes. Bates college 
was organized in 1863; connected with it is 
a theological department, which was opened 
in 1870; the libraries of the institution com- 
prise 8,300 volumes; in 1874 there were 8 in- 
structors and 104 students, besides 18 students 
in the theological department. The theologi- 
cal seminary at Bangor (Congregational), estab- 
lished in 1820, is open to the Protestants of 
every denomination; the course of instruction 
comprises three years; in 1874 there were 4 
professors, 40 students, 520 alumni, and a li- 
brary of 14,000 volumes. Instruction in med- 
icine is afforded by the medical department of 
Bowdoin college, which is known as the med- 
ical school of Maine, and by the Portland med- 
ical school. The Maine Wesleyan seminary, at 
Kent’s Hill, and the Westbrook seminary (Uni- 
versalist), with a collegiate course for young 
ladies, at Deering, afford to students of both sex- 
es classical, scientific, normal, and other courses. 
In 1874 the former had 14 instructors and 389 
pupils, of whom 176 were females, and a library 


of 25,000 volumes, besides valuable collections. - 


The East Maine conference seminary and com- 
mercial college, pleasantly situated at Bucks- 
port, is also open to both sexes, and provides 
several courses of instruction; in 1874 there 
were 6 instructors and 201 students, including 
92 females.—According to the census of 1870, 
there were in the state 8,334 libraries, contain- 
ing 984,510 volumes; of these, 1,872, with 
450,963 volumes, were private, and 1,462, with 
533,547 volumes, were other than private, in- 
cluding the state library with 20,000 volumes, 
58 town and city with 14,649 volumes, 19 law 
with 9,748, 25 school, college, &c., with 63,425, 
1,079 Sabbath school with 277,742, 140 church 
with 39,910, and 136 circulating with 100,278. 
The principal libraries are the state library in 
Augusta, which in 1874 contained 28,000 vol- 
umes; Bowdoin college, 35,000; Portland in- 


a 


MAINE 


stitute and public library, 15,878; Bangor theo- 
logical seminary, 14,000; mechanics’ associa- 
tion library of Bangor, 13,700; Colby universi- 
ty, 10,000; Bates college, 8,300; and Hallowell 
social library, 5,000. The number of newspa- 
pers and periodicals was 65, having an aggre- 
gate circulation of 170,690, and issuing annually 
9,867,680 copies. In 1870 there were 7 daily 
newspapers, with a circulation of 10,700; 1 tri- 
weekly, circulation 350; 47 weekly, circulation 
114,600; 1semi-monthly periodical, circulation 
700; 8monthly, circulation 42,840; and 1 quar- 
terly, circulation 1,500. In 1874 there were 9 
dailies, 56 weeklies, 1 semi-monthly, 4 month- 
lies, and 1 quarterly—The total number of 
religious organizations in 1870 was 1,326, hav- 
ing 1,102 edifices with 376,038 sittings, and 
property valued at $5,196,853. The denomi- 
nations were represented as follows: 


l 
| Organiza- 


DENOMINATIONS. idee. Edifices, | Sittings. | Property. 
Baptist, regular...... 262 213 70,966 | $858,050 
others. . 8 ss 218 154 46,223 | 882,917 
Christisnven ees ies 44 20 4,922 42,200 
Congregational....... 231 219 83,985 | 1,401,736 
Episcopal (Protestant)| 25 23 8,975 | 280,213 
WOW SH Pic. cay slots 23 23 7,815 86,400 
TGQtHOr anny, «cress [eran 0 (0's 1 1 500 800 
Methodist..... Piette 827 264 82,530 | 885,287 
New Jerusalem (Swe- 
denborgian) ....... 3 2 1,200 58,000 
Roman Catholic...... 82 82 17,822 461,700 
Second Advent....... 28 13 8,175 13,050 
Bbaker dia 2370.0 2 2 700 4,000 
Spiritualistess jee. se: 8 1 200 800 
WRITHTIATIo cscs. 18 18 9,185 | 245,000 
Universalist.......... 84. 65 238,910 434,850 
Unknown (Union)....} 26 54 15,130 96,400 


—RMaine was visited in 1602 by Bartholomew 
Gosnold; in 1603 by Martin Pring; in 1604 
by the French under De Monts, who wintered 
near the present site of Calais on the St. Croix, 
and in the following spring took possession of 
the shores of the river Sagadahoc or Kenne- 
bec; and in 1605 by Capt. George Waymouth. 

In 1607 the Plymouth company, having ob- 
tained a grant which included this territory, 
sent out a colony under George Popham and 
Raleigh Gilbert, but it remained only one year. 
In 1613 a French colony fitted out by Mme. 
de Guercheville, a pious Catholic lady to whom 
had been transferred the patent of De Monts, 
landed at Mount Desert, with the purpose of 
establishing a centre for missionary opera- 
tions. The Virginia magistrates, however, sent 
an armed force which dispersed the emi- 
grants and destroyed their settlement. In 
the following year Capt. John Smith arrived 
at Monhegan island, and went at once to the 
Kennebec, where he traded profitably with the 
Indians, explored the coasts, and compiled a 
short history of the country. In 1620 Sir 
Ferdinando Gorges obtained a new patent 
from James I., granting to the Plymouth com- 
pany all the country between lat. 40° and 48° 
N., including that upon which the pilgrims 
landed in the following December. Gorges 
regarded these persons as intruders, and sub- 


37 


sequently endeavored to oust them as well as 
the Massachusetts colony established under 
Winthrop at Charlestown and Boston. In 
1621 the company transferred to William Al- 
exander, afterward earl of Stirling, the country 
E. of the St. Croix (then all designated Nova 
Scotia), thus establishing the E. boundary of 
Maine as it now stands. Monhegan, the first 
or one of the first spots in Maine permanently 
peopled by Europeans, was settled in 1622, and 
Saco in 1623, or perhaps earlier. About 1629 
the Plymouth company began to parcel out 
their territory in grants to suit applicants. In 
that year John Mason acquired the territory 
lying between the Merrimack and Piscataqua 
rivers, and called it New Hampshire, thereby 
settling the western boundary of Maine. In the 
course of two or three years the whole coast 
had thus been disposed of as far E. as the Pe- 
nobscot. The country between the Penobscot 
and St. Croix, and even to the W. of the former 
river, was claimed by the French, and long re- 
mained a subject of dispute. In 16385 the Ply- 
mouth company, having resolved to give up 
its charter to the government, divided the ter- 
ritory among its members, Gorges taking the 
whole region between the Piscataqua and the 
Kennebec, of which he subsequently (1639) re- 
ceived a formal charter from Charles I. under 
the title of the province of Maine. Gorges 
was now appointed governor general of New 
England, with almost unlimited powers. (See 
Goress.) His son Thomas was sent over as 
deputy in 1640, and established himself at 
Agamenticus, now York, where in 1642 arose 
a city called Gorgeana. On the death of Sir 
Ferdinando, Maine descended to his heirs. It 
was now really placed under four different ju- 
risdictions: 1, that of Gorges, extending from 
the W. line to Kennebunk; 2, that of Rigby, 
from Kennebunk to the borders of the Kenne- 
bec valley, held under grant from Sir Ferdi- 
nando; 8, the Sagadahoc, from the Kennebec 
to the Penobscot; 4, the French (Acadia), 
from the Penobscot to the St. Croix. Massa- 
chusetts, apprehending that these fragmentary 
and unsettled governments might fall into 
hands hostile to her interests, and stimulated 
by the wishes of many of the inhabitants, set 
up (1651) a claim under her charter to the 
province of Maine,.and sent commissioners to 
admit the people of Gorges’s and Rigby’s grants 
into the jurisdiction of the Bay colony. The 
governments of Gorges and Rigby remon- 
strated, and carried the matter before the Eng- 
lish parliament; but the Puritan party was 
now in the ascendancy at home, and the claims 
of the Puritan colony of Massachusetts were 
heard with more favor than the protests of 
zealous royalists and adherents of the estab- 
lished church. In 1652, 150 freemen in five 
towns took the oath of allegiance to Massa- 
chusetts, which continued to exercise its au- 
thority in such a way as to prove that, how- 
ever slight its claim to jurisdiction, the trans- 
fer was equally beneficial to both parties. The 


838 MAINE 

towns were governed in local matters nearly 
as they are now, and the rules of church disci- 
pline were less strict than in some other colo- 
nies, the people being generally favorable to 
religious freedom. No acts of persecution 
stain their history, and they frequently afford- 
ed an asylum to fugitives from intolerance in 
other parts. In 16538 Cromwell annulled the 
transfer of Acadia to France, which had been 
effected in 1632, and sent out Sir Thomas Tem- 
ple as governor. He retained his post till 
1667, when Acadia reverted to France in ac- 
cordance with the treaty of Breda. In the 
mean time the Stuarts had been recalled to the 
throne of England, and the heirs of Gorges 
petitioned for the restoration of their territory 
in Maine. Royal commissioners were accord- 
ingly sent by Charles II. in 1664 to reéstablish 
the authority of the grantees. Massachusetts 
resisted, and a conflict of jurisdictions ensued, 
which was terminated in 1677 by Massachusetts 
purchasing the interests of the claimants for 
£1,250 sterling. As early as 1607, according 
to De Peyster’s ‘‘Dutch in Maine,” the Dutch 
had attempted to gain and colonize this coast. 
In 1674 they conquered the coasts of Nova 
Scotia and Acadia adjacent to the Penobscot, 
first capturing Fort Pentagoet or Pemtegeovett 
(Castine). In 1676 Cornelis Steenwyck was 
made governor of the conquered district by 
the Dutch West Indiacompany. The Holland- 
ers, however, were soon after expelled by set- 
tlers from Boston. In 1675 the first Indian 
war in Maine was begun by King Philip, at 
whose instigation a series of unprovoked at- 
tacks were made upon the settlers, and more 
than 100 white persons were massacred within 
three months. Thenceforth the savages held 
the country in terror till 1700. Meanwhile dis- 
putes were excited by the claims of the duke of 
York, who, under a grant from Charles II. of 
the Dutch territories in North America, pro- 
fessed to hold all that part of Maine lying be- 
tween the Kennebec and St. Croix rivers. Sir 
Edmund Andros was commissioned as gover- 
nor of the duke’s territories in New York and 
Maine; but Massachusetts, having caused a 
new survey of the E. limit of her patent to be 
made, under which she pushed her boundary 
forward to the W. shore of Penobscot bay, 
continued to hold possession of all the colony 
except Sagadahoc and Pemaquid. When the 
duke came to the throne as James II., Andros 
was made governor of New England, and vis- 
ited Maine, where he was guilty of great ex- 
tortion. The Massachusetts charter had al- 
ready been declared forfeit. The revolution of 
1688, however, restored things to their former 
state, and thenceforth the history of the col- 
ony of Maine is merged in that of Massachu- 
setts. From the close of Indian hostilities 
Maine began to make steady progress in civili- 
zation and wealth. The war of the revolution 
affected her but little, but during that of 1812 
she was again exposed to the horrors of fron- 
tier struggles. The British obtained possession 


MAINE-ET-LOIRE 


of a part of the country, and kept it until the 
conclusion of peace. The final separation of 
Maine from Massachusetts took place March 
15, 1820, when she was admitted into the 
Union as an independent state. Ever since the 


treaty of 1783 a dispute had existed between 


the government of the United States and Great 
Britain as to the proper interpretation of that 
treaty so far as it related to the boundary be- 
tween Maine and the British possessions. This 
controversy was finally settled by the treaty of 
Washington in 1842, by which Maine and the 
United States agreed to cede to Great Britain 
a small portion of the territory claimed by her, 
in return for the concession of Rouse’s Point 
and the free navigation of the river St. John. 
The enterprise of founding a Swedish colony 


-in Aroostook, begun in 1870, has proved suc- 


cessful. The place selected is called New Swe- 
den, where in 1873 about 600 Swedes aided by 
the state had settled upon 20,000 acres of land. 
The colonists have their own municipal organ- 
ization and schools, in which the chief study is 
the English language. (See supplement.) 
MAINE, an ancient province of France, and 
with Perche one of the great military govern- 
ments of the kingdom, bounded N. by Norman- 
dy, E. by Perche and Orléannais, 8. by Tou- 
raine and Anjou, and W. by Brittany. It is 
now almost entirely included in the depart- 
ments of Mayenne and Sarthe. Its capital was 
Le Mans. Under the Carlovingian and early 
Capetian kings the province was governed by 
counts; it was subsequently in turn united with 
Normandy and Anjou, became subject to the 
kings of England, was wrested from John by 
Philip Augustus, and after various transfers 
was united with the crown of France in 1481. 
MAINE, Sir Henry James Sumner, an English ju- 
rist, born in 1822. He graduated at Pembroke 
college, Cambridge, in 1844, and was regius 
professor of civil law at Cambridge from 1847 
to 1854, when he became reader on jurispru- 
dence in the Middle Temple. From 1862 to 
1869 he was a law member of the government 
in India, where he introduced several legisla- 
tive reforms, In 1870 he was appointed to the 
newly instituted Corpus professorship of juris- 
prudence in Oxford university, and in 1871 ¢ 
member of the council for India. He has pub- 
lished ‘‘ Roman Law and Legal Education,” in 
‘Cambridge Essays” (1856); “‘ Ancient Law: 
its Connection with the Early History of Soci- 
ety” (8vo, 1861; 5th ed. 1874; reprinted, 
with an introduction by Prof. T. W. Dwight, 
New York, 1864); and “ Village Communities 
in the East and West” (1871; 2d ed., 1874), 
being six Oxford lectures, giving the results of 
his observations in India, where he had stud- 
ied the working in village communities of so- 
cial organisms supposed to correspond with the 
earliest rudiments of European civilization. 
MAINE-ET-LOIRE, a N. W. department of 
France, comprising most of the former prov- 
ince of Anjou, bordering on Mayenne, Sarthe, 
Indre-et-Loire, Vienne, Deux-Sévres, La Ven- 


MAINE DE BIRAN 


MAINTENON 39 


dée, and Loire-Inférieure; area, 2,750 sq. m.; | daughter of Théodore Agrippa d’Aubigné, the 


pop. in 1872, 518,471. It belongs to the basin 
of the Loire, by which it is annually inundated ; 
the other principal rivers are the Maine, Loir, 
Sarthe, Mayenne, and Oudon. The surface is 
almost level, with slight undulations, and the 
soil very fertile, producing grain, wine, and 
fruits. Iron is found, and slate quarries are 
extensively worked. It has excellent breeds 
of cattle and horses. The principal manu- 
factures are of linen, especially table linen and 
handkerchiefs, flannels, and cotton. It has a 
considerable trade in grain, wine, brandy, and 
cattle. It is divided into the arrondissements 
of Angers, Baugé, Cholet, Saumur, and Segré. 
Capital, Angers. 

MAINE DE BIRAN, Francois Pierre Gonthier, a 
French metaphysician, born at Grateloup, near 
Bergerac, Nov. 29, 1766, died in Paris, July 
16, 1824. He entered the body guard of Louis 
XVI. in 1784, and was at Versailles during the 
tumults of Oct. 5 and 6, 1789, but lived in re- 
tirement during the revolution. In 1797 he 
was chosen to the council of 500, from which 
he was excluded on suspicion of royalism, and 
under the empire became sub-prefect of the 
department of Dordogne at Bergerac, and a 
member of the legislative body. In 1813 he 
was one of the commission appointed to draw 
up an address to the emperor, which for the 
first time manifested a decided opposition to 
his policy. After the restoration he was re- 
elected to the chamber of deputies, became 
a councillor of state in 1816, and from 1818 
retained his seat in the legislature, in which 
he constantly maintained the prerogatives of 
the crown. In a memoir entitled Influence de 
Vhabitude sur la faculté de penser, which ob- 
tained the prize of the institute in 1803, he 
prepared for his departure from the reigning 
philosophy of Condillac by maintaining a dis- 
tinction between active and passive mental 
habits, according to which the mind is active 
in perception and passive in mere sensation. 
In his second memoir, Sur la décomposition de 
la pensée (1805), he abandoned the effort to 
give a physiological origin to thought, sug- 
gested that sensation could not furnish the 
active and motive element in man, and was dis- 
posed to admit a principle of intelligence dis- 
tinct from the organism. This work was 
rapidly followed by others, the most important 
of which was the Hxamen des lecons de M. de 
Laromiguiére (1817), in which he completely 
passes from sensational to spiritual philosophy, 
and develops his own system, which caused 
Royer-Collard to say of him: ‘He is the 
master of us all.” A complete edition of his 
works was edited by Cousin (4 vols., Paris, 
1841).—See Naville, Maine de Biran, sa vie et 
ses pensées (Paris, 1857). 

MAINTENON, Francoise d’Aubigné, marchioness 
de, second wife of Louis XIV. of France, born 
in Niort, Nov. 27, 1635, died at St. Cyr, April 
15,1719. She was the daughter of Constant 
d’Aubigné and Jeanne de Cardillac, and grand- 


Huguenot historian of his time, and the friend 
and companion of Henry IV. Constant d’Au- 
bigné, after dissipating his fortune, formed a 
project for establishing himself in the Carolinas. 
His correspondence on this subject with the 
English government was discovered and treat- 
ed as treason, and he was imprisoned in the 
chateau Trompette at Bordeaux, of which his 
father-in-law was thekeeper. After the death 
of the latter he was removed to the concier- 
gerie of Niort, his wife voluntarily sharing his 
imprisonment, and there Francoise was born. 
In 1689 Constant d’Aubigné was discharged 
from prison, and with his wife and children 
emigrated to Martinique, where for a while 
he prospered; but he gambled away what he 
acquired, and died in 1645 in complete poverty. 
His widow with her children returned to 
France, and Francoise was confided to the care 
of her father’s sister, Mme. de Villette, a Cal- 
vinist, who trained her in the principles of the 
Protestant faith. Mme. d’Aubigné, alarmed 
at her daughter’s refusal to attend mass, pro- 
cured an order restoring the girl to her own 
custody, and placed her as an inmate, in a de- 
pendent and almost menial position, in the 
house of her godmother, the countess de Neuil- 
lant, who after a while, and with some diffi- 
culty, converted her from Calvinism to Ca- 
tholicism. The comic poet Scarron, who was 
paralytic and a cripple, lived in the same street 
with the countess de Neuillant, became inter- 
ested in the young, beautiful, and intelligent 
girl, whose adventures had been related to him, 
and offered money to enable her to enter a 
convent, which poverty had hitherto prevented 
her from doing. Frangoise refused the offer, 
and shortly afterward the countess de Neuillant 
placed her in an Ursuline convent, permitting 
her occasionally to visit her house, where she 
often met Scarron. Two years afterward, at 
the age of 16, she was without a home, her 
mother was dead, and she consented to become 
the wife of the deformed Scarron, to whom 
she was married in June, 1652. She was at | 
this time exceedingly beautiful, graceful, and 
witty, and the house of Scarron soon became 
the resort of the most brilliant intellects of 
Paris. Scarron died in October, 1660, leaving 
his young widow nearly penniless, his pension 
ceasing at his death. Mme. Scarron petitioned 
for the reversion of her husband’s pension, 
with small hope of success till Mme. de Mon- 
tespan, the king’s mistress, hearing of her des- 
titution, interfered in her behalf, procured her 
an annual allowance of 2,000 francs, and in 
1669 made her the governess of the children 
she had had by Louis XIV., much to the dissat- 
isfaction of the king, who at first did not like 
the extreme gravity and reserve of the young 
widow. Her talents and wisdom, however, 
soon attracted his attention, and she became 
his confidant and adviser, was made a mar- 
chioness, and took the name of Maintenon from 
an estate at Versailles which the king purchased 


40 MAINZ 


for her. In 1680 she was appointed second 
lady in waiting to the dauphiness, and she influ- 
enced that princess to assist in bringing about 
a permanent separation between the king and 
Mme. de Montespan. The queen became much 
attached to Mme. de Maintenon, and died in 
her arms, July 30, 1683. Some time afterward 
the king, who had long and vainly solicited 
her to become his mistress, was secretly mar- 
ried to her at midnight in one of the cabinets 
at Versailles, Pére la Chaise, the king’s con- 
fessor, performing the ceremony, in the pres- 
ence of Harlay, archbishop of Paris, Bontems, 
governor of Versailles, Louvois, and Mont- 
chevreuil, as witnesses. From this time till his 
death Louis was greatly under her influence, 
though her power over him was exercised with 
extreme prudence and moderation. 
fully shunned the appearance of meddling with 
the affairs of state, though in reality nothing 
was done without her knowledge and consent. 
It was at her instigation that the edict of 
Nantes was revoked and the Protestants per- 
secuted. After the death of the king, in 1715, 
she retired to the convent and seminary of St. 
Cyr, which she had founded, and spent the rest 
of her life in acts of charity and in devotional 
exercises, which from earliest youth she had 
been accustomed scrupulously to observe.—See 
Madame de Maintenon peinte par elle-méme 
(Paris, 1820), which contains her letters, and 
Histoire de Mme. de Maintenon, by the duke 
de Noailles (2 vols., Paris, 1848). 

MAINZ. See Menrz. 

MAIPURES, or Maypures, Indians of South 
America, chiefly on the upper Orinoco and Ne- 
gro rivers. The family includes the Caveres or 
Oabres, who were nearly annihilated by the Ca- 
ribs; the Guaypunabis, who under their chiefs 
Macapu and Ouseru stemmed the progress of 
the Caribs and made themselves masters of the 
upper Orinoco; the Pareni; the Maipures prop- 
er, among whom Gilii labored and wrote, and 
who are now greatly reduced; the Moxos, who 
extended into Peru and Bolivia; the Meepure 
in Brazilian Guiana; the Kirrupa; and the 
Achaguas, a remote branch, residing on the 
Meta. These tribes were almost all cannibals 
and engaged in constant wars. The Moxos or 
Musus were conquered by the inca Yupanqui, 
and were thus to some extent brought within 
the influence of Peruvian civilization. They 
were the only tribe among whom Christian mis- 
sionaries won any extensive conquests, though 
not without great sacrifices. In 1742, before 
their destruction by the Portuguese, the Moxo 
missions contained 30,000 neophytes. A gram- 
mar, vocabulary, and catechism of the Moxo, 
by Father Pedro Marban, were published at 
Lima in 1701; and a grammar of the Bauré, a 
Moxo dialect, by Antonio Megio, is still extant. 

MAISONNEUVE, Jules Germain Fran¢ois, a French 
surgeon, who has been called the ‘ Paracelsus 
of surgery,” born in Nantes in 1810. He 
completed his studies in Paris, where he took 
his degree in 1835, and became prosector, lec- 


She care- ° 


MAISTRE 


turer, and surgeon to the principal hospitals, 
and latterly of the Hétel-Dieu. He acquired 
celebrity by his bold and ingenious operations. 
His principal works are: Du périoste et de ses 
maladies (1839); Sur la coxalgie (1844); Sur 
les kystes de Vovaire (1848); Mémoires sur les 
hernies (1852); Mémoire sur une nouvelle mé- 
thode de cathétérisme (1855); Mémoire sur la 
ligature extemporanée (1860); Clinique chi- 
rurgicale (2 vols., 1863-4); and Mémoires sur 
les intovications chirurgicales (1867). 
MAISONNEUVE, Paul de Chomedey, sieur de, 
first governor of Montreal, Canada, born in 
Champagne, France, died in Paris, Sept. 9, 
1676. He entered the French army in his 138th 
year, and was esteemed alike for piety and 
bravery when he was selected as the leader of 
colonists sent out by an association. He sailed 
with them in three ships, and reached Quebec 
Aug. 20, 1641. Leaving the emigrants there, 
he went on to Montreal, and was installed as 
governor. The winter was spent in preparing 
timber for houses, and the actual settlement of 
the city began in May, 1642. Ten years later 
he returned to France, and brought over an- 
other body of settlers. His administration was 
marked by ability; he maintained great order 
and discipline in the settlement, organized the 
militia for Indian warfare, and acquired the re- 
spect of the hostile tribes. He retained office 
under the Sulpitians after the island was con- 
veyed to them, but was removed in June, 1664, 
by De Mesy, the governor general, and sent 
back to France by the marquis de Tracy in the 
following year. The action was arbitrary, and 
no charges were made against Maisonneuve, 
who, finding that there was no hope of being 
restored to his post, resigned in 1669. 
MAISTRE. I. Joseph, count de, an Italian 
statesman, born in Chambéry, Savoy, April 1, 
1754, died in Turin, Feb. 26, 1821. His father 
was president of the senate of Savoy. After 
having studied at the university of Turin, he 
entered the magistracy in 1775, and became a 
member of the senate in January, 1788. The 
invasion of Savoy by the French in 1792 obliged 
him to retire to Turin; and when the king had 
to give up his possessions on the continent (De- 
cember, 1798), De Maistre followed him to the 
island of Sardinia, where he was appointed 
grand chancellor. This office he retained till 
1803, when he was sent as ambassador to St. 
Petersburg. He remained at the Russian court 
14 years, and wielded for some time consider-: 
able influence over the czar Alexander. On 
his return to Turin (1817) he was appointed min- 
ister of state and regent of the grand chancery. 
He commenced his literary career with an Eloge 
du rot Victor Amédée (1775). In an early speech 
made at the opening of the senate he remarked: 
‘Our age has distinguished itself by a destruc- 
tive spirit which has spared nothing, neither. 
laws, customs, nor political institutions; it has 
attacked all, shaken all, and the devastation 
will extend to limits which no one can as yet 
foresee.” He wrote several works against the 


MAISTRE 


revolutionary party in France, among which his 
Considérations sur la France (1796) had the 
the greatest circulation. Notwithstanding the 
strictest prohibition, three editions appeared 
in Paris in one year. In 1810 he published at 
St. Petersburg an Hssai sur le principe généra- 
teur des constitutions politiques et des autres in- 
stitutions humaines, the object of which was to 
show that God is the immediate source of all 
authority upon earth, and every attack upon 
religion is a prelude to the destruction of social 
and political order. <A translation of a work 
of Plutarch, Sur les délais de la justice divine 
dans la punition des coupables, with notes, ap- 
peared at Lyons in 1816. His most celebra- 
ted work is Du pape (Lyons, 1819). It treats 
of the pope from four points of view: 1, in 
his relation to the Catholic church; 2, to tem- 
poral sovereignties; 38, to the civilization and 
happiness of the nations; 4, to the schismatic 
churches. It is considered as one of the stand- 
ard Catholic works in favor of the infallibil- 
ity of the pope, which it infers from the neces- 
sity of an infallible authority in the spiritual 
order. Infallibility in the spiritual order is de- 
clared to be synonymous with sovereignty in the 
temporal order. From the same standpoint he 
attacked the Gallicans in the work De 0’ Eglise 
gallicane dans son rapport avec le souverain 
pontife, pour servir de suite da Pouvrage inti- 
tulé: Du pape (Lyons, 1821). Among his 
other works are the Soirées de St. Pétersbourg, 
ou Entretiens sur le gouvernement temporal de 
la providence (2 vols., Paris, 1821), in which 
the justness of war and capital punishment is 
strongly advocated, and Lettre dun gentil- 
homme russe sur Vinguisition espagnole (Paris, 
1822). In his posthumous Hxamen de la phi- 
losophie de Bacon (Paris, 1836) he depreciates 
the English philosopher, and disparages critical 
philosophy in general. <A very lively discus- 
sion was called forth by the publication of an- 
other posthumous work, Mémoires politiques 
et correspondance diplomatique de Joseph de 
Maistre, avec explications et commentaires his- 
toriques, by Albert Blanc (2 vols., Paris, 1858— 
’60), many passages in which seemed not fully 
to agree with his other writings. De Maistre’s 
son Rodolphe published Quatre chapitres iné- 
dits sur la Russie, par le comte J. de Maistre 
(Paris, 1859). II. Xavier, count de, a miscella- 
neous author, brother of the preceding, born 
in Chambéry in October, 1764, died in St. Pe- 
tersburg, June 12, 1852. In early life he en- 
tered the military service of Sardinia, but upon 
the conquést of the country by the French he 
emigrated to Russia, and supported himself for 
some time by his pencil. After the arrival of 
his brother as ambassador in St. Petersburg, he 
was appointed in 1805 director of the library 
- and museum of the admiralty. He soon after- 
ward entered the Russian army as lieutenant 
colonel, and participated in the war against 
Persia, in which he obtained the rank of major 
general. He subsequently established himself 
in St. Petersburg, and devoted the remainder 


‘palace, London, Jan. 19, 1866. 


MAITLAND 4] 


of his life to literary and scientific pursuits. In 
1794, being known then as a chemist and as a 
landscape painter, he published at Turin an 
ingenious philosophical trifle, entitled Voyage 
autour de ma chambre, which had great 
popularity, and of which numerous imitations 
of various degrees of merit subsequently ap- 
peared. In 1811 appeared Les lépreua de la 
vallée d@ Aoste (translated into English, Philadel- 
phia, 1825), a work founded on fact, and not 
less creditable to the author’s literary capacity 
than to his humanity. It was followed by 
the Prisonniers du Caucase, and Prascovie, ou 
la jeune Sibérienne (translated into English, 
Philadelphia, 1826), both containing vivid and 
truthful pictures of scenery and manners in 
the eastern and southern provinces of the Rus- 
sian empire. His popular Voyage was followed 
by Hapédition nocturne autour de ma cham- 
bre (1825). An edition of his works was pub- 
lished at Paris in 1822, in 8 vols. 18mo. 

MAITLAND, East and West, two contiguous 
towns of New South Wales, Australia, on the 
Hunter river, 75 m. N. of Sydney; pop. in 
1871, 18,642, of whom about 2,000 belong to 
East Maitland. The surrounding region is 
among the most productive of the globe, and 
is commonly called the granary of New South 
Wales. Maitland is the seat of a Roman Cath- 
olic bishop, and there are numerous places of 
worship of nearly all religious denominations. 
East Maitland has a court house and a jail; 
West Maitland many large stores and some 
good hotels. ‘Two newspapers are published, 
one of which, ‘‘ The Maitland Mercury,” is the 
oldest provincial journal in the colony. There 
is daily communication by railway to Newcas- 
tle, and by steamboat thence to Sydney. 

MAITLAND, Sir Richard, of Lethington, a Scot- 
tish lawyer and poet, born in 1496, died March 
20, 1586. He was educated at St. Andrews 
and in Paris, became an advocate, held several 
public offices, among others that of lord privy 
seal, and was knighted. He was the author 
of a ‘‘ History and Chronicle of the House of 
Seaton,” and of several poems, the most im- 
portant of which is that on “‘ The Creation and 
Paradyce Lost.” A complete edition of his 
poems was first published by the Maitland club 
in 1830. He is celebrated as a collector of an- 
cient Scottish poetry. His collections are yet 
extant in manuscript in the Pepysian library, 
Cambridge, and fill two large volumes. He 
became blind in 1559. 

MAITLAND, Samuel Roffey, an English clergy- 
man, born in London in 1792, died at Lambeth 
He graduated 
at Trinity college, Cambridge, studied law, and 
was called to the bar at the Inner Temple. 
He afterward studied theology, took orders in 
1821, and became perpetual curate of Christ’s 
church, Gloucester. He resigned this charge 
in 1830, and thereafter turned his special at- 
tention to literature. In 1838 he was appoint- 
ed librarian to Dr. Howley, archbishop of 
Canterbury, and keeper of the Lambeth manu- 


42 


scripts, which office he held till the death of 
the archbishop in 1848. He was for several 
years editor of the ‘‘ British Magazine,” to 
which he contributed a large number of valu- 
able essays and dissertations, chiefly on sub- 
jects of prophecy and its right interpretation, 
church history, criticism, &c. His principal 
works are: ‘‘ An Inquiry into the Grounds on 
which the Prophetic Period of Daniel and St. 
John has been supposed to consist of 1260 
years” (1826) ; ‘‘ Letters on the Voluntary Sys- 
tem” (1837); ‘‘The Dark Ages, being a series 
of Essays intended to illustrate the state of 
Religion and Literature in the 9th, 10th, 11th, 
and 12th Centuries” (1844; 8d ed. 1853) ; 
“Essays on the Reformation in England” 
(1849); and “‘ Eruvin, or Miscellaneous Essays 
on Subjects connected with the Nature, His- 
tory, and Destiny of Man” (1850). He also 
prepared an “Index of such English Books 
printed before the year MDC. as are now in 
the Archiepiscopal Library at Lambeth,” which 
was printed, but not published. 

MAIZE, or Indian Corn (zea mays), a valuable 
grass of the tribe of phalaridew. The stems, 
unlike those of most grasses, are solid, with well 
defined nodes, and often producing from the 
lower nodes aérial or prop roots, some of which 
reach the soil; on the portion of the stem be- 
tween the nodes is a broad shallow channel upon 
alternate sides; the stem is simple above, but 
often produces branches, or suckers, from the 
lower joints. The long linear-lanceolate leaves 
are flat, pointed, pubescent above, and with a 
broad midrib channelled on the upper side; 
sheaths smooth, downy on the margins, with a 
short ligule. The inflorescence is monecious, 


Hah 
= 
ee 


are FF 


00) 


in 
Ld) 


aH. 


Maize. 


the staminate flowers in clustered spikes at the 
summit of the stem, forming what is called 
the tassel; the spikelets are two-flowered, each 
floret having three stamens; the pistillate 
flowers are in dense spikes crowded upon a 
rachis, the cob; these are enveloped by the 


MAIZE 


sheaths of altered leaves, the husks; the whole 
pistillate spike is called the ear, and appears at 
the axils of the leaves; each pistillate spikelet 
is two-flowered with one flower abortive; when 
the grain is ripe the withered glumes, abortive 
flower, and palets remain upon the cob as the 
chaff; the ovary is terminated by a long hair- 
like style, which projects beyond the husks, 
and is usually bifid at the extremity; these 
styles together are the silk; after fertilization 
the ovary enlarges to form the grain and the 
styles wither; the grain is usually flattened 
by crowding, wedge-shaped or round-kidney- 
shaped, with a shallow groove containing the 
embryo. In the different varieties from one 
to four pistillate spikes or ears are borne by 
each stalk, though rarely more than two, and 
the number of rows of kernels varies from 8 
to 12 or more, but they are always in even 
numbers. It is not rare to find abnormal spe- 
cimens in which pistillate flowers are borne 
upon the tassel, where they perfect their grain, 
and the end of the cob is sometimes pro- 
longed and furnished with staminate flowers. 
The maize plant is affected in a remarkable 
degree by climate and soil; it soon adapts it- 
self to a locality, and by continuous cultiva- 
tion from the same seed year after year, a local 
variety or strain becomes established. Though 
all the kinds of maize in cultivation, at least 
in the United States, are regarded as of one 
species, the varieties are almost endless; these 
are produced not only by local influences, but 
by selection; it is one of the species in which 
any peculiarity may be readily fixed in a few 
years by carefully selecting and sowing seeds 
from those plants which have the desirable 
features most strongly marked. In respect to 
size, there are varieties from 2 or 8 ft. high 
up to 15 and 18 ft., with the stalks and leaves 
large in proportion; the ears vary greatly in 
size and number of rows of kernels, which 
sometimes reach 24, 82, or more. There is a 
great difference in the form and size of the 
grain; a miniature kind, known as Brazilian, 
has ears about the size of one’s little finger, 
with grains not larger than a mustard seed; 
while at the other extreme are the large south- 
ern varieties with kernels half an inch long. 
In the variety called rice pop-corn the kernels 
are pointed at both ends and but little com- 
pressed, and in the dent varieties there is a 
distinct depression at. the upper end of the 
grain; in some the grains have a sharp hook 
at the end. In one variety, which has been 
described by Bonafous as a distinct species, Z. 
cryptosperma, the floral envelopes of the pistil- 
late flowers, instead of being as is ordinarily 
the case in a rudimentary or imperfect condi- 
tion, are fully developed, and enclose the grain 
when ripe in a miniature husk; this variety has 
been considered as the primitive type, but it is 
said to lose its husky envelopes in cultivation ; 
neither this nor any other form of maize has 
been found in the wild state. The grains of 
maize present @ great variety in color, from 


MAIZE 


white through various shades of yellow to 
orange, red, brown, violet, purple, and black ; 
by the crossing of varieties kernels of two or 
more colors in stripes and blotches are pro- 
duced. In the Tuscarora and some others the 
grain is dull and opaque, while in the so-called 
flint varieties the mass of the grain, the albu- 
men, is translucent; the opaque kinds are very 
starchy, while the others contain large propor- 
tions of fatty matter. In the varieties known 
as sweet corn the grain is very much wrinkled 
and shrivelled; in these the conversion of 
sugar into starch is arrested, and the kernel 
does not fill out. A well developed stalk of 
maize is a most beautiful object; it has a state- 
ly sub-tropical aspect, and were it not so com- 
mon it would be prized with us, as it is in some 
parts of Europe, as an ornamental plant. A 
few years ago Mr. Thomas Hogg sent from 
Japan a very distinct variety (if not species), 
in which the leaves are finely striped with 
white, and when young often with a tinge of 
red; the plant is only about 4 ft. high, but is 
very leafy, and retains its markings all through 
the season; it at once became popular in Eng- 
land, but is less frequently seen in our gardens 
than its merits deserve.—Some writers, inclu- 
ding Bonafous (Histoire naturelle du mais, 
Paris, 1836), have attributed an eastern origin 
to maize, and the subject has been the occasion 
of much discussion; the matter has been thor- 
oughly examined by Alphonse de Candolle 
(Géographie botanique raisonnée, Paris, 1855), 
who sums up thus: ‘Maize is of American 
origin, and was not introduced into the old 
world until after the discovery of the new.” 
It was found in cultivation by the aborigines 
from New England to Chili; varieties not now 
in cultivation in Peru have been found in 
tombs of an antiquity greater than that of the 
Incas; and Darwin (‘‘ Geological Observations 
on South America,” London, 1846) discovered 
“heads of maize, together with 18 species 
of recent sea shells, imbedded in a beach which 
had been upraised at least 85 ft. above the 
level of the sea.”—lIt is estimated that maize 
is eaten by a greater number of human beings 
than any other grain except rice; its analysis 
shows it to be admirably adapted to sustain life, 
and to furnish materials for the growth of 
both human beings and domestic animals. Re- 
cent analyses show the following percentage 
of nutritive principles: albuminoids (flesh- 
forming materials), 10 per cent.; carbohy- 
drates (starch, sugar, &c.), 68; fat, 7. The 
amount of ash is a little over 2 per cent., and 
this contains a large proportion of phosphoric 
acid in combination with lime and other bases. 
The amount of fatty matter or oil is notable, 
varying with the kind of corn from 6 to 11 
per cent.; the hard flinty varieties of northern 
localities have the most, and the starchy kinds 
the least; wheat contains only about 14 per 
cent. of fatty matter. It will be seen that 
maize is a highly concentrated nutriment, and 
js capable of serving, as it does in some tropi- 


43 


cal countries, as almost the sole food of the 
population; it is more difficult of digestion 
than some other grains, and where, as in Cen- 
tral and South America, it is the chief food of 
the common people, they almost invariably 
accompany it with capsicum, in the form of 
chili colorado or chili verde, as a stimulus to 
the stomach. While maize furnishes a large 
share of the breadstuff of our farming popu- 
lation, it is but little consumed in cities, except 
to give variety upon the table; but indirectly 
it largely contributes to the support of city 
populations in the way of meats, poultry, but- 
ter, &c. In the unripe state maize in the form 
of ‘‘green corn” is a generally esteemed vege- 
table, and the quantities daily supplied during 
the season to cities are enormous; the varie- 
ties already alluded to as sweet corn are in the 
northern states raised exclusively for eating 
in the green state; the ears are plucked while 
the contents of the kernels are still milky. 
A large business is done in preserving this 
kind of corn in-tin cans for use when it can- 
not be had fresh, and large quantities are dried, 
being first boiled and then cut from the cob. 
The favorite dish called succotash. consists of 
unripe beans and green corn cooked together, 
and in winter it is made from ripe beans and 
dried sweet corn. One of the primitive meth- 
ods of preparing the ripe grain for food is to 
soak it in lye from wood ashes to remove the 
pericarp or hull; the grain in this process be- 
comes softened, and after washing to remove 
the lye it is crushed into a paste upon an in- 
clined stone by rubbing it with a smaller long 
and narrow stone; the resulting dough is then 
patted into thin cakes and quickly baked upon 
a tile or iron plate; these cakes are the torti- 
llas of the Mexicans and other Spanish Ameri- 
cans, and it is probable that this method of 
preparing corn is of great antiquity, as the 
metatl, or stone for grinding, is found among 
ruins so old that all tradition respecting them 
is lost. Another simple method of preparing 
corn in use by the Mexicans is as pinole; the 
grain is roasted, then ground to a coarse meal, 
which is mixed with sugar and spices; this is 
stirred with water to form a sort of gruel, and, 
the grain being already cooked, it is very nu- 
tritious; pinole is often the sole provision car- 
ried by travellers on long journeys, and forms 
an important part of the rations of the sol- 
diers. The hull may be removed from the grain 
by beating; this is done by hand in a wooden 
mortar, or on a large scale by machinery; corn 
thus prepared is called hominy and samp, 
names derived, with the method of prepara- 
tion, from the aborigines; in the northern 
states samp is the whole decorticated grain, 
and hominy that which is broken or coarsely 
ground, a distinction not made at the south; 
these preparations of corn are cooked by boil- 
ing. Hulled corn is the grain from which the 
hull has been removed by the use of lye, then 
thoroughly soaked, and afterward boiled until 
tender. In the form of meal maize is largely 


44 


consumed, it being made into a great variety 
of bread and cakes, conspicuous among which 
is the New England brown bread, in which 
rye meal is mixed with the corn meal in the 
proportion of one third. Hasty pudding, the 
praises of which were celebrated in verse by 
Barlow, is a mush or stirabout of Indian meal 
and water; this, eaten with milk, is an exceed- 
ingly cheap and nutritive food. In some lo- 
calities only the flinty kinds of corn are used 
for meal, while in others the starchy varieties 
are preferred. Several varieties are known as 
pop-corn, of which there are white and yellow 
kinds, those with kernels pointed at the end, 
and others with the grain of the ordinary 
shape; when gradually exposed to heat over a 
brisk fire, the oil in the grain becomes con- 
verted into gas, which at length ruptures the 
grain, causing a singular inversion of its con- 
tents; the corn thus popped is many times 
larger than the original grain, and snowy 
white; as an article of food it is much prized 
by children and others, and the preparation of 
it is one of the small industries which in the 
aggregate amount to a respectable sum. Corn 
is sometimes used as fuel; upon prairie farms 
where there is no wood, and at long distances 
from a market where corn can be sold and coal 
bought, it becomes the cheapest obtainable 
fuel; the cobs after the corn has been shelled 
from them are in general use as fuel, and farm- 
ers prefer them to any other to burn in smoke 
houses, as they think meat thus cured is better 
flavored than if wood is used; a pipe with a 
howl made from acorn cob is a favorite with 
many smokers. Besides the uses of the grain, 
the stalks and leaves are of great value as cat- 
tle fodder; the old plan was to top the corn 
when the grain began to ripen by cutting off 
the stalk above the upper ear, and to strip off 
the leaves from the rest, and this is still done by 
some old-fashioned cultivators; the improved 
method is to cut up the stalks at the ground 
as soon as the grain begins to harden, or is 
“glazed,” tie them in bundles, and set these up 
in the field in large stooks; treated in this way, 
the corn ripens thoroughly, and all the fodder 
is saved in an excellent condition. Corn stalks 
are cut for feeding, and if cut and steamed they 
are considered equal in value to the common 
kinds of hay; one ton of stalks is yielded on 
the average for every 25 bushels of grain. Corn 
is often sown for the sake of a crop of fodder 
only; in this case no regard is had to the grain, 
and the seed is sown thickly and the corn al- 
lowed to stand close in order to produce a more 
succulent crop; it is cut as soon as the tassels 
open, and cured in small bundles. Large quan- 
tities of corn are grown in this manner to be 
used as green forage; the plant flourishes best 
in the hot summer months, the time when pas- 
tures begin to fail. On dairy farms a field of 
fodder corn is of great importance in keeping 
up the supply of food; the stalks are cut and 
fed to the animals in their stalls—Among the 
miscellaneous uses which the maize plant has 


MAIZE 


served is the manufacture of paper; an Aus- 
trian, Von Welsbach, invented a process by 
which the fibre of the stalks, leaves, and husks 
could be converted into paper; afew years ago 
specimens of various grades, from the coarsest 
to the finest papers, were exhibited in this 
country, but the manufacture does not appear 
to have extended. The juice of the stalk be- 
fore the grain ripens is appreciably sweet, and 
both sirup and sugar have been obtained from 
it; the process of clarifying appears to be a 
difficult one, and for sirup the maize cannot 
compete with sorghum. The starch of the 
grain is converted into grape sugar, which in 
the form of a thick honey-like sirup is used by 
brewers and wine makers. As with all other 
forms of starch, that of maize, being capable 
of conversion into sugar, is by one more step 
capable of producing alcohol, and whiskey must 
be mentioned as one of the incidental products 
of the corn crop. The starch of maize when 
examined with the microscope is found to be 
of irregular grains with many sides, the result 
of mutual compression, having a distinct hilum; 
the grains are only about one fourth as large as 
those of potato starch. Corn starch carefully 
prepared is much used in delicate cookery for 
puddings and the like; one such preparation is 
largely sold under the trade-mark “‘ maizena.” 
The oil furnished by corn has been found ex- 
cellent for illuminating purposes, but on ac- 
count of the expense of extracting it is not 
likely to come into general use. The husks, or 
shucks as they are called in some localities, are 
put to many domestic uses; slit into shreds they 
are used for filling mattresses, both by farmers 
and upholsterers; large quantities are prepared 
at factories in the southern cities, and they 
form a regular article of commerce; by select- 
ing the more delicate inner ones and plaiting 
them, table mats and other fancy articles, and 
even bonnets and slippers, have been made 
from them; coarser ones are braided to form 
door mats, horse collars, and other wares.—In 
America corn is cultivated from lat. 54° N. to 
40° §., and in the eastern hemisphere from the 
Azores to southeastern Europe, some being 
raised in Asia Minor, Egypt, India, and China. 
The early colonists of this country soon learned 
its uses and manner of cultivation from the 
Indians; large crops were raised on the James 
river as early as 1608, and it has continued to 
be one of the most important of our agricultu- 
ral products. In the older states it is a question 
with agriculturists whether corn is a profitable 
crop to raise simply for the grain; upon poor 
lands it requires abundant manuring, and clean 
cultivation is essential to its success. In a ro- 
tation it is of great value as a cleansing crop; 
i. €., the cultivation it demands leaves the land 
in excellent condition for whatever crop is to 
follow. Upon the rich lands of some of the 
western states the grain can be raised at a sur- 
prisingly low cost; the great fertility of the 
soil allows crops to be taken year after year 
without manure, and every mechanical appli- 


MAIZE 


ance is brought into play to reduce the cost of 
cultivation; corn planters and sulky cultiva- 
tors allow one man to manage many acres; and 
now machinery has been invented to save the 
grower from the most irksome task of husk- 
ing; and where the corn is sold in the shape 
of beef and pork, the animals are turned into 
the field and made to do their own harvesting. 
In planting, the seed is put in hills or in drills, 
the distance apart being governed by the kind 
of corn and the richness of the soil; each 
method of planting has its advocates; if the 
land is full of weeds, it is said that these can be 
more readily kept under if the corn is in hills, 
to allow of cultivation by plough or cultivator 
in both directions. By hill, an elevation is. not 
to be understood, but it is used to express the 
station for the plants; the old practice of hill- 
ing, or drawing the earth up to form a mound 
around the plants, is abandoned by good culti- 
vators. The cultivator has numerous enemies 
to contend with; crows and blackbirds will 
take the seed when sprouting, or even before it 
starts, and to prevent this a thin coating of tar 
is sometimes applied; cutworms take off the 
young shoot above ground, and the white grub 
eats the roots below; the chief remedy for 
these is to sow enough seed to allow for their 
depredations. The boll worm, so destructive to 
cotton, also attacks corn, even in the northern 
states; the moth lays her eggs upon the silk, 
and the young larva soon finds its way beneath 


NW 


AAA 


Corn Smut. 


the husks, where it revels upon the tender ker- 
nels. The most serious enemy to the crop is 
not an insect but a fungus, ustilago maydis, 
which produces what is known as smut; it 
manifests itself by abnormal growths upon va- 
rious parts of the plant, but more frequently 


MAJESTY 45 


it attacks the growing grain; a single kernel 
will sometimes be found transformed into a 
soft grayish fungoid mass, as large as an egg or 
larger; this when broken open will be found 
to contain a blackish powder, the spores. This 
is not only destructive to the corn, but danger- 
ous to the animals which eat it; the death of 


animals has been directly traced to feeding on 


corn stalks badly affected with smut, and it is 
said that mules fed upon corn thus diseased lose 
their hoofs, and that it produces abortion upon 
cows; it seems to have properties similar to 
those of the ergot of rye.—According to the 
federal census, the United States produced 592,- 
071,104 bushels of Indian corn in 1850, 8388,- 
792,742 in 1860, and 760,944,549 in 1870. The 
states which produced more than 14,000,000 
bushels in 1870 are as follows: 


Alabama......... 16,977,948 | Missouri... ...... 66,084,075 
Georgia (ee os 17,646,459 | New York........ 16,462,825 
Tllinois...... .. 129,921,895 | North Carolina.... 18,454,215 
Indianaee y.0.28h 51,094,588 | Ohio............. 67,501,144 
TOWa eens dass 68,935,065 | Pennsylvania..... 84,702,006 
CANISASL oe crctere is ne 17,025,525 | Tennessee........ 41,343,614 
Kentucky ....... 50:09 1 O0GH, Mexasey we Wane oe 20,554,588 
Michigans. ee. 14,086,238 | Virginia.......... 17,649,804 
Mississippi...... 15,687,816 | Wisconsin........ 15,083,998 


During the year ending June 30, 18738, 38,541,- 
$30 bushels of Indian corn, valued at $23,794,- 
694, were exported from the United States, 
chiefly to Great Britain, besides 403,111 bush- 
els of meal, worth $1,474,827. In 1872 the 
total import of Indian corn into Great Britain, 
chiefly from the United States, amounted to 
24,532,670 cwts., valued at £8,691,192.—For 
a full discussion of the origin of maize, see 
De Candolle, Géographie botanique, .quoted 
above. <A description of the leading varieties 
is given in Fearing Burr, jr.’s ‘‘ Field and Gar- 
den Vegetables of America” (Boston, 1865), 
A full and exhaustive treatise is Edward En- 
field’s “Indian Corn, its Value, Culture, and 
Uses” (New York, 1866). 

MAJESTY, a title of the highest honor, first 
used by the Romans to designate the supreme 
power and dignity of the people (majestas po- 
puli Romant), as well as of its highest chosen 
representatives or rulers, as dictators, consuls, 
and the senate. On the overthrow of the re- 
public, the emperors assumed the same title 
(majestas Augusti), and in the middle ages it 
was adopted by the German emperors. Of 
kings, it was given to Louis XI. of France in 
1461, and Henry VIII. of England assumed it 
in 1520. When Charles V. was elected em- 
peror of Germany in 1519, he took the title 
also as king of Spain. It is now generally be- 
stowed on all emperors and kings of Europe, 
except the sultan, who is styled highness, as 
well as on the emperor of Brazil. The emperor 
of Austria is addressed as imperial and royal 
apostolical majesty. The titles of Catholic 
majesty and most Christian majesty were be- 
stowed by the see of Rome on the kings of 
Spain and France respectively. James I. of 
England used the style “sacred” and ‘‘ most 
excellent majesty.” Violations of the majesty 


46 MAJOR 


of the people, as for instance treason, were 
termed by the Romans crimina lese majestatis, 
like violations of monarchical dignity. 

MAJOR, Richard Henry. See supplement. 

MAJORANO, Gaétano. See CAFFARELLI. 

MAJORCA (Span. Mallorca), the largest of the 
Balearic islands, in the Mediterranean, belong- 
ing to Spain, about 120 m. 8.8. E. of Barce- 
lona, between lat. 39° 15’ and 40° N., and lon. 
2° 20’ and 8° 380! E.; length from E. to W. 
nearly 64 m., breadth in some parts 40 m.; 
area, about 1,300 sq. m.; pop. about 230,000. 
On the N. E. coast are the large bays of Puer- 
to Mayor and Puerto Menor, and on the S. E. 
that of Palma; and there are several good 
natural harbors. The northern half of the isl- 
and is covered by mountains, the highest of 
which is upward of 5,000 ft. above the sea. 
The southern half is comparatively level. The 
rocks are generally of secondary or tertiary 
formation. There are five or six small rivers, 
and the hills and plains generally are well sup- 
plied with small streams, though in some of 
the plains the want of water makes cultivation 
difficult. The principal river, the Riera, rises 
at the foot of Mount Puigpunente and falls 
into the sea at Palma. The climate is temper- 
ate, the thermometer in summer ranging only 
from 84° to 88°, while that of winter seldom 
falls below 48°. The island produces marbles 
of great beauty and variety, 36 different speci- 
mens of which were exhibited at Vienna in 
1873, and also slate, granite, syenite, porphyry, 
and some coal and iron. Lavender, rosemary, 
thyme, marjoram, saffron, marsh mallow, jon- 
quil, and wild celery are the commonest vege- 
table productions. The island affords abun- 
dant pasturage for large numbers of horses, 
mules, cattle, sheep, goats, and swine. The 
sheep are large, and produce great quantities 
of fine wool. Game of the smaller kind, such 
as hares, rabbits, quails, and partridges, is very 
plentiful; and the preserving of thrushes as 
well as of fish is an important industry. There 
are scarcely any venomous animals. The soil 
is exceedingly fertile, but the agricultural skill 
of the islanders is imperfect. Wheat, barley, 
oats, hemp, flax, and silk are produced in con- 
siderable abundance, and the fruits include or- 
anges, lemons, citrons, dates, figs, and pome- 
granates. The olive crop yields yearly 650,- 
000 gallons of oil. The people manufacture a 
considerable quantity of woollen stuffs, not 
only for their own use, but for export to Spain, 
Malta, Sardinia, and America. Other impor- 
tant manufactures are hats and fine cabinet 
ware. New factories have recently been con- 
structed for the production on a large scale of 
canvas, rope, and cordage, fibre for which is 
now imported from Manila; the Spanish navy 
was lately supplied entirely with rope made at 
Palma. Theisland, which in earlier days gave 
its name to majolica ware, now only produces 
very common pottery. The wines are excel- 
lent, and are largely exported, as are also bran- 
dy, oil, figs, and oranges. The total value of 


MALABAR 


the exports in 1878, including the coasting 
trade, was $6,076,339. The principal towns 
are Palma, Soller, Manacor, Alcudia, Porreras, 
and Inca. Palma is the capital, the seat of a 
bishop and of the captaincy general of the Ba- 
learic islands. A railway to connect it with 
Inca and Alcudia is in progress. The natives 
resemble the Catalans in their appearance and 
manners, are remarkably honest and hospita- 
ble, and make excellent soldiers. The upper 
classes speak Castilian, but the lower orders 
use a dialect which is a mixture of Greek, Lat- 
in, Vandal, Arabic, Catalonian, and Languedo- 
cian words, representing the various races by 
which the island has been occupied.—Little is 
known of the early history of Majorca. There 
were Carthaginian settlements in it prior to 
500 B. C. The Roman Q. Metellus conquered 
it A. D. 123, and the Vandals in 426. The 
Moors seized it in 798, and held it till 1229, 
when it was taken by James I. of Aragon, who 
erected it into a kingdom (including the other 
Balearic islands, the county of Montpellier, 
Roussillon, and Cerdagne) in favor of his son 
Don James, in 1262. It was finally annexed 
to Aragon in 13438. The island declared for 
Charles III. in the war of the Spanish succes- 
sion; it rebelled against Philip V. in 1714, but 
submitted in July, 1715. It was visited by epi- 
demics in 1865, 1870, and 1878, with frightful 
mortality. (See BaLrarto Istanps.) 

MAKART, Hans. See supplement. 

MAKI. See Lemur. 

MALABAR, a district of British India, in the 
province of Madras, on the W. coast, between 
lat. 10° and 12° 20’ N.; area, 6,262 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1871, 2,274,463, of whom about 24,000 
were Christians. It is bounded N. by the dis- 
trict of South Canara, §. by Cochin, W. by the 
Indian ocean, and E. by the Western Ghauts, 
which are here 4,000 ft. and upward in height. 
Between these and the sea the country lies, 
extending about 150 m. along the coast, with 
an average breadth of 40 m. With trifling 
exceptions, a low sandy strip, from 1 to 3 m. 
broad, runs along the shore, and is covered 
with a continuous and luxuriant grove of co- 
coanut trees, to the cultivation and care of 
which the natives give the greatest attention. 
Behind this tract, hills of inconsiderable height 
come down from the mountain chain which 
forms the E. boundary. Between these hills 
there are valleys of extreme fertility, being the 
receptacle of the soil washed in the course of 
ages by the heavy rains from the surrounding 
eminences. The hills have level, or rather 
perfectly horizontal summits of naked rock, 
which is a peculiar characteristic of the face of 
the country. Many of them have steep sides, 
which are not unfrequently formed into ter- 
races and cultivated. All the country that 
borders on the Ghauts is covered with forests 
and dense jungle, belts and detached portions 
of which in places stretch to within a few 
miles of the sea. Malabar is watered by innu- 
merable short streams, The chief river is the 


MALABAR 


Beypoor, which is with its tributaries naviga- 
ble for boats of considerable size for about 30 
m. inland; next to this is the Ponany river, 
which is longer, but shallower. Several inlets 
run along a short distance from the shore par- 
allel to the coast, receive the mountain streams, 
and communicate with the ocean by shallow 
channels, and are navigable for small boats for 
nearly the whole length of the province. It is 
on the banks of the rivers and of these inlets, 
in the valleys, and along the coast, that the in- 
habitants reside. The climate is generally 
healthful, though in the interior jungle fever is 
prevalent at certain seasons. The hot season 
is from February to May, the wet from May to 
October, and the cool during the remainder of 
the year. The thermometer seldom rises above 
90° in the shade, and rarely falls below 70°. 
During the wet season very heavy rain falls 
along the coast, increasing toward the interior ; 
the average rainfall throughout the district is 
more than 75 inches per annum, and at Cana- 
nore it is 123 inches.—The principal vegeta- 
ble productions of Malabar are pepper, cocoa- 
nuts, ginger, coffee, hemp, cardamoms, betel 
nuts, turmeric, arrowroot, sapan wood, sandal 
wood, timber of different sorts, and various 
gums and resins. Besides teak, 120 other kinds 
of valuable timber have been enumerated in 
a report upon the forests of Malabar. Since 
1843 large plantations of teak have been made. 
Cardamoms are produced from the forest land 
on the face of the mountains which bound the 
province, at the height of from 2,000 to 4,000 
ft. above the sea, growing spontaneously after 
the felling and burning of the trees. Pepper, 
which is the principal commercial product, and 
is styled the money of Malabar, is chiefly cul- 
tivated in the northern part, in the neighbor- 
hood of Tellichery, and thrives especially in 
the moist valleys of the Ghauts. The trailing 
plant from which it is produced requires but 
slight care, the cultivator having little more to 
do than collect the produce. The culture of 
coffee was introduced by British planters, on 
estates situated on the slopes of the mountains, 
some 2,000 ft. above the sea. The proprietary 
system of land revenue prevails, under which 
a percentage of the rent goes to the landlords 
and the rest to the government. Rice is grown 
throughout the province, but not in sufficient 
quantities for internal consumption. The cul- 
tivation of ginger, since its exportation to 
Europe began, has been carried on with great 
vigor. Iron is obtained from laterite in many 
places, and gold in small quantities is found 
in the mountain streams. Large herds of ele- 
phants and buffaloes frequent the interior for- 
ests. There are some tigers and numerous leo- 
. pards, deer of various kinds, elk, bears, hogs, 
porcupines, squirrels, and monkeys. There are 
small bullocks, which, together with buffaloes, 
are used in tilling the ground; in the level tracts 
elephants are employed to drag timber to the 
rivers, to be floated to the coast. There are 
but few horses, and traffic is either carried on 
525 VOL. XI.—4 


47 


by water or upon men’s shoulders, as in China. 
—The population of Malabar is made up of 
Hindoos, Mohammedans, and Christians. There 
are a few Jews, both white and black, who are 
principally settled in the southern part of the 
district. The Brahmans, the highest class of 
Hindoos, are here called Namburis; to limit 
the numbers of their race, they prevent the 
younger sons from marrying. There is another 
caste of Brahmans called Puttar, who are much 
more numerous. The next in rank are the 
Nairs, who are of 11 castes, of various ranks 
and professions, but all pretend to be born 
soldiers. Their habits and manners are marked 
by some strange peculiarities, among which 
may be mentioned the want of that penurious 
disposition natural to other Hindoos, and their 
utter disuse of marriage. <A girl on reaching 
the age of puberty forms any connection she 
thinks fit; and the children, who have no claim 
upon their natural father, become the heirs of 
her brothers. The Tiars, or Theans, are con- 
sidered next in rank to the Nairs, and are en- 
gaged in various occupations, but principally 
in cultivating the ground. The Poliars, or 
Chermars, are a numerous class, who, before 
the British interfered in their behalf, were held 
in slavery, and bought and sold separately or 
along with the land. The Niadis are the low- 
est specimens of all, and are outcasts consid- 
ered so impure that even a Chermar would be 
defiled by their touch. They wander about in 
companies of 10 or 12, keeping at a little dis- 
tance from the roads, and upon seeing a tray- 
eller set up a cry for assistance. They re- 
fuse all labor, subsist upon roots and any food 
however loathsome, and live in wretched huts 
built in secluded spots. The Chermars and 
Niadis are supposed to be the descendants of 
the aboriginal inhabitants of the country, and 
are much smaller in stature and darker in com- 
plexion than the Brahmans, Nairs, or Tiars, 


-who are all of good height and well formed, 


with remarkably handsome features and olive- 
colored complexion. The native Mussulmans, 
denominated Mapilas, form about one fourth 
of the population. They are descended from 
Hindoo mothers by Arab fathers, who settled 
in Malabar about the 7th or 8th century, and 
are exceedingly fanatical and treacherous. 
There are some Syrian Christians toward the 
S. boundary of the province, who consider 
themselves descendants of converts made by 
the apostle St. Thomas in the Ist century (see 
Curistians or St. THomas); and also a few 
thousand converts to Christianity and descen- 
dants of the Portuguese, who reside chiefly in 
the neighborhood of their ancient settlements. 
—The Hindoo population of Malabar are not 
prone to congregate in towns and villages, but 
for the most part live in separate houses, neatly 
built and kept scrupulously clean, throughout 
the country. The towns owe their origin en- 
tirely to foreign settlers, and the chief are 
Calicut, Palghat, Tellichery, Cananore, Mahé 
(which is a French colony), and Ponany. At 


48 MALABAR COAST 


Beypoor, 7 m. §. of Calicut, where the river 
of the same name falls into the sea, is the 
terminus of a railway connecting Madras with 
the coast of Malabar. The attempts of the 
English to manufacture iron here have not 
been successful. Many ships have been built 
at Beypoor, for the construction of which the 
forests situated on the banks of the river sup- 
ply teak timber of a darker color and better 
description than is found elsewhere, and of 
very large size. It was at Beypoor, and not 
at Calicut as generally supposed, that the first 
European navigator, Vasco da Gama, landed in 
1498. At that time the Portuguese established 
themselves in Malabar, and the Dutch made 
some settlements there in 1663. The exports of 
Malabar amount in value to about $3,000,000 
per annum. They consist chiefly of cocoanuts 
and cocoanut oil, coir rope, arrack, betel nuts, 
coarse cotton cloth, pepper, ginger, cardamoms, 
camphor, coffee, kino, and various gums and 
resins. The imports do not amount to more 
than one third of the value of the exports.— 
The name Malabar is supposed to be a cor- 
ruption of the Indian malayalam, signifying 
skirting the hills, and the original Sanskrit 
name is said to have been Kevala. It is sup- 
posed that the country was conquered in very 
early times by a king from the opposite side 
of the mountains, and that the Nairs came at 
the same time as a military body. They took 
every opportunity to aggrandize themselves, 
and continued to rule the country till Hyder 
Ali invaded it in 1768. Hyder subdued the 
country, plundered it almost to exhaustion, 
and expelled all the rajahs except such as con- 
ciliated him by immediate submission. His 
son Tippoo Sahib proposed to the Hindoos to 
embrace the Mohammedan faith, and followed 
up his proposition by levying large contribu- 
tions on his infidel subjects, and forcibly cir- 
cumcising many of the Brahmans, Nairs, and 
others. On the breaking out of the war be- 
tween Tippoo and the British in 1790, the re- 
fractory Nairs, many of whom had fled to the 
forest to escape his persecution, joined the lat- 
ter and succeeded in driving him from the 
country. With some slight disturbances, Mala- 
bar has since remained a portion of British 
India. It was incorporated with the Madras 
presidency in 1803, and since then the popula- 
tion has more than quadrupled, and the coun- 
try is steadily advancing. 

MALABAR COAST, an indefinite term applied 
to the W. side of the Indian peninsula. Ina 
somewhat restricted sense it means the coasts 
of Concan, Canara, Malabar proper, Cochin, and 
Travancore. The coast of Malabar proper is 
about 150 m. in length, and has numerous har- 
bors, though most of them are so shallow as to 
be available only to vessels of light draught 
and coasters. 

MALACCA. J. A British territory, one of the 
Straits Settlements, on the W. side of the 
Malay peninsula, between lat. 2° and 2° 80’ N., 
extending 42 m. along the coast, and varying in 


MALACCA 


breadth inland from 14 to 24 m.; area, 658 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870 (estimated), 67,267, of whom 
2,648 were white. The territory lies in an ir- 
regular triangle, the 8. E. boundary or base of 
which is formed by the Cassang river, which 
rises near a remarkable conical hill named Mt. 
Ophir, about 50 m. E. of the capital. In the 
interior the country is arranged in a series of 
undulating hills and valleys, generally lying 
parallel to the seacoast. There are no great 
ranges of hills, but a large number of detached 
elevations are found, varying in height from 
100 to 1,000 ft. Mt. Ophir, called by the na- 
tives Ledang, is the only considerable elevation; 
it rises to the height of about 5,000 ft. above the 
level of the sea. The general formation of these 
hills and of the territory is granitic, with a cov- 
ering of laterite, or red clay ironstone. The 
coast line may be divided into three portions 
of distinct character. The N. W. portion, from 
Lingie river to Tanjong Kling, 17 m., shows a 
bold wooded elevation reaching to the sea. 
Behind this coast plateau the series of hill and 
valley commences immediately. The central 
portion, or from Tanjong Kling to the town 
of Malacca, 5 m., is a sandy beach, with ferru- 
ginous rocks, appearing in points jutting into 
the sea. The third part, 21 m., is a mud flat, 
exposed for a great distance at low water; 
and the inner portion is covered with man- 
grove jungle. Inland from the two latter por- 
tions, an immense alluvial plain, with detached 
hills, extends considerably beyond the inner 
boundary of the territory. The district is 
watered by five navigable rivers, of which the 
Lingie is navigable for vessels of 200 tons as 
far as Simpang, a distance of 8 m. Numer- 
ous smaller streams fall into the sea. The 
soil of the low lands is a rich alluvium, vary- 
ing in color from light brown to red. The 
territory is capable of producing in perfection 
almost every article of intertropical culture, 
and of late years the forests have been cleared 
away to a considerable extent, and agriculture 
is on the increase. It enjoys the equable tem- 
perature and salubrious climate of the Malay 
archipelago, to which it geologically and eth- 
nologically belongs. The greatest recorded 
range of the thermometer is from 68° to 86°. 
—tTigers, leopards, black panthers, and other 
ferocious animals abound. Among the other 
animals are monkeys of various species, the 
elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, wild ox, tapir, 
several species of deer, the antelope, and musk 
deer. The chief crops are rice, the .cocoa- 
nut, and tapioca. Nutmeg plants have been 
brought from the Moluccas, and cultivated with 
moderate success. Cinnamon, of superior 
quality to that of Ceylon, is cultivated for 
exportation. 
indigo, and a great variety of fine fruits: are 
raised. Among the exports are tin, known in 
commerce as “straits tin,” ebony, ivory, rat- 
tans, lac, eagle wood, hides, hogs, and fowls. 
Gold is washed from the sands of all the 
streams in fine dust. The trade is chiefly with 


Cotton, chocolate, sugar cane, . 


as 


MALACCA 


the neighboring British settlements, Penang 
and Singapore. The annual exports amount 
to about $2,000,000, and the imports to about 
$2,250,000. (See Matay Prninsuna, and 
Srrairs SETTLEMENTS.) II. A city, capital of 
the territory, situated near the mouth of a 
small river which falls into the straits of 
Malacca, in lat. 2° 14’ N., lon. 102° 12’ E.; 
pop. about 15,000. It was the chief em- 
porium of oriental commerce before Euro- 
peans visited the Indian seas. The Arabs, 
Persians, and Hindoos resorted to its port to, 
procure the spices, gums, and other precious 
products of the Malay archipelago, which they 
afterward distributed throughout Asia, Af- 
rica, and Europe. It owed its commercial 
distinction to the freedom of its roadstead 
from hurricanes or the influence of the mon- 
soons, and to its advantageous situation in 
the straits of Malacca, the great highway of 
eastern commerce. It is a free port; but its 
trade has long ceased to be of any relative 
importance, and is almost entirely confined 
to the neighboring settlements. The harbor 
is too shallow to admit large vessels. When 
first visited by the Portuguese, it contained 
about 385,000 dwellings, and, according to 
the lowest computation made at the time, 
150,000 inhabitants. It was besieged and 
taken by Albuquerque in 1511. The victor 
captured more than 3,000 pieces of brass and 
iron cannon, mounted upon the walls of the 
city, which were said to be superior to any of 
Portuguese fabrication of that period. The 
Portuguese held possession of the city for 180 
years, and during that period it underwent 19 
sieges, 8 of which were undertaken by the 
Malays, chiefly of the state of Acheen, and the 
rest by the Dutch, who captured the place 
after nine months’ siege and blockade in 1641. 
The Dutch held the city for 154 years, sur- 
rendering to a British besieging force in 
1795. In 1818 it was restored to the Dutch 
government; but it again reverted to the Brit- 
ish in 1824, in exchange for Bencoolen in Su- 
matra. There are many notable ruins of for- 
tifications constructed by the ancient Malay 
kings, and many of their tombs; also ruins of 
monasteries, churches, and fortifications con- 
structed by Albuquerque, including those of 
the monastery of Madre de Dios, on a hill in 
the rear of the town, which contained the 
remains of St. Francis Xavier till they were 
transferred to Goa. 

MALACCA, Straits of, the waters which separate 
the Malay peninsula from the island of Suma- 
tra. This channel is the most frequented route 
of European vessels proceeding eastward to 
Chinese and neighboring points; and it is also 
in the line of Australian and Malaysian com- 
munication with continental India. It enjoys 
with the Malaysian seas an entire exemption 
from the hurricanes and typhoons which pre- 
vail in the neighboring. waters to the eastward 
and westward. Two lighthouses constructed 
by the British government, at the N. W. and 


MALACHY 49 


S. E. extremities, contribute greatly to the 
safety of its navigation. The channel is about 
600 m. long, and from 80 to about 200 m. wide. 

MALACHI, the last of the minor prophets. 
The name may be defined either “my mes- 
senger” or ‘‘messenger of Jehovah.” Noth- 
ing is known of his person or history, and 
many interpreters, as Umbreit, Hengstenberg, 
and others, are of opinion that Malachi is not 
a proper name, but an official title; and some 
hold that Ezra was the writer of this book. 
From the contents of the prophecy it may 
be inferred that the prophet lived after Ze- 
chariah, since in his time the second temple 
was already built (iii. 10), and that he was 
contemporary with Nehemiah (446 B. C.). 
The prophet reminds Israel of the kindness 
of God toward them in the past, and com- 
plains of the irreligiousness of the priests and 
the people. He then announces the coming 
of a messenger sent by the Lord to prepare 
the way for him, and the coming of the Lord 
himself to judgment, which will be condem- 
nation of the wicked and a blessing on the 
good. The prophecy of Malachi occupies the 
last place in the canon of the Old Testament, 
and is referred to in several places of the New 
Testament. Among the more important com- 
mentaries upon it are those of Hitzig, Ewald, 
Maurer, Umbreit, Pressel, and Reinke. The 
last, a Roman Catholic, has written the most 
complete work on this book, containing the 
Hebrew text and a translation, with a full crit- 
ical, philological, and historical commentary 
(Giessen, 1856), 

MALACHITE. See Copper, vol. v., p. 319. 

MALACHY, Saint, archbishop of Armagh, born 
in Armagh about 1095, died at Clairvaux, 
France, Nov. 2, 1148. He was of noble birth, 
became a monk, and was appointed vicar of 
St. Celsus, archbishop of Armagh, who des- 
tined him for his successor. He studied canon 
law under St. Malchus, bishop of Lismore, and 
rebuilt a portion of the monastery of Ben- 
chor. About 1127 he was appointed bishop 
of the united sees of Down and Connor. He 
visited on foot every hamlet in both dioceses, 
restored reverence for the matrimonial con- 
tract, repaired churches, established schools, 
obtained enlightened priests, and introduced 
everywhere the Roman liturgy and ritual. He 
became archbishop in 1129; but as the tempo- 
ralities of Armagh had been confiscated, he con- 
tinued to govern the diocese of Connor. This 
city was sacked in a civil war, and with 120 dis- 
ciples he retired into Munster, built the mon- 
astery of Ibrach, and as primate made a visita- 
tion of Munster and Connaught. Toward the 
end of 1184 he took possession of the see of 
Armagh, completed his reforms, and made a 
second visitation of the dioceses of Munster. 
In 1187 he resigned his archbishopric, conse- 
crated a bishop for Connor, and reserved for 
himself the poorer and obscurer see of Down, 
where he founded various institutions. In 1139 
he went to Rome, to confer with the pope about 


50 


a thorough renovation of the Irish church, and 
received full power as legate a latere. After 
his return he visited every part of the island, 
and in 1148 held a national council at Inis Padrig 
or Patrick’s Holme; disciplinary decrees were 
enacted, and a petition was drawn up for the 
establishment of two metropolitan sees. With 
these Malachy started for France, hoping to 
meet Pope Eugenius III. at Clairvaux; but he 
arrived there after the pope’s departure, fell 
ill of a fever, and died in the arms of St. Ber- 
nard, who pronounced a panegyric at his fu- 
neral, and wrote his life (translated by Maffei). 
He was canonized by Clement III. in 1190, and 
his feast is celebrated on Nov. 8.—A ‘‘ Prophecy 
concerning the Lives of the future Roman Pon- 
tiffs,” beginning with Celestine II., elected in 


1148, popularly attributed to St. Malachy, is 


now considered to have originated in the con- 
clave of 1590. It was first published in 1595 
by the Benedictine Arnould de Wyon, and is to 
be found in Moréri’s Dictionnaire historique. 
MALACOLOGY (Gr. padaxéc, soft, and Adyos, 
discourse), that department of zodlogy which 
treats of the mollusca, some of which were 
termed even by Aristotle malakia (soft ani- 
mals), including the examination both of the 
external shells and the internal organs. In the 
article ConoHoLoey the outer shells of mollusks 
have been sufficiently described, and their in- 
ternal organization and habits will be noticed 
under Motiusoa; it only remains here to enu- 
merate briefly some of the principal systems of 
classification. Linnzeus (1766) placed mollusks 
in his 6th and lowest class of vermes, with 
worms and zoéphytes. Asearly as 1812 Cuvier 
had given to the world his views on the classi- 
fication of animals, founded principally upon 
his researches in comparative anatomy; he 
makes the mollusca his second branch, with 
the classes: 1, cephalopoda (like cuttle fishes) ; 
2, pteropoda (like clio or whale bait); 3, 
gasteropoda, with orders pulmonata (slugs and 
snails), nudibranchia (naked marine genera 
without shells, like doris), inferobranchia 
(phyllidia), tectibranchia (bulla and aplysia), 
heteropoda (carinaria), pectinibranchia (most 
of the marine univalves, turbo, trochus, é&c.), 
tubulibranchia (like siliquaria), seutibranchia 
(haliotis, &c.), and cyclobranchia (patella and 
chiton); 4, acephala, with orders testacea (oys- 
ter, clam, and most bivalve shells) and tunicata 
(ascidians); 5, brachiopoda, like terebratula, 
crania, and lingula; and 6, cirrhopoda (like 
barnacles), now placed among articulata in 
the class crustacea.—Lamarck (1815-22) ar- 
ranged the mollusks in two classes: one his 
lith, conchifera or bivalves, with the orders 
dimyaria (having two separated muscular im- 
pressions on the inside of the. shells) and 
monomyaria (with a nearly central single im- 
pression); the other his 12th class, modlusca, 
with the orders pteropoda, gasteropoda, trache- 
lipoda (helix, &c.), cephalopoda, and heteropoda 
(carinaria); he placed the ascidians in his 4th 
class, tunicata, among his apathetic animals; 


MALACOLOGY 


he made of the cirripeds his 10th class, with 
the orders sessilia and pedunculata, ranking 
them and the next two classes among sensitive 
animals. — Ehrenberg (1836), in his division 
of ganglioneura (with ganglionic nervous sys- 
tem), and subdivision sphygmozoa (with a heart 
and pulsating vessels), makes his 4th section 
of mollusca, characterized by absence of artic- 
ulations to the body and by the irregular dis- 
persion of the nervous ganglia; he gives the 
classes cephalopoda, pteropoda, gasteropoda, 


,acephala, brachiopoda, tunicata (simple ascid- 


ians), and aggregata (compound ascidians); the 
cirripeds he places among crustaceans.—Owen 
(1843-58), in his ‘* Lectures on Comparative 
Anatomy,” and article ‘‘ Mollusca” in the ‘¢ En- 
cyclopeedia Britannica” (8th edition), divides 
the province mollusca or heterogangliata into 
two sections, acephala and encephala, accord- 
ing to the absence or presence of a head and 
its accompanying parts. I. Acephala, with 
the classes: 1, tunicata; 2, brachiopoda ; 3, 
lamellibranchiata, with the groups monomy- 
aria and dimyaria, with one or two adductor 
muscles, Ll. Hneephala, with the classes: 4, 
pteropoda ; 5, gasteropoda, with the divisions 
monecia and diwcia; and 6, cephalopoda, with 
orders ¢etrabranchiata and dibranchiata. The 
cirripeds he places among articulates, though 
in a class distinct from crustaceans, and he, 
with his predecessors, retains the b6bryozoa 
among radiates.—Sicbold (1848) makes three 
classes as follows: 1, acephala, with orders 
tunicata, brachiopoda, and lamellibranchia 
(with suborders monomya, dimya, and in- 
clusa); 2, cephalophora, with orders ptero- 
poda, heteropoda, and gasteropoda (with sub- . 
orders apneusta, heterobranchia, tubicola, pec- 
tinibranchia, and pulmonata); and 3, cephalo- 
poda, without orders, but with families nawtils- 
na, octopoda, and loligina. (See Burnett’s trans- 
lation, Boston, 1854.)—Leuckart (1848) divides 
mollusca into four classes: 1, tunicata, with 
orders ascidie and salpe (he is inclined to 
make these not simply a class, but a type in- 
termediate between echinoderms and worms); 
2, acephala, with orders lamellibranchiata 
and brachiopoda; 3, gasteropoda, with orders 
heterobranchia, dermatobranchia, heteropoda, 
ctenobranchia, pulmonata, and cyclobranchia ; 
and 4, cephalopoda.—Before giving the classi- 
fications of Milne-Edwards and Agassiz, which 
seem to be the truest to nature, it will be in- 
structive to glance at a few physio-philosophi- 
cal and embryological systems as compared 
with the preceding founded upon anatomical 
structure. Oken (1809-’43) places the mol- 
lusca in his province of dermatozoa (sensitive or 
tegumentary animals) or splanchnozoa (visce- 
ral or fleshless animals), and in the circle of 
vascular, sexual animals, equivalent to mala- 
cozoa and conchozoa (glandular or shell ani- 
mals); according to the anatomical system, the 
vascular animals are either venous (like mus- 
sels), arterial (like snails), or cardiac (like 
kraken or cuttle fishes); according to the de- 


MALACOLOGY 


velopment of the feeling sense, the sexual ani- 
mals (the same as the vascular) are either ova- 
rial, orchitic, or renal. In his system (see his 
‘¢ Physiophilosophy,” Ray society ed., 1847) 
the first class of mollusks (venous, ovarial 
animals or mussels) has the following orders: 
I. Protozoéid mussels. II. Conchozodid mus- 
sels; this corresponds to the acephala, and is 
characterized by a membraneous heart with 
two auricles. The second class (arterial, or- 
chitic animals or snails) has the following 
orders: ILI. Protozodid snails or androgyni 
(bisexual). IV. Conchozodid snails or diecit 
(with separate sexes); this class corresponds 
to gasteropods, having a membraneous heart 
with one auricle. The third class (cardiac, 
nephritic animals or kraken) has the following 
orders: V. Protozodid kraken. VI. Concho- 
zooid kraken. It will be seen from this sys- 
tem that the principles of Cuvier respecting 
the different plans of the four great divisions 
of the animal kingdom are entirely set at 
nought; orders, according to Oken, represent- 
ing in their respective classes the characteristic 
features of the lower types.—Among the em- 
bryological systems may be mentioned those 
of Von Baer, Kélliker, Van Beneden, and 
Vogt. Von Baer (1827-’8) calls the mollusks 
the massive type, as the body and its parts are 
formed chiefly in round masses, the shape un- 
symmetrical, the nervous ganglia diffused and 
appearing late, and the movements slow and 
feeble; in the course of development identical 
parts are produced, curving around a conical 
or other space. According to Kolliker (1844), 
in the mollusks the embryo arises from a 
primitive part, grows uniformly in every di- 
rection, and either entirely encloses the embry- 
onal vesicle, early in gasteropods and acephala, 
or late (forming a temporary vitelline sac) as 
in limaa, or else contracts above the embryonal 
vesicle, forming a genuine vitelline sac, as in 
cephalopods. Van Beneden (1845-’55) places 
mollusks with worms and radiates under his 
group of allocotyledones or allovitellians, in 
which the vitellus or yolk enters the body 
neither from the ventral nor from the dorsal 
side; his class mollusca, at the first date, in- 
cluded cephalopods, gasteropods, pelecypods, 
and brachiopods; in his later work he added 
acephala, tunicata, and bryozoa, removing the 
last two from the polyps; the cephalopods, 
however, are not allovitellians, and any classi- 
fication which unites in one group mollusks, 
worms, and radiates cannot be founded on cor- 
rect principles. Vogt (1851) adopts the dis- 
tinction of Kélliker, of animals in which the 
embryo is developed from the whole yolk, and 
those in which it arises from a definite part of 
it, in the former of which he places mollusks, 
with worms and radiates ; he makes a primary 
division of the cephalopoda, in which the yolk 
is cephalic, with a class of the same, with the 
orders tetrabranchiata and dibranchiata. In 
the division mollusca, with an irregular dis- 
position of the organs, he makes the follow- 


MALACOPTERYGIANS 51 


ing classes: cephalophora, acephala, tunicata, 
ctenophora, and bryozoa. The last three classes 
constitute his molluscoidea. The separation 
of the cephalopods is unjustifiable, and the 
transfer of the ctenophora from acalephan 
radiates to mollusks cannot be maintained.— 
Milne-Edwards (1855) divides the third branch, 
malacozoaria or mollusca, into the two sub- 
branches: 1, mollusks proper, with the classes 
of cephalopods, pteropods, gasteropods, and 
acephala ; and 2, molluscoids, with the classes 
tunicata and bryozoa.—Agassiz, in his ‘‘ Essay 
on Classification” (1857), makes only three 
classes of the branch of mollusks: I. Acepha- 
la, with orders: 1, bryozoa (including the vor- 
ticelle); 2, brachiopoda ; 8, tunicata; and 
4, lamellibranchiata. II. Gasteropoda, with 
orders: 1, pteropoda; 2, heteropoda; and 8, 
gasteropoda proper. III. Cephalopoda, with 
orders: 1, tetrabranchiata, and 2, dibranchiata. 
He includes bryozoa among mollusks, uniting 
with them the vorticellide, the plan of their 
structure not being radiated, but distinctly 
bilateral, and gradually leading through the 
brachiopods and tunicates to the ordinary 
acephala ; tunicata show in the simple ascid- 
ians pedunculated young, resembling boltenia, 
and forming a connecting link with the com- 
pound ascidians; cephalopods are homologous 
with other mollusks in all their systems of 
organs, and can no more properly be separated 
from them on account of the partial segmenta- 
tion of their yolk, than can the mammalia from 
other vertebrates on account of its total seg- 
mentation in their case. According to Prof. 
Owen, some of the compound ascidians have 
certain affinities to the zodphytes; some of the 
marine apneusta (like actwon and glaucus) are 
related to some of the abranchiate annelids; 
though cephalopods are the highest, they do 
not pass into amphioxus or any other embryonic 
form of vertebrate; he retains the bryozoa with 
the polyps. Prof. Huxley makes the primary 
divisions of molluscoids and mollusca; the for- 
mer including the polyzoa, tunicata, and bra- 
chiopoda, the latter the lamellibranchiata, 
gasteropoda, pteropoda, and cephalopoda. Prof. 
Morse places the brachiopods among the worm- 
like articulates; and very likely the tunicates 
and polyzoa belong with them. (See Bra- 
OHIOPODA.) 

MALACOPTERYGIANS, a division of fishes es- 
tablished by Artedi in the early part of the 
18th century, including such as have the fin 
rays soft, except occasionally the first of the 
dorsal or pectorals. Cuvier divided them into 
three orders: 1, the abdominal, in which the 
ventrals are suspended to the under part of 
the abdomen, behind the pectorals, and not 
attached to the scapular arch, comprising the 
greater part of fresh-water fishes, as the carp, 
pike, cat fish, salmon, herring, and their allies; 
2, the subbrachian, having the ventrals at- 
tached under the pectorals, the pelvis being 
suspended to the scapular arch, comprising 
fishes like the cod, flounder, turbot, &c.; 3, 


52 MALAGA 


the apodal, wanting ventrals and sometimes 
the pectorals, including the eel family. J. 
Miller limits the term to the group scombere- 
socide of the suborder pharyngognathi, in- 
cluding the flying fish. This is rejected by 
Van der Hoeven, who returns to Cuvier’s 
divisions, adding, however, a few families. 
(See Fisnxs, and louruyonoey.) 

MALAGA. I. AS. province of Spain, in An- 
dalusia, bordering on Cadiz, Seville, Cordova, 
Granada, and the Mediterranean ; area, 2,822 
sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 505,010. The surface is 
irregular, being traversed from N. E. to S. W. 
by ranges of the Sierra Nevada, forming most 
picturesque and fertile plateaux and valleys, 
watered by innumerable streams. The chief 
rivers are the Jenil, constituting part of the N, 


boundary, the Guadiaro, and the Guadaljorce, | 


Guadalmedina, and Velez-Malaga. Lead, iron, 
tin, zinc, quicksilver, and manganese are found 
in large quantities. The climate is one of the 
hottest in Europe, but the great heat is tempered 


by refreshing breezes from the southwest. The 


vegetation is everywhere luxuriant; the prin- 
cipal products are grapes of various kinds, es- 
pecially those named muscatel and Jaere, the 
sugar cane, pineapples, chirrimoyas, and other 
delicious tropical fruits, aniseed, cumin, liquor- 
ice root, sumach, cork, and cochineal. The 
manufactures include silks, satins, cotton and 
hemp fabrics, morocco leather, wicker ware, 
hats, paper, soap, chemicals, and above all the 
far-famed Malaga wines. Agriculture and fish- 
ing are the chief industries in the interior and 
along the coast. The principal towns, besides 
the capital, are Velez-Malaga, Alora, Anteque- 


Mil 
wif il 


+ = 
iH) > A 
(lage 
It, 


€ 


Ail 


Malaga. 


ra, Colmenar, Ronda, Marbella, and Estepona. 
i, A city, capital of the province, on a gulf 
of the same name in the Mediterranean, 262 m. 
S. by W. of Madrid; pop. about 100,000, or 
with the suburbs, 130,000. It stands in the 
centre of a wide bay, surrounded by walls with 
nine gates, and flanked by high mountains, on 
the base of which it rises in amphitheatre; and 
seen from the sea it presents, with the ruins 
of its ancient fortifications and its Moorish cas- 
tle, the Gibralfaro, on a lofty eminence to the 
east, an aspect of much grandeur. The streets, 
nearly all extremely narrow, and many of them 
not admitting vehicles, give the town a pecu- 
liarly Moorish appearance. The Guadalmedina, 
crossed by two good bridges, traverses the city 
from N. E. to 8. W., dividing it into two quar- 
ters; but the river, which in winter becomes 
a formidable torrent inundating the streets, is 
dry in summer, when its bed serves as a thor- 


oughfare. The houses (numbering about 7,000 
in 1864) are large and high, and, being all white, 
look remarkably gay and clean. Most of them 
are built round a court. The Alameda, near 
the port, one of the most beautiful promenades 
in Spain, is surrounded by sumptuous edifices, 
and embellished with a number of fountains 
and statues, with rich marble seats at intervals 
through the grounds. In the Plaza del Riego 
is a monument to the memory of Torrijos and 
his 49 confederates executed by order of Mo- 
reno on Dec. 11, 1831; and the Paseo de Re- 
ding is an agreeable resort. Chief among the 
public buildings is the cathedral, begun in 1538, 
and completed in 1719; it is a stately structure 
in the composite style, with a spire 300 ft. 
high, and magnificent decorations; the high 
altar and choir are noteworthy for the perfec- 
tion of their carved works representing the 
twelve apostles and many saints. The episco- 


MALAKHOFF 


pal palace and the custom house are handsome 
edifices. Among the other notable buildings 
are four parish churches and two chapels, ele- 
yen convents, ten nunneries, two foundling, 
one military, and three general hospitals, a 
prison, four barracks, the post office, and a 
superb aqueduct. The places of amusement 
are the theatre and the plaza de toros or bull 
ring, with « number of concert and dancing 
rooms. Pipes for the supply of water from 
the river Torremolinos, 6 m. distant, were laid 
in 1874. The port is one of the finest and 
most commodious on the Mediterranean, sery- 
ing as a refuge for vessels compelled to leave 
Gibraltar during the prevalence of the S. W. 
winds. A mole to the east upward of 1,200 
ft. long, with a lighthouse upon its outer ex- 
tremity, offers good protection; and the har- 
bor, which has good anchorage for about 500 
ships, is defended by four forts. Among other 
fortifications is the Gibralfaro, a Moorish cas- 
tle on the site of a Roman fortress, on a hill 
commanding thecity. The principal articles of 
export are wines and raisins, including muscatel, 
the finest in the world, lejia or lye, and sun 
raisins. The crop of muscatel grapes yielded 
2,700,000 boxes of raisins, the best of which 
go to England and Russia, and the lower grades 
to the United States. Sugar is extensively 
manufactured for export; the total production 
in 1872 was 21,960,000 lbs. The export trade 
in olive oil has greatly increased, mostly with 
France, Germany, England, and Russia; France 
and the United States take the most of the lead 
exported. The total value of the exports to the 
United States in the year ending Sept. 30, 1873, 
was $2,814,682 79, raisins, lemons, and lead 
forming the principal part. The chief imports 
are linen, woollen, and silk fabrics, hard- 
ware, machinery, and cutlery. The port move- 
ments for the year ending June 30, 1878, were 
1,028 steamers and 2,749 sailing vessels, with 
an aggregate of 542,802 tons. The chief man- 
ufactures are soap, cigars, hats, leather, white 
lead, and porcelain; and there are iron foun- 
deries, saw mills, lime and brick kilns, and silk- 
weaving establishments. The educational in- 
stitutions are a seminary, a naval school, two 
endowed Latin, and a number of primary 
schools.—Malaga (anc. Malaca) was founded 
by the Phoenicians, and subsequently passed 
under the dominion of Carthage and of Rome. 
Its name is variously derived. Humboldt as- 
cribes it to the Iberians; others connect it 
with mela‘h, supposed to be the Pheenician 
name for salt fish, for the exportation of which 
the town was famous. In 714 it was seized 
without opposition by the Moors, who held it 
till 1487, when it was taken by Ferdinand the 
Catholic after a protracted siege. In 1810 Se- 
bastiani, the French general, took the city, and 
exacted a contribution of 12,000,000 reals. It 
was again taken by the French in 18238. 
MALAKHOFF, or Malakoff. See CrimeEa. 
MALAN. I. César Henri Abraham, a Swiss 
theologian, born in Geneva, July 8, 1787, died 


MALARIA 53 
there, May 8, 1864. His ancestors, who were 
noble and Protestant, fled on account of perse- 
cution from Mérindol in southern France to 
Switzerland in the 17th century. At an early 
age he became a minister of the state church 
and a regent in the college of Geneva. After- 
ward, through the influence of Dr. Mason of 
New York and Robert Haldane of Scotland, 
from a Socinian he became a Trinitarian, and 
received much sympathy from English and 
Scotch Christians. He often visited England. 
He published ‘The Church of Rome” (trans- 
lated into English, New York, 1844); “Stories 
for Children” (1852); and ‘Pictures from 
Switzerland” (1854). The American tract so- 
ciety and the publishing department of the 
Dutch Reformed church have printed many of 
his tracts. His most important work is his vol- 
ume of hymns, entitled Chants de Sion (1826; 
enlarged ed., 1841), of which he composed both 
the words and the music. I. Solomon Czsar, 
an English clergyman, son of the preceding, 
born in Geneva in 1812. After completing his 
education at Geneva he went to Oxford, where 
he graduated. He was appointed classical pro- 
fessor in Bishop’s college, Calcutta, in 1838, 
but from impaired health returned in a few 
years to England, and afterward resided some 
time in Arabia. He became vicar of Broad- 
windsor, Dorsetshire, in 1845, and prebendary 
of Sarum in 1871. He is said to be able to 
use in conversation familiarly upward of 20 
languages, and to translate upward of 1060. 
Among other works, he has published ‘“‘ Three 
Months in the Holy Land” (1848); ‘‘A Plain 
Exposition of the Apostles’ Creed” (1847); 
“A Catalogue of the Eggs of British Birds,” 
and “A Systematic List of British Birds” 
(1848); ‘‘Magdala and Bethany,” and ‘The 
Coast of Tyre and Sidon” (1857); ‘‘On Ritu- 
alism” (1867); ‘‘Life, Labors, &c., of Cesar 
Malan” (1869); ‘‘ Our Lord’s Miracles and Par- 
ables” (1871); and numerous translations. 
MALARIA (Ital. mala aria, bad air), or Marsh 
Miasm (Gr. paivey, to infect), an emanation 
which produces in mankind intermitting end 
remitting diseases. This poison is not cog- 
nizable by the senses, nor can it be detected by 
chemical tests; it is known only by its effects. 
The concurrence of vegetable matter suscepti- 
ble of decay, of moisture either on the surface 
or a short distance below it, and of a certain 
elevation of temperature, is necessary for its 
evolution; of these, long continued heat has 
the greatest influence in increasing the intensity 
of the poison. Comparatively harmless in the 
northern part of the temperate zone, it becomes 
malignant and deadly in places equally favor- 
able to its production, just in proportion to 
the increase in the mean annual temperature. 
Marshes, whether salt or fresh, and wet mea- 
dows are especially subject to malaria, particu- 
larly when drying under a hot sun. Grounds 
alternately flooded and drained are fertile 
sources of it, and it is this which renders the 
cultivation of rice so deleterious. Grounds 


54 MALARIA 


which, from the nature of the subsoil, retain 
the moisture a short distance beneath the sur- 
face, though that may be dry and parched, are 
favorable to the production of malaria. The 
process of clearing a new country of its woods, 
and thus exposing the soil to the full action of 
the sun, is commonly followed by the prevalence 
of fevers; and the same evils often follow the 
ploughing up of meadow lands. It is not ne- 
cessary that the amount of the vegetable matter 
be great or its growth recent, since malarious 
diseases have often been caused by the drainage 
of ponds and lakes; and the fevers that pre- 
vailed at Bourg-en-Bresse ceased on filling in 
the half wet. ditches of the fortifications. The 
low grounds on the margin of lakes and the al- 
luvial lands bordering rivers in warm countries 
are always plagued with malaria. In India 
ground covered with low thick growths of 
brushwood or of weeds and grass, called jun- 
gles, are so well known to produce malarious 
fevers, that they are there termed jungle fevers; 
even open woods in tropical climates are pro- 
ductive of malaria. The steeping of hemp and 
flax, and the decay of vegetable refuse, pota- 
toes, &c., in confined localities, as cellars or the 
hold of a vessel, have resulted in fever.—The 
quantity of water required for the generation 
of malaria is not large, a marsh completely 
covered with water being innocuous; it is only 
when the moisture is drying up under the in- 
fluence of the sun that it becomes pestilential. 
So in tropical climates disease prevails chiefly 
at the commencement and after the termina- 
tion of the rainy season, and is less prevalent 
while the earth is saturated. In some cases 
the quantity of vegetable matter concerned in 
the production of malaria must be exceedingly 
small. Dr. Ferguson, one of the medical offi- 
cers in the army of the duke of Wellington, 


says: “In Spain, during the month of May, 


1809, which was cold and wet, the army re- 
mained healthy; but in June, which was re- 
markably hot and dry, marching through a sin- 
gularly dry, rocky country of considerable ele- 
vation, several of the regiments bivouacking in 
the hilly ravines which had lately been water- 
courses, a number of the men were seized with 
violent remittent fever (the first which had 
shown itself on the march) before they could 
move from the bivouac the next morning; and 
this portion of the troops exclusively were 
affected with this disorder for some time. In 
this instance, the half dried ravine having been 
the stony bed of a torrent, in which soil never 
could be, the very existence of vegetables, and 
consequently of their humid decay and putre- 
faction, was impossible, and the stagnant pools 
of water still left among the rocks by the wa- 
tercourse were perfectly sweet. Yet this sit- 
uation proved as pestiferous as the bed of a 
fen.” (‘On the Nature and History of Marsh 
Poison,” Edinburgh, 1821.) Here, however, 
the total absence of vegetable matter would be 
difficult to prove, and would be in contradic- 
tion with all other experience.— Whatever may 


MALATESTA 


be the nature of malaria, it is most concentra~ 
ted near the surface of the earth, and becomes 
weaker as we rise above it; it is also most 
active at night, probably from the influence of 
the sun in rarefying and producing currents in 
the atmosphere, and perhaps, too, because it 
has a peculiar affinity for the fogs that are then 
apt to prevail. In malarious countries it is 
well known that exposure to the night air is 
apt to be followed by fever, and that those 
who sleep in the upper rooms of a house are 
safer than those who lodge on the ground floor. 
While as a general rule low and damp grounds 
are much more unhealthy than the hills in their 
neighborhood, yet in numerous instances this 
rule does not hold good, or is even reversed. 
The experience of the British army in the East 
and West Indies is conclusive on this point. 
In many cases this can readily be explained by 
the effect of winds and currents of air carry- 
ing the malaria to the higher ground, which 
had been generated on the lower; thus in Italy 
the malaria from the borders of Lake Agnano 
reaches the convent of the Camaldules, situ- 
ated on a high hill three miles distant. Con- 
nected with the propagation of malaria by cur- 
rents of air is the fact that woods sometimes 
act as ascreen, protecting a place from the ma- 
laria which would otherwise be conveyed to it 
from some neighboring source; in Italy fevers 
have frequently become prevalent on the cut- 
ting down of trees which have thus served as a 
shelter. It becomes an interesting question 
how far malaria can be carried by winds. This 
has been very variously estimated ; probably 
three or four miles is the maximum.—The ef- 
fects of malaria are by no means confined to 
the production of fevers and diseases of an in- 
termittent type, but it is only in warm climates 
and in certain unfavorable localities that its full 
effects upon the constitution are observed. In 
such places the growth is stunted, the complex- 
ion sallow, the limbs slender, the abdomen tu- 
mid, the hair lank and scant, and the teeth de- 
fective; life is commonly extinguished before 
40 years of age, and the population is only 
kept up by immigration from healthier locali- 
ties. Yet it is remarkable that when in such 
places persons live beyond their 40th year, 
they frequently recover some measure of health 
and attain to old age. 
MALATESTA, a family of Italy, many of whose 
members were rulers of Rimini and other cities 
of the Romagna, and which became affiliated 
with the house of Montefeltro and with the 
dukes of Urbino. The founder of the family 
was Count Oarpegna la Penna de’ Billi, who 
lived in the 11th century, and who on ac- 
count of his violent disposition was called mala 
testa (‘bad head”), whence the surname of 
his descendants. Among the latter was Mala- 
testa, count of Verrucchio, who distinguished 
himself against the Ghibellines, became ruler 
of Rimini in 1295, and died in 1312. He was 
succeeded by his son Malatestino, a zealous en- 
emy of the Ghibellines, who in 1814 added Ce- 


MALAY ARCHIPELAGO 


sena to Rimini, and died in 1317. Three of his 
brothers were deformed. ° Giovanni, one of 
the most repulsive of them, had for wife Fran- 
cesca da Polenta, daughter of Guido the elder, 
lord of Ravenna. She became the mistress 
of her brother-in-law Paolo, though he was 
also married, and Giovanni killed his wife and 
brother with the same sword (1289). Dante, in 
his Inferno, gives a thrilling narrative of this 
tragic end of Francesca and Paolo da Rimini, 
and the story is a favorite theme of poets and 
artists. Malatestino was succeeded by his broth- 
er Pandolfo L., instead of by his son Ferrantino, 
the former being confirmed by the pope on ac- 
count of his vigorous opposition to the Ghi- 
bellines. He was munificent, but disgraced 
his reign by the murder of his nephew, the 
count of Ghiazzolo. On the death of Pan- 
dolfo in 1326, his nephew Ferrantino was in- 
stalled as ruler. Heserved against the infidels 
in Palestine, but after a conflict with one of 
his relatives he was expelled from Rimini by 
the pope in 1335, and died in 1853. Two sons 
of Pandolfo, Malatesta II. (died in 1364) and 
Galeotto (died in 1385), became joint rulers 
after the expulsion of Ferrantino. They made 
peace with the pope, and added to their do- 
minion Fano, Fossombrone, Pesaro, and some 
other possessions. Galeotto was succeeded 
by his sons Carlo (died in 1429) and Pan- 
dolfo III. (died in 1427). The former was 
lord of Rimini and a part of Romagna, sided 
with Pope Gregory XII. during the schism, 
and represented him at the council of Con- 
stance, after having commanded the Venetians 
against the emperor Sigismund. Subsequently, 
while aiding the Florentines to expel the Milan- 
ese, hé was for some time imprisoned at Milan 
(1427). He was the best soldier and the most 
renowned ruler of the whole family. Pan- 
dolfo III., after having conquered Brescia and 
Bergamo, was driven in 1421 from the latter 
city by the duke of Milan. The most remark- 
able among their descendants was Sigismondo 
Pandolfo (died in 1468), who successively com- 
manded the Florentine, Neapolitan, Aragonese, 
Venetian, and Sienese armies, and conquered 
for Venice a portion of the Morea. He was 
excommunicated by the pope in 1462 for hav- 
ing made war upon the Roman see. He was a 
munificent patron of letters and art, and had 
palaces built and libraries established in Rimini. 
His first wife was a daughter of the marquis of 
Este, and his second of Francesco Sforza. The 
Jast ruler of Rimini was Pandolfo IV., who in 
1503 was robbed of his patrimony by Cesare 
Borgia. After Borgia’s death he returned to 
Rimini, but was expelled in 1526 by Pope 
Clement VII., and died in want at Ferrara. 

MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. See Inp1an ARcut- 
PELAGO. 

MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RACES AND LANGUAGES. 
The Malayo-Polynesians are the light-complex- 
ioned, olive-colored, and straight-haired inhab- 
itants of the islands of the Indian and Pacific 
oceans, from the Andamans in the bay of Ben- 


MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RACES 55 


gal in the west to Easter island on the east, and 
from Formosa and the Hawaiian islands in the 
north to New Zealand in the south. They oc- 
cupy also the Malay peninsula on the Asiatic 
continent, and partly also the island of Mada- 
gascar adjacent to the African coast. Ethno- 
logically and linguistically they form two great 
divisions, Malayans proper and Polynesians. 
The former chiefly occupy the western islands, 
and the latter the groups E. of the Philip- 
pines and Booro, subdivided into Micronesia, 
Melanesia, and Polynesia (in the narrower 
sense). The original inhabitants of all these 
islands were the Papuans, a dark race, with 
woolly hair growing in tufts. (See Parvan 
Races anp Lanevuaces.) The Malayo-Poly- 
nesians came from the 8. E. of Asia, occupied 
at first only the islands adjacent to it, and 
gradually extended their territory to the east, 
either extirpating the previous inhabitants, or 
driving them into the interior of the islands 
and taking possession of the coasts, Their 
relation to the Papuan population of these 
islands therefore is similar to that of the Ary- 
ans to the Dravidas of India. Some contend 
that Polynesia was the earliest home of these 
races, and that they came originally from the 
American continent, but the hypothesis seems 
untenable. Though the Malayo-Polynesian 
type and culture are purest and quite primi- 
tive in the eastern groups of islands, yet the 
character of their fauna and flora is exclusive- 
ly Asiatic, and the numerous historical tradi- 
tions current among the people record migra- 
tions only from the west. These traditions, 
together with the fact that many of the names 
of the islands of Polynesia proper are varia- 
tions of those belonging to the Tonga and. Sa- 
moa groups, point to the latter as the common 
source of the population of the former. On 
‘Tonga and Samoa there are traditions that the 
paradise and cradle of the Polynesians is the 
island called Bulotu or Purotu, which is proba- 
bly Booro, E. of Celebes. From the great simi- 
larities existing among the languages and cus- 
toms of the various Polynesian races, it is in- 
ferred that the migrations from Tonga and Sa- 
moa do not date back to very remote periods. 
The circumstance that the traditions leap from 
Booro at once to Tonga, leaving the whole of 
Melanesia entirely untouched, renders it prob- 
able that the Polynesians on their departure 
from Booro made no large settlements on 
any of the islands between Papua and the Sa- 
moan archipelago, and that the few who chose 
to establish themselves on them accordingly 
became largely intermixed with Papuan ele- 
ments. Of a similar impure type are the Mi- 
cronesian Polynesians. The separation of the 
Polynesians from the Malayans and their emi- 
gration from Booro may be fixed at about 1000 
B. C., as the literature of the latter was de- 
veloped before our era, and shows even then 
a strong mixture of Old Indic or Sanskrit ele- 
ments, which cannot be found in the speech of 
| the former. The Polynesian languages, there- 


56 MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RACES AND LANGUAGES 


fore, are considered to represent the primitive 
forms of speech.—To the western or Malayan 
division of the Malayo-Polynesian races be- 
long the Tagalas and Bisayas (inhabitants of the 
Philippines), the Malays of Malacca, the Achee- 
nese of Sumatra, the Sundanese, the Javanese, 
the inhabitants of Bali and Madura, the Ba- 
taks of the interior of Sumatra, the population 
of Nias and Batoo islands, the Hovas of Mada- 
gascar, the Dyaks of Borneo, the Mankasars 
(Macassars) and the Bughis of Celebes, and the 
Alfooras of the Moluccas and the adjacent isl- 
ands. To the eastern or Polynesian division 
belong the Polynesians proper, the Melane- 
sians, and Micronesians. The Polynesian race 
embraces the inhabitants of the Samoa group 
or Navigator’s islands, the population of the 
Tonga group or Friendly islands, the Maoris 
of New Zealand, the Tahitians, the inhabitants 
of the Rarotonga group or Cook’s islands, the 
people of the Tubuai group or Austral islands, 
of the Low archipelago or Touamotou islands, 
of the Marquesas islands, of the Hawaiian or 
Sandwich islands, and of numerous isolated 
islands in the Pacific ocean. The most east- 
ern island inhabited by Polynesians is Vaihu or 
Easter island, and the most western Tikopia 
or Tukopia. To Micronesia belong the islands 
E. of the Philippines to lon. 180°, and from 
the Marianas or Ladrones in the north to the 
equator in the south. .The population of the 
Marianas or, Ladrones is in part extinct, and 
many groups of the Carolines are also unin- 
habited.. The people of the Gilbert archipela- 
go form the transition from the Micronesians 
to the Polynesians. The Melanesians embrace 
the inhabitants of the Feejee islands, of New 
Caledonia, of the New Hebrides, and of sev- 
eral of the islands extending thence to Papua, 
whose ethnological character has not yet been 
definitely established. The physical constitu- 
tion of the Malayo-Polynesians (excepting the 
Melanesians, who present a strong Papuan 
type) presents three fundamental forms, gen- 
erally designated as the Malayan, Batak, and 
Polynesian. The pure Malayan type is com- 
monly found among the Malays proper, Rejangs, 
Acheenese, Javanese, Madurese, and Tagalas. 
They are generally 4} or 5 ft. high; the skull 
is equally long and broad ; the back of the head 
is short and square ; the cheek bones protrude; 
the jaw bone is broad and prominent; the nose 
flat; the nostrils broad and large; the eyelids 
not as large as those of the Mediterranean races, 
nor as narrow as those of the Mongolians; the 
eyes are black, but not brilliant; the mouth 
is large, with thick lips, but not puffed up; the 
skin is copper-brown with a tint of yellow; 
there is scarcely any beard, and the hair is 
straight, coarse, and black with a touch of 
brown; the loins and calves are thin and weak. 
The women are shorter than the men; their 
breasts are small, pointed, and firm, and their 
bosoms little developed and often quite flat. 
The Batak type is represented by the Bataks, 
the inhabitants of Nias, Batoo, and Bali, the 


Bughis, and the Mankasars and Alfooras. The 
body is taller, larger, and more muscular, the 
skull and face more oval, and the back of the 
head rounder; the cheek bones are less prom- 
inent and the jaw not quite so broad; the nose 
is rather pointed and straight, and depressed 
at the root; the mouth is smaller and better 
proportioned ; the skin is light brown, and the 
cheeks show a tinge of red ; the hair is straight 
but thinner, and with a clearer shade of brown; 
the breasts of the women are larger and hemi- 
spherical, and the bosom is fuller and higher. 
The Polynesians are of a still higher stature, 
and their bodies are generally well propor- 
tioned and athletic; the women, however, are 
rather short and stout, with breasts like those 
of the Malays; the skin is several shades 


‘darker, especially in the furthest north and 


south, while the population of the equatorial 
islands is the lightest of all; the eyes are 
small, black, and not very vivid; the hair is 
straight, coarse, black with a tinge of blue, and 
a little inclined to curl, the use of coral chalk 
giving it sometimes a reddish or flaxen color; 
the growth of beard is little developed. The 
principal trait of the character of the Malayo- 
Polynesians is undoubtedly taciturnity and re- 
serve, which is softened only in case of ad- 
mixture with Papuan blood; they dislike to be 
approached very closely, and they lay great 
stress on keeping within the bounds of deport- 
ment which custom prescribes for the various 
classes of society; there is therefore an abun- 
dance of ceremonial laws among the peoples 
of the west, and of tabu laws among those of 
the east. They are possessed also of an almost 
incredible degree of savagery and bloodthirsti- 
ness. They are the cannibals par éminence, 
not through want of food but through the pe- 
culiar hardness of their character. Cannibal- 
ism is practised not only among the inhabitants 
of the South sea islands, but even among sey- 
eral of the half civilized races of the west, 
such as the Bataks of Sumatra, who have pro- 


duced a written literature, and who have can- . 


nibal rites in certain cases even prescribed 
by law. They are generally good and fearless 
seamen, and readily undertake long journeys 
in boats apparently very unsafe. They possess 
good powers of observation, and are inclined to 
adopt the ideas of foreigners, and also to imi- 
tate their customs. The sentiments of family 
ties and obligations are but little developed. 
Infanticide is of frequent occurrence; old, fee- 
ble, and sick persons are badly treated and some- 
times killed; prostitution is prevalent, and pa- 
rents exercise but little authority. Love of 
gain, however, is the strongest passion among 
them, and lying, stealing, murder, and all man- 
ner of crimes are unscrupulously employed 
whenever they offer a chance of profit. The 
hope of plunder is their principal cause of 
war, and piracy is in the Indian archipelago 
considered to be an honorable and chivalrie 
occupation. They are brave, but do not hesi- 
tate to poison their weapons and to play cow- 


MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RACES AND LANGUAGES 


ardly tricks on their enemies. They are easily 
excited to religious emotions, and their rich 
store of legends testifies to the vivacity of their 
imagination. The Javanese are the most cul- 
tured among them, and evince capacity for a 
high degree of intellectual development. (For 
the peculiar customs of the various races, see 
the articles descriptive of their habitats.)— 
Laneuaces. The Malayo-Polynesian languages 
form an independent group, unconnected with 
any other. They are derivatives of an extinct 
primitive form of speech, which suffered three 
or four dialectical variations before it had 
attained its complete development. They do 
not possess the same grammatical structure 
throughout, but only agree more or less in the 
system of sounds, the general form of the ver- 
bal roots, and the main principles of grammar. 
In degree of development the Polynesian lan- 
guages stand lowest; the Micronesian and Me- 
lanesian are a step higher; and the Malayan, 
and especially the Tagala languages, occupy the 
highest rank. The known languages of the 
eastern or Polynesian division are the idiom 
of the Marianas or Ladrones, which forms the 
connecting link with the Malayan languages; 
the languages of the Feejee, Annatom, Erro- 
mango, Tanna, Malikolo, Mare, Lifoo, Baladea 
(New Caledonia), Bauro, and Guadalcanar isl- 
ands, which are all more or less closely related ; 
and the Maori, the language of New Zealand, 
with its kindred languages of the Tonga, Raro- 
tonga, Tahiti, Hawaiian, and Marquesas islands. 
Of the western or Malayan division, there are 
known in the Philippines the Tagaia of the 
south of Luzon, the Pampanga of the south- 
west, the Ilocana and Bicol of the southeast, the 
Ybanag of the province of Cagayan, the Bisaya 
spoken on several islands south of Luzon, and 
the Zebuana on Cebu and the adjacent islands. 
Closely related to them are the languages of 
Formosa, of which the Favorlang and Sideia 
dialects are best known. Three dialects are 
known of the Malagasy, or language of Mada- 
_gascar, viz.: the Ankova dialect, spoken by 
the Hovas in the interior of the island, the 
Betsimisaraka dialect of the east, and the Saka- 
lava dialect of the west. The Malay language 
proper, which is in extent and in regard to its 
literature the first among the whole group, is 
spoken on the Malay peninsula and the adja- 
cent islands, and on the coasts of Sumatra. 
Two dialects may be distinguished in it, the 
Malacca and the Menankabow or Padang. Be- 
sides these dialects, a literary or choice lan- 
guage is employed by the Malays. Several au- 
thors divide the various modes of speech ac- 
cording to castes: bahdsa délam, the language 
of the court; bahdsa bansdvan, that of the edu- 
cated classes; bahdsa ddgan, that of merchants 
and traders; and the bahdsa collin that of 
the common people. The Malay language pos- 
sesses a large and varied literature, the begin- 
nings of which date back to the 13th century 
A. D., and which is especially rich in poetical 
works, legendary narratives, Mohammedan the- 


57 


ology, jurisprudence, chronicles, travels, and 
various paraphrases of Indic epics. Besides 
the Malay proper, there are several minor lan- 
guages spoken on Sumatra, as the Batak in the 
interior of the northern portion of the island, 
and the languages of the Rejang and the Lam- 
pong in the south. Javanese is spoken on Java 
and several adjacent islands, and stands in 
importance next to Malay, but its literature 
reaches back to the 1st century of our era. 
(See Java, LaneuacEe anp LITERATURE OF.) 
Closely related to Javanese is the Sunda lan- 
guage, spoken on the western portion of Java. 
Of the languages in Borneo, that of the Dyaks 
is well known; according to the missionary 
Hardeland, it has four dialects. The Dyaks 
have not produced a written literature, but 
they possess a number of ancient songs com- 
posed in a peculiar and only partly intelligible 
language, which they call basa sanian or the 
language of the good beings, 7. ¢., the spirits 
of their ancestors. The Bughis and Mankasar 
(Macassar) languages, spoken in Celebes, have 
also been investigated.—The statement above 
made that these languages form an isolated 
family of speech is in accordance with the la- 
test researches of Friedrich Miiller, on whose 
elaborate treatise on the Malayo-Polynesian 
languages in the Reise der dsterreichischen Fre- 
gatte Novara: Linguistischer Theil (Vienna, 
1867), and excellent ethnological account of the 
races in his Allgemeine Hthnographie (Vienna, 
1873), this article is based. Bopp, in the Ad- 
handlungen der Berliner’ Akademie (1840), is 
not of the same opinion. He holds the Malayo- 
Polynesian languages to be a branch of the 
Aryan or Indo-European family, and direct 
descendants of the Indic group. He drew his 
conclusion from the fact that the Malay and 
Javanese languages contain a large amount of 
Sanskrit elements, which however do not be- 
long to the original stock, and were gradual- 
ly incorporated, as both history and the ab- 
sence of Indic forms in the Polynesian lan- 
guages amply testify. Max Miller has taken 
still another view of the relation which these 
languages hold to other families of speech. 
In Bunsen’s ‘Christianity and Mankind” he 
attempts to establish that the Malayo-Polyne- 
sian languages form a member of the great 
so-called Turanian family, and that they are 
especially closely related to the Tai languages. 
He says: ‘‘ A Janguage which shares so many 
grammatical principles in common with Khamti 
and Siamese, and differs from Sanskrit on every 
essential point of grammar, can no longer be 
counted as a degraded member of the Aryan 
family, however great the authority of him who 
first endeavored to link Sanskrit and Malay to- 
gether.” Friedrich Miiller has a satisfactory 
argument in the above cited work to show that 
the seeming similarities of several grammatical 
forms in the Tai and Malayo-Polynesian lan- 
guages do not warrant us in considering the lat- 
ter a derivative group of the former. Numbers 
constitute one of the highest linguistic tests of 


58 


relationship, and the following table of the 
first ten cardinal numbers in the most im- 
portant of the Malayo-Polynesian languages 


THE FIRST TEN CARDINAL NUMBERS IN 


MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RACES AND LANGUAGES 


shows at once the close connection existing 
among them, and their isolation from other 
families: 


THE MALAYO-POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 


Malay. Javanese, Sundanese. Mank&sari. Dyak Tagala. Bisaya. Tlocana, 
ONT gee ee oct situ or sa | sa sa or sidi si ija, ja isd usa meysa 
LW. O Paras stare bier diva ré dua or duva) ruva dua dalua duha dua 
THREE. selec tiga tigh tilu tallu telo tatlo tolé tal 
NOUH. 10a. oeent Ampat papat opat appa aipat apat upat eppa 
Rives eee lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima 
Bix cot coe 4nam néném génap annan dahaven anim unum niném 
Sevaen.7: fel. tidoh pitu tuduh tudu udu udu pits pité 
BiGaT verter. delapan volu dalapan sagantudu | hana uald uald oald 
NINE Sites teie sembilan sana salapan salapan dalatien siyam sigua| siam siam 
DEN tite seas a. sc sapfiloh sapuluh sapulub sampulo sapulu polo napulo sahapulo 
| 

Marianese. Malagasy. Samoa. Tonga. Maori. Rarotonga. | Tahitian. ,; Hawaiian. Feejec, 
CONE Se iets sees 2s yakha isa or iray | tasi taha tahi tai tahi tahi dua 
EWOS See wos use + yugua roa lua ua rua rua rua Iua rua 
THREE, (0020445 tulo telo tolu tolu toru toru toru kolu tolu 
MOURi mea ttts fafat éfatra fa fa va a ha ha va 
Rives oAwesi. lima dimy lima nima rima rima rima lima lima 
SU Kor AAee Pe rallonte teh gunun eninad ono ono ono ono ono ono ono 
SRV IN see ciced. ite fiti fito fitu fitu vitu itu hitu hiku vitu 
BIGHT iatog saree sce gualo valo valu valu valu varu varu varu valu 
WON eran sistas eee sidm sivy iva hiva iva iva iva iva civa 
TL ENerasrcsrregies as manot folo sefulu honvfulu | nahura nauru aburu umi tini 


We shall state only the principal features of 
the two groups. The Polynesian languages 
possess the consonantal sounds &, v, h,’, t, n, 8, 
l, r, p,m, f, w, %, and the vowels a, ¢, 2, 0, u, 
both short and long. In several of the lan- 
guages some of these consonants are absent, 
and diphthongs are entirely unknown. Sylla- 
bles may begin with a consonant, but must end 
with a Vowel; accumulations of consonantal 
sounds are carefully avoided. The accent rests 
generally on the penult, and seldom on the 
antepenult or the ultimate. Roots, like those 
of the Aryan and Turanian families, are not 
found; there are only a sort of verbal stems, 
which in their external verbal movement re- 
semble those of the Semitic languages, but con- 
sist throughout of two syllables. The various 
derivatives are formed from these either by 
means of reduplication, or by prefixes or suf- 
fixes. Distinctions of number like those in 
the inflected languages are wanting. Nouns 
designate thoughts or objects in a peculiar 
vague manner, implying rather plurality than 
singleness, and require the introduction of cer- 
tain elements into the sentence to render more 
definite their use in the singular number. Some 
of these elements represent the numeral one, 
and others have the force of demonstration. 
When it is desired to render the plural number 
more distinct and definite, the noun is coupled 
either with a numerical expression or with some 
indefinite pronominal stem. A number of par- 
ticles are used to designate nominative, geni- 
tive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, 
social, abessive, and ablative cases. As nouns 


do not possess grammatical gender and do not 
admit of inflection, adjectives also remain en- 
tirely unchanged, and are used attributively by 
placing them behind, and predicatively by pla- 
cing them before their nouns. The dual and plu- 
ral of pronouns-are indicated by composition 
with the numbers two and three, and possess an 
exclusive and inclusive form, according as the 
person addressed is excluded or included. The 
Polynesian verb is extremely indefinite. Ex- 
ternally indistinguishable from the noun, it is 
recognized as a verb only by its position in the 
sentence and its connection with the pronoun. 
The essentials of time and voice remain vague 3" 
even whether an action or a state of being is 
designated must be inferred from the introduc- 
tion of certain affirmative particles—The Ma- 
layan languages employ the consonants &, g, , 
h, x 4 d, 2d, Y, t, d, n, 8, l, T, P; b, m, J %, and 
the vowel sounds a, @, d, 2, u, 4, e, 0, d, 4, 4, é, & 
(see Writine); genuine dipththongs are un- 
known. This system of sounds does not in- 
clude the foreign elements found in Malay and 
Javanese. The Tagala languages have no pal- 
atals; Javanese makes use also of cerebrals,- 
and Bughis of nasals. Malayan syllables’ al- 
ways open with a single consonant, and the pe- 
nult is always accented, causing a lengthening 
of the vowel. Instead of roots, the Malayan: 
languages possess only stems or variations of 
roots, which were originally dissyllabic, though 
probably after having passed through trisyl-’ 
labic forms developed from monosyllables. 
Words of a single syllable now used are un- 
mistakably contractions of dissyllables. Re~ 


MALAY PENINSULA 


duplication, prefixing, suffixing, and infixing 
are the processes of word-building. While the 
Polynesian languages employ certain forms of 
words as nouns and verbs without any special 
vocal changes and additions, the Malayan lan- 
guages attempt to distinguish the parts of 
speech independently of their position in a 
sentence. A noun not specially qualified des- 
ignates the sum of all the persons or objects 
of which it is the name, or has always the force 
of an indefinite plural. The numeral one, or a 
demonstrative or possessive pronoun, added to 
it, reduces a noun to the singular number. The 
definite plural is formed either by reduplica- 
tion, as in Malay rdda, king, rada-rdda, kings, 
or by the addition of plural expressions, many, 
multitudes, &c. The cases are indicated by 
prefixing prepositions. Adjectives remain in- 
variable; comparison also is made by exter- 
nal aids. Besides the usual pronominal forms, 
it is customary, especially in Malay and Java- 
nese, to employ servile and ceremonious ex- 
pressions for the first and second persons. 
The force of a verb is indicated by prefixes, its 
relation to the object by suffixes; and though 
the Malayan verb differs somewhat from a 
noun, yet it may take the place of the latter by 
being merely placed in conjunction with parti- 
cles used to modify nouns. In Malay the pres- 
ent tense is determined by /dgi, still; the pre- 
terite by sudah or télah, done, passed; and the 
future by hendak or mdu, to will, nanti, to ex- 
pect, or akan, to, in order to.—See, besides the 
works of Friedrich Miller above cited, Ellis, 
‘Polynesian Researches” (London, 1829); 
Yvan, ‘Six Months under the Malays” (Lon- 
don, 1855); Turner, ‘‘ Nineteen Years in Poly- 
nesia’’ (London, 1860); Waitz, Anthropologie 
der Naturvélker, continued by Gerland (Leip- 
sic, 1860-’69); Cameron, ‘‘ Our Tropical Pos- 
sessions in Malayan India” (London, 1865); 
West, ‘“‘Ten Years in South Central Polynesia ” 
(London, 1865); Wallace, ‘‘The Malay Archi- 
pelago”” (London, 1869); Semper, Die Philip- 
pinen und ihre Bewohner (Wurzburg, 1869) ; 
and Perty, Anthropologie (Leipsic, 1873-74). 
MALAY PENINSULA, the name given by ge- 
ographers to the long and narrow tract which 
projects southward from Indo-China, and 
forms the southern extremity of the Asiatic 
continent, bounded E. by the China sea and 
the gulf of Siam, and W. by the bay of Bengal 
and the straits of Malacca. It is sometimes 
called by the Malays Tana Malayu, ‘‘ Malay 
Land,” and is supposed to be the Golden Cher- 
sonesus of the ancients. It extends from the 
parallel of the head of the gulf of Siam, in lat. 
13° 30’ N., to Cape Burus on the southwest, 
about 80 m. from Singapore, in lat. 1° 15’ N., 
and to Cape Romania on the southeast, in Jat. 
1° 17’ N.; length about 900 m., greatest 
breadth about 180 m.; estimated area, exclu- 
sive of Tenasserim, about 80,000 sq. m.; pop. 
conjectured to be about 500,000. The upper 
and narrower part of the peninsula has a 
population composed chiefly of Siamese, or a 


59 


mixed race of Siamese and Malays called San- 
sam. The western half, N. of lat. 10°, forms 
a part of the district of Tenasserim in British 
Burmah. The lower part, or the peninsula 
in the restricted sense, is the country of the 
Malays, and has an area of about 60,000 sq. m. 
Along the shores of the peninsula are many 
islands, of which the principal are Salang, Tru- 
tao, Lancava or Langkavi, and Penang on the 
W. side, Singapore, Batan, and Bingtang at 
the southern extremity, and Tantalem on the 
E. coast. The most important political divi- 
sion of the peninsula is the British Straits Set- 
tlements (Penang, Malacca, and Singapore), 
which, though small in area, have about half 
the population of the country. With the ex- 
ception of the portion included in Tenasserim, 
the N. part of the peninsula, as far S. as the 
bay of Chya on the E. coast, in about lat. 9° 
N., is subject to the king of Siam. The Malay 
states are Quedah, Perak, and Salangore on the 
W. side; Patani, Kalantan, Tringanu, and Pa- 
hang on the E. side; Rumbowe, Jehole, and 
Jompol in the interior; and the principality 
of Johore, which comprises the southern ex- 
tremity of the peninsula. A few of these are 
dependent on Siam, several only nominally; 
but most of them are independent and under 
the protection of the British. A range of 
granite mountains runs through the whole 
length of the peninsula, on both sides of which 
spread alluvial plains, not much elevated above 
the sea. The maximum altitude of the range 
is attained E. of Quedah, between lat. 6° and 
7° N., where it is about 6,000 ft. Further N. 
the loftiest peaks are only about half this 
height. The most extensive of these plains are 
on the W. side of the mountains. The rivers 
are numerous but small, and few of them nav- 
igable except.so far as the tide ascends them; 
the largest are the Perak on the west and 
the Pahang on the east. The only lake of any 
considerable extent lies between Malacca and 
Pahang.—The zodlogy of the peninsula is va- 
ried and extensive. There are ten species of 
monkeys, and an ant-eater. There are several 
species of bats, of which the most remarkable 
is the kalung or vampire, which is larger than 
a crow; it flies high in great flocks, and is 
very destructive to fruit. The only planti- 
grade animal is a small bear (ursus Malayen- 
sis). There are eight species of the feline fam- 
ily, of which the largest are the tiger and the 
leopard, both very numerous and destructive 
to human life. The domestic cat has a tail 
about half as long as that of the European cat. 
The domestic dog exists as a vagrant without a 
master, and there are said to be wild dogs in 
the forests. The Indian elephant and two 
species of rhinoceros are met with. The Ma- 
lay tapir and the wild hog are abundant. The 
ox and the domesticated buffalo are used for 
riding and for draught. The domestic ox is 
small and short-legged, but strong and hardy ; 
and there are two species of wild ox, one of 
which, called by the Malays saladang, seems to 


60 MALAY PENINSULA 


be peculiar to the peninsula. There is a species 
of wild goat, and a small species of domestic 
goat: Three species of deer are met with in the 
peninsula, one of which is the small muntjac. 
The sheep and the rabbit are not indigenous, 
but have been introduced by Europeans. Swine 
and fowls are very abundant. The most re- 
markable birds are the marak or wild peacock, 
the double-spurred peacock, a small and beau- 
tiful species, several species of pheasants, a 
partridge, snipe, sun birds, woodpeckers, the 
wild cock, and the domestic cock, the last a 
small but very courageous bird. The species of 
pigeons are very numerous, and some are no 
larger than a thrush; the prevailing color is 
green. The parrot family is numerous, but is 
not remarkable for brilliancy of plumage. The 
swallow whose nest is eaten by the Chinese is 
found in the caves of the islands. The birds of 
prey consist of a variety of kites and hawks. 
Among the reptiles are the alligator, the iguana, 
several species of small lizards, and about 40 
species of snakes, of which three or four, among 
them the cobra, are venomous. Fish are very 
plentiful, and form the principal animal food 
of the mass of the people. The white pomfret, 
called bawal by the Malays, is said to be one 
of the most delicate fishes in the world to 
the European palate. The only cetaceous ani- 
mal is the dugong. The neighboring seas af- 
ford a large and beautiful variety of shells. 
—The forests yield ebony, sapan, and eagle 
wood, and several species valuable for timber. 
Rattans, bamboos, and palms furnish most of 
the materials used by the Malays in construct- 
ing their houses. Rice, cocoanuts, yams, the 
sugar cane, and esculent fruits are the chief 
products of agriculture. The grain used on 
the peninsula is mostly imported from Sumatra 
and Bengal. Among the fruits, those most es- 
teemed are the durian and the mangosteen. 
The durian is an oval spine-covered fruit, of a 
green color and about as large as a cocoanut, 
while the mangosteen is reddish brown in color 
and spherical in shape. Pineapples are plenti- 
fully produced in great perfection. Caoutchouc 
and other valuable gums and resins, drugs, spi- 
ces, ivory, and horns are exported, and coffee, 
cotton, and tobacco are raised. The most re- 
markable and valuable product of the penin- 
sula, however, is the gutta percha tree, which 
was here first made known to Europeans. The 
tin mines in many parts of the country are ex- 
tensive; but they are imperfectly worked, and 
of late years, owing to the exhaustion of sur- 
face ores, the product has declined. Some gold 
is produced. The climate of the peninsula is 
hot and moist. The mean annual temperature 
at the level of the sea is nearly 80°, the mean 
range being from 70° to 90°. There is no 
rainy season, but rain falls at short intervals 
throughout the year, and there are heavy dews 
and frequent fogs. Generally the climate is 
not unhealthy, though there are some spots 
infected with a most pestiferous malaria.— 
The native population of the peninsula, with 


MALBONE 


the exception of the northern portion and the 
black woolly-haired people known as the Se- 
mangs, who inhabit the interior, are of the 
Malay race, and speak the Malay language. 
Most of the Malays are settled and civilized, 
but others lead a nomad life on the land, 
the rivers, or the sea. The land nomads prac- 
tise a rude agriculture; the river nomads live 
entirely in boats, and subsist on fish and wild 
roots. Their boats are about 20 ft. in length; 
at one end is the fireplace, in the middle are 
their utensils, and at the stern is the sleep- 
ing place, where beneath a mat a family of 
five or six, together with a cat and dog, fre- 
quently find shelter. In these boats they skirt 
the shores of the rivers, collecting their food 
from the forests, and when one spot is ex- 


‘hausted proceed to another. These people are 


pagans, and are very ignorant and filthy in 
their mode of life. The sea rovers roam over 
the whole archipelago in their prahus or boats, 
and are genarally pirates. The civilized and 
settled Malays are Mohammedans, and their 
governments are despotic. The peninsula is 
supposed by some writers to have been the 
original seat of the Malay race. The civilized 
Malays all claim to be descended from emi- 
grants from Sumatra, who in the 12th century 
(about 1160) entered the peninsula at its 8, E, 
extremity, where they founded Singapore, and 
gradually drove back the indigenous inhabi- 
tants into the mountains. At the close of the 
13th century the Malays, who had been pagans 
up to that time, adopted Mohammedanism, and 
from the year 1276 Mohammedan monarchs 
reigned at Malacca. In the 15th century a 
large part of the peninsula became subject to 
Siam. In 1511 Mohammed Shah, the Malayan 
sultan, was overthrown by the Portuguese un- 
der Albuquerque. At present the peninsula is 
much less populous than formerly, owing to 
foreign and intestine wars and the incursions 
of pirates. (For British possessions on the 
peninsula, see Maracoa, Penane, SINGAPORE, 
and Straits SETTLEMENTS.) 

MALBONE, Edward G., an American portrait 
painter, born in Newport, R. I., in August, 1777, 
died in Savannah, Ga., May 7, 1807. When 
very young he painted a landscape scene for the 
Newport theatre, afterward employed himself 
in drawing heads in miniature, and at 17 years 
of age settled in Providence as a portrait 
painter. He removed in the spring of 1796 to 
Boston, where he was well received, and du- 
ring the next four years pursued his art with 
industry in various cities. In 1800 he accom- 
panied Washington Allston to Charleston, and 
in 1801 sailed for Europe. Malbone remained 
a few months in London, where he was urged 
by Benjamin West, the president of the royal 
academy, to take up his permanent residence ; 
but he returned to Charleston in December. 
For several years he painted miniatures in the 
chief cities of the United States; and in 1806 
he visited the West Indies, hoping to regain 
his health, but in vain. His best picture is 


, 


MALCOLM 


“The Hours,” in which three female figures 
represent the Present, Past, and Future. 
MALCOLM, Sir John, a British diplomatist, born 
in Eskdale, Dumfriesshire, May 2, 1769, died 
in London, May 31, 1833. He was sent to In- 
dia at the age of 13, in the charge of his uncle, 
Dr. Paisley, and received a cadetship under the 
East India company. In 1797 he was made 
captain, distinguished himself in a series of im- 
portant services by bravery and intelligence, 
and after the fall of Seringapatam was secre- 
tary to the commission appointed to divide 
‘Mysore. In 1799 he was commissioned by 
Lord Wellesley to negotiate with Persia a de- 
fensive alliance against an anticipated French 
invasion of India. He had at this time ac- 
quired several eastern languages, and had been 
in 1792 staff interpreter of Persian. In 1801 
he was appointed private secretary to the gov- 
ernor general, but was again sent to Persia in 
the following year. In February, 1803, he 
became commissioner of Mysore, and joined 
the army of Gen.’Arthur Wellesley in the 
Mahratta campaign. In 1805 he was recalled 
to Bengal, where he was actively occupied in 
forming treaties of alliance with native princes. 
In 1808 he went again to Persia, but did not 
obtain the advantages hoped for by the British 
government. On returning thither the next 
year as plenipotentiary, owing to a change in 
the ministry, he was received in the most flat- 
tering manner, and on his departure in 1810 
was honored with the order of the sun and 
moon and made a khan and sepahdar of the 
empire. In 1812 he went to England, was 
knighted, and published a ‘‘ History of Persia ” 
(2 vols. 4to, 1815), the materials for which he 
had drawn from original Persian annals as well 
as extensive personal research and observation. 
On returning to India in 1817, he was appoint- 
ed political agent in the Deccan, with the rank 
of brigadier general in the army. He served 
under Sir T. Hislop as second in command 
during the Mahratta and Pindaree wars, and 
especially distinguished himself at the battle 
of Mehidpoor, in which Holkar was routed. 
After this war he was appointed governor of 
Malwa and the adjoining provinces, with the 
rank of major general. The country was then 
in a state of anarchy, brigandage and rapine 
being generally prevalent; he succeeded in 
restoring order, and governed mildly but firm- 
ly. An account of this part of India was pub- 
lished by him in 1828, under the title of “A 
Memoir of Central India.” He was in England 
from 1821 to 1827, when he was appointed 
governor of Bombay, which office he held for 
three years, and then returned to England. He 
was elected not long afterward to parliament 
for Launceston, and distinguished himself by 
active opposition to the reform bill. A monu- 
ment was erected to his memory in Westmin- 
ster abbey, and also an obelisk 100 ft. high near 
Langholm, in Eskdale. He also published a 
“Sketch of the Political History of India from 
1784 to 1823” (London, 1826), and a “Life of 


MALCZEWSKI 61 


Lord Clive” (1836).—See ‘Life and Corre- 
spondence of Sir John Malcolm,” by John W. 
Kaye (2 vols., London, 1856). 

MALCOM, Howard, an American clergyman, 
born in Philadelphia, Jan. 19, 1799. He en- 
tered Dickinson college in 1818, was licensed 
to preach in May, 1818, by a Baptist church in 
Philadelphia, and entered Princeton theolo- 
gical seminary, where he remained two years. 
On finishing his studies he was settled over a 
church in Hudson, N. Y., and afterward in 
Boston and Philadelphia. He was president 
of the college at Georgetown, Ky., from 1839 
to 1849, and of the university at Lewisburg, 
Pa., from 1851 to 1859, having been obliged by 
the failure of his voice to relinquish preaching. 
In both institutions he filled also the chair of 
metaphysics and moral philosophy. The dis- 
ease in the throat increasing, he retired to pri- 
vate life in Philadelphia. In 1841 he received 
the degree of D.D. simultaneously from the 
university of Vermont and Union college, N. 
Y., and after his resignation at Lewisburg was 
made LL. D. by that institution. He visited 
most of the countries of Europe, and travelled 
as a deputy from the Baptist missionary soci- 
ety in Hindostan, Burmah, Siam, China, and 
Africa. He was one of the founders of the 
American tract society, of which he was a vice 
president from the beginning. He was also 
one of the prominent laborers in establishing 
the American Sunday school union, having 
visited on its behalf, when first organized, 
every principal city in the United States. 
Among his works are: a ‘Dictionary of the 
Bible” (18mo, Boston, 1828; enlarged ed., 
1853); “The Extent of the Atonement;” 
“The Christian Rule of Marriage” (1830) ; 
““Memoir of Mrs. Malcom” (1883); ‘‘ Travels 
in Southeastern Asia” (2 vols. 12mo, Boston, 
1839); and ‘‘Index to Religious Literature” 
(2d ed., Philadelphia, 1870). He has also pub- 
lished several addresses and other tracts, and 
edited the “Imitation of Christ,” Law’s ‘‘ Se- 
rious Call,” Keach’s ‘‘ Travels of True Godli- 
ness,” Henry’s “‘ Communicant’s Companion,” 
and Butler’s ‘“ Analogy of Religion.” } 

MALCZEWSKI, Antoni, a Polish poet, born in 
Volhynia about 1792, died in Warsaw, May 2, 
1826. He served in the army from 1811 to 
1816, and afterward travelled in Italy, Switzer- 
land, and France. Having gone to Volhynia, 
he eloped to Warsaw with the young wife of 
one of his neighbors, whom he had cured of @ 
dangerous illness by magnetism. Want and 
misery, however, soon embittered the life of 
the lovers, and hastened the death of the poet. 
His principal work, Marja (Warsaw, 1825), a 
metrical romance in the style and spirit of 
Byron, which appeared in the last year of his 
life, was severely criticised, but is now gener- 
ally recognized as one of the gems not only of 
Polish but of modern poetry. It has passed 
through numerous editions, and has been trans- 
lated into French by Clemence Robert, and into 
German by K. R. Vogel. 


62 MALDEN 


MALDEN, a town of Middlesex co., Massachu- 
setts, on a stream of the same name, navigable 
by vessels of 800 tons to within half a mile of 
the main village, and on the Boston and Maine 
railroad and the Saugus branch of the Eastern 
railroad, 5 m. N. of Boston; pop. in 1870, 
7,367. It is connected with Charlestown by a 
bridge 2,420 ft. long. The manufacturing in- 
dustry of the town is extensive, the chief arti- 
cles produced being India-rubber boots and 
shoes, lasts, boot trees, enamelled leather, coach 
lace and tassels, and iron pipes. There are es- 
tablishments for dyeing silks, cottons, &c., and 
staining glass. The town contains a national 
bank, a savings bank, good public schools, two 
weekly newspapers, and eight churches. 

MALDIVES, or Malediva Islands, a chain of 
small coral islands in the Indian ocean, about 
450 m. W. of Ceylon, extending in a straight 
line from lat. 7° 6’! N. to 0° 40’S., between 
lon. 72° 48’ and 78° 48’ E. The length of the 
chain is about 550 m., and its breadth about 
50 m. The number of islands is commonly 
stated by the natives at 12,000, but is supposed 
to be in reality nearly 50,000. Their aggregate 
area is about 2,600 sq.m. The great majority 
of them are mere rocks or sand banks, and 
only the larger islands are inhabited. They 
are divided into 17 atolls or circular groups, 
each atoll being enclosed by a coral reef, gen- 
erally about 90 m. in circumference. These 
reefs have channels through them navigable by 
the boats of the natives; and though the sea 
beats with great violence on the outside, the 
water within the reefs is calm and generally 
shallow. There are deep channels between the 
atolls, four of which have been examined by 
European vessels and found navigable by the 
largest ships. The principal island is Male, in 
lat. 4° 10’ N., lon. 78° 40’ E. It is 7 m. in cir- 
cumference, and contains 2,000 inhabitants. It 
is the residence of the sovereign, who bears 
the title of sultan of the Twelve Thousand Isles, 
and who acknowledges some degree of depen- 
dence on the British government of Ceylon, 
to which he annually sends an embassy with 
tribute, and receives presents in return. The 
population of the whole cluster is estimated at 
from 150,000 to 200,000. The highest land in 
the islands is only 20 ft. above the sea. Each 
island is circular in form, and has a lagoon in 
the centre. The soil is sandy, and at the depth 
of 3 ft. a layer of sandstone is found. The 
inhabited islands are richly wooded with palms, 
fig trees, citron trees, and breadfruit trees. 
They produce abundance of millet, and of a 
similar small grain called brinby, of both which 
the inhabitants reap two harvests in the year. 
They also gather various roots, which, with 
rice imported from Hindostan, and fish and 
cocoanuts, constitute their food. The climate 
is excessively hot, though the nights are cool 
and the earth is refreshed by heavy dews. 
The islands are unhealthy for Europeans. 
From April to October is the rainy season, 
during which the westerly winds are boisterous. 


‘ Hindoo origin. 


MALDIVES 


In the dry season, from October to April, the 
winds are easterly. The islands breed prodi- 
gious numbers of wild ducks, pigeons, and other 
wild fowl, which are much used for food, and 
sold very cheap. There are no large quadru- 
peds except afew sheep and cows. Cats, pole- 
cats, and ferrets are found, and rats are very 
numerous and troublesome. There is a poison- 
ous species of water snake, and the mosquitoes 
are said to be larger and fiercer than in any 
other part of the East Indies.—The Maldivians 
are strict Mohammedans. They are handsome, 
well made, and generally of an olive complex- 
ion, though some have much fairer complexions 
than others, which is probably attributable to 
their descent from Persian or Arab stock, while 
the majority of the population are obviously of 
The people are ingenious and 
industrious, and have attained to some degree 
of civilization. They clothe themselves in silk 
or cotton robes, and are cleanly in their habits, 
both sexes bathing regularly once.a day. The 
men shave their heads, but allow their beards 
to grow. The women allow the hair to grow 
long, and fasten it up behind. They are not 
kept secluded as in other Mohammedan coun- 
tries, but enjoy a tolerable degree of liberty. 
The Koran is the supreme law, but there are 
various peculiar local laws and usages. An in- 
solvent debtor becomes the servant of the cred- 
itor until the debt is worked out. The ordinary 
punishment for criminals is whipping, which is 
sometimes inflicted so severely as to produce 
death. Frequently criminals are punished by 
banishment to the southern islands. The peo- 
ple learn to read and write Arabic as well 
as their own native language, and they have 
schools in which the mathematics and naviga- 
tion are taught. Polygamy to the extent of 
three wives is tolerated, and divorceis restricted 
only by the necessity of paying back the dowry 
received with the wife. The people are a quiet 
and pacific race, kind and hospitable to stran- 
gers, though distrustful of foreigners. They 
are friendly toward each other, and the ties 
of kindred are cherished with much affection. 
The internal commerce of the islands is con- 
siderable, for each atoll has its peculiar branch 
of industry; in one the brewers reside, in 
another the goldsmiths; locksmiths, mat ma- 
kers, potters, turners, and joiners, each inhabit 
exclusively their respective atolls. This divi- 
sion of labor gives rise to a constant inter- 
course and interchange of commodities, car- 
ried on by means of boats, which are some- 
times absent for a year from their own islands. 
Every family, even the poorest, has a boat, and 
the rich keep several. The multitude of rocks 
and reefs is so great that this navigation is 
extremely difficult, and much property is lost 
by accidents at sea; but the natives being uni- 
versally good swimmers, their lives are seldom 
endangered by these shipwrecks. There is 
some trade with the continent of India, carried 
on by native boats of about 30 tons burden, 
built of cocoanut trees. With these boats they 


MALEBRANCHE 


make voyages to Calcutta, Ceylon, Sumatra, 
the Malabar coast, and other distant parts, 
carrying cocoanuts, coir, mats, cocoanut oil, 
tortoise shell, dried fish, and cowries, or small 
shells, which pass as coin over all India. In 
return they bring home gold and silver, rice, 
tobacco, cotton and silk goods, and European 
articles.—The Maldives have been seldom vis- 
ited by Europeans. The Portuguese touched at 
Male in the 16th century. In the beginning of 
the 17th a French merchant vessel was wrecked 
upon them, and one of the survivors, Pyrard 
. de Laval, remained there nearly five years, and 
wrote an account of the islands, which was 
published in Paris in 1679. - 

MALEBRANCHE, Nicolas, a French metaphysi- 
cian, born in Paris, Aug. 6, 1638, died there, 
Oct. 18,1715. In his childhood he was feeble, 
and was educated at home with great care. 
Intended for the priesthood, he studied philoso- 
phy at the college of La Marche and theology 
at the Sorbonne, and in 1660 entered the con- 
gregation of the Oratory. But he wearied of 
theological and critical studies, and his phi- 
losophical vocation was determined by reading 
the Zraité de Vhomme of Descartes, which he 
accidentally met with, and which impressed 
him so strongly that his perusal was more than 
once interrupted by palpitations of the heart. 
From that time (1664) he devoted himself to 
philosophy, renouncing all other sciences ex- 
cept mathematics, aiming thus to enlighten his 
mind without burdening his memory. After 
ten years he produced his principal work, De 
la recherche de la vérité (Paris, 1674), which 
received numerous additions, and in its 6th 
edition (1712) extended to four volumes. It 
was translated into English by Richard Sault (2 
vols, 8vo, London, 1692-4; 2d and 3d eds. 
by Thomas Taylor, fol., 1700 and 1720). In 
1677 he published Conversations métaphysiques 
et chrétiennes, a discussion on the relation of 
philosophy to religion and Christian dogmas, 
which involved him in a long controversy with 
theologians and Cartesian metaphysicians, es- 
pecially with Arnauld and Régis. In 1699 he 
was elected an honorary member of the acad- 
emy of sciences. Withering slowly away, 
till he was hardly more than a skeleton, he 
died ‘‘a tranquil spectator of his own long 
dissolution.” His later more important publi- 
cations, partly philosophical and partly reli- 
gious, were the Traité de la nature et de la 
grace (1680); Méditations métaphysiques et 
chrétiennes (1683); Traité de morale (1684) ; 
Entretiens sur la métaphysique et sur la re- 


ligion (1687); and Réponses de Malebranche | 


a Arnauld (4 vols., 1709). A complete edi- 
tion of his works was published at Paris in 
1712, in 11 vols.—The philosophical system 
of Malebranche begins with the admission of 
the Cartesian doctrine that mind and matter 
are utterly opposed and mutually impermeable, 
the mind knowing nothing but its own states, 
which it sees in self-consciousness. It is like 
one in the dark, who can perceive nothing but 
526 VOL. xI.—5 


MALE FERN 63 


himself. To this he added that we are able to 
see external objects in God, who is the light 
of our knowledge. He is the absolute sub- 
stance, in whom exist alike the persons who 
know and the ideas which they know. He is 
the home of the world of ideas, as space is the 
home of physical bodies; and in him the-mind 
knows objects other than itself. Malebranche 
recognized, with Descartes, three substances: 
the thinking, the extended, and the infinite 
substance, or the soul, matter, and God; but 
there is throughout his system a tendency te 
reduce them to one. In Descartes they describe 
excentric circles; in Malebranche they are 
concentric, including each other. Matter is 
grasped by the soul, and souls by the Deity; 
ideas enter the mind, the mind itself existing 
in God. Thus he marks the transition from 
Descartes to Spinoza, recognizing a personal 
God, but with pantheistic forms of thought, 
tending to reduce spirit and matter to one ab- 
solute substance. His most important works 
are contained in the edition by De Genoude 
(Paris, 1837), and in an edition by Jules Simon 
(2 vols., Paris, 1853). La philosophie de Male- 
branche, by Ollé-Laprune, received a prize 
from the French academy in 1872. 

MALE FERN (aspidium jiliz-mas). Theo- 
phrastus and other ancient writers mention two 
kinds of fern, the male and female; whether 
or not this was the fern referred to as the 
male, it retains the name in common as well 
as in botanical nomenclature. There are some- 
thing over a dozen aspidiums or shield ferns 
found in this country, some of which are very 
common, while a few, including the male fern, 
are exceedingly rare; this, while one of the 


Male Fern. 


common ferns of Europe, has thus far been 
found here only at Lake Superior. It hasa 
large scaly root stock, from which arise the 
handsome fronds in a circular tuft, 2 to 8 ft. 
high and of the outline shown in the engra- 
ving ; its elegant appearance makes it a desirable 


64 MALESHERBES 


plant for the outdoor fernery, but its chief in- 
terest lies in the use that has been made of the 
root stock in medicine. It was known to the 
ancients as an anthelmintic, but attention was 
called to it anew by the widow of a Swiss 
surgeon, Mme. Nouffer, who had such great 
success in expelling tapeworms that Louis 
XIV. paid her 18,000 francs for her secret; it 
was found that her principal remedy was the 
root of the male fern, which was aided by pow- 
erful purges. The root stocks are collected 
when 8 to 6 in. long and dried, in which state 
they are kept in the shops; the male fern 
roots, as they are called, contain about 10 per 
cent. of oily and resinous matters, upon which 
their worm-destroying properties depend; the 


oil of male fern is an ethereal extract, and 


contains such constituents of the roots as are 
soluble in that menstruum. Like other agents 
for the destruction of tapeworms, it has had 
a varying reputation, some attributing its effi- 
cacy solely to the active cathartics used with 
it; on the other hand, it is asserted that while 
it is effective against the unarmed tapeworm, 
common among the Swiss, it has much less or 
very little effect upon the armed tapeworm, the 
one most common in this country. The medi- 
cine appears to act as a poison upon the worm, 
which is then easily expelled. The dose of the 
powdered root is two or three drams, or of 
the oil half a dram, followed by castor oil. 
MALESHERBES, Chrétien Guillaume de Lamoi- 
gnon de, a French statesman, born in Paris, Dee. 
6, 1721, guillotined April 22,1794. Of an illus- 
trious family, son of a chancellor of France, 
he was educated in the Jesuits’ college, became 
counsellor of the parliament of Paris in 1744, 
succeeded his father in the presidency of the 
court of aids in 1750, and was at the same time 
appointed superintendent of the press. He fa- 
vored the publication of the Hneyclopédie and 
other works of its authors in defiance of the 
anathemas of the Sorbonne. He protested in 
1770 and 1771 against the imposition of new 
taxes and the abuses of lettres de cachet, for 
which he was banished from Paris. After the 
accession of Louis XVI. in 1774, he was called 
into the ministry with Turgot, and the de- 
partment of Paris and the police of the king- 
dom was intrusted to him. His counsels were 
rejected, and he resigned in 1776 when Turgot 
was dismissed. He passed the time until the 
revolution in travels in France, Holland, and 
Switzerland, and in the pursuits of literature, 
with the exception of a brief interval in 1787 
when he was called into the ministry. When 
Louis XVI. was arraigned before the national 
convention in 1792, Malesherbes obtained the 
dangerous honor of pleading his cause, and was 
one of the last to take leave of the condemned 
monarch. Eleven months afterward he was 
arrested with his family by the revolutionary 
tribunal, and condemned with them to the 
scaffold. His Discours et remontrances‘(1779) 
are valuable with reference to financial ques- 
tions, and his paper Sur la liberté de la presse 


MALHERBE 


(1809) is remarkable for its enlightened views. 
A monument was erected to his memory un- 
der the restoration. —See Boissy d’Anglas,’ + 
Essai sur la vie, les opinions et les écrits de 
Malesherbes (2 vols., 1818), and Sainte-Beuve, 
Malesherbes, in Causeries du lundi, vol. ii. 

MALET, Claude Frangois de, a French conspira- 
tor, born in Dole, June 28, 1754, executed in 
Paris, Oct. 29,1812. In 1799 he distinguished 
himself in the army during the passage of the 
Little St. Bernard, and was made brigadier 
general. He disapproved of the promotion of 
Bonaparte to the consulate, but apparently 
adhered to the empire, expressing in a letter 
to Napoleon a hope of its becoming beneficial 
to and not destructive of liberty. But Prince 
Eugéne expelled him from his headquarters 
in Italy, on the charge of conspiring against 
the emperor, and he was imprisoned during 
ten months till May, 1808, and soon rearrest- 
ed. In prison he continued to plan conspira- 
cies with other opponents of Napoleon, espe- 
cially in 1809, after the defeat at Essling, but 
this attempt was abortive. The emperor or- 
dered him to be transferred from La Force to 
a regular state prison, but Fouché neglected to 
do so, and even permitted him in June, 1812, 
to remove to a private sanitary asylum. Here 
he met the Polignacs and Abbé Lafon, the prin- 
cipal Bourbon agents, while his wife, the cor- 
poral Rateau, and others worked against Na- 
poleon in the interior of the country. Malet’s 
plot was ripe in October, when he deemed the 
anxiety respecting the Russian campaign favor- 
able for its execution. In the night of Oct. 
23-24, when the disastrous retreat from Mos- 
cow became known, he announced to the gar- 
rison of Paris the death of Napoleon, and at 
first met with some success, with the aid of 
his confederates, and by promising rewards to 
those who would join him. He shot dead the 
recalcitrant Gen. Hullin, commander of the 
first division, but was disarmed by two officers, 
who disclosed the deception which had been 
practised, and the populace responded with 
the ery, Vive lempereur. The whole plot fell 
to the ground, and Malet was sentenced to 
death. His wife was arrested; and as she sub- 
sequently received a pension, and her son an 
appointment, from Louis XVIIL, it was sup- 
posed that Malet had conspired in the interest 
of the Bourbons, but it is generally believed 
that he was a sincere republican. 

MALHERBE, Fran¢ois de, a French poet, born 
in Caen in 1555, died in Paris, Oct. 16, 1628. 
While young he studied at Heidelberg and 
Basel, and afterward bore arms in the wars of 
the league. He acquired some reputation in 
1600 by an ode on the arrival in France of 
Maria de’ Medici. In 1605, having gone to 
Paris on business, Henry IV. sent for him, 
praised his talents, and provided him with the 
means of remaining at court. After the death 
of Henry IV. his widow, Maria de’ Medici, set- 
tled on Malherbe a pension of 500 crowns, ‘in 


| gratitude for the ode addressed to her.” He 


MALIBRAN 


was noted for his avarice, his pretended con- 
tempt of poets, his fondness for female soci- 
ety, his wit, and his dilettantism in language. 
He wrote for the most part light lyrics, odes, 
stanzas, epigrams, sonnets, and a few devo- 
tional pieces. The latest edition of his works 
is that of M. L. Lalanne (4 vols., Paris, 1865). 

MALIBRAN, Maria Felicia, a Spanish singer, 
born in Paris, March 24, 1808, died in Man- 
chester, England, Sept. 23, 1836. She was the 
eldest daughter of the singer and instructor 
Manuel Garcia, by whom she was taken when 
nine years old to England, where she remained 
for a number of years. Her father instructed 
her in singing, and by her 17th year she had 
acquired so great a facility that on June 7, 
1825, she was enabled to make her début in 
London as Rosina in the Larbiere di Seviglia, 
on the occasion of the sudden departure of 
Mme. Pasta, who was to have undertaken the 
part. She sang with success in other operas 
and at private and public concerts in London, 
Manchester, and Liverpool, during the same 
season, giving promise of great future emi- 
nence; and in the autumn of 1825 she accom- 
panied her father to the United States as prima 
donna of an opera company of which he had 
assumed the direction. She appeared in New 
York, Nov. 29, in the part of Rosina, the oc- 
casion being memorable in musical annals as 
that which witnessed the introduction of the 
Italian opera into the United States. Her re- 
ception was enthusiastic, and she appeared 
successively in a number of parts, each of 
which subsequently became a perfect creation 
in her hands. In the midst of her triumphs 
she was married, March 238, 1826, to Eugéne 
Malibran, an elderly French merchant of New 
York, reputed to be possessed of considerable 
wealth. He afterward failed, and Mme. Mali- 
bran, offended by the readiness with which her 
husband sought to retrieve his fortunes by her 
professional labors, surrendered to his creditors 
the property settled upon her as a marriage 
dower, and in September, 1827, returned alone 
to Europe. From Jan. 14, 1828, when she 
made her first appearance before a Parisian 
audience, until the close of her life, her career 
was prosperous and brilliant. She was accus- 
tomed to spend the winter in Paris and the 
spring and autumn in England and the larger 
continental cities; and on two occasions she 
made professional tours to Naples, Milan, and 
other Italian cities. The French courts hav- 
ing in 1835 pronounced her marriage with M. 
Malibran void, she was married, March 29, 
1836, to De Bériot, the celebrated violinist. In 
April following she was injured by a fall from 
her horse; but professing to make light of the 
matter, she appeared in opera in Brussels and 
at Aix-la-Chapelle during the summer. In 
September she went to the Manchester musi- 
cal festival, and, contrary to the advice of her 
physician, took part in the performances. A 
nervous fever set in, which soon proved fatal. 
—Mme. Malibran was one of the first singers 


MALLET 65 


of the age, and her dramatic ability was scarce- 
ly less remarkable than her vocal. Her voice, 
a mezzo-soprano approaching a contralto, of 
great volume and purity, had been brought to 
almost absolute perfection by the severe train- 
ing of her father; and in the variety and beau- 
ty of her vocal embellishments, as well as in 
the felicity and dramatic propriety with which 
she interpreted her music, she has rarely been 
equalled. Her range included some of the 
finest réles, both tragic and comic, in the ope- 
ras of Rossini, Bellini, and Mozart, including 
those of Rosina, Semiramide, Tancredi, Desde- 
mona, Romeo, Zerlina, Ninetta, Cenerentola, 
and Amina. She also sang with wonderful 
effect the stblime music of Handel’s oratorios, 
and many choice selections from Gluck and 
others. Her personal qualities accorded with 
her lyrical genius, and few women have been 
more beloved for their amiability, generosity, 
and professional enthusiasm. Her benefac- 
tions amounted to such considerable sums 
that her friends were frequently obliged to 
interfere for the purpose of regulating her 
finances. Her intellect was of a high order, 
and the charms of her conversation fascinated 
all who were admitted into the circle of her 
intimate friends. She was also an accom- 
plished linguist, speaking fluently and singing 
in the chief languages of Europe. She com- 
posed several songs, nocturnes, and romances, 
some of which have been published. A me- 
moir of her, by the countess of Merlin (2 vols.), 
appeared in England soon after her death, and 
was republished in the United States, 

MALINES. See Mrourin. 

MALLARD. See Dvuox. 

MALLET, Charles Auguste, a French philoso- 
pher, born in Lille, Jan. 1, 1807. He studied 
at the normal school, and was professor in va- 
rious colleges of the interior till 1842, when 
he was called to the collége St. Louis in Paris, 
From 1848 to 1850 he was inspector of the 
academy of Paris, and afterward rector of the 
academy of Rouen, retiring in 1852. His prin- 
cipal works are: Htudes philosophiques (2 vols., 
Paris, 1837-8; 2d ed., 1848); translation of 
Beattie’s ‘‘ Elements of Moral Science” (2 
vols., 1840); Histoire de la philosophie ioni- 
enne (1842); Histoire de Vécole de Mégare et 
des écoles d’ Elis et d’Erétrie (1845); and E/é- 
ments de morale (1864). 

MALLET, David, a Scottish author, born at 
Crieff, Perthshire, about 1700, died in London, 
April 21, 1765. His original name was Mal- 
loch, which he changed to Mallet in 1726. He 
was educated at Aberdeen, and settled in Lon- 
don as a literary man. In1733 he published a 
poem entitled ‘Verbal Criticism,” which so 
pleased Pope that he introduced him to Boling- 
broke, who obtained for him the office of under 
secretary to Frederick, prince of Wales, with a 
salary of £200. From the Newcastle adminis- 
tration he got a pension, said to have been the 
reward of his attacks on Admiral Byng. His 
pen was always at the service of those who 


66 MALLET 
would pay for it, not sparing even his old friend 
Pope, whom after his death, at the instiga- 
tion of Bolingbroke, he assailed in his preface 
to that nobleman’s “Idea of a Patriot King.” 
Bolingbroke made him his literary executor, 
and the duchess of Marlborough left by her 
will the sum of £1,000 to Glover and Mallet 
jointly, provided they drew up from the family 
papers a life of the great duke. Glover de- 
clined, but Mallet aecepted, and on pretence of 
being engaged upon the work received for the 
rest of his life a pension from the second duke. 
On his death, however, it was found that hée had 
never written a line of it. A collection of Mal- 
let’s works was published by himself (8 vols., 
1750). A new edition of his songs‘and ballads, 
by Frederick Dinsdale, appeared in 1857. . 
MALLET, Paul Henri, a Swiss historian, born 
in Geneva, Aug. 20, 1730, died there, Feb. 8, 
1807. After completing his education he went 
to Copenhagen, where he was appointed regius 
professor of belles-lettres in 1752. He em- 
ployed his leisure in studying the language, 
history, and archeology of the ancient Scandi- 
navians, and wrote his Introduction a Vhistoire 
de Danemark (Copenhagen, 1755-6). In 1760 
Mallet returned to Geneva, and filled the chair 
of history in the college of that city for four 
years. The most important of his works, be- 
sides that above named, are: Histoire de Dane- 
mark (8 vols. 4to, Copenhagen, 1758-77) ; 
Mémoires sur la litérature du nord (6 vols. 8vo, 
Copenhagen, 1759-’60); Histoire des Suisses 
(4 vols. 8vo, Geneva, 1803); and Histoire de la 
ligue Hanséatique (Geneva, 1805). His Jntro- 
duction @ Vhistoire de Danemark was trans- 
lated by Bishop Percy (‘ Mallet’s Northern 
Antiquities,” 2 vols., 8vo, London, 1770; new 
ed., by I. A. Blackwell, 1 vo]., 12mo, 1847). 
MALLOCK, William Hurrell. See supplement. 
MALLOW, a common name for plants of the 
genus malva (from Gr. waddooerv, to soften, in 
allusion to their softening and emollient prop- 
erties). The genus, as at present restricted, 
includes about 16 species, none of which are 
indigenous to this country, though several of 
them are more or less extensively naturalized ; 
it is the type of the natural order malvacea, 
which comprises many kindred genera dis- 
tinguishable mainly in the structural differ- 
ences of the fruit, but all agreeing in hav- 
ing their stamens united into a tube by their 
filaments, and in having one-celled anthers; 
about 700 species are known, distributed among 
59 genera. It is remarkable that none of the 
order possess any unwholesome qualities, while 
all abound in mucilage. The wild or high 
mallow (i. sylvestris) is a handsome biennial, 
with an erect stem and kidney-shaped leaves 
having five to seven deeply crenate lobes; the 
flowers are large, of a purple or a rosy color, 
the calyx hairy, the carpels wrinkled. It 
grows:on waste places and roadsides in Eu- 
rope, and is an introduced and naturalized 
weed in the older portions of this country. 
For fomentations and poultices, its properties 


MALLOW 


are not inferior in value to those of the marsh 
mallow (see AttH#A), and decoctions of its 
leaves have been used in dysentery and urinary 
troubles. This is the mauve of the French, who 
use the dried flowers in preparing a tisane, or 
diet drink, which is in great repute with them; 


Wild Maliow (Aialva sylvestris). 


the name mauve is also applied to a dye re- 
sembling the flowers of this plant in tint. By 
far the most common with us is the familiar 
weed known as common or dwarf mallow (17. 
rotundifolia), so abundant by the wayside, in 
rich shaded dooryards, and cultivated grounds 
generally. Its stems are prostrate, spreading, 
and spring from a long, deeply buried root ; its 
leaves are round-heart-shaped, somewhat lobed 
and crenate on their edges; the flowers small, 
whitish, with purplish veins. The plant is 
much prized by children, who in play seek its 
flat and circular mucilaginous fruits under 
the name of ‘ cheeses.” The musk mallow 
(M. moschata) is a low perennial, sometimes 
cultivated in gardens, from which it has to 
some extent escaped, and is occasionally found 
naturalized along waysides; it has handsome, 
deeply cut leaves, diffusing a pleasant, musky 
fragrance, and large rose-colored or white 
flowers. The curled mallow (¥. crispa) is 
likewise seen in old gardens, conspicuous for 
its large, strong, tall stem, and rich, deep green, 
singularly curled foliage, the beauty of which 
supplies the defect of its flowers, which are 
rather inconspicuous. The hollyhock mallow 
(M. Alcea), a European perennial species about 
3 ft. high, with palmately five-cleft leaves and 
rosy-purple flowers 2 in. across, is cultivated 
and has become naturalized in some parts of 
Pennsylvania. The American species formerly 
placed in malva are mostly now in the genus 
malvastrum.—There are many very showy 
flowers belonging to the order malvacea, such 
as those of Lavatera, malope, abutilon, and sida, 
prized in border and greenhouse cultivation. 


MALMAISON 


MALMAISON, La, a village of France, in the 
department of Seine-et-Oise, about 7 m. W. of 
the enceinte of Paris, noted for a palace which 
became celebrated through Josephine, the first 
wife of Napoleon I. The Norman pirates com- 
mitted ravages in this vicinity in the 9th cen- 
tury, and the locality was thence called mala 
mansio (‘evil spot”). In the 17th century it 
was owned by Christophe Perrot, councillor of 
the parliament of Paris, styling himself lord of 
Malmaison. Afterward it had various propri- 
etors; and from Mme. Harenc, who received 
here many literary and scientific notabilities, it 
passed into the possession of M. Le Couteulx, 
who in 1798 sold the domain to Josephine for 
160,000 francs. She made it a brilliant centre 
of fashionable and intellectual society, enlarg- 
ing and embellishing the grounds after the 
model of Marie Antoinette’s Trianon, furnish- 
ing it with a good library, and adding many 
fine pictures and other works of art to the 
collections. The chateau itself, however, re- 
tained a rather unseemly appearance. Bona- 
parte often resided here previous to his removal 
to St. Cloud, and Malmaison preserved great 
prestige until the establishment of the empire 
in 1804. After her divorce (Dec. 16, 1809) Jose- 
phine kept up here the semblance of a court, 
and she was frequently visited by Napoleon, 
who also spent several days here with Hortense 
after the battle of Waterloo. The emperor 
Alexander, as well as the king of Prussia and 
his son, visited Josephine at Malmaison, on the 
first occupation of Paris. After her death here 
(May 29, 1814) the property reverted to her son, 
Eugéne de Beauharnais. The Swedish banker 
Haguerman purchased it in 1826, reducing the 
grounds to their original small dimensions. 
He sold it in 1842 to the dowager queen Maria 
Christina of Spain for 500,000 francs, and she 
resold it in 1861 for 1,500,000 francs to Napo- 
leon III., who had it restored. Among the 
works which he collected here are Isabey’s 
painting of ‘Bonaparte at La Malmaison,” 
Hortense’s portrait of herself, and a portrait 
of Josephine. The room which Napoleon used 
to occupy contains the bed on which he died 
at St. Helena. 

MALMESBURY, a parliamentary borough of 
Wiltshire, England, on the Avon, which is here 
crossed by six bridges, 82 m. W. of London; 
pop. in 1871, 6,880. Formerly the manufacture 
of woollen cloth was the chief branch of indus- 
try, but it has given way to wool-stapling. 
The parish church is a portion of a famous old 
Saxon nunnery, and contains a tomb reputed 
to be that of King Athelstane. The town is 
the birthplace of the philosopher Hobbes. 

MALMESBURY. I. James Harris, first earl of, 
an English diplomatist, born in Salisbury, April 
21, 1746, died in London, Nov. 20, 1820. He 
was the eldest son of James Harris, secretary 
and comptroller to Queen Charlotte, and author 
of “‘ Hermes,” studied at Oxford and Leyden, 
and was appointed in 1767 secretary of lega- 
tion at Madrid. He was for four years Eng- 


MALMO 67 
lish ambassador in Berlin, and from 1777 to 
1784 in St. Petersburg. In the house of com- 
mons he was the follower of Fox, after whose 
withdrawal from the cabinet he received from 
Pitt the appointment of ambassador at the 
Hague, and in September, 1788, was raised to 
the peerage as Baron Malmesbury, having been 
knighted in 1780. In 1793 he joined the party 
of Pitt, who again appointed him to a mission 
to Berlin. In 1794he negotiated the marriage 
between the prince of Wales and Caroline of 
Brunswick, and accompanied the bride to Eng- 
land. In 1796 and 1797 he was employed in 
fruitless negotiations for peace with the French 
republic. Becoming deaf, he spent the rest of 
his life in retirement. In 1800 he was created 
Viscount Fitz-Harris and earl of Malmesbury. 
II. James Howard Harris, third earl of, grand- 
son of the preceding, born in London, March 
25,1807. He studied at Eton and at Oxford, 
where he graduated in 1828. He was returned 
to the house of commons for the family bor- 
ough of Wilton in June, 1841, and in Sep- 
tember succeeded his father in the house of 
lords. He was secretary of state for foreign 
affairs in the Derby administration from March 
to December, 1852; and being a personal 
friend of Louis Napoleon, he was among the 
first to urge the recognition of the second em- 
pire. He was reappointed foreign secretary 
in March, 1858, but resigned in April, 1859. 
He was lord keeper of the privy seal from 
1866 to the end of 1868, when he retired on 
account of failing health. Besides editing the 
‘‘ Diaries and Correspondence” of his grand- 
father (4 vols., London, 1844), he has published 
‘“The First Lord Malmesbury, his Family and 
Friends: a Series of Letters from 1745 to 
1820” (2 vols., 1870). 

MALMESBURY, William of, an English histo- 
rian, born in Somersetshire about 1095, died at 
Malmesbury about 11438. He was destined for 
the church, and early entered the monastery 
of Malmesbury, of which he became librarian. 
Several of his numerous works were published 
by Sir Henry Savile in 1596, in his Scriptores 
post Bedam. His “History of the Kings of 
England” and ‘‘ Modern History” (De Gestis 
Regum and Historie Novelle), the former 
translated by the Rev. John Sharpe (London, 
1815), were reprinted in 1847 in Bohn’s ‘‘ An- 
tiquarian Library.” 

MALMO (Swedish, Malméhus). ¥. A lan or 
province of Sweden, bordering on Christian- 
stad, the Baltic, and the Sound; area, 1,852 
sq. m.; pop. in 1878, 322,175. It is one of 
the most fertile portions of Sweden, rears the 
best horses and cattle, and produces excellent - 
cheese and great quantities of grain. It con- 
tains several lakes, of which the largest is 
Lake Ring. IL. A city, capital of the lan, 
on the Sound, 16 m. S. E. of Copenhagen; 
pop. in 1878, 27,485. It consists of the town 
proper and two suburbs, Oster and Wester 
Warn, connected with it by acanal. The streets 
are spacious, and the market place is planted 


68 MALMSEY 


with trees. The former fortifications have 
been converted into promenades. The ancient 
castle of Malm6 is used for barracks, and for a 
prison and penitentiary. Two churches, the 
old town hall, and the theatre are among the 
conspicuous buildings. There are a gymna- 
sium and schools of technology and naviga- 
tion. Among the charitable institutions is a 
richly endowed lunatic asylum. Steamboats, 
railways, and especially the improvement of 
the harbor, have greatly promoted the mari- 
time and commercial importance of Malmo. 
About 5,000 vessels enter and leave the port 
annually. The principal export is grain. 
MALMSEY. See GREEcE, WINES OF. 
MALONE, Edmond, an_ Irish Shakespearian 
scholar, born in Dublin, Oct. 4, 1741, died in 
London, May 25, 1812. He graduated at 
Trinity college, Dublin, and was called to the 
bar in 1767; but having inherited a consider- 
able fortune, he removed to London, devoting 
himself to literary pursuits. In 1780 he pub- 
lished two supplementary volumes to Stee- 
vens’s edition of Shakespeare, and in 1790 his 
own edition of the great dramatist appeared in 
11 vols. 8vo. In 1796 he exposed the Shakes- 
pearian forgeries of Samuel Ireland. At his 
death he left a greatly improved edition of his 
Shakespeare, which was published in 1821, un- 
der the supervision of James Boswell, in 21 vols. 
8vo. He edited ‘‘The Prose Works of John 
Dryden, with a Memoir ;” “The Works of Wil- 
liam Gerald Hamilton, with a Sketch of his 
Life ;” “The Works of Sir Joshua Reynolds,” 
and other works.—See “Life of Edmond 
Malone,” by Sir James Prior (London, 1860). 
MALPIGHI, Mareeilo, an Italian anatomist, 
born near Bologna in 1628, died in Rome, Nov. 
29, 1694. In 1656 he was appointed by Fer- 
dinand IT. of Tuscany professor of medicine at 
Pisa, where he made the acquaintance of the 
celebrated mathematician Borelli, who first 
convinced him of the propriety of applying 
experimental researches to the elucidation of 
physical science. Ill health, however, soon 
compelled his return to Bologna, where he 
continued to practise as a physician till 1662, 
when he was called to a professorship at Mes- 
sina. In 1691 he was invited to Rome by In- 
nocent XII., who appointed him his chief 
physician and chamberlain. His reputation is 
mainly due to the fact that he was the first to 
employ the simple microscope, then recently 
invented, in investigating the anatomical struc- 
ture of plants and animals, and particularly 
upon his discovery by this means of the capil- 
lary circulation of the blood from the arteries 
- to the veins. Harvey had already in 1628 de- 
monstrated the circulation of the blood as a 
whole; that is to say, the return of the blood 
which had passed out from the heart by the 
arteries back again to the heart by the veins. 
The mode in which the blood passed through 
the substance of. the tissues, from the arteries 
to the veins, was however still unknown; and 
no doubt it was partly this fact which prevent- 


MALTA 


ed the ready acceptance of Harvey’s doctrine 
by the anatomists of the time. But in 1661 
Malpighi saw with the microscope the circula- 
tion of the blood through the capillaries in the 
frog’s lung, and afterward in the mesentery ; 
thus demonstrating its passage by minute ca- 
nals from the arteries to the veins, and supply- 
ing the only deficiency which had existed in 
Harvey’s discovery. His name has been per- 
petuated in that of several anatomical textures 
discovered and described by him, viz. : the rete 
Malpighianum of the epidermis, the Malpi- 
ghian bodies of the spleen, and the Malpighian 
tufts of the kidney. His principal works are: 
Observationes Anatomice de Pulmonibus (fol., 
Bologna, 1661); De Viseerum Structura Ezxer- 
citationes Anatomice (1666; many times re- 
printed and translated into French); Disser- 
tatio Epistolica de Formatione Pulli in Ovo 
(London, 1673); Dissertatio Epistolica de Bom- 
byce (London, 1669); De Pulmonum Substan- 
tia et Motu (Leyden, 1672); Anatome Planta- 
rum (London, 1675-’9) ; and Epistola de Glan- 
dulis Conglobatis (London, 1689). The only 
complete collective edition of his works was 
published at Venice in 1743. 

MALPLAQUET, a village of France, in the de- 
partment of Le Nord, 10 m. S. by W. of the 
Belgian town of Mons, celebrated for a battle 
between the allied forces under Marlborough 
and Prince Eugene, and the French under 
Marshal Villars, Sept. 11, 1709. The battle 
commenced: at 8 o’clock in the morning, the 
principal attack of the allies being directed 
upon the enemy’s left, where Villars himself 
held command. The French at first repelled 
their assailants, but Villars having become 
disabled by a wound, the allies succeeded in 
forcing the position; and the French, in spite 
of desperate efforts by the new commander, 
Bouflers, and the chevalier St. George, son of 
James II., eventually succumbed, though they 
effected their retreat in good order. In this 
battle, the bloodiest in the war of the Span- 
ish succession, the allies, who brought into the 
field 80,000 men and 140 guns, lost in killed 
and wounded more than 20,000 men; the 
French, who numbered 70,000 men with 80 
guns, lost more than half that number; but 
some accounts place the loss on both sides as 
high as 42,000. During the battle Marlbor- 
ough exposed himself to frequent perils, and 
the report of his death, which was at one 
time prevalent in the French ranks, gave rise 
to the once popular military refrain: MJal- 
brook sen va ten guerre, which was repro- 
duced from a song of the 16th century on the 
death of the duke of Guise. 

MALT. See Brewrine. 

MALTA (anc. Melita), a British possession in 
the Mediterranean, including the islands of 
Malta, Gozo, and Comino, and the uninhabit- 
ed islets of Cominotto and Filfla, the entire 
group lying between lat. 35° 48’ and 36° 5’ N. 
and lon. 14° 10’ and 14° 85’ E., about 60 m. 
S. W. of the southernmost point of Sicily, and 


MALTA 


200 N. of Tripoli in Africa; area, about 145 
sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 143,799, exclusive of the 
troops. The area of Malta proper is about 
100 sq. m.; pop. about 130,000. There are 
neither lakes nor rivers in the island, and no 
forests or brushwood; and most of the surface 
is a calcareous rock exposed to the winds from 
the African deserts, and but thinly covered 
with an artificial soil, chiefly brought from 
Sicily. This is, however, by careful cultiva- 
tion made to yield abundant crops of cotton, 
grains, beans, and grass, and excellent fruits, 
of which the orange, olive, and fig are re- 
nowned, In summer the heat is excessive day 
and night. The sirocco prevails especially in 
autumn, and there is little land or sea breeze. 
But in winter the climate is delightful. The 
_atmosphere is so clear that at all times of the 
year the summit of Mt. Etna may be distinctly 
seen during the rising or setting of the sun, al- 
though at a distance of 180m. The E. portion 
of the island contains all the towns and villages, 
and is separated by a ridge from the W. part, 
which, although less densely settled, is well cul- 
tivated, and abounds with the wild thyme and 
other odoriferous plants, attracting bees, which 
furnish excellent honey. There are about 25,- 
000 head of live stock, including about 6,000 
cattle. Cotton is the staple product, and gives 
rise to an extensive manufacture of cotton 
goods. The cabinet work of Malta enjoys a 
high reputation. Soap, leather, macaroni, and 
iron bedsteads are manufactured to some ex- 
tent. The goldsmiths are noted for their ele- 
gant workmanship, and the Maltese artisans 
are generally able and intelligent. They are 
excellent seamen, and their services are in 
great demand in the Mediterranean. But the 
bulk of the people are either employed in ag- 
ricultural labor or in stone cutting.—The isl- 
and of Gozo or Gozzo, about 9 m. long and 
5 m. broad, lies N. W. of Malta, and is separa- 
ted from it by a channel 8 m. wide. | It is sur- 
rounded by a belt of rocks and shoals, with 
openings leading to several small harbors. The 
interior is very rocky and hilly, with a thin 
soil, which however is very fertile. Grain and 
fruit are raised in abundance; but the most im- 
portant crop is cotton, much of which is spun 
on the island. There are salt works at Port 
Maggiore, on the S. side, and an alabaster quar- 
ry in the northwest. The highest point of land 
is near the centre of the island, and is crowned 
with the fort of Rabato. The principal town 
is Rabato (pop. about 2,000), and there are 
several villages. The island contains a great 
natural curiosity called the Giant’s Tower, and 
several Roman monuments. Comino, about 
2m. long and 14 m. broad, lies in the channel 
between Malta and Gozo. 
hilly and the coast deeply indented. The 
principal settlement is Santa Maria.—The Mal- 
tese are derived from an Arabic stock; it is 
probable, however, that the Arab conquerors 
have been mixed up with the previous Punic 
population. Greek is supposed to have been 


The surface is very: 


69 


in ancient times the medium of conversation 
of the higher classes, as English is at the pres- 
ent day. The present common language is the 
lingua franca, a patois of the Arabic, mixed 
with Italian and other languages. The com- 
plexion of the Maltese is almost as dark as that 
of the natives of Barbary. The dress of the 
working classes is a short loose waistcoat, 
covering a cotton shirt, short loose trousers, 
woollen caps in winter and straw hats in sum- 
mer, and a kind of sandals resembling those 
of the ancient Romans. The women are of 
dark complexion, and are small, delicate, and 
generally graceful, and wear in the streets a 
black veil (faldetta). The dress consists most- 
ly of a cotton shift, blue striped petticoat, a 
corset with sleeves, and a loose jacket cover- 
ing the whole. Drunkenness is almost un- 
known, and the people, although coarser in 
their appearance, are less vindictive and im- 
pulsive than other races of southern Europe. 
They are fond of poetry, especially in the rural 
districts, where the taste for improvisation 
prevails extensively. In music they prefer 
ncisy instruments, as the tambourine, mando- 
line, and particularly the bagpipe, which ac- 
company the national dances, They marry at 
an early age. Many of them seek employment 
in the Levant, where they are however exceed- 
ingly unpopular on account of their crafty and 
treacherous nature, and they are generally em- 
ployed only in the meanest labors. The fami- 
lies ennobled by the knights of Malta have 
dwindled down to a small number; and the 
few which remain are not very affluent. The 
national religion is Roman Catholic, under the 
direction of a bishop and more than 1,000 
priests, the church property being considerable. 
The number of Protestants is about 5,000, 
whose places of worship consist only of a few 
chapels. Education is promoted by the uni- 
versity of Valetta, colleges at Citta Vecchia 
and several other places, and about 50 public 
and 100 private schools.—The value of im- 
ports paying duty in 1871 was $87,400,000; 
of exports, $37,500,000. The number of 
steamers arrived in 1871 was 1,787, tonnage 
1,466,000; of sailing vessels arrived, 2,954, 
tonnage 519,000; total number of vessels, 
4,691, tonnage 1,985,000. The direct trade 
with the United States is inconsiderable, but 
a large number of American vessels are en- 
gaged in the trade of foreign countries with 
Malta. A new government grading dock, ca- 
pable of receiving the largest men-of-war, has 
been recently opened, and new submarine 
telegraphs have been laid connecting Malta 
with Algiers and Alexandria. The hydrau- 
lic lift dock, completed in 18738, is of great 
benefit to commerce, especially to the steamers 
of the India route, as by means of it vessels 
can be repaired without discharging their 
cargo. The revenue in 1870 was £158,630 ;° 
expenditures, £171,788; public debt, £79,202. 
—Malta is a crown colony, the local govern- 
ment being conducted by a governor who is 


70 MALTA 


at the same time commander-in-chief, assist- 
ed in legislative matters by a council of 18 
members, of whom 10 are official and 8 elec- 
tive. The British troops and their families 
in December, 1872, numbered 6,752 persons. 
The duties of the native regiment, called the 
Malta fencibles, are exclusively local, and their 
maintenance is defrayed out of the revenues 
of the islands. The central position, military 
strength, and excellent harbor, one of the most 
commodious and convenient in the Mediter- 
ranean, render the possession of Malta of great 
importance to Britain, and make it very ad- 
vantageous for the accommodation and repair 
of the men-of-war and merchant ships fre- 
quenting the Mediterranean. The storehouses 
or caricatori for grain are excavated in the 
rock, making Malta an excellent centre of the 
corn trade between the Mediterranean and 
Black seas.—Besides Valetta and Citta Vec- 
chia, and a few other towns, Malta possesses 
about 40 casals or hamlets, chiefly remarkable 
for their picturesque churches. The former 
capital of Malta was Citta Vecchia. The pres- 
ent capital, Valetta, is one of the best forti- 
fied places in the world, and serves as a station 
for the Mediterranean fleet.—The ancient Me- 
lita was important as a commercial centre 
among the nations of antiquity, and it was 
occupied probably at a very early period by 
a Phoenician colony. Afterward it became a 
Carthaginian settlement. Ata later period it 
appears to have been in a measure Hellenized, 
though there is no historical evidence of its 
having been in the possession of the Greeks. 
In 257 B. C. it was ravaged by a Roman fleet 
under Atilius Regulus; and surrendering to the 
Romans at the beginning of the second Punic 
war, it was annexed to the province of Sicily. 
It became notorious as a resort of the Cili- 
cian pirates, but was in a flourishing condi- 
tion in the days of Cicero, who during periods 
of disturbance entertained the project of reti- 
ring thither. The Maltese cotton fabrics (vestis 
Melitensis) were in great demand in Rome, and 
they were probably manufactured from the 
cotton which still forms the principal product 
of the island. In sacred history Malta is cele- 
brated as the supposed scene of the shipwreck 
of St. Paul on his voyage to Italy (A. D. 60); 
though according to some critics Melita (now 
Meleda) in the Adriatic, on the coast of Dal- 
matia, was more probably the island visited 
by the apostle. After the fall of the Roman 
empire the island was for some time in the 
possession of the Vandals, but was taken from 
them by Belisarius (538), and was subject to 
the Byzantine empire until the latter part of 
the 9th century, when it was conquered by the 
Arabs. It was wrested from them at the close 
of the 11th century by Count Roger, the Nor- 
man conqueror of Sicily, and it was united with 
Sicily until the early part of the 16th century, 
when Charles V. took possession of that coun- 
try and of Malta as heir of Aragon. Under 
this emperor the knights of Malta (see Saint 


MALTE-BRUN 


Joun, Knicuts oF) became its sovereigns, and 
held it till 1798, when the French expedition 
to Egypt under Napoleon seized the island. 
After the battle of the Nile the inhabitants rose 
in insurrection and compelled the French to 
shut themselves up in the fortress of Valetta. 
They were subjected to a stringent blockade 
until Sept. 5, 1800, when, reduced by famine, 
they surrendered to the English, who had come 
to the assistance of the Maltese. The island 
has since remained under British rule. 
MALTE-BRUN. I. A Danish geographer, whose 
actual name was Matrue Conrap Bruun, born 
at Thisted in Jutland, Aug. 12, 1775, died in 
Paris, Dec. 14, 1826. He studied in Copen- 
hagen, devoting himself especially to literature 
and politics. He embraced republican prin- 


ciples, and in 1795 published a pamphlet en- 


titled ‘‘Catechism of the Aristocrats,” for 
which he was prosecuted by the government 
and obliged to take refuge in Sweden. A 
poem on the death of Bernstorff which he 
published during his exile procured for him 
permission to returnto Denmark. But another 
pamphlet against the aristocracy subjected 
him to a new prosecution, and he left his 
country, and finally took up his residence in 
Paris. In December, 1800, the Danish courts 
pronounced sentence of perpetual banishment 
against him, which was rescinded about the 
time of his death. In Paris he wrote largely 
for various journals, and in 1806 became one 
of the principal writers for the Journal des 
Débats. He at first opposed the consular goy- 
ernment, but subsequently became a zealous 
imperialist, and after the fall of Napoleon an 
equally zealous monarchist, publishing in 1824 
Traité de la légitimité considérée comme base 
du droit public de ’ Hurope chrétienne. In 
the mean time he devoted himself especially to 
geographical studies, and in 1803, in conjunc- 
tion with Mentelle and Herbin, commenced the 
publication of Géographie mathématique, phy- 
sique et politique, which was completed in 
1807, comprising 16 volumes. In 1808 he es- 
tablished the periodical Annales des Voyages, 
which was discontinued in 1814, and resumed 
in 1819, with the collaboration of Eyriés, under 
the title, Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, and is 
still issued under charge of his son. He was 
one of the founders of the geographical society, 
of which he became secretary. He wrote a 
number of miscellaneous works, among which 
is a posthumous collection, Mélanges scienti- 
Jiques et littéraires (8 vols., 1828). His most 
important work is Précis de géographie uni- 
verselle (8 vols., 1810-29, the last two volumes 
being by Huot). This has been several times re- 
published, the last edition by Lavallée (6 vols., 
1856~7). It was translated into English, and 
an edition published at Boston, with notes and 
additions by James G. Percival (8 vols. 4to, 
1828-32), and one at Philadelphia (5 vols. 
8vo, with atlas, 1882-’7). JI. Vietor Adolphe, a 
French geographer, son of the preceding, born 
in Paris in 1816. After having been profes- 


MALTBY 


sor of history in several colleges, he devoted 
himself especially to geographical studies. He 
is secretary of the geographical society, and 
principal editor of the Nowvelles Annales des 
Voyages, and has published numerous works re- 
lating to geography. Among these are: Des- 
tinge de Sir John Franklin dévoilée (1860) ; 
Nouvelles acquisitions des Russes dans VU’ Asie 
orientale (1861); Les Htats-Unis et le Mexique 
(1862); Coup @ wil sur le Yucatan, and Sonora 
et ses mines (1864); Canal interocéanique du 
Darien (1865); Histoire de Marcoussis (1867) ; 
and Histoire géographique et statistique de 
? Allemagne (4to, 1866-’8). He has also issued 
a revised edition of his father’s geography (8 
vols., 1852-’5), and, in conjunction with others, 
France illustrée (8 vols., 1855-7). 

MALTBY, Edward. See supplement. 

MALTHA (Gr. ydA6a, soft wax; also denoting 
a mixture of wax and pitch, used for the sur- 
face of writing tablets, and for some kinds of 
cement). Pliny describes under this name an 
inflammable mud flowing from a pool at Samo- 
sata, on the Euphrates, which he says was simi- 
lar in nature to naphtha; and this use of the 
word has led to its later application to viscid 
bitumens. It is the proper name for mineral 
tar, or all bitumens having the consistence of 
tar, and holding water and air in mechanical 
admixture in consequence of their viscidity. It 
occurs on the surface of the ground and issuing 
from springs, often accompanied by water, in 
various parts of the world, but most frequently 
in localities noted for the production of petro- 
leum, for which substance maltha is frequently 
mistaken. It appears to be a product of the 
partial oxidation or decomposition of certain 
unstable varieties of petroleum, and doubtless 
in all cases has a common origin with it (see 
PETROLEUM), as it passes by insensible degrees 
into petroleum on the one hand and asphal- 
tum on the other. It is found in this country 
throughout the length of California, in Texas, 
and at various places in the southwest, on both 
flanks of the Rocky mountains, and in Alaska. 
Among foreign localities may be mentioned 
Enniskillen in Canada, the islands of Barba- 
does and Trinidad, many localities in South 
America, some of the islands of the Grecian 
archipelago, and the Caucasus. In California, 
where there are immense quantities of this 
material, it occurs in every variety of density, 
from 0°94 to 1. In consistence it varies from 
that of a thin sirup to that of soft mortar. It 
issues there from a stratum of shale of consid- 
erable thickness which occurs in the miocene 
sandstones of the Coast range. It oozes from 
springs upon hillsides, over which it trickles; 
it accompanies water in pools, and flows upon 
the surface of streams. It has been obtained 
from artesian borings at a depth of more than 
450 ft. of the consistence of tar, and at a depth 
of 117 ft. so tenacious as to prevent the drill 
from penetrating further. In a few localities 
in this region the maltha is mixed with sand, 
the mixture forming strata or beds of great 


MALTHUS 71 
extent. At Enniskillen the maltha forms what 
are known as “‘ gum beds.” Barbadoes tar was 
long an article of. commerce, used in medicine 
as a liniment. The California malthas have 
been used to some extent as a crude material 
for the manufacture of kerosene; but they 
have not been found to possess much value for 
this purpose when treated in the same appara- 
tus as is used for petroleum; when it is distilled 
under pressure, or “cracked,” a better result 
is obtained both as regards yield and quality.— 
Little is known regarding the chemical consti- 
tution of maltha; but it is without doubt a 
mixture of hydrocarbons more dense than those 
found in petroleum. Some specimens contain 
nitrogen, as is proved by the fact that maggots 
are developed in immense numbers in pools of 
this substance. It is also possible that oxygen 
is a constituent of some varieties. While this 
substance is widely distributed and occurs in 
vast quantities in some localities, it is at present 
very much less valuable than petroleum. It 
is readily distinguished from it by its greater 
viscidity and its tendency to froth when heated, 
the froth often occupying 20 times the bulk of 
the maltha at thé temperature of boiling water. 

MALTHUS, Thomas Robert, an English political 
economist, born at Albury, Surrey, in 1766, 
died in Bath, Dec. 29, 1834. His father was a 
gentleman of fortune, interested in classical 
and philosophical studies, and so intimate a 
friend of Rousseau that he was appointed one 
of his executors; and David Hume was like- 
wise among his friends. In 1784 he was ad- 
mitted to Jesus college, Cambridge, and became 
one of the first classical scholars. He received 
his master’s degree and a fellowship in 1797, 
entered holy orders, and divided his time be- 
tween the care of a small parish in Surrey and 
his studies in Cambridge. In 1798 he published 
anonymously the first edition of his work on 
population, which was subsequently much en- 
larged and modified. The title of the sixth and 
last revision (1826) is: ‘‘ An Essay on the Prin- 
ciple of Population, or a View of its past and 
present Effects on Human Happiness, with an 
Inquiry into our Prospects respecting the future 
Removal or Mitigation of the Evils which it oc- 
casions.” His object at first was to refute the 
theories of Condorcet and Godwin on human 
perfectibility and political optimism, by show- 
ing the necessary sufferings of the poor from the 
tendency of population to increase faster than 
the means of subsistence. The condition of the 
poor became the prominent feature of the sub- 
sequent editions. In 1799 he visited Sweden, 
Norway, Finland, and Russia, collecting facts 
and documents in illustration of his subject; 
and during the interval of peace in 1802 he 
explored France and Switzerland. He married 
in 1805, and was appointed professor of history 
and political economy in the East India college 
at Haileybury, which post he held till his death. 
His other principal writings are: ‘ Observa- 
tions on the Effects of the Corn Laws” (8d ed., 
1815); ‘“‘ An Inquiry into the Nature and Pro- 


72 MALTITZ 

gress of Rent” (1815); ‘‘ Principles of Political 
Economy ” (1820); and ‘ Definitions in Polit- 
ical Economy” (1827).—His reputation rests 
almost exclusively upon the views advanced in 
his work on population. He held that popu- 
lation, when unchecked, increases in a geomet- 
rical ratio, while food can be made to increase 
at furthest only in an arithmetical ratio. Pow- 
erful checks on population must be constantly 
in action, which may be resolved into vice, 
misery, and moral or prudential restraint. 

MALTITZ, Apollonius yon, baron, a German 
author, born in Kénigsberg in 1795, died in 
Weimar, March 2, 1870. He was a brother 
of the poet Franz Friedrich von Maltitz (1794— 
1857), and like several of his relatives he 
was employed in the diplomatic service of 
Russia, representing that empire at Weimar 
from 1841 to 1865. He published novels, poe- 
try, dramas, tragedies, comedies, and an au- 
tobiography (1863). His best known tragedies 
are Virginia (1858), Anna Boleyn (1860), and 
Spartacus.—Another distinguished poet of the 
same family was Gorrnitr AuagusT von Mat- 
TITz (1794-1837). 

MALTZAN, Heinrich Karl Eckardt Hellmuth, bar- 
on of Wartenburg and Penzlin, a German trav- 
eller, born in Dresden, Sept. 6, 1826, died in 
Pisa, Italy, Feb. 22, 1874. He studied at sev- 
eral German universities, made explorations 
in north Africa, Arabia, and other countries, 
and published Drei Jahre im Nordwesten von 
Afrika (4 vols., Leipsic, 1863; 2d ed., 1868); 
Wallfuhrt nach Mekka (2 vols., 1865); Reise 
auf der Insel Sardinien (1869); Sittenbilder 
aus Tunis und Algerien (1869); Reise in den 
Regentschaften Tunis und Tripolis (8 vols., 
1870); and feise nach Sidarabien (Brunswick, 
1872). He was a high authority in Pheenician 
and old Egyptian archeology, and in S. Ara- 
bian geography, ethnology, and philology. 

MALUS, Etienne Lonis, a French engineer and 
physicist, born in Paris, June 28, 1775, died 
there, Feb. 23, 1812. He belonged to a dis- 
tinguished family, and his intellectual preco- 
city manifested itself while he was at school 
in the composition of an epic poem and of 
two tragedies. At the same time he was 
proficient in mathematics, and passed a bril- 
liant examination as a military engineer. . In 
1793 he received the rank of sub-lieutenant, 
but as the school of Méziéres which had con- 
ferred it was closed, he enlisted as a volun- 
teer, and exhibited so much talent while em- 
ployed on the fortifications of Dunkirk, that 
he was sent as a pupil to the newly establish- 
ed polytechnic school, which he left in 1796 
with the grade of sub-lieutenant; and next 
year he entered the army as captain. He 
distinguished himself at the capture of Malta 
and of Jaffa, where he narrowly escaped losing 
his life by the plague. He was among the 
earliest members of the Egyptian institute, and 
in 1799 he was made by Kléber chief of bat- 
talion. Shortly after his return from the East 
he married the daughter of Chancellor Koch, 


MALVOISINE 


of the German university of Giessen, whose 
acquaintance he had made while formerly sta- 
tioned there. In 1804 he was commissioned 
by Napoleon to draw up plans for the enlarge- 
ment of the harbor and fortifications of Ant- 
werp, and he subsequently superintended the 
reconstruction of the fort at Kehl, opposite 
Strasburg. In 1810 he became mayor, mem- 
ber of the academy, and examiner at the poly- 
technic school, and next year provisional direc- 
tor of that institution. His chief publications 
include a mathematical Traité doptique, first 
published in 1810, in which he promulgated 
some valuable discoveries respecting the refrac- 
tion of light in transparent media; and the 
“Theory of Double Refraction” (Mémoires 
présentés ad Uinstitut, vol. il.), containing an 


account of his discoveries respecting the po- 


larization of light, and showing that light may 
acquire properties identical with either of two 
rays yielded by refraction through Iceland 
spar by the process of simple reflection at a 
particular angle from any transparent body. 
This famous memoir received an academical 
prize at the suggestion of Laplace. He also 
published an “Essay on the Measurement of 
the Refractive Force of Opaque Bodies;” ‘ Re- 
marks on some new Optical Phenomena,” in- 
tended to prove that two portions of light are 
always polarized together in opposite direc- 
tions; a paper ‘“‘ On Phenomena accompanying 
Refraction and Reflection,” and one “On the 
Axis of Refraction of Crystals.” 

MALVERN, Great, a town of Worcestershire, 
England, celebrated as a watering place, on 
the E. side of the Malvern hills, 8m. 8S. 8. W. 
of Worcester; pop. in 1871, 7,825. The springs, 
which are sulphuretted and slightly tepid, are 
especially beneficial in glandular and skin com- 
plaints. They are situated between Great and 
Little Malvern, the latter place being 4 m. 8. 
of the former, which is surrounded by fine 
country residences and contains delightful 
walks and good accommodations for bathers 
and visitors. There are several schools, an ex- 
cellent library and reading room, and a chapel 
of the countess of Huntingdon’s connection. 
The ancient church, formerly part of a monas- 
tery founded by Edward the Confessor, is one 
of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture 
in England. The Malvern hills, which reach 
a height of about 1,400 ft., extend about 9 m. 
N. and §. 

MALVERN HILL, Battle of. See CatcKaHoMINY. 

MALVOISINE, or Mawmoisine, William de, a Scot- 
tish ecclesiastic, died July 9, 1238. He was 
educated and perhaps born in France, but was 
at an early age archdeacon of St. Andrews. 
In 1199 he became chancellor of Scotland, in 
1200 bishop of Glasgow, and in 1202 bishop of 
St. Andrews, retaining the latter see until his 
death. In 1211, as papal legate, in concert 
with the bishop of Glasgow, and at the request 
of the pope, he convened a council of the clergy 
and people at Perth to urge an expedition to 
the Holy Land. In 1214 he officiated at the 


MALWA 


MAMELUKES %3 


coronation of Alexander II., and from 1215 to | devotional works, small books for religious edu- 


1218 attended the fourth Lateran council as 
one of the representatives of the Scottish 
church. He was a zealous churchman, and, 
according to Fordun, was equally zealous in 
support of his personal rights, having deprived 
the abbey of Dunfermline of the presentation 
to two livings because its monks had once neg- 
lected to provide him with wine for supper. 
He introduced new monastic orders into Scot- 
land, established many Dominican and other 
convents, and wrote the lives of St. Ninian 
and Kentigern. 

MALWA, an old province of central India, 
comprising a table land from 1,500 to 2,500 
ft. above the level of the sea, bounded N. E. by 
the valley of the Ganges, E. by Bundelcund, S. 
by the Vindhya, and W. by the Aravulli moun- 
tains, and lying chiefly between lat. 22° and 24° 
N., and lon. 74° and 78° E. ; length about 220 
m., average breadth 150 m. The people are 
mostly Hindoos. It is divided into a number 
of native states under British protection, and 
includes part of the possessions of Sindia and 
Holkar. The surface is uneven, with a gradu- 
al descent from the Vindhya mountains. It is 
watered by many rivers, the chief of which is 
the Chumbul, an affluent of the Ganges. The 
soil is fertile, producing cotton, tobacco, opium, 
indigo, sugar, and grain, and affording pastur- 
age for large numbers of sheep and cattle. The 
rivers are not navigable, but a considerable 
overland trade is carried on in cottons, printed 
cloths, opium, and other products. The prin- 
cipal towns are Oojein, Indore, Bhopal, and 
Bilsa.—Malwa became tributary to the sover- 
eign of Delhi in the 13th century, but at the 
beginning of the 15th threw off the yoke, and 
for 1380 years formed a powerful independent 
kingdom. It was subsequently conquered by 
Shir Khan, annexed to the Mogul empire by 
Akbar, overrun by the Mahrattas early in the 
18th century, and separated from the Mogul 
territory about 1732. It was long desolated 
by the Pindarrees, who were subdued by the 
marquis of Hastings and Sir John Malcolm. 
A police force of Bheels was subsequently or- 
ganized by the British, and for some time 
proved highly efficient, but a large portion of 
it mutinied in 1857. 

MAME, Alfred Henri Armand, a French printer, 
born in Tours, Aug. 17, 1811. In 1833 the 
printing establishment founded by his father 
in Tours came into his possession, in partner- 
ship with his cousin Charles Ernest Mame, who 
was mayor of Tours from 1851 to 1865. The 
cousins, who are also brothers-in-law, together 
extended the business till 1845, when it came 
under the sole direction of Alfred Mame, who 
raised it to the greatest importance. The es- 
tablishment includes departments for print- 
ing, binding, and bookselling. About 700 per- 
sons are employed within and 500 without the 
premises. It produces daily about 20,000 vol- 
umes, bound and unbound. Among the spe- 


cial publications of this house are liturgical and __ 


cation printed under the auspices of the arch- 
bishop of Tours, editions of the classics, and 
elementary treatises on science and education, 
issued likewise under ecclesiastical authority. 
Its small prayer books (Paroissiens), bound’ 
in leather and with gilt edges, are sold at re- 
tail for 85 centimes (about 7 cents). About 
1854 M. Mame entered upon the publication 
of richly illustrated works, among the most 
celebrated of which is the Bible with illustra- 
tions by Doré (1865-’6). He obtained prizes 
at the London exhibition of 1851, the grand 
medal of honor at the French exposition of 
1855, and the grand prize at that of 1867. In 
the last year he also received one of the prizes 
of 10,000 francs offered to model establish- 
ments in which the greatest social harmony 
and comfort prevail among the werkmen. 
MAMELUKES (Arabic, memalik, a slave), a 
body of soldiery who ruled Egypt for several 
centuries. They were introduced into that 
country by the sultan Malek el-Adel II. about 
the middle of the 18th century, and were 
composed originally of young captives pur- 
chased from the Mongols. They were called 
the Bahri Mamelukes, or Mamelukes of the 
river, because they were trained on an island 
in the Nile. They formed the body guard of 
the sultan. Turan Shah, the son and suc- 
cessor of Malek el-Adel, becoming unpopu- 
lar, the Mamelukes deposed and murdered him 
about 1250, and raised their commander Eybek 
to the throne. A line of sultans known as 
the Bahri or Turkish dynasty now followed, 
all of whom were raised to power by the 
Mamelukes, and many of them deposed and 
slain. A new band of Mamelukes, however, 
had been created by these sovereigns, composed 
of Circassians and Georgians, who were called 
Borgis, suggestive of a tower or castle, from 
the fact that they had been employed on forti- 
fications in Fgypt. In 1382 the Borgi Mame- 
lukes gained the ascendancy over the Bahris, 
and made their commander Barkok sultan. 
The Borgis continued in power till 1517, 
when they were subdued by the Ottoman 
Turks, and Egypt became a dependency of 
Constantinople. The Turkish sultan, however, 
placed the 24 provinces into which he di- 
vided Egypt under Mameluke governors or 
beys, who served to keep the Turkish viceroy 
in check. The beys also had the right to elect 
the governor of Cairo, an official of great pow- 
er. The number of the Mamelukes was about 
12,000, and they were nearly all from the 
region between the Black sea and the Caspian, 
whence they were brought in their youth to 
Cairo, compelled or persuaded to embrace Mo- 
hammedanism, and educated as soldiers. They 
did not intermarry with the natives of Egypt, 
but bought wives of their own race from the 
traders in Circassian slaves. These women 
from the north seldom bore children in Egypt, 
or if they did their offspring were sickly and 
short-lived. Though instances of hereditary 


[4 MAMELUKES 

succession among the Mamelukes were not un- 
known, they were comparatively rare, and it 
was generally from master to slave, and not 
from father to son. Volney, who visited 
Egypt in the latter part of the 18th century, 
asserted that all Mameluke children perished 
in the first or second descent. Each of the 24 
beys maintained 500 or 600 followers, thor- 
oughly armed and equipped, and forming an 
admirable cavalry force. Each of the Mame- 
lukes was attended by two armed slaves who 
fought on foot. In 1798, when Bonaparte in- 
vaded Egypt, his army first encountered the 
Mamelukes while on the march from Alexan- 
dria to Cairo. ‘The whole plain was covered 
with Mamelukes,” says Scott, ‘‘mounted on the 
finest Arabian horses, and armed with pistols, 
carbines, and blunderbusses of the best English 
workmanship, their plumed turbans waving in 
the air, and their rich dresses and arms glitter- 
ing inthe sun. Entertaining a high contempt 
for the French force, as consisting almost en- 
tirely of infantry, this splendid barbaric chiv- 
alry watched every opportunity for charging 
them, nor did a single straggler escape the un- 
relenting edge of their sabres. Their charge 
was almost as swift as the wind, and as their 
severe bits enabled them to halt or wheel their 
horses at full gallop, their retreat was as rapid 
as their advance. Even the practised veterans 
of Italy were at first embarrassed by this new 
mode of fighting, and lost several men; espe- 
cially when fatigue caused any one to fall out 
of the ranks, in which case his fate became 
certain. But they were soon reconciled to 
fighting the Mamelukes, when they discovered 
that each of these horsemen carried about 
him his fortune, and that it not uncommonly 
amounted to considerable sums in gold.” At 
the battle of the Pyramids, July 21, 1798, the 
Mamelukes mustered their full force, consisting 
of 7,000 men under Murad Bey, and attacked 
the French with desperate courage; but they 
were repulsed with terrible slaughter, and 
about 2,500 of them who survived fled to Up- 
per Egypt. ‘Could I have united the Mame- 
luke horse to the French infantry,” said Na- 
poleon, ‘‘I would have reckoned myself master 
of the world.” After the French were driven 
from Egypt by the British, the Mamelukes re- 
gained in some degree their power, and a civil 
war broke out between them and the Turks. 
They were twice victims of treacherous mas- 
sacres, and were completely crushed March 1, 
1811, when Mehemet Ali beguiled 470 chiefs 
into the citadel of Cairo, and then closed the 
gates and ordered his Albanian soldiers to fire 
upon them. Only one escaped, a bey who 
leaped his horse from the ramparts and alighted 
uninjured, though the animal was killed by the 
fall. Immediately afterward a general mas- 
sacre of the Mamelukes in every province of 
Egypt was ordered. The few who escaped 
fled to Nubia, and especially to the province of 
Sennaar, where they built the town of New 
Dongola and attempted to keep up their force 


MAMIANI 


by disciplining negroes in their peculiar tac- 
tics. They did not succeed, however, and a 
few years later their number was reduced to 
about 100, when they dispersed, and the Mame- 
lukes ceased to exist. 

MAMERTINES. See Messina. 

MAMIANI, Terenzio della Rovere, count, an Ital- 
ian philosopher, born in Pesaro about 1800. 
He received a superior education, and in 1831 
took part in the revolutionary movement in 
the Romagna, and was proscribed. He took 
refuge in Paris, where he was occupied in lit- 
erary labors until he was permitted to return 
to Italy by the amnesty granted in 1846 by 
Pius IX. He became prominent among the 
liberal statesmen who gathered around the 
pope, and accepted a place in the administra- 
tion. The vacillating policy of Pius [X., how- 
ever, soon led to his retirement, and he went 
to Turin, where with Gioberti and others he 
founded a patriotic society, of which he became 
president. In November, 1848, after the flight 
of the pope to Gaéta, he returned to Rome 
and became minister of foreign affairs; but he 
soon retired in consequence of the predomi- 
nance of the ultra-republican element, and also 
resigned his seat in the constituent assembly. 
After the restoration of the papal power in 
1849 he went to Piedmont, and subsequently 
became professor of philosophy in the Turin 
university, and a member of parliament. He 
warmly supported the policy of Cavour, and 
in 1860 was appointed minister of public in- 
struction. From 1861 to 1865 he was minister 
at Athens. In 1866 he was accredited to 
Switzerland, but soon afterward became a 
member of the Italian senate. In 1870 he 
was restored to the chair of the philosophy 
of history in the Sapienza college at Rome, 
which he had formerly held. He is promi- 
nent among Italian ontologists. In his ear- 
liest philosophical work, Del rinnovamento 
dell’ antica filosofia italiana (1834), he ad- 
hered to the doctrine of empiricism based on 
psychological investigation. But he soon be- 
came a convert to Rosmini’s opinion that the ~ 
experimental method alone cannot philosophi- 
cally reconstruct the science of nature and 
mind; and in his Discorso sull’ ontologia e sul 
metodo (1841), and Dialoghi di scienza prima 
(1846), he strove to find a philosophical basis 
in common sense, and expressed for the first 
time his doctrine of immediate perception as 
the only foundation of a full insight into real- 
ity. This last phase of his doctrine is ex- 
pounded in his Confessioni di un metafisico 
(1865), which is divided into two parts, re- 
spectively relating to ontology and cosmology. 
—A complete edition of his poetical works 
was published by M. Lemonnier (Florence, 
1857). An English translation of his Prinei- 
pi della filosofia del diritto (‘Rights of Na- 
tions”), edited by Roger Acton, was published 
in London in 1860. Among his later works 
are: Rinascimento cattolico (1862); Saggi dé 
Jilosofia civile (1865); Meditazioni cartesiane 


MAMMALIA 


(1868); and Teoria della religione e dello stato, 
e dei suoi rapporti speciali con Roma e colle 
nazioni cattoliche (1868). He also contrib- 
utes largely to the philosophical review La 
Filosofia delle Scuole italiane. 

MAMMALIA, the highest vertebrated animals, 
including man, warm-blooded, breathing by 
lungs separated from the abdominal cavity by 
a diaphragm, generally covered with hair, and 
bringing forth their young alive, which they 
nourish by the secretion of mammary glands 
(whence their name). Most mammals are com- 
monly known as quadrupeds, from their hav- 
ing four feet suited for progression on a solid 
surface; but the terms are not synonymous, as 
most reptiles are four-footed, and the whales 
cannot be called quadrupeds. The form of 
mammals is very various; among them we see 
man walking erect, the flying bats, the swim- 
ming cetaceans, the bulky elephant, the slow- 
moving sloth, and the agile squirrel; yet the 
three regions of head, neck, and trunk can al- 
ways be recognized in the skeleton, and gen- 
erally in the living animal. The neck, though 
varying in length from that of man (one sev- 
enth of the spinal column) to that of the giraffe 
(three sevenths), with two or three exceptions, 
consists of 7 vertebree; some of the sloths 
have 8 or 9, and some manatees are said to 
have 6 only; in the hoofed animals the length 
of the neck depends on that of the fore legs, 
for the purpose of grazing; but the elephant 
has a long proboscis to compensate for the 
shortness of the neck rendered necessary by 
the ponderous head; the extra vertebrae of the 
sloths are by some considered as dorsals with 
rudimentary ribs to give additional mobility to 
the neck. The number of dorsal vertebre va- 
ries from 11 in some of the bats to 22 in some 
of the sloths, man having 12; the lumbar ver- 
tebree, 5 in man, are 2 in the ornithorhynchus 
and 9 in some lemurs, stronger than the dor- 
sals, and without ribs, which are replaced by 
long transverse processes ; the sacral vertebra, 
usually 4, vary from 1 to 9; the rudimentary 
tail of man, the 0s coccygis, consists of 4 bones, 
but in the long-tailed manis there are 46 cau- 
dal vertebree. The skull is articulated to the 
spine by two occipital condyles, which permit 
the upward and downward motions of the 
head, the lateral and rotating movements de- 
pending on the articulation between the first 
and second vertebra; in whales the short neck 
is immovable as in fishes, and its bones are 
very thin and more or less consolidated to- 
gether; the strong ligamentum nuche, which 
supports the head, is attached to the spinous 
processes and skull. The caudal vertebra are 
of two kinds, one having a spinal canal, the 
other not, and the processes are always devel- 
oped in accordance with the use made of the 
tail; in most mammals its movements are con- 
fined to brushing away insects from the skin, 
but in the kangaroo it forms with the hind 
legs a firm tripod from which the animal 
springs, and in some South American monkeys 


(©) 


it is prehensile and used as a fifth hand in 
hanging from trees; in the whales it becomes 
a powerful swimming organ, is provided on its 
under surface with V-shaped bones for the 
protection of the blood vessels, and, being 
horizontal, is used principally as an organ by 
which to rise to the surface to breathe; in the 
beaver the transverse processes and the lower 
spinous are very large for the attachment of the 
muscles, which move the tail like a trowel 
chiefly in a downward direction. The bones 
of the spine are united by elastic fibro-cartila- 
ges; these, in whales, form osseous disks, sep- 
arating on maceration, and frequently used by 
arctic travellers for plates.—As all mammals 
breathe air, the mechanism of their respiration 
depends on the movable ribs and the dia- 
phragm ; man has 7 true and 5 false ribs, the 
former united to the sternum, the latter not; 
the number is in proportion to that of the dor- - 
sal vertebree; in the whale, of 12 ribs, 11 are 
false, in the unau 11 out of 23, in the horse 8 
out of 18, in the cats 4 out of 18, and in the 
manatee 14 out of 16; in the carnivora they are 
dense and narrow, in the herbivora large, broad, 
and thick. The breast bone varies in shape 
according to the presence or absence of clay- 
icles; in non-claviculated mammals the chest 
is compressed laterally, and the breast bone 
has a projecting keel as in birds; in bats it is 
much keeled, in the higher apes flat as in man, 
and in the moles it extends in front of the ribs, 
forming a distinct piece; in mammals with clav- 
icles the chest approaches very nearly to that 
of man; the human chest, however, is the only 
one in which the transverse exceeds the antero- 
posterior diameter, causing the greater separa- 
tion of the shoulders and the increased facility 
of movement of the arms. The anterior ribs 
always extend as far as the breast bone, and 
are thus true ribs, differing in this respect from 
those of birds. Each of the ribs is usually 
connected by its head to an articular cavity 
formed by the bodies of two vertebrw, and by 
its tubercle to the transverse process of the 
posterior of the two; in the monotremata they 
are connected with the body alone, and in ceta/ 
ceans often only with the transverse processes. 
The breast bone consists of several pieces, one 
behind the other, to which the anterior or true 
ribs are joined by cartilages which rarely be- 
come ossified; the posterior are the false or 
floating ribs, and are not attached immediately 
to the breast bone; this arrangement gives mo- 
bility to the chest and allows the elevation and 
depression of the ribs during respiration. The 
bones of the skull and face are immovably 
connected with each other, a character which 
does not occur in any of the lower classes ; the 
brain cavity is larger than in birds and rep- 
tiles; the occipital condyles, near the centre of 
the base in man, are gradually removed to the 
posterior portion as we descend in the scale; 
the number of cranial bones, eight in man, is 
less than in most lower vertebrates. For the 
general characters see COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, 


XG MAMMALIA 


where also are given sufficient details on the 
organs of sense, teeth, digestive system, and 
hairy covering. The lower jaw consists of two 
pieces, and is alone movable; in man it is sus- 
ceptible of motion up and down, laterally, and 
from before backward; in the carnivora the first 
movement, in the ruminants the second, and 
in the rodents the third, is specially provided 
for by the shape of the condyles and the form 
of the glenoid cavity.—The limbs of mammals 
vary exceedingly in shape, according to the 
offices to be performed by them; we find the 
hand of man with its thumb opposable to the 
fingers, the four hands of the monkey, the 
paddles of the whale, the walking feet of the 
horse, the wing of the bat, the paw of the lion, 
the shovel of the mole, all constructed on the 
same type and modified from the same bony 
elements. The anterior limbs are always 
present, with a well developed scapular arch, 
usually kept in place by a clavicle; this last 
is present in man, monkeys, the insectivora, 
squirrels, and bats, but absent in cetaceans, the 
hoofed animals, and some edentates; in most 
carnivora and in some rodents it is imperfect- 
ly developed; it corresponds to the furcular 
bone in birds, and the monotremata have in 
addition the second or coracoid clavicle of 
birds. The shoulder blade is thin, flat, and 
more or less triangular, generally with a well 
marked spine; it is long and narrow in herbi- 
vora, and placed perpendicularly on the anterior 
and lateral portion of the chest; in carnivora 
and rodents, requiring more freedom of motion, 
it is oblique, and so of course is the glenoid 
cavity; jockeys are well aware that an upright 
shoulder is the mark of a stumbling horse. The 
arm bone is nearly straight in man, much bent 
in the carnivora, long in monkeys and sloths, 
and short in ruminants and cetaceans; it is con- 
nected by a ball and socket joint with the scap- 
ula; below it articulates with the radius and 
ulna of the forearm by a hinge joint. The ulna 
is the longest in man and lies on the inside, and 
receives the arm bone in a deep sigmoid cavity ; 
the radius is connected with the wrist, and 
turns with the movements of the hand, rolling 
around and upon the ulna; this independence 
of movement becomes less and less, acccording 
as the limbs are more used as instruments of 
progression; in the carnivora and rodents the 
two bones are distinct, but the rotation is very 
imperfect, and in the hoofed animals generally 
the two make a single bone; the radius seems 
to form the principal bone, the ulna being fre- 
quently, as in the horse and bats, very rudi- 
mentary. The wrist in man consists of eight 
bones in two rows, in other mammals varying 
from five to eleven; to these are attached the 
five parallel metacarpal bones in man, followed 
hy the five fingers, each having three joints, 
except the first or thumb, which has only two; 
in the ruminants the two metacarpals form 
the single cannon bone, sometimes with rudi- 
mentary bones on the side, as the splint bones 
of the horse; most pachyderms have three 


metacarpals, the elephant having five. In ani- 
mals which walk on the ends of the toes, the 


metacarpus is so lengthened that it has been ~ 


mistaken for the forearm, and supposed there- 
fore to be flexed in an opposite direction to 
that of man; but the lower part of the fore leg 
of a horse, for instance, is in reality the meta- 
carpus, and the part called the knee is the wrist 
joint. The fingers vary from one to five; the 
third or middle finger is the most constant, and 
commonly the longest, and is the only one found 
in the horse; the thumb disappears first, then 
the little finger, and then the fourth finger; 
ruminants have the second and third, or fore 
and middle fingers. The hind limbs are more 
firmly connected to the trunk than the ante- 
rior; the supporting arch is the pelvis, com- 
posed of the ilium, ischium, and pubis on each 
side, the first joining the sacrum, the second 
forming the prominences upon which man sits, 
and the third uniting in front; in cetaceans 
there is only a rudiment of this bony arch, and 
the hind limbs are absent. The thigh bone, 
the longest in man, is in most other mammals 
relatively shorter; it is attached by a ball and 
socket joint to the pelvis, in man its axis being 
nearly that of the body, but in the lower mam- 
mals bending more and more forward until 
it forms an acute angle with the trunk. The 


tibia and fibula correspond to the radius and - 


ulna of the forearm, and have the patella or 
knee-pan in front of the articulation with the 
thigh bone; these are coalesced in various ani- 
mals somewhat as are the radius and ulna; the 
tarsal bones correspond to the carpal, and are 
followed in the same manner by the metatarsus 
and toes. In the apes the great toe is opposable 
to the others, like the thumb, whence they are 
called guadrumana, four-handed; while man 
rests his whole foot, from the heel to the toes, 
on the ground, other mammals walk chiefly on 
the toes; the horse stands on the tips of the 
middle fingers and toes, the heel being nearly 
as high up as the knee in man, the cat on the 
last two joints of several toes, and the bear on 
the metatarsus and toes; there is no animal, ex- 
cept man, that can be properly said to touch 
the ground with the entire foot; in the seals 
all the bones of the leg and foot may be recog- 
nized, but they are united by a membranous web 
into a kind of caudal fin. The bones of mam- 
mals have not the air cells found in birds, but 
are either solid or their cavities are filled with 
an oily matter called marrow ; there are, how- 
ever, air cavities called sinuses, especially large 
in the frontal bone of ruminants, as in the ox 
and sheep, and greatly developed in the fron- 
tal region of the elephant; these communicate 
either with the nasal or auditory passages.— 
While most mammals resemble man in the 
arrangement of the muscles, others approach 
birds and even fishes in this respect; as they 
are less active than birds, their muscles are less 
firm and the tendons less liable to ossify ; they 
are generally fewer in number than in man, 
and their variations from the human type are 


MAMMALIA 


noticed chiefly in the limbs; in the mole, for 
instance, the flexors of the arm, the great pec- 
toral, and the latissimus dorsi are very large ; 
the herbivora and pachyderms require mas- 
sive muscles, and the agile carnivora compact 
and energetic ones; the muscles of the ears 
are specially developed in the herbivora, and 
those of the nose in the hog; the gluteus maz- 
imus, the largest of all in man, is much small- 
er in the monkeys, and very small in the low- 
er mammals; the nates in the horse are com- 
posed. principally of the gluteus medius ; the 
muscles of the calf, so characteristic of man, 
are small in all below him, and the short mus- 
cles of the human hand are absent in the low- 
er mammals; those of the wings in bats are 
arranged somewhat as in birds, and those of 
cetaceans as in fishes. A muscle remarkably 
developed in many mammals, but rudimen- 
tary in man, is the cutaneous layer, the pan- 
niculus carnosus, of which the human analogue 
is the platysma myoides of the sides of the 
neck and face; we notice its action in the 
horse when a fly or any irritating object touch- 
es the skin, in the erection of the quills of 
the porcupine, and in the coiling of the body 
of the armadillo and hedgehog. The minute 
coccygeal muscles of man are represented 
by numerous and powerful ones in the pre- 
hensile tail of certain monkeys, in the strong 
trowel of the beaver, and in the fluke of 
the whale, analogous to the human multifidus 
spine.—In man and mammals the heart is 
composed of two distinct halves, each divided 
into two cavities, an auricle and a ventricle; 
the course of the blood is from the left ventri- 
cle to the aorta and over the body, pure arte- 
rial; then traversing the systemic capillaries 
it enters into the veins, and is carried to the 
right auricle; thence it passes to the right ven- 
tricle, and thence by the pulmonary artery to 
the lungs, in whose capillaries it becomes pu- 
rified by the oxygen of the respired air, and 
is returned by the pulmonary veins to the 
left auricle, whence it enters the left ventricle 
to be distributed as before. Here, therefore, 
the blood passes twice through the heart and 
through two systems of capillaries before com- 
pleting its circle; hence the circulation is called 
double, and it is also complete, as the whole 
mass of the blood is purified in the lungs before 
itis sent over the body. Before birth, when the 
lungs are impervious, the auricles communicate 
directly, and one or more vessels pass from the 
right ventricle to the aorta, conveying the blood 
over the body without sending it to the lungs; 
but when respiration begins these communica- 
tions between the arterial and venous systems 
are closed. In the dugong the two ventricles 
are separated by a deep cleft; in some mam- 
mals the right auricle receives three ven cave ; 
the apex is not inclined to the left, as in man, ex- 
cept in some monkeys, and in some hoofed ani- 
mals two small flat bones are imbedded in the 
substance of the left ventricle. In cetaceans 
there is a plexiform arrangement of the arte- 


ei) 


ries of the walls of the chest, allowing an ac- 
cumulation of blood in them, to be used as re- 
quired during prolonged submersion ; in many 
ruminants the internal carotid forms a rete 
mirabile, or network of vessels, at the entrance 
of the skull, doubtless to prevent injury to the 
brain from too great force of the blood while 
the head is in a dependent position; in the 
slow-moving sloths the arteries of the limbs 
communicate very freely, rendering compres- 
sion during their climbing impossible except in 
a few vessels at a time. A similar disposition 
prevails in the venous system; in the seal and 
otter, as in the ducks, the inferior cava is di- 
lated into a receptacle which holds the blood 
while they are under water, and only permits 
it to pass on to the lungs when they come to 
the surface; in the porpoise tortuous sinuses 
receive the intércostal veins, and in the foot 
of the horse a fine network is distributed on 
the front of the coffin bone. The heart is 
composed of muscular fibres, each cavity hav- 
ing its own, arranged in a spiral manner from 
the point to the base; the course of the blood 
is directed from the auricles to the ventricles 
by the mitral valve on the left side and the 
tricuspid on the right, kept in place by tendi- 
nous cords attached to fleshy columns, and the 
entrances of the aorta and pulmonary artery are 
guarded each by three semilunar valves which 
prevent regurgitation. The lungs of mammals 
are almost always in pairs, and hang freely in 
the chest suspended by the straight windpipe, 
and enclosed within the serous cavity lined by 
the pleura; the air tubes are distributed to all 
their parts, and the pulmonary cells are minute- 
ly subdivided and do not communicate with 
any other air cells in the body as they do in 
birds. The windpipe varies much in length, 
in the number of its rings (which are from 14 
to 78), and in their completeness; the cartilages 
do not generally form a complete circle, being 
membranous posteriorly, and in the whales the 
membranous portion is said to be in front. The 
mechanism of the mammalian respiration has 
been described under Drapuracm, the muscular’ 
partition which separates the thoracic and ab- 
dominal cavities in this class.—The voice, under 
the control of the will, is produced by the pas- 
sage of air from the lungs over certain organs 
in the larynx or upper portion of the wind- 
pipe; in man the larynx is a short and wide 
tube, suspended as it were from the hyoid 
bone, formed of cartilaginous plates, called the 
thyroid, cricoid, and two arytenoid cartilages ; 
the prominence commonly called ‘‘ Adam’s 
apple” is the anterior surface of the thyroid 
cartilage. The mucous membrane forms two 
lateral folds from before backward, like the 
lips of a buttonhole, the vocal cords or liga- 
ments; above these are two other folds, be- 
tween which and the vocal cords is a cavity 
on each side, the ventricle of the larynx; the 
space between these four folds is the glottis, 
which is covered above, during the passage of 
food or drink, by a fibro-cartilaginous tongue, 


78 


the epiglottis. In ordinary respiration the air 
passes noiselessly ; but when the will contracts 
or otherwise modifies these cords, sound is 
produced, which in man becomes articulate 
speech by the action of the pharynx, nasal pas- 
sages, and parts contained within the mouth. 
The epiglottis exists in all mammals, but it is 
sometimes divided at the upper end; in ceta- 
ceans, the larynx ascends to the posterior 
nares and communicates with the blow-hole 
on the top of the head. The lion’s roar de- 
pends on the great size of the larynx ; the 
grunt of the hog is produced in cavities com- 
municating with its ventricles; the neigh of 
the horse by vibration of folds connected with 
the vocal cords; the bray of the ass by re- 
verberation in a large cavity with small aper- 


- ture under the thyroid cartilage; in the howl- 


ing monkeys the hyoid bone is dilated into 
a bony pouch, and each ventricle opens into 
a large membranous sac, in which the loud 
sounds of these animals are produced; in the 
marsupials the voice is very weak.—The uri- 
nary system of mammals consists of secretory 
organs (the kidneys), and a reservoir for the 
secreted fluid (the bladder), communicating 
with the former by the ureters and externally 
by the urethrg. The kidneys of mammals pre- 
sent the same external cortical and internal 
tubular portions as in man, and also the supra- 
renal capsules, in the lumbar region near the 
vertebres and external to the peritoneal sac; 
they differ somewhat in form, being more or 
less lobulated, as in the human foetus, in ceta- 
ceans, seals, otters, bears, the elephant, and 
ox; the lobules vary from 10 in the otter to 
130 in the seals, in cetaceans resembling a 


bunch of grapes; in all, except the monotre-: 


mata, the ureters open into the bladder; in 
these into the urethra, as in chelonians. The 
bladder is generally more loosely connected in 
other mammals than in man; it is largest in 
the herbivora, smaller and more muscular in 
the carnivora and rodents. The chemical com- 
position of the urine is about the same in car- 
nivora as in man, except in the absence of uric 
acid; in the herbivora it is alkaline, contain- 
ing hippuric acid and much earthy carbonate. 
In the stags, below the inner angle of the 
eyes, there is an opening communicating with 
a large membranous pouch, from the glands of 
which is secreted a brownish liquid, flowing 
down the sides of the face, like tears; many 
animals have glands on the abdomen, in the 
groins, or about the genito-anal openings, 
whose secretion is very odorous, as in the musk 
deer, beaver, civet, and skunk.—The special 
internal male organs are the testes, which se- 
crete the sperm, with certain accessory glands 
(as the prostate and Cowper’s), and seminal 
receptacles or vesicule; in the female the 
germs are formed in the ovaries, whence they 
escape through the Fallopian tubes into the 
uterus, and thence when full-grown externally ; 
as the name mammal imports, they have also 
external glands for the secretion of milk, the 


MAMMALIA 


mamme or breasts. The testes may be per- 
manently external, as in the dog; always ab- 
dominal, as in the seal, elephant, and cetace- 
ans; or external during the rutting season, 
and at other times internal, as in the mole and 
porcupine. The epididymis is usually largely 
developed; the seminal vesicles are found in 
monkeys, bats, rodents, and pachyderms, but 
are wanting in carnivora, most plantigrades, 
ruminants, and marsupials; the prostate gland 
exists in some form in all mammals; the ab- 
sence of Cowper’s glands in most pachyderms, 
rodents, and carnivora shows that their action 
is not essential to reproduction. The human 
ovaries are two oval, glandular bodies, about 
an inch long, in the posterior portion of the 
broad ligaments; each contains about 20 Graa- 
fian vesicles, enclosing an ovum. All the in- 
ternal organs, except the uterus, are much 
alike in the other mammalia. This last organ, 
single in the monkeys, is in carnivora, many 
rodents, pachyderms, ruminants, and cetaceans, 
generally divided at the base into two horns 
(cornua), each sometimes having its distinct 
opening; in marsupials the ovaries are more 
or less racemose, as in birds. In most mam- 
mals, after the fecundated ovum has descend- 
ed through the Fallopian tube (in the higher 
orders about the 12th day), an intimate vas- 
cular connection takes place between the si- 
nuses of the parent and the chorion of the 
foetus, forming the placenta, which continues 
to supply the young with nutriment until it is 
capable of an independent existence. The period 
of utero-gestation, about 270 days in the human 
mammal, varies in the different families. This 
group of placental mammals has been called 
monodelphians to distinguish them from the 
didelphians, which include the marsupials and 
monotremata; the former have a more perfect 
brain, with its hemispheres united by a corpus 
callosum ; the latter bring forth their young 
in a very imperfect condition, but have the 
brain destitute of a corpus callosum, the ab- 
dominal walls supported in front by two bones 
arising from the pubis, and an external pouch 
for the reception of the young. Prof. Jeffries 
Wyman (“‘ Proceedings of the Boston Society 
of Natural History,” vol. vi., p. 863), from the 
examination of a large number of fetal pigs, 
has shown that the above division of mammals 
into ‘‘placentals” and ‘‘implacentals” is not 
well defined; he found that in pigs there is, 
strictly speaking, no placenta, the maternal 
and fcetal vessels being in relation only by 
means of very minute diffused villi and slight 
foldings of the chorion; this condition is in- 
termediate between those of marsupials and 
ruminants, and shows such a gradual transi- 
tion in this respect that the former must be 
brought nearer than has been usually admitted 
to ordinary mammalia. Mammary glands ex- 
ist in both sexes, but serve for purposes of 
lactation only in the female; the number is 
generally in relation with the number of the 
young at a birth; there are 2 in monkeys, 


MAMMALIA 


the elephant, the goat, and the horse; 4 in 
the cow, the stag, and the lion; 8 in the cat; 
10 in the hog, rabbit, and rat; and 12 or 14 
in the agouti. The position also varies; in 
monkeys and bats they are on the chest, in 
most carnivora on the chest and abdomen, and 
in the ruminants far back between the pos- 
terior limbs; in marsupials they are concealed 
within the abdominal pouch. Some mammals 
are born with the eyes open, and are at once 
able to run in search of food; many, however, 
are born with the eyes closed and in a very 
weak condition; and a few, as the marsupials, 
leave the uterus in such an imperfect state that 
they would perish did not the parent place 
them in her pouch, where they complete their 
development, each suspended to a teat. In the 
monotremata (ornithorhynchus, &c.), which 
seem to form the connecting link between the 
mammals and birds, in addition to the horny 
bill, cloaca, and bird-like ovaries, there are the 
form, external covering, skeleton, and milk- 
secreting glands of the mammals.—As to phys- 
ical distribution, some mammals dwell entirely 
in the sea, as the cetaceans and most seals; 
some of the latter and the sirenoid pachyderms 
(manatee, &c.), live chiefly in fresh water; 
others, beavers, muskrats, the ornithorhyn- 
chus, &c., frequent rivers and lakes; but most 
live upon the land, some on mountains like the 
chamois and ibex, some on plains like the 
antelopes and bison, some on trees like the 
apes, squirrels, and sloths; others sail or fly in 
the air like the flying lemur and the bats, and 
others live under ground like the moles. For 
these different methods of progression and 
habits of life, the limbs are variously adapted 
by modifications of the same few osseous ele- 
ments, and the.study of fossil mammals de- 
velops the same order in past geological ages. 
The study of the geographical distribution of 
mammals shows that the number of genera and 
species increases from the poles to the equator, 
with the exception of the whales and seals, 
which are most numerous in the polar regions; 
within the northern arctic circle there are spe- 
cies common to both hemispheres, as the arc- 
tic fox, white bear, reindeer, and ermine; in 
temperate North America the species are dif- 
ferent from those of the eastern hemisphere, 
and in South America even the genera from 
those of the old world, as those including the 
peccary, llama, armadillo, ant-eater, sloth, cavy, 
agouti, vampire bat, marmoset, the howling and 
prehensile-tailed monkeys; the raccoon and 
muskrat are exclusively American; the hog, 


horse, camel, rhinoceros, elephant, lion, tiger, 


lemurs, and anthropoid apes belong now to 
the eastern world; the giraffe, hippopotamus, 
chimpanzee, and most of the antelopes, are 
African; all the marsupials (except the Ameri- 
can opossums) and the monotremata are Aus- 
tralian, while the stags, squirrels, cats, bears, 
dogs, and bats are absent from this region. 
The marsupials, though forming scarcely one 
fifteenth of the land mammals in the world, 
527 VOL. x1.—6 


79 


constitute three fourths of the mammalian 
fauna of Australia; exclusive of cetaceans and 
seals, the rodents form one third of the entire 
number of species of the world, the bats and 
carnivora one third, the remaining third being 
chiefly the monkeys, ruminants, marsupials, 
and insectivora, according to Van der Hoeven; 
in Europe, wanting marsupials and monkeys, 
the rodents are one third, bats one sixth, and 
insectivora about one thirteenth; in North 
America the species of rodents form perhaps 
half the entire number of land mammals; the 
large pachyderms, edentates, and the apes be- 
long to the warm regions, most of the latter 
being African; the insectivora are almost pe- 
culiar to the northern hemisphere, and the le- 
murs are most common in the southern. Ex- 
cepting the whales and bats, mammals do not 
migrate, but spend the summer and winter in 
the same locality ; the whales pass the summer 
in the polar regions, and come southward in 
winter into the lower Atlantic. The phenom- 
ena of hibernation or winter-sleep in mammals 
have been described under the former title.— 
Mamma coey includes the classification of mam- 
malia. The mammalia were first separated from 
other four-footed animals by Aristotle, who 
called them zoétoca or viviparous animals; he 
divided them into three sections according to 
their locomotive organs: 1, dipoda, or bipeds; 
2, tetrapoda, or quadrupeds; 3, apoda, impeds 
or whales. The quadrupeds, including all but 
man and the cetaceans, he subdivided into two 
great groups according to the modifications of 
the organs of touch, in the first of which the 
ends of the digits are left free for the sense of 
feeling, the nail being on the upper surface 
only, and in the second the feet ending in 
hoofs, corresponding respectively to the un- 
guiculata and ungulata of Ray. The unguicu- 
lates he divided by the teeth into three fami- 
lies: 1, those with cutting incisors and tritu- 
rating or flattened molars, like the apes (pithe- 
coida) and the bats (dermaptera); 2, those 
with canine or carnivorous teeth, carcharo- 
donta or gampsonucha ; 3, those correspond- 
ing to the rodents, with the negative character 
of the absence of canine teeth. The ungulate 
or hoofed quadrupeds he divided, according to 
the organs of motion, into: 1, polyschid@ or 
multungulates, like the elephant; 2, dischide 
or bisulcates, including the ruminants (mery- 
cizonta) and the hogs; and 38, aschida@, or so- 
lidungulates, like the horse. The apodal quad- 
rupeds included the cetaceans or cetoda. It 
thus appears that Aristotle clearly perceived 
the principles upon which mammals are classi- 
fied by the best modern naturalists.—This ar- 
rangement was not improved upon until John 
Ray published his Synopsis in 1693 in London, 
and his improvements relate to the four-foot- 
ed mammals. In his ungulate quadrupeds he 
places the solipedous (as the horse), the bisul- 
cate ruminants (like the ox and stag) or non- 
ruminants (as the hog), and the quadrisulcate 
(rhinoceros and hippopotamus); in the un- 


80 


guiculate the feet are either bifid (as in the 
camel), or multifid with digits adhering togeth- 
er (as in the elephant), with distinct depressed 
digits (as in apes), or compressed (as in car- 
nivora, insectivora, rodents, and edentates). 
—Linneus founded his primary divisions on 
the locomotive organs, deriving his orders 
from the modifications of the teeth; in his 
earlier editions of the Systema Natura, up to 
the 10th, he called the class guadrupedia, in- 
cluding the cetaceans among fishes ; in his 12th 
edition (1766) he makes seven orders, as fol- 
lows: A. Unguiculata: I., primates, with four 
front cutting teeth, including man, the mon- 
keys, and bats (4 genera); Il., ruta, with no 
front teeth in either jaw, including the ele- 
phant, walrus, and edentates (6 genera); II., 
fere, with front teeth, conical and long canines, 
including the carnivora, opossum, and insecti- 
vora (10 genera); IV., glires, with two front 
cutting teeth in each jaw, including the ro- 
dents (6 genera). B. Ungulata: V., pecora, 
with cutting front teeth in the lower jaw, but 
none in the upper, including the ruminants (6 
genera); VI., belluw, with obtuse front teeth 
in both jaws, including the pachyderms gen- 
erally (4 genera). O. Mutica: VIL, cete, with 
horny or bony teeth, pectoral fins instead of 
feet, and horizontal flattened tail, including the 
cetaceans (4 genera). He thus made 40 genera 
in all. Linneeus followed Ray in placing the 
elephant among the wnguiculata, an error 
avoided by Aristotle. In 1798 Cuvier pub- 
lished his Tableau élémentaire des animaua, 
in which he laid down the basis of his classi- 
fication, which was variously modified until 
the second edition of his Régne animal in 
1829; in that work he makes the nine fol- 
lowing orders of mammalia: bimana, qua- 
drumana, carnivora, marsupialia, rodentia, 
edentata, pachydermata, ruminantia, and ce- 
tacea. In his first edition the marsupials were 
ranked among carnivora, and in the Zubleau 
élémentaire there were three grand divisions: 
I., unguiculata, with the orders bimana, qua- 
drumana, cheiroptera, plantigrada, carnivo- 
ra, pedimana, rodentia, edentata, and tardi- 
grada ; Il., ungulata, with the orders pachy- 
dermata, ruminantia, and solipeda ; and IIL., 
mutica, with the orders amphibia and cetacea. 
—The systems-of Blumenbach, Illiger, and 
Desmarest differ little from that of Cuvier, ex- 
cept in the names of the orders and their sub- 
divisions. De Blainville (1822) makes in the 
type osteozoaria, or vertebrates, the sub-type 
vivipara and the class pilifera or mammifera, 
with the divisions monadelphya and didelphya. 
Temminck (1827) makes the 11 orders of man, 
monkeys, bats, carnivora, marsupials, rodents, 
edentates, pachyderms, ruminants, cetaceans, 
and monotremata. Fischer, in his Synopsis 
Mammatlium (1829), makes the nine orders 
of primates (man and monkeys), cheiroptera 
(bats), fere (carnivora), besti@ (insectivora and 
marsupials), glires (rodents), bruta (edentates 
and monotremata), bellue (pachyderms and 


MAMMALIA 


solipeds), pecora (ruminants), and cete (her- 
bivorous and ordinary cetaceans). — McLeay 
(1821), the founder of the quinary classifica- 
tion, makes five orders of mammals, which 
may be arranged in a tabular form as follows: 


Mammals. Characters, Birds. 
1. Fere. Carnivorous. Raptores. 
2. Primates. Omnivorous. Insessores. 
8. Glires. Frugivorous. Rasores. 
4. Ungulata. Frequenting the vicin- Gradiatores. 
ity of water. 
5, Cetacea. Aquatic. Natatores. 


This shows the analogies between mammals 
and birds, in regard to food and _ habits, 
which were afterward modified by Swainson 
(1835) as follows: I., typical group, quadru- 
mana, organized for grasping, analogous to 
insessorial birds; IL, sub-typical, fe7@, with 
retractile claws and carnivorous, to the rap- 
tores ; III., aberrant group, including cetacea, 
eminently aquatic, with very short feet, to 
natatores ; glires, with lengthened and point- 
ed muzzle, to grallatores ; and wngulata, with 
crests on the head, to rasores.—Oken in 1802 
divided animals into five classes according to 
the organs of sense; this view is elaborated 
in his *“‘ Physiophilosophy” (Ray society edi- 
tion, 1847); of these five classes the fifth and 
highest is the ophthalmozoa or mammalia, so 
called because in them the eyes are movable 
and covered with two perfect lids, the other 
sense organs having however suffered no deg- 
radation; he also calls them thricozoa or pi- 
lose animals on account of their hairy cover- 
ing, and esthetic or sensorial animals from 
the completion and combination of all the or- 
gans of sense. They belong to his province 
of sarcozoa or flesh animals. His divisions 
are as follows: A. Splanchno-thricozoa: or- 
der I., rodents; II., edentates and marsupials; 
III., insectivora and cheiroptera. B. Sarco- 
thricozoa: IV., ungulata, O. Atsthesio-thri- 
cozoa: V., unguiculata. Every family of the 
thricozoa contains five genera, in accordance 
with the five organs of sense; the human 
family or genus has also five varieties on the 
same principle: 1, the skin man, the black 
African; 2, the tongue man, the brown Aus- 
tralian and Malay; 3, the nose man, the red 
American; 4, the ear man, the yellow Mongo- 
lian; and 5, the eye man, the white Euro- 
pean.—Another philosophical system is that 
of Carus. The mammalia are made the sev- 
enth class of his third circle, the cephalozoa. 
He makes ten orders, as follows: 1, natantia, 
or herbivorous and carnivorous cetaceans, with 
evident relations with fishes; 2, reptantia, or 
monotremata and edentates, related to rep- 
tiles; 38, volitantia, bats and flying lemurs, 
related to birds; 4, mergentia, seals and wal- 
rus, a repetition of the first; 5, marsupialia, a 
repetition of the second; 6, glires or rodents, 
a repetition of the third; 7, pachydermata, a 
second repetition of the first; 8, ruminantia, 
a second repetition of the second, indicated 
by the fifth, which is half ruminant; 9, jerae, 


MAMMALIA 


a second repetition of the third; and 10, 
quadrumana, having relations with man.— 
Che fundamental idea of the classification of 
Fitzinger (1843) is the same as that of Oken, 
the class mammalia having five series, accord- 
ing to the development of the organs of sense, 
and each series three orders, viz. : 


Touon, TASTE. SMELL. 
Cetacea. Pachydermata. Edentata. 
it. Balanodea. 1. Phocina. 1. Monotremata, 


2. Delphinodea. 2. Obesa. 2. Lipodonta. 


8. Stirenia. 8. Ruminantia. 8. Tardigrada. 
HEARING. VISION. 
Onguiculata. Primates. 
1. Glires. 1. Chiropteri. 
2. Bruta. 2. Heméipithect. 
8. Fere. 3. Anthropomorphi. 


—Of the embryological systems of classifica- 
tion may be mentioned those of Von Baer, 
Van Beneden, and Vogt. Von Baer (1828) 
proposed the following divisions of this class 
of his doubly symmetrical or vertebrate type, 
with osseous skeleton, lungs, an allantois, and 
an umbilical cord: the cord may disappear 
early, 1, without connection with the mother 
(monotremata), or 2, after a short connection 
with the mother (marsupialia); or the cord 
may be longer persistent, 1, the yolk sac con- 
tinuing to grow for a long time, the allantois 
growing little (rodentia), moderately (insec- 
tivora), or much (carnivora), or 2, the yolk 
sac increasing slightly, the allantois growing 
‘ little and the umbilical cord very long (mon- 
keys and man), continuing to grow for a 
long time and the placenta in simple masses 
(ruminants), or growing for a long time and 
the placenta spreading (pachyderms and ceta- 
ceans). According to Vogt (1851), mammals 
may be arranged in two divisions: I., aplacen- 
taria, with the orders monotremata and mar- 
supialia ; and II., placentaria, with series 1, 
composed of the orders cetacea, pachyder- 
mata, solidungula, ruminantia, and edentata ; 
series 2, of the orders pinnipedia and carni- 
vora; and series 3, of the orders insectivora, 
volitantia, glires, gquadrumana, and bimana. 
Van Beneden (1855), in the class mammalia 
of his hypocotyledones or hypovitellians (ver- 
tebrates), in which the vitellus or yolk enters 
the body from the ventral side, establishes the 
ten orders primates, cheiroptera, msectiwora, 
rodentia, carnivora, edentata, proboscidea, un- 
gulata, sirenoidea, and cetacea. Prof. Baird 
(in vol. viii. of the ‘ Pacific Railroad Survey,” 
1857) adopts the following arrangement: A, 
unguiculata, with the orders: 1, guadrumana ; 
2, cheiroptera; 8, rapacia; 4, marsupialia ; 
5, rodentia ; and 6, edentata ;—B, ungulata, 
with orders: 7, solidungula; 8, pachyder- 
mata; and 9, ruminantia ;—O, pinnata, with 
orders: 10, pinnipedia ; and 11, cetacea. 
All of these, except the first, are found in 
North America; the horse, though not now 
existing native, was formerly an inhabitant of 
this country. Agassiz, in his essay on classifi- 
sation (1857), makes mammals the eighth class 


81 


of vertebrates, with only the three orders of 
marsupialia, herbivora, and carnivora.—Owen 
(in the article ‘‘ Mammalia” in the ‘‘ Cyclope- 
dia of Anatomy and Physiology,” 1847) admits 
in the sub-class of placentalia the ten orders 
of bimana, guadrumana, cheiroptera, insecti- 
vora, carnivora, cetacea, pachydermata, rumi- 
nantia, edentata, and rodentia, and in the 
sub-class implacentalia the orders marsupialia 
and monotremata ; the monkeys by the galeo- 
pithecus are connected with the cheiroptera, 
and by the lemurs with the carnivora; the 
last by otaria are related to cetacea, which 
in turn have certain affinities with the fishes; 
the rodents are connected with ruminants by 
the musk deer; the monotremata lead to rep- 
tiles. —Before introducing the more recent 
classification of mammals by Prof. Owen, ac- 
cording to the cerebral system, the reader 
should be reminded that until the time of 
Cuvier the principal subdivisions were based 
upon the Aristotelian characters derived from 
the organs of locomotion, the secondary groups 
being established on the peculiarities of the 
dental system; Cuvier added others drawn 
from the osseous and generative systems; De 
Blainville in 1816 first adopted the division, 
according to the method of reproduction, into 
monodelphs, didelphs, and ornithodelphs, or or- 
dinary mammals, marsupials, and monotremes, 
retaining for the most part the Linnean or- 
ders. Classification by the placenta seems to 
have been first proposed by Sir Everard Home, 
but, as modified by successive naturalists, leads 
to many unnatural affinities; placing, for in- 
stance, rodents and insectivora with monkeys, 
and solipeds, pachyderms, and some ruminants 
with the carnivorous cetaceans. Prince Bona- 
parte, in his Systema Vertebratorum (1840), 
adopts the division of placentalia and impla- 
centalia, subdividing the first into the sub- 
classes of educabilia and ineducabilia, the lat- 
ter including the orders bruta, cheiroptera, in- 
sectivora, and rodentia, with the common char- 
acter of a single-lobed cerebrum; Prof. Owen 
regards this as the most important improve- 
ment since the establishment of the natural 
character of the ovo-viviparous or implacental 
division. In 1845 Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hi- 
laire raised the marsupials to the rank of a 
distinct class, making its subdivisions orders 
equivalent to those of the placentalia ; Owen, 
however, did not regard them as groups of 
equal rank and value. In 1849 Prof. Owen, 
from the consideration of the times of forma- 
tion and the succession of the teeth, divided 
mammals into two groups, monophyodonts, or 
those which generate a single set of teeth (as 
the monotremata, bruta, and cetacea), and the 
diphyodonts, or those which generate two sets 
of teeth (comprising the great bulk of the 
class); at the same time he wished it to be 
clearly understood that this dental character 
is not so associated with other organic charac- 
ters as to indicate natural or equivalent sub- 
classes. As early as 1842 he drew attention 


82 


to the value of the principal modifications of 
the mammalian brain in regard to their asso- 
ciation with concurrent modifications in other 
systems of organs; it was not till 1857, how- 
ever, that he felt himself justified in proposing 
to the Linnean society a fourfold division of 
this class, based upon the four leading modifi- 
cations of the cerebral structure. His first 
and lowest group or sub-class is called lyen- 
cephala, signifying the loose or disconnected 
state of the cerebral hemispheres, which leave 
exposed the olfactory ganglia, the cerebellum, 
and more or less of the optic lobes, have the 
surface generally smooth, and the anfractu- 
osities, when present, few and simple; in this 
division the absence of the corpus callosum 
commissure is associated with the marsupial 
mode of development and the non-develop- 
ment of the placenta; it includes the mono- 
tremes and marsupials. The next stage in the 
development of the brain is where the corpus 
callosum is present, but the hemispheres leave 
the olfactory lobes and cerebellum exposed, 
and are commonly smooth or with few and 
simple convolutions; these are the lissencepha- 
fa, or smooth-brained mammals, or rodents, 
insectivora, bats, and edentates, in many re- 
spects, in common with the preceding subdi- 
vision, resembling birds and reptiles. The 
third modification is an increased relative size 


MAMMALIA 


of the hemispheres, which extend over more 
or less of the cerebellum and olfactory lobes, 
and have their surface, except in a few of the 
lower quadrumana, folded into more or less 
numerous gyri or convolutions; hence this 
sub-class is called gyrencephala ; among these 
are not found marks of affinity with the ovi- 
para, but the highest mammalian perfection is 
attained, as shown by the size, strength, ac- 
tivity, sagacity, and docility of many of its 
members; this sub-class comprises the other 
orders of mammals, man only excepted. In 
man the hemispheres overlap the olfactory 
lobes and cerebellum, extending in advance of 
the former and further back than the latter; 
in man only is there what is called a third or 
posterior lobe, and in him the superficial gray 
matter attains its highest development through 
the number and depth of its convolutions; as 
representing a distinct sub-class of mammalia, 
and ruling naturally over all the other mem- 
bers of the class, he proposes for man the 
name of archencephala, signifying that he is 
master of the earth and of the lower creation. 
For details on the characters of the secondary 
groups and their distribution in time and 
space, the reader is referred to the original 
paper in the ‘Proceedings of the Linnwan 
Society” of London, vol. ii., pp. 1-87, 1857. 
His tabular arrangement is as follows: 


Class. Sub-class. Order. Family or genus. Example. 
(VAROHENCBPHALA crac sc sents se ccue ot oe es BIMAMNALS Pon sitet ne ETONO SE RATER, sete Man. 
CALaTiinil. sen Ape. 
( QUADRUMANA........... SARE Aare Marmoset. 
- tEPSIThiNG .... 06. Lemur. 
Unguiculata..... Digitigrada........ Dog. 
CARNIVORA seen en ee Plantigrada....... Bear. . 
Pinmnigradd.....2.. Seal. 
OMNMVOTA.........- Hog. 
ARTIODAOUYI:A. eee ie } Runtaghiat ne Sh eep 
Solidungula........Horse. 
GYRENCEPHALA. Taster PERISSODACTYLA........ , Multungula ........ Tapir. 
Fei ee RR Proponeore $ Blepnde ieee ev sks« Elephant. 
cunaanes Are | Dinotherium,. ...... Extinct. 
ab 
TOXODONTIA........004: ; pe Ge, ie NT aa Pi 
MM ORGLUS 2 can ore tere Sea cow. 
MAMMALIA. Mutilata BIRENTA. +. .0.s + 00e sees LOUACOT tern aoe Dugong. 
ie ete es Cexicek | Delphinide.........Porpoise. 
CS" CS aaa Balenide.......... Whale, 
Bradypodide@...... Sloth. 
{ Beuvs 2.0.7! a. eee Dasypodide@........ Armadillo, 
pe LO nierseta Ant-eater. 
CHEIROPTERA.,......ss0e8 ; So hhs lg aeeemnaey Roussette. 
LASSEN GHERATA ob) tro hcercaie, cas5 citi oe ange fo 
INSECTIVOBA.......000- Erinaceid@........ Hedgehog. 
Bee. sel ame Shrew. 
on-claviculata.... Hare. 
RODENTIA 7. -. ose eee ; Clavéculata <2... Rae. 
[ Rhizophaga......... ‘Wombat. 
MARSUPIALIA..........- POE DAGO ae cen nee Kangaroo. 
LYENCEPHALA........... Carpophaga........Phalanger. 
bp ase? GU Sage } Entomophaga.......Opossum, 
| MonoTREMATA.......... ; WCRIGNG Vos anancee Echidna. 
Ornithorhynchus....Duck-bill. 


The later classification of Huxley does not dif- 
fer materially in its orders from that of Owen. 
—Among the many recent American labor- 
ers in the department of mammalian classifica- 
tion may be mentioned Prof. Theodore Gill 
of Washington, D. C., whose articles on this 
subject, too long to be condensed here, will 
be found in the “ Proceedings of the American 


Association for the Advancement of Science” 
for 1870 and 1871.—The fossil mammals must 
be considered before the student can form an 
idea of the affinities of the class; these and the 
orders of existing mammalia will be treated 
under their respective titles. The mammalian 
class has existed certainly from the lower odlitic 
period, and probably from the triassic; during 


MAMMARY GLANDS 


this immense lapse of time genera and species 
have changed, either that they have been newly 
created at the several epochs, or, as Darwin and 
others maintain, have been modified by pro- 
cesses of natural selection and development, 
many original and intermediate forms having 
become extinct, and, from the imperfection of 
the geological record, as yet having afforded 
no indication of their existence. None of the 
mammalian genera of the secondary epoch have 
been found in the tertiary ones; no genus of 
the older eocene has been discovered in the 
newer; very few eocene genera have been 
found in the miocene, and none in the pliocene;. 
many of the miocene genera are peculiar to 
that division, and some indistinguishable from 
existing species begin to appear only in the 
newer pliocene; while the perissodactyls and 
omnivorous artiodactyls have been gradually 
dying out, the true ruminants have been in- 
creasing in genera and species. One class of 
organs seems to govern one order, and another 
class another order; for example, the teeth, 
which are so diversified in marsupials and 
edentates, are remarkable for the constancy of 
their characters in rodents and insectivora; 
and as a general rule, the characters from the 
dental, locomotive, and placental systems are 
more closely correlated in the gyrencephala 
than in the two inferior sub-classes. 

MAMMARY GLANDS, the organs which secrete 
the nutritive fluid, milk, by which the young 
of man and the mammalia are nourished during 
the early periods of life. They vary from 
two in the human female to 10 or 12 in the 
lower mammals, and may be pectoral as in 
the former, or pectoral and abdominal, or only 
abdominal, as in the latter. Each gland is 
made up of a number of separate lobules, 
more or less closely connected by fibrous tissue 
and fat, and bound down by the same to the 
pectoral or abdominal muscles. The lactifer- 
ous tubes arising from the minute ultimate 
follicles of the lobules terminate in the mam- 
millary tubes of the nipple, 10 or 12 in the hu- 
man female, straight but of variable size; at 
the base of the nipple, and extending into the 
gland, are reservoirs for containing a constant 
supply during lactation; these are often much 
larger in the lower animals than in woman. 
The skin covering them is very delicate and 
smooth; the colored circle around the nipple is 
called the areola, which becomes darker during 
and after gestation; the irregular surface of 
the nipple is covered with a very sensitive skin, 
and much erectile tissue enters into its sub- 
stance. The tubes are lined with a very vascu- 
lar mucous membrane, which has its own 
secretion sometimes in considerable quantity. 
These glands, especially during lactation, are 
well supplied with blood from branches of the 
subclavian and axillary arteries; their nerves 
come from the brachial plexus and the inter- 
costals, and the sympathetic plexus accompa- 
nying the mammary arteries. The inner sur- 
face of the follicles is covered with a layer of 


MAMMEE APPLE 83 


epithelium cells, the real agents in the secreting 
process. They present no great difference in 
size in the sexes until near the age of puberty, 
when a considerable enlargement takes place 
in the female; from the increased supply of 
blood during gestation, there is a sense of ten- 
derness and distention which is one of the 
earliest and most valuable signs of pregnancy. 
These glands in the male are miniatures of 
those of the female, but the essential structure 
is the same, as is shown by the authentic cases 
in which they have become sufficiently devel- 
oped in men to produce a secretion of true milk. 
Though the functional activity of these glands 
is naturally limited to the period succeeding 
parturition, their secretion is sometimes seen 
in virgins and in aged women, in whom a 
strong desire to furnish milk and a continual 
irritation of the nipple by the infant’s mouth 
have stimulated the organs to unnatural ac- 
tivity. The prolonged secretion of milk in 
domestic cows, which usually lasts for about 
ten months after calving, is simply a continued 
action of these glands due to artificial treat- 
ment. The presence of these organs has given 
the name to the mammalia, the highest class 
of vertebrated animals, implying a mode of 
intra-uterine and extra-uterine development 
not found in birds, reptiles, or fishes. Physio- 
logically these glands belong to the generative 
system, and are gradually removed from the 
caudal to the pectoral region, as we ascend 
from cetaceans to the human female; the for- 
ward, outward, and upward direction of the 
nipples is exactly adapted to the position of 
the child lying in its mother’s arms, and the 
greater abundance of the lactiferous tubes at 
the lower portion of the breast forms a soft 
cushion for its head to rest upon. In the 
African and sometimes in other races, after lac- 
tation, the skin covering the breasts becomes 
so lax, and the organs so elongated, that they 
can be thrown over the shoulders like bags. 
The mammary glands are subject to many 
painful and dangerous diseases, among which 
may be mentioned acute and chronic inflam- 
mations, abscesses, and encysted, fibrous, and 
cancerous tumors; they are sometimes enor- 
mously overloaded with fat. 

MAMMEE APPLE (mammea Americana), a 
handsome tree of 60 ft. in height, native of the 
Caribbean islands and the neighboring conti- 
nent. It has large, oval or obovate, shining, 
leathery, opposite leaves, white, sweet-scented 
flowers, and large, round, obsoletely three- or 
four-cornered fruit, which sometimes grows to 
the size of a child’s head. The fruit is cov- 
ered with a double rind; the outer is leathery, 
tough, and brownish yellow; the inner, thin, 
yellow, closely adhering to the flesh, which is 
firm, bright yellow, and of a singular pleasant 
taste and a sweet aromatic smell; but the skin 
and seeds are very bitter and resinous. The 
pulp is eaten alone, or cut up into slices with 
wine and sugar, prepared as a jam or marma- 
lade, or with sirup. From the yellowness of 


84 


the pulp, like that of an apricot, it is called by 
the French abricot sauvage. This fruit is oc- 
casionally brought to our seaport cities, but 
rarely in an eatable condition. The seeds, 


hay 


) 


My 


Mammee Apple. 


which are sometimes as large as hen’s eggs, are 
used as anthelmintics, and an aromatic liquor 
called eau de créole is distilled from the flow- 
ers. The tree belongs to the natural order of 
guttifere. Browne (‘‘ Natural History of Ja- 
maica,” London, 1756) speaks of the species 
as among the largest trees of Jamaica, and 
esteemed among the best timber trees. It has 
been observed that no one can behold this 
tree towering above a cluster of fruit trees 
without a sentiment of respect for it. The 
mammee tree has become naturalized in some 
parts of Africa, where it produces excellent 
fruit. Two or three other species, natives of 
tropical Asia, are known to botanists. 
MAMMOTH, the fossil elephant of Siberia 
(elephas primigenius, Blumenbach), found in 


Mammoth (Elephas primigenius), 


the diluvial strata of Europe and Asia, and 
perhaps also in North America. Large fossil 
bones were alluded to by Theophrastus, Pliny, 
and many ancient authors, and were general- 


MAMMOTII 


ly supposed to be the remains of giant men. 
They are abundant in the drift of central and 
northern Europe, mingled with the bones of 
other pachyderms, principally in river basins; 
in Great Britain, in the Kirkdale cavern of 
Yorkshire; in Sweden and Norway; but most 
abundantly in the frozen region of European 
and Asiatic Russia, about the mouths of riv- 
ers descending into the icy sea; there is in- 
deed hardly a river in Siberia in whose bed 
or on whose banks these remains have not been 
found, as well as in the neighboring plains, in 
connection with bones of other animals now 
strangers to the climate; they are not found in 
the elevated districts. In Siberia fossil ivory is 
so abundant and so well preserved that it gives 
rise to a considerable traffic both for home and 
foreign use. The most remarkable discovery 
in relation to the mammoth was the occurrence 
of a carcass found by a Tungus fisherman in 
a block of ice on the border of the Arctic sea 
in 1799, near the river Lena; in the course of 


Skeleton of Mammoth. 


a few years this immense mass was thawed 
out, and it was found to bean elephant having 
the flesh and soft parts well preserved, with 
the exception of such portions as had been de- 
voured by bears, dogs, and. other carnivorous 
animals; the tusks were very fine, weighing 
300 Ibs., and were removed by the fisherman. 
In 1806 Mr. Adams, travelling for the museum 
of St. Petersburg, visited the locality and 
collected the remains, which were transported 
to St. Petersburg, where this skeleton now is, 
with many others, in a nearly perfect condi- 
tion; he ascertained that the skin had an abun- 
dant covering of hair and wool, indicating that 
it was fitted to resist a cold climate. It is evi- 
dent that the climate of Siberia during the di- 
luvial period was not like that of the regions 
now inhabited by elephants; it must have been 
moderately cold, though such as would permit 
the growth of a vegetation more luxuriant than 
any in the present arctic regions, and sufficient 
for the nourishment of these bulky animals. 
Another more recently discovered specimen 
allowed even a microscopic examination of the 
tissues. The following are the differences be- 


MAMMOTH 


tween the fossil and living elephants, as deter- 
mined by Cuvier. In the former the laminz 
of the teeth are narrower and more numerous 
than in the Indian elephant, which they most 
resemble, with the lines of enamel more slen- 
der and less festooned, and the teeth absolutely 
and relatively wider. The tusks 
are larger than in most living 
specimens, and generally more 
curved, but the structure is the 
same. In the skull, there is much 
greater length and perpendicular- 
ity in the sockets for the tusks; 
the head is more elongated, with 
a greater development of occiput, 
and concave and nearly vertical 
forehead; the long alveoli must 
have modified the trunk, and have 
given the animal a different physi- 
ognomy from that of the pres- 
ent elephant; the antero-posterior length of 
the lower jaw is less, the lower molars are 
parallel instead of converging forward, and 
the jaw is truncated in front instead of having 
a projecting grooved symphysis. The bones 
of the limbs are more massive, and the usual 
distance between the two condyles of the 
femur is reduced to a narrow line. The skin 
is like that of the living elephant, but is cov- 
ered with hair of three kinds; the longest, 12 
or 15 in., is brown and like horse hair; the 
shorter, 9 or 10 in., is more delicate and fawn- 
colored; and the wool at the base of the hair, 
4 or 5 in. long, is fine, smooth, fawn-colored, 
and a little frizzled toward the roots; there is 
a mane on the neck, and the whole covering 
is well suited for a cold climate. The mam- 
moth has never been found living, nor have 
any of the existing elephants been discovered 
in the fossil state; it was probably not much 
if at all higher than the elephants of the pres- 
ent epoch, but was stouter, more clumsy, and 
heavier. Their bones are found mingled with 
those of the rhinoceros, ox, antelope, horse, 
often with marine animals, and sometimes with 
fresh-water shells. They were undoubtedly 
overwhelmed by a comparatively recent and 
sudden catastrophe during some portion of the 
long drift period, accompanied by a depression 
of temperature, and probably by a subsidence 
of the land and an invasion of the sea, general 
over the northern regions of both hemispheres; 
during the preceding tertiary epoch there was 
an elevation of temperature, permitting tropi- 
cal animals to go far to the north; this tem- 
perature gradually became colder, the animals 
becoming adapted for it, as shown by their 
external covering, until they suddenly became 
extinct during the glacial period of the drift. 
From the abundance of the remains found in 
Siberia, it is inferred that elephants were more 
numerous during the diluvian epoch than at 
the present time. To the /. primigenius be- 
long the Siberian fossils, and most, if not all, 
of those of the drift of Europe.—Several spe- 
cies of fossil elephant have been found in 


Tooth of 
Mammoth. 


MAMMOTH CAVE 85 
North America, referred by some to the Z, 
primigenius. Prof. H. D. Rogers (‘ Proceed- 
ings of the Boston Society of Natural His- 
tory,” vol. v., Feb. 1, 1854) drew attention to 
the fact that while the European mammoth is 
found in the drift stratum, the North Ameri- 
can fossil elephant is imbedded in strata above 
the drift, of a distinctly more recent age, and 
was a contemporary of the mastodon giganteus, 
their bones being found together in the marshy 
alluvium of Big Bone Lick; he maintains that 
they lived together in the long period of sur- 
face tranquillity which succeeded the strewing 
of the general drift (the period of the Lauren- 
tian clays), and were overtaken and extermi- 
nated together by the same changes, partly of 
climate, partly of a second but more local dis- 
placement of the waters which reshifted the 
drift, and formed the later lake and river ter- 
races. From figures on bones, it is beyond 
doubt that the mammoth lived with man in 
the early stone age. In the pliocene deposits 
of Kansas and Nebraska Dr. Hayden found 
bones of mastodon and elephant (2. impera- 
tor, Leidy), and a similar coexistence has been ~ 
ascertained in the pliocene of Europe; the re- 
mains of this and #. Americanus have been 
found in Kentucky, Texas, Mexico, Spanish 
America, from Alaska to Georgia and the Mis- 
sissippi valley, and as far west as Oregon and 
California. The elephants of the tertiary sub- 
Himalayan Sivalik hills have been described 
by Cautley and Falconer; in these the dental 
laming are so separated that each forms the 
summit of a ridge, making a transition from 
elephant to mastodon, constituting the genus 
stecodon (Cautley and Falconer). The mam- 
moths of the American continent are now ad- 
mitted to be different species from those of 
Europe and Asia.—For details on the mam- 
moth, see Cuvier’s articles in vol. viii. of the 
Annales du Muséum, and in vol. i. of the Osse- 
mens fossiles ; Pictet’s Traité de paléontologie, 
vol. i.; vol. v. of the ‘‘ Naturalist’s Library,” 
which treats of the pachyderms; and vols. ii. 
and iv. of the ‘“‘ American Naturalist.” 
MAMMOTH CAVE, the largest cavern known, 
situated in Edmondson co., near Green river, in 
Kentucky, about 75 m. 8. 8. W. of Louisville. 
Its mouth is reached by passing down a wild 
rocky ravine through a dense forest; it is an 
irregular, funnel-shaped opening, from 50 to 
100 ft. in diameter at the top, with steep walls 
about 50 ft. high. The cave extends about 
nine miles, and it is said that to visit the por- 
tions already traversed requires from 150 to 
200 miles of travel. This vast interior contains 
a succession of marvellous avenues, chambers, 
domes, abysses, grottoes, lakes, rivers, cataracts, 
&c., which for size and wonderful appearance 
are unsurpassed. The rocks present numer- 
ous forms and shapes of objects in the exter- 
nal world, while stalagmites and stalactites of 
gigantic size and fantastic form abound, though 
not.so brilliant and beautiful as are found in 
some other caves. Chief among the objects of 


86 MAMMOTH CAVE 


interest are Silliman’s avenue, about 14 m. long, 
from 20 to 200 ft. wide, and from 20 to 40 ft. 
high; Marion’s avenue, of about the same 
dimensions; the Star chamber, about 500 ft. 
long and 70 ft. wide, the ceiling of which, 70 
ft. high, is composed of black gypsum, and is 
studded with innumerable white points, which 
by a dim light present a most striking resem- 
blance to stars; and Cleveland’s cabinet, an 
avenue about 2 m. long, spanned by an arch of 
50 ft., with an average central height of 10 ft. 
By many the last is regarded as the most won- 
derful object in the cave. “It is incrusted 
from end to end with the most beautiful for- 
mations in every variety of form. The base 
of the whole is sulphate of lime, in one part of 
dazzling whiteness and perfectly smooth, and 
in other places crystallized so as to glitter like 
diamonds in the light. Growing from this, in 
endless diversified forms, is a substance re- 
sembling selenite, translucent and imperfectly 
laminated. Some of the crystals bear a stri- 
king resemblance to celery, and all are of about 
the same length; while others, a foot or more 
in length, have the color and appearance of 
vanilla cream candy; others are set in sulphate 
of lime, in the form of a rose; and others still 
roll out from the base in forms resembling the 
ornaments on the capital of a Corinthian col- 
umn. Some of the incrustations are massive 
and splendid; others are as delicate as the lily, 
or as fancy work of shell or wood.” Proctor’s 
arcade is a magnificent natural tunnel three 
fourths of a mile long and 100 ft. wide, cov- 
ered by a ceiling of smooth rock, 45 ft. high. 
The Temple or Chief City is a chamber having 
an area of between four and five acres, and 
covered by a single dome of solid rock 120 
ft. high. Lucy’s dome, the highest of the 
objects of this class, is over 300 ft. high and 
about 60 ft. in its greatest diameter. Mam- 
moth dome and Stella’s dome are each about 
250 ft. high, while Gorin’s dome is about 200 
ft. Sidesaddle pit, over which rests a dome 
60 ft. high, is about 90 ft. deep and 20 ft. 
across. This and some of the other pits and 
domes in the cave have been formed out of 
the solid rock by the solvent action of water 
charged with carbonic acid. The deepest of 
the pits are the Maelstrom, 175 ft. in depth 
and 20 in diameter, and the Bottomless pit, 
of about the same depth. There are several 
bodies of water in the cave, the most con- 
siderable being Echo river, which is about 
three fourths of a mile long, 200 ft. wide at 
some points, and from 10 to 30 ft. deep; its 
course is beneath an arched ceiling of smooth 
rock about 15 ft. high. This river has invisi- 
ble communication with Green river, the depth 
of water and the direction of the current in 
the former being regulated by the stage of 
water in the latter. The river Styx, 450 ft. 
long, 15 to 40 wide, and from 80 to 40 deep, is 
spanned by an interesting natural bridge about 
30 ft. above it. Lake Lethe is about 450 ft. 
Jong and from 10 to 40 wide, and varies in 


MAN 


depth from 8 to 30 ft.; it lies beneath a ceil- 
ing about 90 ft. above its surface; its waters 
sometimes rise to the height of 60 ft., in 
consequence of freshets in Green river. The 
Dead sea is a gloomy body of water somewhat 
smaller than the preceding. Two remarkable 
species of animal life are found in the cave, 
in the form of an eyeless fish and an eyeless 
crawfish, which are nearly white in color. 
Another species of fish has been found with 
eyes, but totally blind. Other animals known 
to exist in the cave are lizards, frogs, crickets, 
rats, bats, &c., besides ordinary fish and craw- 
fish washed in from Green river. The atmos- 
phere of the cave is pure and healthful; the 
temperature, which averages 59°, is about the 
same in winter and summer, not being affected 
by climatic changes without.—The Mammoth 
cave was discovered in 1809, and has always 
been the property of private individuals. For 
some time after its discovery saltpetre was 
made here. In this vicinity are also Proctor’s 
cave, about 38 m. in length; White’s cave, 
Diamond cave, and Indian cave, each about a 
mile long. Several accounts of this wonderful 
curiosity have been published, the most recent 
and complete being ‘“‘ The Mammoth Cave,” 
by W. Stump Forwood (Philadelphia, 1870). 

MAN. See Anatomy, AroHZoLoay, Com- 
PARATIVE ANATOMY, ErHnoLocy, MamMaAtta, 
PuitosopHy, and PHystonoey. 

MAN, Isle of (Manx, Mannin, or Ellan Van- 
nin; Lat. Monapia), an island belonging to 
Great Britain, in the Irish sea, about mid- 
way between England, Scotland, and Ireland, 
its centre lying in lat. 54° 16’ N., lon. 4° 80! 
W.; length N.iN: HE.’ and 8: 8. Wii 8iame 
greatest breadth 12 m.; ‘area, 227 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1871, 54,042. The coasts are very 
irregular, and on the east and southwest are 
precipitous. There are numerous bays with 
good anchorage. A ridge of mountains trav- 


erses the length of the island, culminating in 


Mt. Snaefell at an elevation of 2,024 ft. above 
the sea. Its prevailing geological formation is 
clay slate, varied on the E. side with large 
masses of granite. The principal rivers are 
the Neb, Colby, and Black and Gray Waters, 
all of which are very smal]. The climate is 
mild and equable, the mean temperature of 
summer being about 60° F. and of winter 42°. 
The chief mineral resources of the island con- 
sist of lead, zinc, copper, and iron; lead is ex- 
tensively mined. The soil is fruitful, but agri- 
culture is not in a very forward state. Oats, 
barley, wheat, potatoes, turnips, and hay are 
the principal crops. A native breed of small 
sturdy horses, an inferior kind of sheep, 
horned cattle, and pigs in great number, are 
among the domestic animals. The island pos- 
sesses a breed of cats having either no tail, or 
at most a merely rudimental substitute for it. 
Sea birds and some. rare kinds of fish are also 
found. The fisheries of herring were formerly 
the principal reliance of the islanders, but of 
late have become inconsiderable. There are 


MANAGUA 


some bleaching works, but few manufacturing 
establishments. The government is vested in 
the queen in council, the governor, and the 
‘“‘house of keys,” a self-perpetuating body, 
consisting of 24 landed proprietors, who are 
considered the representatives of the people, 
and whose concurrence is necessary to give 
validity to every law; the acts of the British 
parliament do not affect the isle of Man unless 
expressly extended to it. The governor is ap- 
pointed by the crown and assisted by a coun- 
cil of officers. Besides the ordinary civil and 
ecclesiastical courts, there are ancient tribu- 
nals called ‘‘deemsters’ courts,” the judges of 
which, called deemsters, are chosen by the 
people, one for the N. and another for the S. 
division of the island, and possess very exten- 
sive authority. Questions relating to the her- 
ring fishery are tried before an officer called 
the water bailiff, who also appoints two fisher- 
men called admirals to preserve order among 
their fellows. The established religion is that 
of the church of England, under the bishop of 
Sodor and Man, who has a seat but no vote in 
the British house of lords.—The island was 
originally peopled by the Manx, a Celtic tribe, 
whose language, a sub-dialect of the Gaelic 
or Celtic, forming one branch with the Erse 
and Irish, is still spoken in the northwest and 
west, though English is generally understood. 
The island was held for some time as a feu- 
dal sovereignty by the earls of Derby, and af- 
terward by the dukes of Athol, from whom 
the sovereignty and revenues were purchased 
by the crown in 1765 for the sum of £70,000, 
to which an annuity of £2,000 was subse- 
quently added. In 1829 the ducal family’s 
remaining interests in the island, including 
the manorial rights and patronage of the see, 
were sold to the crown for £416,114. The 
chief towns are Castletown (the capital), Peel, 
Douglas, and Ramsay. 

MANAGUA, a city and the capital of Nicaragua, 
and of the department of Granada, situated on 
the S. shore of the lake of the same name, 
220 ft. above the level of the Pacific, in lat. 12° 
7’ N., lon. 86° 12’ W.; pop. about 6,500, for 
the most part proprietors of the fertile lands 
which surround it, and which are productive 
in all tropical staples. The public buildings 
are few and devoid of beauty. The old parish 
church, which was in a state of ruin, has been 
demolished, and a new edifice is in process of 
construction ; and there are four other churches. 
The national palace is a low square edifice with 
balconies in the Spanish style, the only ornate 
portions of which are the congress halls and 
those occupied by the president of the repub- 
lic. A new structure beside the palace con- 
tains the cabildo or city hall, a prison, and 
barracks. The environs of Managua are very 
picturesque; on the declivities of the moun- 
tain range to the south there are more than 
100 coffee plantations, yielding copious crops, 
despite the lack of water for irrigation in some 
of them; and in another direction are the 


MANAKIN 87 


lakes of Tiscapa, Nejapa, and Asososca, near 
the banks of which last exist curious antique 
paintings. Managua owes its rank as capital 
chiefly to the rivalries of the cities of Granada 
and Leon, and partly to its central position. 

MANAGUA, Lake, a beautiful body of water in 
Nicaragua, about 40 m. long by 16 m. wide, 
157 ft. above the Pacific ocean, from which it 
is separated by a ridge of land 15 m. broad in 
its narrowest part. It has a depth of water 
varying from 2 to 40 fathoms; but numerous 
moving sand banks render its navigation diffi- 
cult for large vessels. The N. and E. banks 
are unhealthy marshy deserts; the W. shores 
are sandy, interspersed with bold rocks; and 
there are several ports, that of Managua being 
the best, and the point designated for the in- 
land terminus of the projected railway from 
the lake to the port of Corinto via Leon. It 
has an outlet at its S. extremity called Rio 
Tipitapa or Estero de Panaloya, connecting it 
with Lake Nicaragua. The difference of level 
between the two lakes, at average stages of 
water, is 28 ft. The Rio Tipitapa, during se- 
vere rainy seasons, has a considerable body 
of water; but it is frequently almost dry, the 
evaporation from the surface of the lake ex- 
ceeding the supply of water from its tributa- 
ries, which are all intermittent streams, ex- 
cept Sinogapa and Rio Viejo. In the various 
projects for an interoceanic communication 
through Nicaragua, it has been proposed to 
connect the two lakes by means of a canal, 
deepening the Tipitapa and constructing a se- 
ries of locks to the superior lake, with another 
canal from the lake to the port of Realejo, 
or by means of the Estero Real to the bay of 
Fonseca. Between the N. portion of the lake 
and the Pacific there is only the magnificent 
plain of Leon, having an elevation at its high- 
est part of about 50 ft. above the level of 
water in the lake. The volcano of Momo- 
tombo projects boldly into the lake at its N. 
extremity, and within the lake itself rises the 
island cone of Momotombita, which had a sa- 
cred repute among the aborigines, and still 
contains numbers of their idols and other 
monuments, concealed beneath the shadows 
of its dense forests. The city of Leon was 
first built on the shore of the N. W. extremity 
of the lake, at a place called Imbita, abandoned 
for the present site in 1610. 

MANAKIN, the name applied to the denti- 
rostral birds of the family ampelide@ or chat- 
terers and subfamily piprinew ; they are gen- 
erally small and of brilliant colors, and with 
one exception inhabitants of the warmer parts 
of South America. They have a moderate or 
short bill, depressed, with broad base, curved 
ridge, compressed sides, and toothed tip; the 
nostrils are hidden by the frontal feathers; the 
wings generally short and pointed; tail short 
and even; tarsi moderate and slender; toes long, 
the outer united to the middle to beyond the 
second joint; claws acute. The red manakin 
or chatterer (phaenicercus carnifex, Swains.) is 


88 MANAKIN 


about 7 in. long; the crest, lower back, rump, 
lower belly, thighs, and vent, bright crimson ; 
rest of plumage dull red, dusky on the back; 
tail crimson, with end and outer web dusky 
brown; the female is of a general greenish 
olive color, with tinges of red on the head, ab- 


domen, and tail; the young birds are brown- 
ish with whitish markings. This and the P. 
nigricollis (Swains.) inhabit the eastern parts 
of tropical South America.—The blue-backed 
manakin (pipra pareola, Linn.) is 44 in. long; 
the plumage is black, with the back and lesser 
wing coverts blue, and a crest of bright crim- 
son feathers; the female and young are green- 
ish, There are more than 30 other species. 
These beautiful and active birds inhabit damp 
woods, on the borders of which they live in 
small flocks, seeking for insects and fruits.— 
The rock manakins belong to the genus rupi- 
cola (Briss.), of which the best known species 


Orange Manakin (Rupicola crocea). 


is the orange manakin or cock of the rock (R. 
erocea, Bonn.); the plumage is saffron orange, 
with the quills partly white and partly brown, 
and the wing coverts loose and fringed; it has 
a singular crest of feathers arranged in two 
planes, arising from the sides of the head and 


MANATEE 


meeting over and in front of the bill; the size 
is that of a small pigeon. This handsome spe- 
cies inhabits rocky places near the horders of 
the streams in Guiana, andits legs and feet are 
nearly as stout as in a gallinaceous bird of the 
same size, whence its common name; it is ac; 
tive and suspicious, feeding on fruits and ber- 
ries; the nest is placed in holes in the rocks, 
composed of roots, grass, and earth, lined with 
finer materials; it lays two white eggs, about 
the size of those of a pigeon; it is now com- 
paratively rare, as it is ‘hunted for the beauty 
of its plumage. There is a species in Peru (2. 
Peruviana, Lath.), of a reddish saffron color, 
with black quills and tail, and ashy wing cov- 
erts; it is a little larger than the other.—The 
only old-world representative of this subfam- 


‘ily belongs to the genus calyptomena (Rafiles), 


found in the thick forests of Java and Suma- 
tra; the plumage is shining green, with a spot 
on each side of the nape, three oblique stripes 
on the wings, and the quills, except the out- 
er margins, dark-colored. The only species 
described by Gray is the green manakin (C. 
viridis, Rafil.), about 6 in. long; the color so 
nearly resembles the foliage of the high trees 
upon which it generally perches, that it is very 
difficult to see and to procure; its food is en- 
tirely vegetable. 


MANASSAS JUNCTION, Battle of. See Butt 
Run. 
MANASSEH. I. The elder son of Joseph, son 


of Jacob, adopted by the latter on his death- 
bed to become the head of one of the tribes 
of Israel, yet made inferior to his younger 
brother Ephraim. At the time of the census 
at Sinai the tribe of Manasseh numbered 32,- 
200, and 40 years later 52,700. On the con- 
quest of Palestine, half of the tribe received 
from Moses its allotment E. of the Jordan, N. 
of Gad, and the other half received from 
Joshua the region W. of the Jordan, between 
Issachar on the north and Ephraim on the 
south, the Mediterranean forming the western 
boundary. The eastern division contained 
among others the districts of Itureea, Tracho- 
nitis, Gaulonitis, Bataneea, and part of Gilead- 
itis, and the towns of Gadara, Ashtaroth, 
Edrei, Gamala, Jabesh-Gilead, Mahanaim, and 
Gerasa. The western division was less impor- 
tant in history, it being almost always over- 
shadowed by its southern neighbor, Ephraim. 
ii. A king of Judah, 696-641 B. C. See He- 
BREWS, VOl. viii, p. 589. 

MANATEE, Lamantin, or Sea Cow, a large aquat- 
ic mammal (manatus, Cuv.), which was ar- 
ranged by Cuvier among cetaceans, forming 
with the dugong the herbivorous group of 
this order, the family sirenia of Illiger. Re- 
cently, on account of the many important dif- 
ferences in their organization, they have been 
removed from cetaceans and placed in an or- 
der called sirenoids, intermediate between the 
old order of pachyderms and the cetaceans. 
The manatee has an elongated, fish-like body 
like that of the whales, the anterior limbs be- 


MANATEE 


ing flattened into fins, and the posterior limbs 
wanting and only represented by a rudimen- 
tary pelvis; the tail is oval, about one fourth 
of the extent of the body, ending in a flatten- 
ed, horizontal, rounded caudal expansion; in 
these respects it resembles cetaceans. It dif- 
fers from cetaceans in the separation of the 
cervical vertebree; the smaller total number in 
the whole column, and the absence of osseous 
disks between the bodies; the articulation of 
the ribs to two vertebral bodies and to trans- 
verse processes; the long and narrow scapula; 
the regularly shaped humerus; the rounded 
radius and ulna; the compact structure of the 
phalangeal bones ; the wide separation of the 
occipital condyles, and their partly horizontal 
position, and the large size of the occipital 
foramen; the well marked and strong su- 
tures, and the absence of internal bony falces ; 
the fusion of the parietals into one; the posi- 
tion of the frontals as usual in front of the 
parietals; the strong zygomatic arches; the 


Manatee (Manatus latirostris). 


symmetry of the cranial bones and their usual 
position ; the shape of the jaws, and the char- 
acter of the molars; and the structure of the 
stomach and heart. Many other distinctions 
are given in the ‘‘ Proceedings” of the third 
meeting of the American association for the 
advancement of science, Charleston, §. C., 1850 
(pp. 42-47). The head is conical, without a 
distinct line of separation from the body; the 
fleshy nose much resembles that of a cow, the 
nostrils opening as usual on the end of the 
snout; the full upper lip has on each side a 
few bristly tufts of hair; the mouth is not 
large, and the eyes are small; the openings 
of the ears are very small. The swimming 
paws are more free in their motions than in 
cetaceans, and may be used also for crawling 
up the muddy banks of the rivers in which 
they dwell; the separate bones may be felt 
through the skin, and the fingers are provided 
with small nails. The skin is of a grayish 
black color, becoming black on drying, with a 
few scattered bristles. In the young animal 


89 


there are two sharp incisor teeth in the up- 
per jaw, which afterward fall out; there 
are no canines; the molars are generally 8-8, 
with quadrangular flat crowns, divided by a 
transverse groove. The bones are dense. and 
heavy, differing in this from cetaceans; the 
ribs are numerous and rounded; the mamma 
are two and pectoral; the intestinal canal is 
10 or 12 times the length of the body, in ac- 
cordance with the vegetable character of their 
food; the stomach has two cecal appendages 
in the pyloric portion, which is separated from 
the cardiac by a constriction. They inhabit 
the sea shores, especially about the mouths of 
rivers, and the rivers themselves, keeping 
near the land, feeding upon alge and aquatic 
plants; they do not feed upon the shores, 
though they sometimes quit the water, and not 
unfrequently support themselves in the shallows 
in a semi-erect position; under these circum- 
stances they present at a distance somewhat 
of human appearance, increased by the dis- 
tinct lips, the long whiskers in the male, and 
the pectoral mamme in the female. The 
largest and best known species is the Florida 
manatee (I. latirostris, Harlan), which inhab- 
its the gulf of Mexico and the West Indies; 
it sometimes attains a length of 15 or 20 ft., 
but is generally about 12. They are usually 
seen in small troops, associating for mutual 
protection and for the defence of their young; 
they are harmless even when attacked, of gen- 
tle disposition, not afraid of man, and rarely 
quarrelling with each other. Being found 
only in shallow waters, they are easily cap- 
tured. Their flesh is wholesome and palatable. 
The South American manatee (/. australis, 
Wiegm.), usually 9 or 10 ft. long, is not un- 
common about the mouths of the great riv- 
ers of northern Brazil and Guiana; it ascends 
the streams several hundred miles, and even 
into inland fresh-water lakes; the flesh of this 
aquatic mammal is considered fish by the Ro- 
man Catholic church in Brazil, and may conse- 
quently be eaten on fast days; salted and dried © 
in the sun, it is an excellent meat; the oil 
from the blubber is of fine quality, and free 
from smell; the hide is made into harnesses 
and whips, and is noted for strength and dura- 
bility. An African species (M. Senegalensis, 
Desm.) is rarely more than 9 ft. long. The 
manatees are all tropical, but are not found in 
the Pacific or Indian oceans, their place being 
there taken by the allied dugongs (halicore, Illi- 
ger).—There was among the Russians an animal 
called the northern manatee or sea cow; this is 
the creature described by Steller, forming the 
genus rhytina (Ill.) or Stellera (Cuv.). This, 
the R. Stelleri (Desm.), was unknown before 
1741, when Behring’s second expedition was 
wrecked on an island in the straits bearing his 
name; its flesh formed the principal food of 
the shipwrecked mariners for nearly a year; 
one of the party, Steller, described the ani- 
mal, and his account was published in St. Pe- 
tersburg, and probably contains all that will 


90 MANATEE 


ever be known concerning it, as in 1768 the 
crews of the ships in pursuit of sea otters had 
entirely exterminated it; it has met the fate 
of the dodo, but at a much more recent pe- 
riod; askull and a few fragments are said to 
exist in European museums. It had no teeth, 
the jaws being covered with an undulating 
surface of horny tubular matter; the head was 
small, the body covered with a thick, fibrous, 
fissured epidermis, and the caudal fin lunate. 
It attained a length of 25 ft., and formerly lived 
in the neighborhood of Behring island on the 
coast of Kamtchatka. The epidermis had a 
singular structure, being composed of perpen- 
dicular horny tubes, sometimes an inch in 
length, of a blackish brown color, rough and 
wrinkled like the bark of a tree, and so tough 
as to be with difficulty cut with an axe; it 
served to protect the animal from the ice and 
sharp rocks among which it fed. They lived 
in shallow water in troops, the older protect- 
ing the younger; they were harmless and very 
tame, and strongly attached to each other; 
they fed on fuci under water, and the skin, fat, 
and flesh were esteemed by the natives. 

MANATEE, a S. W. county of Florida, bor- 
dering on the gulf of Mexico, touching Lake 
Okeechobee at the S. E. corner, bounded S. 
by the Caloosahatchee river, and watered by 
the Manatee river, Pease creek, and other 
streams; area, 4,070 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
1,931, of whom 88 were colored. Along the 
coast are numerous low sandy islands, Sara- 
sota bay, and Charlotte harbor. .The main- 
land is low and level. The chief productions 
in 1870 were 12,727 bushels of Indian corn, 
21,652 of sweet potatoes, 29 bales of cotton, 
41 hogsheads of sugar, and 71,452 lbs. of rice. 
There were 830 horses, 44,970 cattle, and 5,197 
swine. Capital, Manatee, or Pine Level. 

MANAYUNK. See PainapeLpata.. 

MANBY, Charles. See supplement. 

MANBY, George William, an English officer, 
born at Hilgay, Norfolk county, Nov. 28, 1765, 
died at Southtown, Nov. 18, 1854. He was 
educated at the military college of Woolwich, 
and became in 1803 barrack master at Great 
Yarmouth. Here he attempted casting a rope 
from the shore to a wreck by means of gun- 
powder. The problem to be solved was the 
maintenance of the connection between the 
rope and the mortar during its transmission. 
Chains were unable to stand the shock of the 
discharge, but stout strips of raw hide closely 
platted together were found to answer; and 
on Feb. 12, 1808, the entire crew of the brig 
Elizabeth, wrecked within 150 yards of the 
beach, were rescued by this simple contrivance.* 
In 1810 his invention was brought before a 
committee of the house of commons, and he 
received a grant of money, and all the dan- 
gerous stations on the British coasts were sup- 
plied with his apparatus. He also contrived a 
pyrotechnic which renders vessels visible from 
shore on the darkest night; and shells filled 
with luminous matter, to enable the crew to 


MANCHESTER 


perceive the approach of the rope. He pub- 
lished ‘‘The History and Antiquities of the 
Parish of St. David, South Wales” (1801), and 
kindred works; also “Journal of a Voyage to 
Greenland in 1821” (1822). 

MANCHA, La, an old province of Spain, chiefly 
in the S. part of New Castile, now included 
in the central and eastern portions of Ciudad 
Real, and the adjoining parts of Cuenca and 
Albacete; area, about 7,000 sq. m.; pop. about 
200,000. The N. W. and 8. E. poftions are 
mountainous, and the centre in general a deso- 
late sandy plateau. The towns are few and 
uninteresting; the cottages in the villages are 
built of mud. Most of the country is denuded 
of trees, exposed to the wintry blasts, and 
scorched by the summer heat. The earth is 


-arid and stony; the dust is impregnated with 


saltpetre, and the glare of the sun almost blinds 
the eye. Water is wanting, and dry dung is 
used for fuel. In some places, however, corn, 
saffron, and wines are produced; and the mules 
of La Mancha are celebrated. The natives are 
jovial, honest, industrious, brave, and temper- 
ate. The scenery has become celebrated by 
the descriptions in ‘‘ Don Quixote.” 

MANCHE, La, a N. W. department of France, 
in Normandy, bordering on the English chan- 
nel and the departments of Calvados, Orne, 
Mayenne, and Ille-et-Vilaine; area, 2,289 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1872, 544,776. The coast is gen- 
erally flat, and lined with swamps. There 
are several excellent harbors, the principal of 
which are Cherbourg, La Hogue, and Gran- 
ville. La Manche has several short but navi- 
gable rivers, the principal of which is the Vire, 
and is traversed from N. to S. by a hilly range 
of moderate height, called Cotentin, which 
gives its name to the peninsular portion of the 
department. The rest of the surface is undu- 
lating, the soil rich, and the climate moist and 
mild. A prevailing crop is a species of black 
oats. The quantity of cider made is very great. 
A considerable portion of the land is under 
pasturage. The horses are among the best in 
France. Iron, lead, and coal are mined, and 
granite, marble, slate, and limestone are quar- 
ried. Salt is largely manufactured on the 
coast, and in the towns iron, zinc, copper, 
woollen, and cotton. The department is di- 
vided into the six arrondissements of St. Lé, 
Avranches, Cherbourg, Coutances, Mortain, 
and Valognes. Capital, St. Lé. 

MANCHESTER, one of the shire towns of Hills- 
borough co., New Hampshire, and the largest 
city in the state, situated on both banks (but 
chiefly on the E.) of the Merrimack river, 18 m. 
S. by E. of Concord, and 46 m. N. W. of Bos- 
ton; pop. in 1850, 13,932; in 1860, 20,107; in 
1870, 23,5386, of whom 7,158 were foreigners, 
including a considerable number of French Ca- 
nadians. The villages of Amoskeag and Piscat- 
aquog are on the W. side of the river, which is 
crossed by five bridges. The city is regularly 
laid out in squares, and the main street is 100 
ft. wide, planted with elms on each side at in- 


MANCHESTER 


tervals of 40 ft. for more thana mile. There are 
five public squares of considerable extent in the 
central portion, three of them containing ponds. 
Valley cemetery, the largest in the city, is situ- 
ated in the 8. W. part, E. of the Merrimack ; and 
there are two small cemeteries W. of the river. 
Manchester has railroad communication with 
Boston, Concord, Portsmouth, and other points, 
by means of the Concord, the Manchester and 
Lawrence, the Manchester and North Weare, 
and the Portsmouth railroads. It is one of the 
principal manufacturing cities of New England, 


91 


being supplied with ample water power by 
the Blodgett canal, built in 1816 around the 
Amoskeag falls in the Merrimack. The fall is 
47 ft., with rapids above, giving a total de- 
scent of 54 ft. in the space of a mile. The 
water power is owned by the Amoskeag man- 
ufacturing company, which has a reservoir in 
the N. E. part of the city capable of holding 
11,000,000 gallons, for supplying the mills. 
The following table exhibits the statistics of 
the five corporations engaged in the manufac- 
ture of cotton and woollen goods in 1874: 


Date of No. of cee Yards manu- oe of ee gee 

CORPORATIONS. incorpora-| Capital. Weatnt Spindles. Ae factured per |"20,W00! con- 
tion. ; ci week, sumed per 

week, 

Amoskeag manufacturing company............ 1881 | $3,000,000 | 8,500 | 125,000 | 4,200 600,000 200,000 
tac Sept roel cles eis cin sles ede cia oi clave 1888 | 1,250,000 | 1,800 40,000 | 1,200 830,000 110,000 
Manchester print wOrkSaas aces ahe css oclsle ne ee 18389 | 1,800,000 ; 2,150 | 100,000 | 8,000 400,000 110,000 
Langdon manufacturing company.............. 1857 500,000 704 88,600 500 100,000 28,000 
INSMESKO MN ey motes clans telah races 1857 100,000 SBOE 5,000 OO GIMns cstehee eter Bev ccs.acd 
VOUBEE ec rahe tl aerc Sak ee eaters rete oes eiab bake eons $6,650,000 | 7,654 | 303,600 | 9,000 1,480,000 448,000 


Of the operatives, 2,700 were males and 6,300 
females. The Amoskeag company also manu- 
factures steam fire engines, and the Manchester 
company operates extensive print works. The 
Manchester and Namaske companies manufac- 
ture woollens as well as cottons, and the Stark 
mills some linens; the others, only cotton 
goods. The principal kinds of goods are tick- 
ings, denims, stripes, ginghams, sheetings, shirt- 
ings, print cloths, balmorals, cotton flannels, 
cotton duck, seamless bags, delaines, angola 
flannels, fancy cassimeres, alpacas, poplins, 
silesias, &c. The Amoskeag paper mill em- 
ploys about 40 hands. There are also a manu- 
factory of hosiery, one of boots and shoes, one 
of edge tools, one of locomotives, several of 
machinery and iron castings, of carriages, and 
of circular saws, a brass foundery, and an ale 
brewery. The city contains four national 
banks, with an aggregate capital of $650,000; 
five savings banks, with about 18,500 deposi- 
tors and $7,250,000 deposits; and a fire insu- 
rance company, with $200,000 capital. It is 
' divided into seven wards, and is governed by a 
mayor and a board of aldermen of one mem- 
ber and a common council of three members 
from each ward. There is an efficient police 
force, and the fire department is well organ- 
ized. The streets are well paved and sewered 
and lighted with gas. Water is supplied from 
Lake Massabesic on the N. E. border of the 


city by works recently erected. The assessed. 


value of property in 1873 was $12,001,200 ; 
tax, $300,768; value of city property, $717,- 
120 45; net debt, Jan. 1, 1874, $807,860 16. 
Manchester is the seat of the state reform 
school, which occupies a brick building on the 
E. bank of the Merrimack, capable of accom- 
modating 150 inmates. The public schools are 
in a flourishing condition, and in 1873 embraced 
45 departments (1 high, 1 training or normal, 
5 grammar, 6 middle, the rest primary or un- 
graded); number of teachers, 69; pupils en- 


rolled, 3,779; average attendance, 2,284; cost 
of maintenance, $49,062 17, including $36,- 
451 58 for teachers’ wages; value of school 
property, $249,675. Besides these, evening 
schools are maintained during a portion of the 
year, and there are several Catholic schools 
connected with the churches and convent. The 
latter also conducts an orphan asylum. The 
city library at the close of 1873 contained 
17,672 volumes. Two daily and three weekly 
newspapers and a monthly periodical are pub- 
lished. The number of churches is 16, viz.: 
2 Baptist, 1 Christian, 2 Congregational, 1 
Episcopal, 2 Freewill Baptist, 2 Methodist, 8 
Roman Catholic (1 French), 1 Second Advent, 
1 Unitarian, and 1 Universalist,—The place was 
first settled near the falls about 1730, incorpo- 
rated under the name of Derryfield in 1751, 
and riamed Manchester by act of the legislature 
in 1810. It received a city charter in 1846. 

MANCHESTER, a town of Hartford co., Con- 
necticut, on the Hartford, Providence, and 
Fishkill railroad, 5 m. E. of Hartford; pop. in 
1870, 4,228. It contains extensive manufac- 
tories of book, government, and bank-note 
paper, of woollens and ginghams, print works, 
a silk factory, several carriage factories, &c. 
A weekly newspaper is published. The paper 
mills are at North Manchester, 3 m. from 
which is South Manchester, which has grown 
up around the Cheney silk works, the most ex- 
tensive in America. Dress silks and sewing 
silks are manufactured in immense quanti- 
ties, by ingenious machinery, much of which 
was invented solely for use here. The cocoons 
are imported, and all the work of spinning, 
weaving, and dyeing is done here. The village 
was laid out by a landscape gardener; there 
are no fences, and pigs and poultry are prohib- | 
ited. It is lighted with gas. There is a hand- 
some public hall, with a library and reading 
room, and a free school to which the opera- 
tives are required to send their children. 


92 


MANCHESTER (anc. Mancunium), the most 
important manufacturing city in Great Britain, 
situated in the S. E. corner of Lancashire, on 
both sides of the river Irwell, 162 m. N. N. W. 
of London, and 31 m. E. by N. of Liverpool. 
It consists of Manchester proper, including 
several suburbs on the E. bank of the Irwell, 
and the borough of Salford on the W. bank; 
pop. in 1871, 475,990, of whom 351,189 were 
in Manchester city, and 124,801 in Salford (ex- 
clusive of suburban districts not lying within 
the municipal limits), Thetwo towns, although 
having distinct municipal governments, consti- 
tute in all other respects one city. They are 
connected by eight bridges, among which are 
the Victoria, of a single arch, and Blackfriars, 
of three arches, of stone; the bridges of Strange- 
ways and Springfield Lane, of iron; and the 
iron suspension bridge of Broughton. The 
streets are intersected by numerous canals, 
crossed by bridges, and are generally well paved 
and lighted; but the site is low, and notwith- 
standing the recent improved drainage and 
the introduction of an abundant supply of 
pure water, Manchester is still one of the most 
unhealthy places in the kingdom, the annual 
death rate being about 3-2 per cent. A portion 
of the place still presents an antiquated ap- 
pearance, but there are many handsome streets, 
such as Market street, Portland place, Grosve- 
nor square, Mosley street, George street, King 
street, Ardwick green, Salford crescent, &c. 
There are several handsome public parks and 
gardens, of which the most important are the 
botanical and horticultural gardens; the Peel 
park, on the Irwell, 


MANCHESTER 


church, commenced by Lord Delaware in 1422, 
and since 1847, when Manchester became a 
bishopric, the cathedral, is a highly ornamented 
Gothic structure, 216 ft. long and 120 ft. wide; 
but being built of a soft and mouldering stone, 
many repairs have been necessary, which give 
the structure a modern appearance; it has 
within a few years been restored at a great ex- 
pense, and a new tower has been added to re- 
place the old one, which was found incapable 
of restoration. There are several other hand- 
some churches, among which are St. George’s, 
in the suburb of Hulme, and the Roman Cath- 
olic cathedral of St. John, in Salford. Trin- 
ity church in Salford, the oldest in the bor~ 
ough, has a fine Gothic tower, and is interest- 


ing from the antique aspect of the interior. 


The old town hall, in King street, is in the 
Grecian style, and contains a hall 130 ft. long 
by 388 ft. wide, having its walls and dome coy- 
ered by allegorical frescoes; but having become 
inadequate to the needs of the city, anew town 
hall, commenced in 1868, has been completed 
at a cost of £250,000. The new exchange is 
an Italian edifice, with a porch flanked by two 
towers, the great hall having a clear breadth 
of 120 ft. The corn exchange is an Ionic 
structure capable of holding 2,400 persons. 
The free-trade hall, somewhat irregular but 
large and effective, occupies the site of the old 
free-trade hall, and like it is noted in the his- 
tory of Manchester as the place of several im- 
portant political meetings. The new building, 
erected in 1856, occupies an area of 20,700 
sq. ft.; it contains a hall 134 ft. long, 78 


with an area of 382 


acres; Victoria park, 


between London and 


Oxford roads, a space 


of 140 acres, cov- 


ered with villas; the 
Queen’s park, Phillips 


park, and Alexandra 
park, opened in 1870. 
The buildings devoted 
to business and man- 
ufactures have gener- 
ally an imposing ap- 
pearance. A marked 
change has been made 
of late years in the 
architectural charac- 


ter of the city. New 


squares have been 
laid out, new streets 
opened, and commer- 


cial buildings of a 

more ornamental ap- 

pearance have been erected. In Manches- 
ter proper, in 1872, there were 168 places of 
worship, of which 8 were Baptist, 51 Church 
of England, 26 Independent, 45 Wesleyan and 
other Methodist, 12 Roman Catholic, 9 Pres- 
byterian, and 5 Unitarian; including Salford, 
the whole number exceeds 200. The parish 


Royal Exchange, Manchester. 


wide, and 52 high, and will hold 5,000 per- 
sons. The Salford town hall is one of the 
handsomest buildings in the town. The new 
royal exchange has a handsome front with 
Corinthian columns; its great room is 207 ft. 
long, 198 wide, and 80 high; the roof is sup- 
ported by two rows of pillars, with a span of 


, 


MANOHESTER 93 


nearly 100 ft. between them. The new assize | three sides of a quadrangle, each with a por- 
courts were opened in 1864; the building is | tico supported by four fluted Ionic columns, 
Gothic, 270 ft. long and 140 deep, with a tower | the whole surrounded with grass borders and 


210 ft. high. The branch bank of England, op- 
posite the town hall, is a fine structure, in the 
Grecian style, with a Doric colonnade. The 
royal infirmary, erected in 1755, is built on 


walks, with a sheet of water in front; it has 
an income of £9,000, and annually relieves 
more than 20,000 patients. Among the other 
notable public buildings are the court halls, 


The Assize Courts, Manchester. 


the jails, and the asylum for the blind and the 
deaf and dumb. In front of the new town 
hall is the Albert memorial, including a statue 
of Prince Albert. Two statues of Richard 
Cobden were erected in 1867, one in St. 
Anne’s square, the other in Peel park. In 
front of the royal infirmary is a statue of Dal- 
ton; and there are also statues of Watt, Wel- 
lington, and Peel.—Among scientific, literary, 
and art associations are the royal Manches- 
ter institution, occupying buildings which cost 
£40,000, and devoted to the exhibition of 
paintings, lectures, &c.; the mechanics’ insti- 
tution, founded in 1825, for which a new edi- 
fice was erected in 1856, established for the 
instruction of the working classes, male and 
female, in the principles of the arts they prac- 
tise and in other branches of useful knowledge; 
and natural history, botanical, horticultural, ge- 
ological, statistical, and medical societies. The 
royal school of medicine and surgery, founded 
in 1824, has 80 to 100 students. The literary and 
philosophical society, established in 1781, has 
numbered many distinguished members, and 
has issued several volumes of valuable trans- 
actions. The Chetham society, established in 
1848, has published 22 volumes of historical 
and literary remains. There are many public 
libraries. The free library, founded by volun- 
tary subscription, and maintained by a muni- 
cipal rate, has four branches, and is divided 
into two departments, reference and lending, 


each having about 40,000 volumes. A free 
library of about 25,000 volumes is attached to 
Chetham’s hospital, or the ‘‘ College” as it is 
now simply called, an institution founded in 
1651 by Humphrey Chetham, for the educa- 
tion of poor boys. Owens college was found- 
ed in 1846 by the munificence of a merchant 
of the city, who bequeathed for the purpose 
more than £100,000, which has of late been 
considerably enlarged by means of a fund raised 
by public subscription; it issues certificates 
to candidates for the degrees of bachelor of 
arts and bachelor of laws, to be conferred by 
the university of London. The Lancashire In- 
dependent college was established by the In- 
dependents as a theological seminary, and will 
accommodate 50 students. Manchester New 
college, Unitarian, founded in 1786, was re- 
moved to London in 1857; and in 1865 Memo- 
rial Hall was erected in Manchester as a Uni- 
tarian college. There is a free grammar school 
founded by Hugh Oldham, bishop of Exeter, 
in 151525. The Jubilee school trains pupils 
for domestic service.—Manchester is supplied 
with water from a “gathering ground,” about 
24 m. distant, of nearly 20,000 acres. The 
reservoirs form a series of 10 artificial lakes of 
a capacity of 600,000,000 cubic ft. The pure 
water only is supplied to the city, the turbid 
water being collected in separate reservoirs 
and used for mill purposes. The water is con- 
veyed in aqueducts 12 m. to Godley, thence to 


94 


two reservoirs at Denton, and thence 4 m. to 
Manchester. The works are capable of fur- 
nishing 40,000,000 gallons daily, and their cost 
was about £1,050,000. Manchester is the cen- 
tre of a great system of canals, and has rail- 
way communication with nearly all parts of 
England. The Liverpool and Manchester line 
was the first railway on which was attempted 
the practical application of steam power for 
the transportation of passengers.—The borough 
of Manchester, comprising besides the city 
itself the townships of Charlton-upon-Medlock, 
Hulme, Ardwick, and Chetham, with the ex- 
tra-parochial district of Beswick (total pop. in 
1871, 379,374), was incorporated by royal char- 
ter in October, 1838. The management of its 
local affairs is intrusted to a town council of 
64 members, styled respectively mayor, alder- 
men, and councillors, who appoint from their 
body committees for the transaction of public 
business, who report their proceedings for ap- 
proval at the general meeting of the council. 
This council have introduced many valuable 
improvements, notable among which are the 
water works; it is anticipated that when these 
are fully completed, the sale of water for the 
purposes of trade will be sufficient to defray 
the entire expense, leaving free that required 
for domestic purposes. The gas works are 
also under control of the council, and notwith- 
standing the price of gas has been frequent- 
ly reduced, there is a profit of about £35,000 
a year, which is expended in improving and 
widening the streets. In 1846 the town coun- 
cil purchased from Sir Oswald Mosley his ma- 
norial rights for £200,000, of which £195,000 
was left on mortgage at an interest of 3% per 
cent.; the income from this property now 
amounts to £16,000 a year. The borough for- 
merly returned two members to parliament, 
but by the reform act of 1867 the number was 
raised to three. The borough of Salford, con- 
stituted by the reform act of 1832, returns two 
members to parliament. It is governed by a 
mayor, 8 aldermen, and 24 councillors.—Man- 
chester has from a very remote period been con- 
nected with industry and trade ; but its present 
great importance is specially due to the mag- 
nitude of its cotton manufactures, the great- 
est in the world. It is mentioned as having 
maintained a trade with the Greeks of Massilia 
(Marseilles). In 1552 an act was passed for the 
better manufacture of ‘‘ Manchester cottons ;” 
and in 1650 its manufactures ranked among 
the first in extent and importance, and its peo- 
ple were described as “‘ the most industrious in 
the northern parts of the kingdom.” The in- 
adequate supply of cotton goods about the 
middle of the last century stimulated efforts 
for increasing the means of production; and 
the machines successively invented by Leigh, 
Hughes, Arkwright, Hargreaves, and others, 
had their efficiency vastly increased by the 
steam engine of Watt. The value of the ex- 
ports of the cotton industry in 1780 was £355,- 
060; it rose in 1781 to £1,101,457, and in 


MANCHESTER 


1856 it had reached upward of £38,000,000. 
The imports of raw cotton in 1751 were to the 
amount of 2,976,610 lbs.; in 1780, upward of 
6,700,000; in 1800, 56,000,000; and in 1860, 
1,115,890,608. In 1857 an advance in the 
price of American cotton caused the formation 
in Manchester of the cotton supply association, 
to procure the staple from other countries. 
After the outbreak of the civil war in the Uni- 
ted States, Manchester suffered severely from 
the cotton famine, and in 1862 more than one 
third of the operatives were thrown out of 
employment. At the close of the war there 
was a renewal of activity, though the import 
of United States cotton in 1870 was but little 
more than half the supply from the same source 
in 1860. Sole reliance, however, is not now 
placed on the American supply. During the 
war the machinery of many of the mills was 
altered to adapt it to the fibre from India and 
Egypt, and these mills still continue to use to 
a large extent the cotton from those countries. 
Connected with the cotton manufacture are 
many important and extensive branches of in- 
dustry, such as bleaching, printing, and dyeing 
works, manufactures of the various materials 
employed in those processes, and particularly 
the great establishments for the construction 
of steam engines and machinery. It is also the 
chief market in the world for cotton yarn or 
thread, the supply of which passes through the 
hands of numerous resident foreign merchants, 
who export it to their respective countries, 
giving to Manchester in this respect a char- 
acter quite unique among inland cities. The 
manufacture of silk and silk goods, and of 
mixed cotton and silk fabrics, is also largely 
carried on. The following table, furnished by 
the inspector of factories, presents the statis- 
tics of the manufacturing industry in 1871: . 


| N Total No. 
0. of Steam 
MANUFACTURES. worke a1) power, | ee 
* employed. 
Textile fabrics and clothing: 
Cotton factories? icca:. ees eo 111 16,564 | 20,846 
‘Worsted |"! Sees eeade 13 671 2.538 
Silk We. a tOL emia ones sa 11 185 1,980 
Bleaching and dyeing works... 26 769 2,281 
"Warchouses:,Jceeeapeee teens 80 1,218 1,236 
Calendering and finishing works} 161 1,528 5,490 
Millinery, mantle, stay, corset, 
and dress making........... 846 32 8,334 
Tailors and clothiers.......... 218 1,914 
Miscellaneous..........-..-.+- 417 7712 4,476 
Totaleetasreeiiesictss 5 1,333 21,7389 | 48,595 
Metal manufactures: 
Manufacture of machinery..... 83 2,750 8,981 
Miscellaneousss.si-0- so. se. 989 942 8,665 
Total stmt. et <teets oe 865 8,692 | 12,646 
Leather manufactures........... 74 hy? 617 
Chemical works: 
Glass MAKINO etretersiiciaysia roaster 13 118 1,348 
Miscellaneonse.. cass... oss 15 53 224 
TOotalgiies veces cis rasree 28 | 186 1,572 
Mannfactures connected with ro etk 
LOO Lee tew corel cima nite eee 882 604 


MANCHINEEL 


Total No. 
No. of Steam 
MANUFACTURES. Sa, power. of persons 
employed. 
Manufactures connected with 
building, &e. : 
1 EAN CW hg ea ger ear ag 52 161 1,185 
Cabinet and furniture makers.. oe) 106 1,183 
IMISGOUANCOUS: . 2. warale ies 0s ve 858 533 , 
Ota on. seecesesseee « 509 800 4,427 
Paper manufactures............. ———~“ 191 531 
Miscellaneous manufactures: ‘64 
Letterpress printing........... 101 221 2,243 
@oreh building. 5. se. s es 18 91 1,051 
India rubber and gutta percha. 4 611 840 
WOthOrsl enc sicsaese a salcsre thee 0 3 288 484 4,999 
ROG ase wot e codes 411 1,407 9,188 
Grandstotal.aas.ie can 2,783 | 28,515 73,235 


—tThe site of Manchester is mentioned as a chief 
station of the druids, who had there an altar 
called Meyne. In A. D. 500 it was an unfre- 
quented woodland. In 620 it was taken by 
Edwin, king of Northumbria, and shortly after 
occupied by acolony of Angles. It then passed 
to the Danes, who about 920 were expelled by 
the king of Mercia. The charter conferring 
the privileges of a borough was granted in 
1301. Manchester cotton is first mentioned in 
1352, by which was meant, however, a coarse 
woollen cloth woven from unprepared fleece. 
In 1579 the manor was sold to John Lacye, a 
London cloth-worker, for £3,000, and resold 
in 1596 to Sir Nicholas Mosley for £8,500. <At 
the time of the civil war it was distinguished 
for active industry, and suffered much from 
both parties. On Jan. 8, 1819, a great radical 
meeting was held at St. Peter’s field; and an- 
other great meeting, attended by 60,000 per- 
sons, on Aug. 16 of the same year, was dis- 
persed by the yeomanry cavalry, eight persons 
being killed. In 1857 an exhibition was held 
from May to October for the display of the art 
treasures of the kingdom. Among the objects 
exhibited were 1,115 paintings, 969 water-color 
drawings, 160 specimens of modern sculpture, 
260 original sketches and drawings by the old 
masters, and a museum of ornamental art com- 
prising 17,000 choice specimens. 

MANCHINEEL (hippomane mancinella), a poi- 
sonous evergreen tree growing wild in the 
West India islands, along the shores of the Ca- 
ribbean sea, and in southern Florida. It is of 
the natural order ewphorbiacee ; and the name 
hippomane (Gr. imroc, horse, and paivecbat, to 
be mad) is given to the genus from the sup- 
posed maddening effect of its juice upon horses, 
The manchineel tree grows to the height of 40 
or 50 ft.; it has a smooth brownish bark, and 
short and thick branches. The leaves are about 
3 in. long and half as wide, with two glands at 
the junction of the blade with the short foot- 
stalks; the flowers grow in short thick spikes 
at the end of the branches; the fertile flowers 
are solitary at the base of the spikes, and the 
staminate ones in small clusters at its apex; 


528 Votre. — 1 


MANCINI 95 


both kinds are obscure and without petals. 
The fruit when ripe is of a yellow color, and 
resembles an apple in appearance ; hence it is 
called manzanillo (little apple), a name that in 
Spanish American countries is applied to sey- 
eral plants bearing fruit like an apple, or the 
leaves and flowers of which have an apple-like 
odor. Some early accounts state that this tree 
is more deadly poisonous than the upas, assert- 
ing that grass would not grow beneath it, that 
death would follow sleeping under its shade, 
and that a drop of its juice falling upon the 
skin had the same effect as the application of 
red-hot iron. While the milky juice of the 
tree is highly poisonous, investigations have 
shown the earlier reports to be greatly exag- 
gerated, and that, like our poison sumach, it 
affects some persons more seriously than oth- 
ers. Those who, not knowing its character, 
have inadvertently tasted of the fruit, have 
suffered from severe blistering of thelips. The 


aN \ 
ns 
: 


Manchineel, 


juice as well as the smoke from the burning 
wood produces temporary blindness. Berthold 
Seemann, the botanist, was blind after gather- 
ing specimens, and a boat’s crew of his ship, 
the Herald, were blind for several days from 
having used some of the wood in making a 
fire. On account of the beauty of the brown 
and white wood when polished, it is much used 
for cabinet work. It is said that before stri- 
king the axe into the trees the workmen take 
care to light fires around them in order to 
thicken the juice and drive off the volatile 
poisonous quality; and cabinet makers also 
when working it protect their faces with veils 
from the poisonous effects of the saw dust and 
exhalations from the wood. 

MANCHOORIA. See Manronoorta. 

MANCINI, a Roman family, founded in the 
14th century by Pietro Omni-Santi, surnamed 
Mancini dei Luci. Among his descendants 
was Michele Lorenzo Mancini, a brother of 
Cardinal Francesco Maria Mancini, who mar- 


96 


ried in 1634 a sister of Cardinal Mazarin. His 
daughters became prominent, according to 
Michelet, as ‘‘a battalion of Mazarin’s nieces, 
brought up under the cynical influence of 
Christina of Sweden, and for whom one of 
their brothers, the duke de Nevers, had a more 
than brotherly love.” I. Laure (1635-57), the 
least dissolute of the five sisters, though her 
beauty captivated many persons, among whom 
was the young Louis XIV., married the duke 
de Mercceur. One of her two sons, the duke 
de Vendéme, became a famous warrior. II. 
Olympe (1639-1708), called on account of her 
dark complexion and mischievous disposition 
‘black soul and black face,” was a mistress 
of Louis XIV. MHer uncle found a husband 
for her (1657) in Eugéne de Carignan, of 
the house of Savoy, who was on his mother’s 
side a French prince of the blood royal, and 
for whom the cardinal revived the title of 
count de Soissons. Though superseded for a 
time in the king’s favor by her sister Marie, 
she soon regained her ascendancy, and they 
lived openly together. Her husband died sud- 
denly in 1673, and it was suspected that she 
poisoned him. In 1679 she was compromised 
by the revelations of the poisoner Voisin. But 
she was considered to have been innocent as 
regarded the death of her husband, to whom 
she had borne eight children, and nothing was 
proved against her in connection with Voisin. 
She was however prosecuted by Louvois and 
fled to Brussels, where she barely escaped be- 
ing mobbed, and spent the rest of her life in 
various countries. While in Spain, where she 
met her fugitive sister Marie, King Charles II. 
attributed the sudden and premature death of 
his wife, Louise of France, to the frequent 
and clandestine visits which Olympe had paid 
to the queen in her illness, and to some milk 
which she had prepared for her shortly before 
her death. The celebrated soldier Prince Eu- 
gene of Savoy was one of her five sons, and 
she had three daughters. III. Marie (1640-1715) 
excited the passion of Louis XIV. to such an 
extent that he would have married her if the 
cardinal had not sent her to a convent, while 
_ he planned the king’s union with Maria Theresa, 
and Marie’s marriage (1661) with the Roman 
prince and constable Colonna, with a dowry 
consisting of an annuity of 100,000 livres. She 
bore him several children, but he was faithless, 
and she furtively left Rome together with her 
sister Hortense, both reaching Marseilles in 
male attire in a destitute condition. Louis 
XIV. had her removed to the abbaye du Lis, 
and subsequently she led a wandering and ad- 
venturous life. It is not known where she 
died. Michelet describes her as sombre-look- 
ing, with large glittering eyes. She was the 
least attractive of the sisters. IV. Hortense 
(1646-’99), the prettiest of them all, courted 
by Charles IT. of England, Turenne, and Charles 
de Lorraine, was married by her uncle to 
Armand de la Porte, marquis de la Meilleraye. 
The cardinal died in March, 1661, a month 


MANOINI 


after his niece’s marriage with the marquis, 
who assumed the name of duke of Mazarin. 
His jealousy of the king and of other persons 
bordered on insanity. She finally fled with 
her brother, the duke of Nevers, and her re- 
puted lover, the chevalier de Rohan, to the 
house of one of her former admirers, Charles 
de Lorraine, at Nancy, and thence to the court 
of Charles Emanuel of Savoy at Chambéry, 
where she spent three years. On his death 
in 1675 she was immediately expelled by his 
widow. After an adventurous expedition to 
the Netherlands and Germany, she paid a visit 
to Charles II., who was still in love with her, 
and added an annuity of 4,000 livres to that of 
20,000 which had been granted to her by Louis 
XIV. He also assigned to her a wing of St. 


| James’s palace, where gambling and dissipation 


became the order of the day. The Swedish 
count Bannier, another lover of hers, was 
killed in a duel by her nephew, the chevalier 
de Soissons, who, though a mere boy, was 
madly in love with his aunt. After the revo- 
lution of 1688 her pension was cut off, and she 
was accused of complicity in Jacobite plots. 
But William III. restored to her one half of 
her former English pension, and permitted her 
to remain in England, and she ended her life 
at Chelsea. Lafontaine celebrated her in 
verses, giving her credit not only for all im- 
aginable fine qualities of person, mind, and 
heart, but also for being adored from one end 
of the world to the other, and to such an ex- 
tent as to create jealousy between England and 
France. VY. Marie Anne (1649-1714) reached 
Paris only in 1655, much later than her sisters. 
She was also prosecuted as an associate of the 
poisoner Voisin, and did not live long with 
her husband, Maurice Godefroi de la Tour, 
duke de Bouillon, a nephew of Turenne, whom 
she had married in 1662. She retired to the 
palace of Chateau-Thierry, where she became 
the patroness of Lafontaine. Subsequently, 
after having rejoined her husband in_ Paris, 
she made her home a literary centre, with 
Moliére and the aged Corneille among the 
habitués. Like her father and all her sisters, 
she dabbled in necromancy as well as in poi- 
son, and was obliged to leave Paris in 1680. 
She lived for eight years with her sister the 
duchess of Mazarin in England; and after 
spending two years in Venice and Rome she 
was permitted in 1690 to return to Paris, 
where her society was courted to the last by 
eminent men of letters. 

MANCINI. I. Pasquale, an Italian statesman, 
born in Naples about 1815. He took his de- 
gree at the university of his native city, where 
he became professor of jurisprudence. In 
1848 he was a member of the Neapolitan par- 
liament, and drew up the protest against the 
king’s violent proceedings of May 15. To es- 
cape from the vengeance of the king he fled to 
Turin, where he was appointed professor of 
international law, which gave him an oppor- 
tunity to urge the rights of nationalities; be 


MANCO CAPAC 


was also elected to the Sardinian chamber. In 
1860 he became minister of justice and religion 
at Naples, and was a leader of the liberal party 
in the first Italian parliament, which met in 
1861. In 1862 he was for atime minister of edu- 
cation in the cabinet of Rattazzi. He has pub- 
lished Diritto internazionale (Naples, 1878). I. 
Laura Beatrice Oliva, an Italian poetess, wife of 
the preceding, born in Naples in 1823. She de- 
voted the early part of her life to her invalid 
father, to whom she was indebted for her edu- 
cation. In 1840 she married against the wish 
of her relatives, and wrote a play entitled Jnes 
founded upon the romantic circumstances of 
this alliance, which was performed in Florence 
in 1845. In 1846 appeared her poem Colombo 
al convento della Rabida, and a volume of 
miscellaneous poetry. In 1851 she addressed 
a poem to Mr. Gladstone in gratitude for his 
revelations in regard to the Neapolitan govern- 
ment; and one of her finest poems was elicited 
by the death of Gioberti (L’Jtalia sulla tomba 
di Vincenzo Gioberti, Turin, 1853). Upon the 
establishment of the kingdom of Italy she com- 
posed several poems for patriotic celebrations. 

MANCO CAPAC. I. The mythical ancestor of 
the incas of Peru. (See Perv, and Quiouvas.) 
II. Inca of Peru, killed in 1544. He was. the 
second son of the inca Huayna Capac, the 
conqueror of Quito, who died shortly before 
the arrival of Pizarro, dividing his kingdom 
between his legitimate successor Huascar and 
a younger son Atahuallpa. The latter, after 
having made war upon Huascar and put him 
to death, was himself captured and executed 
in 1533 by Pizarro, who then set up Toparca, 
a brother of his victim, as a nominal sovereign, 
under whose name the conquerors might them- 
selves direct the government. Toparca died 
within the year, and shortly afterward Manco 
Capac appeared in the Spanish camp to an- 
nounce his pretensions to the throne and claim 
Pizarro’s protection. The conqueror received 
him cordially, and made it his first care after 
the taking of Cuzco to place him on the throne. 
After in vain petitioning for power to exercise 
the sovereignty, he withdrew secretly from 

Cuzco, but was overtaken, brought back, and 
‘imprisoned. Again escaping, he roused the 
whole nation to arms, and appeared before 
Cuzco in February, 1536, with a host of In- 
dians who covered the surrounding hills. He 
destroyed a large part of the city by fire, 
and reduced the Spaniards to extremities; but 
after the siege had lasted more than’ five 
months, he had to draw off most of his fol- 
lowers on account of the scarcity of food, and 
retired to the fortress of Tambo in the val- 
ley of the Yucay. Defeated here by Almagro, 
and forsaken by most of his warriors, he 


fled to the Andes, and for several years re- 


mained a terror to the Spaniards, hovering 
over their towns, lying in ambush on the 
highways, sallying forth as occasion offered at 
the head of a few followers, always eluding 
pursuit in the wilds of the Cordilleras, and in 


MANDAMUS 97 


the event of civil war among the foreigners 
throwing his weight into the weaker scale in 
order to prolong their contests. Pizarro at- 
tempted to negotiate with him, and sent him 
rich presents by an African slave. The negro 
was murdered on the way by some of Manco’s 
men; and Pizarro in revenge caused one of 
the monarch’s wives to be tied naked to a tree, 
scourged, and shot to death with arrows. The 
Spanish rulers who succeeded Pizarro, down 
to Blasco Nufiez, bore orders from the crown 
to conciliate the formidable chief, but he re- 
fused all offers of accommodation. He was 
killed by a party of Spaniards belonging to the 
younger Almagro’s faction, who on the defeat 
of their leader had taken refuge in the Peru- 
vian camp. They were in turn massacred by 
the Indians. 

MANDAMUS, the name of a remedial writ, be- 
longing to a once extensive class of precepts, 
which bore the generic name of mandamus. 
They derived their name from the significant 
word of the mandatory clause, which, while 
the writs were framed in Latin, ran: Nos igi- 
tur tibt mandamus, &c., ‘‘We therefore com- 
mand you.” Their origin is referred to that 
clause of Magna Charta which declares that to 
no man will the king refuse or delay justice: 
Nulli negabimus aut differemus justitiam vel 
rectum. Atavery early period, the injunction 
was in form nothing but a letter from the 
sovereign. Subsequently it became a parlia- 
mentary writ, and issued on petition from the 
king and his council. Later the king’s bench 
took jurisdiction, which in the recent judicial 
changes in England has been transferred to the 
supreme court. The writ is directed to per- 
sons, corporations, or courts of inferior judi- 
cature, and requires them to do some specifie 
act which belongs to their official duty, or 
which exact justice demands. In this coun- 
try the power to grant itis vested in the su- 
preme judicial authority of the state, but in 
some states, also, in inferior courts. Not only 
does it form a branch of that general super- 
visory control which the sovereign power must 
possess over tribunals, magistrates, and all in- 
deed who in any sense are invested with public 
functions; but also, as it was originally con- 
trived to prevent failure of justice and to 
remedy defects of police, it is to be awarded in 
cases for which the law affords no specific and 
adequate remedy, yet where justice requires 
that there should be one. By the judiciary 
act of 1798 the United States supreme court 
received power to issue writs of mandamus in 
cases warranted by the principles and usages 
of law ‘‘to any courts appointed or persons 
holding office under the authority of the Uni- 
ted States; but in Marbury v. Madison, 1 
Cranch, 187, the latter clause was held to be 
unconstitutional and void, and the supreme 
court refused to grant the writ to compel the 
secretary of state to deliver a civil commission 
alleged to be illegally withheld by him. Circuit 
courts, too, were authorized to issue the writ 


98 MANDAMUS 


when necessary for the exercise of their juris- 
diction. The award of the writ is generally a 
matter of judicial discretion. He who seeks 
this remedy must show that he is innocent of 
laches, that he has a clear right in the prem- 
ises, that there has been a distinct refusal to 
do that which the petitioner would compel, and 
finally that he has in the ordinary processes of 
law no adequate remedy. The most common 
practice is for the court in the first instance to 
issue a writ commanding to be done that which 
is prayed for, or that the respondent show 
cause why it should not be done; or an order 
may issue in the first instance that the respon- 
dent show cause why a peremptory mandamus 
should not issue. In either case the defendant 
makes answer, and if the petitioner, who is 
usually called relator, is satisfied with the state- 
ment of facts in the answer, he will demur 
thereto, and the question will thus be referred 
to the court on an issue of law. If the relator 
is dissatisfied with the statement of facts in 
the answer, he may join issue thereon, and this 
issue of fact will be tried as the court may di- 
rect. If either issue is decided in favor of the 
relator, a peremptory mandamus is awarded. 
In a very clear case the peremptory writ may 
issue in the first instance. When directed to 
a court, the writ merely sets such court in 
motion; it bids it exercise a power which is 
vested in it. It does not presume to revise 
the decision of the inferior tribunal upon a 
question either of fact or law addressed to its 
judgment. As examples of this jurisdiction, 
mandamus has been granted to compel the 
sealing of a bill of exceptions or its amendment 
according to the truth of the case; or, at suit 
of a defendant, to require the inferior court to 
enter judgment upon a verdict, in the regular 
course of proceedings, in order to enable the 
defeated party to bring his writ of error. But 
the writ does not lie to control courts in respect 
to matters of practice under their rules, where 
their authority is discretionary. Mandamus 
often issues to commissioners of highways and 
supervisors of counties, commanding them to 
perform the peculiar duties of their office; 
ordering them, for example, to open a road 
regularly laid out; to estimate the damages 
caused to landowners thereby, or to levy a 
tax as they were required by law to do for the 
payment of damages caused by laying out a 
highway. Corporations, too, are often com- 
manded by this process to do what their con- 
stituent acts require. Thus railway corpora- 
tions have been compelled to pursue, in cross- 
ing rivers, the mode prescribed in their char- 
ters, and have been forbidden to obstruct 
navigation by the location of their track. Re- 
tiring public officers may also be compelled by 
this writ to deliver official books and papers 
to their successors, and corporations to admit 
members to their privileges, to restore a mem- 
ber irregularly disfranchised, and to allow di- 
rectors, and in proper cases other corporators, 
to have inspection of books. It is a common 


MANDANS 


process to compel the performance of public 
duties by public officers, but in such cases the 
attorney general or other public prosecuting 
officer should be relator, and a private citizen 
would not be allowed to take action except 
where some special and peculiar right of his 
own was involved in the performance of the 
public duty. The action of the executive, 
however, in the performance of his peculiar 
duties, is not to be controlled by this writ. 
MANDANS, an Indian tribe of the Dakota 
family, dwelling on the Upper Missouri. <Ac- 
cording to their traditions, they came from 
under the earth, where they lived near a sub- 
terranean lake. They ascended by means of a 
grape vine, which a heavy woman broke, so 
that part of the tribe were left below. About 
1772 they are said to have resided 1,500 m. from 
the mouth of the Missouri, in nine villages, en- 
circled with earth walls, two on the east and 
seven west of the river. The Sioux soon after 
drove the eastern villages to the Rickaree or 
Arickaree country, further up the river, and 
they emigrated again before those on the west 
followed them. Lewis and Clarke found them 
1,600 m. up the river, in two villages, one on 
each side of the river, and as they were friend- 
ly built Fort Mandan near them. By the ad- 
vice of the explorers they made peace with 
most of the neighboring tribes. In 1822 they 
were estimated at 1,250 in number, and though 
some placed the population much higher, it 
did not probably exceed 2,500. They made a 
treaty with Gen. Atkinson and the agent O’Fal- 
lon, July 30, 1825, recognizing the authority 
of the United States, and making peace. They 
continued to lose severely by their wars with 
the Sioux, who to this day pursue them with 
unrelenting hatred, parties under White Bon- 
net having twice attempted to destroy their 
village in 1870. In 1832 they dwelt at Fort 
Clarke, near the mouth of Knife river, and 
were supposed to number 2,000. In 18387 
the smallpox broke out among them, and re- 
duced the tribe to 145 souls in all, chiefly 
women and children. The survivors took 
refuge with the Rickarees. They are often 
spoken of as having been entirely swept away; 
but they gradually regained numbers, and al- 
ways maintained a distinct tribal organization. 
In 1845 they removed to their present abode. 
In 1850 they numbered 50 lodges and 150 
souls, and in 1852 had increased to 885. They 
are now (1874) with the Rickarees and Min- 
netarees at Fort Berthold, Dakota territory, on 
the left bank of the Missouri, in lat. 47° 34! 
N., lon. 101° 50’ W. An executive order of 
April 12, 1870, set apart a reservation of 
8,640,000 acres for the three tribes, in north- 
western Dakota and eastern Montana, extend- 
ing to the Yellowstone and Powder rivers. 
Under a treaty made July 27, 1866, government 
appropriates $75,000 a year for the three tribes, 
The Mandans were reported in 1878 as num- 
bering 479. Though always friendly, living in 
a permanent Village, they have had no mission- 


MANDATE 


aries and very feeble attempts at aschool. The 
Mandans live partly by agriculture, having 100 
acres in corn and potatoes, and possessing 150 
horses, but they have no cattle or proper im- 
plements. They extend their hunts west to 
the Rocky mountains, north to the British line, 
and south to the Black hills.—The Mandans are 
of lighter complexion than many of the tribes, 
and gray hair, even in young persons, is com- 
mon. This, and a story based on very vague 
hearsay that Welsh soldiers at Fort Chartres 
conversed in their language with the Mandans, 
has led to many attempts to trace their origin 
to Madoc’s supposed Welsh colony. Their 
houses are of wood; some of them are polygo- 
nal in shape, with an excavated cellar in the 
centre. The wooden frame is covered with 
earth, and the roof isa favorite resort. Quad- 
rangular log cabins are also used. Besides 
pipes, arrows, bows, &c., they make matting 
of wild rushes, baskets of willow bark woven 
in different and intricate colored patterns, large 
beads, and a very substantial black pottery ; 
some of the vessels hold three gallons and are 
capable of standing great heat. Their canoes 
are made of skins. They place the dead, 
wrapped in skins, on scaffolds, and when these 
fall they gather the skulls and place them in 
circles. They have a strange annual religious 
ceremony, relating to the great canoe and Nu- 
mokhmuckanah, the first or only man. They 
have many peculiar dances and a fearfully 
cruel initiation rite for young warriors. 
MANDATE, a law term derived from the 
Roman civil law. It may be defined as a bail- 
ment (delivery) of achattel or chattels to a per- 
son who is to do something with or about the 
things bailed, entirely without compensation. 
The essential element of the contract lies in 
the fact that there is not paid or promised, in 
law or in fact, any compensation whatever for 
the service to be rendered. The person deliv- 
ering the chattels is called a mandator; and 
the person receiving them and undertaking the 
service is called a mandatary. As it must be a 
service or an act, the whole benefit of which 
rests with the mandator, this, by the ordinary 
principles of bailment, determines the amount 
of care to which the mandatary is bound, and 
the degree of negligence for which he is an- 
swerable. For negligence in a bailee has in 
law three degrees: slight negligence, which 
makes the bailee responsible where the bail- 
ment was wholly for his benefit; ordinary 
negligence, for which he is responsible if the 
bailment be for the benefit of both parties; 
and gross negligence, for which only the bailee 
is responsible where the contract is for the ex- 
clusive benefit of the bailor. And as it is not 
a mandate if the bailee derives any benefit 
whatever from the service, it follows that a 
mandatary is responsible for loss of or for in- 
jury to the thing delivered to him, only when 
it is caused by his gross negligence.—There is 
no especial form for the contract of mandate; 
it may be in writing or by word only, and made 


99 


very solemnly or in the simplest way; in either 
case the law is the same. The mandator may 
recall the thing delivered at any time, and so 
rescind the contract. But if the nature of the 
contract be such that a mandatary has ren- 
dered the service in part, and will himself suf- 
fer detriment if it be not completed, the man- 
dator cannot now rescind it without providing 
adequate indemnity to the mandatary. When 
the contract is lawfully dissolved, the chattel 
must be restored to the mandator; but if in- 
demnity be due to the mandatary, he would 
have a lien on the chattel to secure it. So, too, 
the contract would be dissolved by the death 
of the mandator or of the mandatary, or by any 
change in the state of the parties which from 
its nature should recall it, as by insolvency of 
either party, or insanity, or the marriage of a 
woman, or the sale of the property, or the ter- 
mination of a guardianship on which the man- 
date rested. But in all these cases there must 
be the same exception as to a service partially 
rendered. So, too, itis believed that the man- 
datary may at his own pleasure terminate the 
contract; and as he may do this at any time, 
he may do it before he has begun to perform 
the service at all. But this very question has 
been more frequently and more elaborately 
discussed than any or all others which have 
arisen out of the contract of mandate.—Banks 
and bankers are so far mandataries, that they 
receive notes for collection, and render, or en- 
gage to render, by agreement or by mercantile 
usage, these and similar services without any 
especial or specific compensation. But it is 
understood that they do this as a part of their 
business, and for the general and indirect bene- 
fit they derive from doing it; and this is un- 
doubtedly consideration enough to make them 
liable for any injury to their customer caused 
by their negligence ; and it is sufficient to make 
them liable that their negligence was ordinary, 
or consisted in the want of common care.— We 
have seen that a mandatary is, by law, liable 
only for gross negligence. But it is a volun- 
tary contract, and the parties may vary it in 
any way, and make it more or less stringent, 
at their pleasure. Where the parties enter 
into no specific stipulations, there the law 
sometimes varies their liabilities in accordance 
with the particular circumstances of the case. 
Thus, it is an obvious principle that the man- 
dator has no right to require any more skill or 
care than he has reason to expect. If an own- 
er of a valuable chronometer carry it for re- 
pair to an ordinary watchmaker who does no 
business of this kind, and the instrument be 
injured in his hand because no more care and 
no better skill were applied to it than would 
suffice for ordinary watches, the owner has no 
one to blame but himself; unless he can show 
that the watchmaker especially undertook to 
be able to do the work required, and that the 
bailor had no means of knowing his incompe- 
tency. Onthe other hand, if the owner in- 
trusted his instrument to a person who was 


100 MANDELAY 


known to deal with those of like kind, who 
professed this as his business, and expressly or 
by implication asserted himself to possess suf- 
ficient skill, this person would then be liable, 
as for gross negligence, if he did not possess 
the requisite skill, or did possess it but did 
not make use of it, although he was strictly 
a mandatary, and had undertaken the work 
gratuitously. Here, however, a distinction 
must be taken. If a workman who is paid for 
his service asserts himself to have sufficient 
skill, he is liable for injury resulting from the 
want of that skill, although he does his best. 
But if he is not paid for his service and makes 
the same assertion, he is now not liable merely 
for the want of it unless he made the assertion 
fraudulently and knowing its falsehood; but, 
however honest, he is liable if, besides a want 
of skill, he has been guilty of negligence.—Man- 
dates in the civil law were the orders of the 
high functionaries, as the consuls and procon- 
suls, and afterward the emperors, to subordi- 


MANDEVILLE 


nate officers, to instruct them as to the con- 
duct they should pursue, either in general or 
in particular cases. At common law, the word 
mandate in a corresponding sense can hardly 
be said to be known. But it is sometimes 
used to signify an official command issued by 
a court, or a magistrate, or any tribunal hav- 
ing authority, in the form of a writ or pre- 
cept. It is generally, if not always, confined to 
commands issued to an inferior court, to con- 
firm or set aside a judgment, as by the supreme 
court of the United States to a circuit court, 
or to a proper Officer, to enforce or execute a 
judgment, decree, or order. When the com- 
mand is issued to an individual who is a party 
before the tribunal, it is commonly known as 
an injunction, prohibition, or the like. 
MANDELAY, Mandalay, or Pattawapura, the 
present capital of the kingdon of Burmah, a 
little N. of the former capital Amarapura, 3 
m. from the Irrawaddy river, and 350 m. N. of 
Rangoon; pop. about 90,000. In 1856 its site 


Mandelay. 


was occupied by cultivated fields; but after 
the royal determination to select a new capi- 
tal, its erection was carried forward so rapidly 
that by July, 1857, it was ready for the recep- 
tion of the court. The city is laid out in three 
parallelograms, one within another, of which 
only the two inner are walled. Within the 
inmost is the palace, which is also defended by 
high palisades, and surrounded by courtyards, 
gardens, and pools. Within this square are 
also the various offices of government. The sec- 
ond enclosure contains the houses of the civil 
and military officers and the soldiers’ quarters, 
and is laid out in wide streets crossing at right 
angles. It is surrounded by a high wall flanked 
with strong towers, with four massive gates, 
which are locked at night. There is also a 


= 


deep ditch. A wide interval separates this 
quarter from the outer city, which is occupied 
by the merchants, mechanics, &c. The forti- 
fications are massive, and the palace, pagodas, 


and cloisters are brilliant with color and gold; 


but the city still resembles the encampment of 
a tribe of nomads, and many of the dwellings 
are little more permanent than tents. Water 
is obtained from the river by a canal, which 
to obtain a proper level has to be carried a 
distance of 16 m. Postal communication with 
Rangoon is kept up by dak boats, which make 
the voyage in eight days. 

MANDEVILLE, Sir John, an English author, 
born in St. Albans about 1800, died in Liége, 
Nov. 17, 1872.: He was a proficient in theolo- 
gy, natural philosophy, and medicine, and even 


MANDINGO 


practised as a physician for some time, In 
1322 he proceeded to the East, visited the holy 
places in Palestine, being favored by the sul- 
tan of Egypt, and travelled in Armenia, Per- 
sia, India, Tartary, and northern China (Ca- 
thay). He returned to England about 1355, 
and wrote a narrative of his travels and adven- 
tures, first in Latin, and afterward in French 
and in English, which he dedicated to Edward 
III. This work is a singular mixture of fact 
and fable, a monument at once of the author’s 
candor and credulity. The earliest edition of 
it is that of Wynkin de Worde (Westminster, 
1499), and the best of the old English editions 
is that of 1725. A new edition was published 
by J. O. Halliwell (London, 1839). 

MANDINGO, a country in W. Africa, bounded 
N. by Kaarta, E. by Bambarra, 8. by the Kong 
mountains, and W. by Senegambia, lying be- 
tween lat. 8° and 15° N., and lon. 8° and 12° 
W. Much of this region is a high table land, 
and contains the sources of the Senegal and 
the Niger. Iron is abundant in the mountains, 
and gold dust is found in the rivers. The 
country is divided into a number of small 
states, each of which is nearly independent of 
the others. The most considerable of these 
states are Bambook and Kankan.—The Man- 
dingos are remarkable for their industry and 
energy. They are mostly Mohammedans. The 
principal trade of that part of W. Africa which 
lies between the equator and the great desert is 
in their hands. They are shrewd merchants, 
industrious agriculturists, and breeders of cat- 
tle, sheep, and goats. They are black in color, 
tall and well shaped, with regular features and 
woolly hair. They have been called the Hin- 
doos of Africa. They are amiable and hospita- 
ble, imaginative, credulous, truthful, and fond 
of music, dancing, and poetry. They are adven- 
turous travellers, extending their commercial 
journeys over the greater part of Africa. They 
trade chiefly in gold dust, ivory, and slaves. 
Polygamy is practised, and each wife has a 
separate hut. Their language is the richest of 
the negro tongues, is widely spread, and is 
written in Arabic characters. The Mandingos 
are the most numerous race of W. Africa, and 
have spread themselves to a great distance from 
their original seat, being found all over the 
valleys of the Gambia, Senegal, and Niger. 

MANDRAGORA. See MAnpRAKkE. 

~MANDRAKE (mandragora officinarum), a 
stemless plant, with lanceolate leaves, conceal- 
ing beneath them several pale violet-colored 
flowers, and having a large, forked, fleshy, per- 
ennial root. It grows spontaneously in the 
south of Europe. The plant belongs to the 
natural order solanacew, which comprises many 
poisonous species. Its large root is often divi- 
ded into two or three forks, causing it to be 
likened to the shape of the human body, a cir- 
cumstance which in old time gave it the repu- 
tation of being endowed with animal feelings; 
and there are fabulous stories of its uttering 
shrieks when torn from the earth. The works 


MANETHO 101 


of the early herbalists have curious accounts 
of the supposed virtues of this plant, of which 
they distinguished male and female varieties. 
According to Josephus, the collecting of man- 


RA HAY 


\ SY f| 
QA WSY | 
AN \ youd 
\ INS 
A Ss AWA 
\ S 


Mandragora officinarum. 


drake was no easy matter; after the earth had 
been well dug from around the root a dog was 
tied to it, and when the animal tried to follow 
its master, its struggles pulled up the root; the 
dog died immediately, a fate which would have 
befallen the man had he pulled it. Sibthorp 
(Flora Greca, London, 1806-40) says that the 
young Greeks wear small pieces of the root 
about them to serve aslove charms; and among 
the ancients it was held in high repute for 
philters. The qualities of the mandrake are 
acro-narcotic, purgative, and aphrodisiac. <Ac- 
cording to Lindley, Dr. T. H. Silvester has 
shown that the root was formerly used in the 
same way as chloroform and other anesthetic 
agents now are. The mandrake of the Old 
Testament (Gen. xxx. and Canticles vii.) was 
thought, according to some commentators, to 
have the power of removing barrenness.—The 
American mandrake, also called May apple, is 
podophyllum peltatum, a plant belonging to 
a very different family, and now largely em- 
ployed in medicine. (See PopopnyLyvum.) 

MANDRILL. See Bazoon. 

MANES. See Manicu@ans. 

MANES, in Roman mythology, the souls of 
the departed, who were generally recognized 
as gods and propitiated by sacrifices at certain 
seasons called feria denicales, and more partic- 
ularly at an annual festival kept on Feb. 19 un- 
der the name of feralia or parentalia, when 
each person made offerings to the souls of his 
deceased parents and benefactors. The manes 
were believed to have power only by night. 

MANETHO, an Egyptian historian, who flour- 
ished in the reign of Ptolemy Soter, at the 
beginning of the 8d century B. C. He was a 
priest of Sebennytus in Lower Egypt, and 
wrote in Greek a work on the religion and an- 


102 MANFRED 


other on the history of his country, the title of 
the former being ‘Tév Svoixév ’Exiroug, and of 
the latter Atyurriaxé. Both books are lost, but 
numerous fragments have been preserved by 
Josephus, Julius Africanus, Eusebius, and by 
Syncellus, who compiled from the two latter. 
The list of the Egyptian dynasties, as preserved 
in the Armenian version of Eusebius, is the 
most valuable remnant of Manetho’s history, 
the dates of which appear to have been derived 
from genuine documents, including the sacred 
books of the Egyptian priests. Attacked as a 
fabulist by various critics, Manetho has found 
zealous defenders among the most distinguished 
Egyptologists, and the recent discoveries in 
hieroglyphic archeology have vindicated his 
authority (see Eayrt; vol. vi., pp. 458-9); but 
parts of the fragments are now generally ac- 
knowledged to be spurious, as is the astrologi- 
cal poem ’AroreAcouatixd, Which bears his name, 
but is of late date.—The best critical editions of 
the fragments of Manetho are by Fruin (Ley- 
den, 1847) and Miller, in vol. ii. of the Frag- 
menta Historicorum Grecorum (Paris, 1848). 
MANFRED, prince of Tarentum, king of the 
Two Sicilies, natural son of the emperor Fred- 
erick II. and of Blanca, a daughter of Count 
Lanzia of Lombardy, born in Sicily about 1233, 
fell in the battle of Benevento, Feb. 26, 1266. 
At his father’s death in 1250 he was appointed 
regent in Italy during the absence of his half 
brother Conrad IV., the legitimate heir. Pope 
Innocent 1V.immediately excommunicated him, 
declaring that the house of Swabia had ceased 
to rule over Sicily, because Frederick II. had 
died under the papal ban. Insurrections were 
excited in Capua, Naples, and other cities, but 
Manfred reduced most of the rebels, advanced 
to meet Conrad at Pescara, delivered the goy- 
ernment into his hands, and aided him in com- 
pletely suppressing the revolt. He was, how- 
ever, removed from any part in the administra- 
tion, his principality of Tarentum was taxed, 
and the Lanzias were exiled from it. Conrad 
died in 1254, leaving the crown to his infant 
son Conradin, and Manfred was again called to 
the regency. Innocent IV. renewed his oppo- 
sition to him, supported by the Guelph party in 
the Two Sicilies, forced him to agree to hold 
his possessions as an immediate fief of the holy 
see, and had demanded from him an oath of 
entire submission, when he made his escape to 
the Saracens at Lucera. Aided by them, he 
defeated the papal troops at Foggia, recovered 
Apulia, and after the death of Innocent was rec- 
ognized king of the Two Sicilies, and crowned 
at Palermo, Aug. 11, 1258, a report of Con- 
radin’s death in Germany being at that time 
spread through Italy. This report was imme- 
diately contradicted by envoys, but Manfred 
refused to resign the crown, and his bravery, 
handsome person, accomplishments, and success 
made the people willingly submit to his rule. 
Regarded as the hereditary protector of the 
Ghibellines, he sent troops to Tuscany, by 
whom the Guelphs were defeated at Monte- 


MANGANESE 


aperto. His court abounded with poets and art- 
ists, and he himself was noted for poetic skill. 
He was excommunicated by Pope Alexander 
IV., who vainly, however, proclaimed a cru- 
sade against him, and again by Urban IV., who 
offered his kingdom for sale to any European 
prince who had the strength to take it. Charles 
of Anjou, brother of Louis [X. of France, re- 
ceived the investiture of the Sicilian kingdom, 
was solemnly crowned by Pope Clement IV. 
at Rome, Jan. 6, 1266, and marched thence 
for the conquest of his realms. He was met 
by Manfred beneath the walls of Benevento. 
The latter was bravely supported by the Sara- 
cens, but the Apulians refused to advance 
against the enemy, the Sicilian army was 
thrown into disorder, and Manfred fell cov- — 
ered with wounds in the thickest of the bat- 
tle. Dante alludes to his death and to his in- 
terment without religious rites (Purgatorio, 
canto iii). He was twice married, first to 
Beatrice of Savoy, and next to Helena, a Greek 
princess, and left three sons and one daugh- 
ter, who became the prisoners of the victor. 
MANFREDONIA, a seaport of Italy, in the prov- 
ince and 22 m. N. E. of the city of Foggia; 
pop. about 7,500. It is situated at the foot of 
Mt. Gargano, and surrounded by walls, and the 
harbor is protected by a strong castle. It is 
well built, is the seat of an archbishop, and has 
a Gothic cathedral, containing one of the lar- 
gest bells in Italy, which stands in the old 
town (originally Sipontum), about 1 m. 8. W. 
of the new. Salt is obtained from lagoons 8. 
of the town, and there is a considerable export 
trade in that article, as well as in corn and or- 
anges. The harbor is only accessible to small 
vessels. Manfredonia was founded about the 
middle of the 18th century by King Manfred. 
It was nearly destroyed by the Turks in 1620. 
MANGANESE, a metal having the symbol Mn 
and the combining weight 55, long known in 
the mineral pyrolusite, used to neutralize the 
green color of glass. The ores containing it 
were variously styled female magnets, magne- 
sia nigra in contradistinction to magnesia alba, 
alabandine from the city of Alabanda, manga~ 
desum by the glass makers, and’ subsequently 
by different chemists manganesium, mangani- 
um, and finally manganese. In 1774 Scheele 
and Bergman described the black oxide as a pe- 
culiar earth, and Gahn afterward succeeded in 
isolating the metal from it by mixing the pulver- 
ized mineral with charcoal and oil, forming the 
mass into pellets, which were introduced into a 
brasqued crucible and exposed for an hour to the 
highest heat of aforge. Themetal obtained in 
this way is very brittle, and, like cast iron, con- 
tains silicon and carbon, and has a variable spe- 
cific gravity. Brunner adopted a method anal- 
ogous to the one employed in the preparation 
of aluminum; the chloride of manganese was 
fused with an equal weight of fluor spar and one 
fifth its weight of metallic sodium. The metal 
thus prepared is very hard and brittle, will 
take a fine polish, cannot be scratched by a file, 


MANGANESE 


cuts glass easily, does not change in moist air, 
is not attracted by a magnet and is not itself 
magnetic, and has the specific gravity of 7:16. 
Deville reduced manganese oxide by mixing it 
with one tenth its weight of sugar charcoal and 
exposing it for three hours to a white heat in 
a lime crucible enclosed in a brasqued crucible. 
The product was a crystalline mass, the powder 
of which decomposed water rapidly ; color like 
bismuth ; specific gravity 8°015. Loughlin has 
subjected the above methods and numerous 
others to a careful repetition in his laboratory, 
and comes to the conclusion that the task of 
producing perfectly pure manganese is one of 
great difficulty. The discrepancy between the 
specific gravities, ranging from 6°85 to 8°015 as 
given by ditferent experimenters, leads to the 
conclusion either that manganese has several 
allotropic modifications, or that the pure metal 
has not yet been made.—Some of the alloys of 
manganese are of great value. With copper 
it yields a product which possesses the color 
and properties of German silver, while costing 
much less. Elliot Savage of West Meriden, 
Conn., has invented a process for preparing 
this alloy by reducing pyrolusite and copper 
ore directly in a gas furnace. Dr. Prieger of 
Bonn and Valenciennes of Paris have pre- 
pared several alloys of manganese and iron and 
manganese and copper. An intimate mixture 
of black oxide of manganese, powdered char- 
coal, and iron filings or turnings is made in 
a black-lead crucible holding 30 to 50 lbs. A 
covering is made of charcoal, fluor spar, and 
common salt, and the contents of the crucible 
are exposed for several hours to a white heat. 
The alloy of manganese and copper is prepared 
in a similar way, and both are very hard and 
capable of a high polish. In England there are 
86 patents involving the use of manganese in 
iron and steel, the earliest of which was taken 
out in 1799. Berthier made a large number of 
alloys of manganese, and described their prop- 
erties. Much use is now made of manganese in 
the metallurgy of iron and steel, and the frank- 
linite ore of New Jersey is largely employed 
in the United States in the manufacture of crys- 
talline burglar-proof iron and spiegel iron.— 
Manganese does not occur native, but is found 
widely diffused in association with other ele- 
ments. The following are the principal man- 
ganese minerals, the first being the chief ore 
‘of commerce: pyrolusite, braunite, manganite, 
rhodonite, hausmannite, alabandine, diallagite, 
wad, psilomelane, franklinite, crednerite, col- 
umbite, wolfram, triphiline, and manganese 
alum. Mines of manganese have been worked 
at Bennington, Vt., West Stockbridge and Shef- 
field, Mass., and later in North Carolina and 
Virginia. In 1871 $20 a ton was paid in New 
York for 70 per cent. Virginia ore. The an- 
nual production of manganese ore in Europe 
may be approximately stated as follows: 


Huelva, Spain. 1,000,000 ewts. | Saxony......... 13,579 cwts. 
PEMSRIS te sos 531.422 * INUBUEIE sc a's ss se 9,292 
Thuringia... .. 82,108 Sweden........ 2,400 “ 


103 


Nearly nine tenths of the manganese of com- 
merce is consumed in the manufacture of chlo- 
rine and bleaching powders; the other tenth is 
employed in the following industries: to color 
and decolorize glass; in the manufature of iron 
and steel; in the painting and glazing of por- 
celain and pottery; in the production of oxy- 
gen; and in the preparation of the various salts 
required in medicine and the arts.—Manganese 
enters as a base into two classes of compounds, 
the manganous and manganic; and also as an 
acid inte two classes of salts, the manganates and 
permanganates. There are five well character- 
ized oxides. 1. Manganous oxide, or manganese 
monoxide, MnO, is a basic body furnishing a 
series of manganous salts, pink-colored, which 
rapidly absorb oxygen, and pass into a higher 
state of oxidation. The pure oxide is a green- 
ish powder obtained by heating the carbonate 
in absence of air; the hydrate is precipitated 
as a white gelatinous mass, when an alkali is 
added to a solution of a manganous salt. Of 
the manganous salts the chief soluble ones are 
the sulphate, MnSO,+5H.O, and the chloride, 
MnOl.+4H.2O. The sulphide, MnS, and the 
carbonate, MnOOs, are insoluble. 2. Manganic 
oxide, or manganese sesquioxide, Mn2Os, exists 
in nature as braunite, and may be prepared ar- 
tificially by exposing manganous oxide to a red 
heat. It forms a series of insoluble salts, of 
which manganese alum is one of the most in- 
teresting. 38. Red or mangano-manganic ox- 
ide, Mn;O,, is a neutral body, corresponding 
to the magnetic oxide of iron, and occurring 
in nature as hausmannite. 4. Black oxide or 
manganese dioxide, MnO., is the chief ore of 
commerce, the magnesia nigra of the ancients, 
and termed pyrolusite by modern mineralo- 
gists. It can be artificially formed by adding 
a solution of bleaching powder to a manganous 
salt. This compound yields one third of its 
oxygen when heated to redness, and one half its 
oxygen when heated with sulphuric acid. <Ac- 
cording to Gérgeu, MnO: is capable of form- 
ing manganite salts with alkaline bases. 5. 
Permanganic acid, H2Mn2Oz, is a dark green 
heavy liquid, obtained by the action of strong 
cold sulphuric acid upon potassium perman- 
ganate. Manganic trioxide, its corresponding 
hydrate, manganic acid, and the anhydride of 
permanganic acid, are not known in a free 
state. The salts of the permanganates, notably 
the potassium permanganate, are now largely 
employed as disinfectants, for bleaching, and 
in the laboratory for the purpose of volumetric 
analysis. Among numerous methods for the 
preparation of potassium permanganates, the 
following may be recommended: 500 lbs. of 
freshly prepared potash lye of 45° B. are mixed 
with 105 lbs of pure potassium chlorate, and 
concentrated by evaporation in an iron kettle ; 
and then, under constant stirring, 182 Ibs. of 
finely pulverized black oxide of manganese are 
added, and the heat continued until the whole 
is fluid; it is then stirred until cold; the gran- 
ular mass is again heated to redness in small 


104 MANGANESE 


iron kettles until it is wholly fused, and is 
then, after cooling, broken up, boiled with 
water in a large pot, and allowed to settle; 
the clear liquor is decanted and evaporated 
to crystallization. In this way, from 180 lbs. 
of oxide of manganese, 98 to 100 lbs. of potas- 
sium permanganate, in beautiful long needles, 
can be obtained. For the bleaching of en- 
gravings and paper stock, for the purification 
of drinking water, as a disinfectant in hospi- 
tals, as a deodorizer of tainted meat in culinary 
operations, as a tooth wash under the name of 
Condy’s liquid, for the evolution of ozone oxy- 
gen, and for chemical analysis, there are few 
agents more valuable than potassium perman- 
ganates.— Various colors or dyes are prepared 
from salts of manganese. Nuremberg violet 
is made by fusing finely pulverized pyrolusite 
and phosphoric acid in proper proportions, di- 
gesting in ammonia, filtering, evaporating to 
dryness, and treating with water, when a violet 
powder remains. Barium manganate affords 
a fine green pigment, much safer than arsenic 
colors. Potassium permanganate dyes wood in 
imitation of mahogany and nut wood. The 
employment of manganese in glass manufac- 
ture was one of the earliest uses of this element. 
The oxide of manganese is put into the glass 
mixture to counteract the effect of oxides of 
iron; but in course of time it is itself oxidized 
by the light and air, and colors the glass red. 
As red glass intercepts the chemical rays of 
light, the skylights of photographers and the 
sashes of greenhouses have to be provided with 
glass to which no manganese has been added. 
The manufacture of oxygen on a commercial 
scale, according to the process of Tessié du 
Motay, is founded upon the property of the 
black oxide of manganese, when fused with 
caustic soda, to take up oxygen from a current 
of hot air, which it yields up again to .super- 
heated steam, thus offering a cheap and con- 
tinuous process.—As the principal application 
of the oxides of manganese is in the manufac- 
ture of bleaching powders, their commercial 
value depends upon the amount of oxygen they 
can furnish, or, which comes to the same thing, 
the quantity of chlorine which they are capable 
of eliminating when treated with hydrochloric 
acid. The methods of assaying the oxides of 
manganese may be classed under four. heads: 
1, The determination of the amount of oxygen 
disengaged by sulphuric acid; 2, the oxidation 
of oxalic acid; 3, the evolution of chlorine 
from hydrochloric acid; 4, volumetric estima- 
tion. For the details of these methods the 
reader is referred to Fresenius’s ‘‘ Chemical 
Analysis.” The chloride of manganese, ob- 
tained by crystallization from the residues in 
the manufacture of chlorine from the dioxide 
and hydrochloric acid, is regenerated so as to 
recover the dioxide to be employed again, by 
neutralizing its solution with excess of manga- 
nese and treating with hypochlorite of lime; 
by slightly elevating the temperature chlorine 
is disengaged, and the hydrate of the dioxide is 


MANGO 


precipitated in great purity, thus accomplishing 
a great saving in the quantity of hydrochloric 
acid and manganese required in this important 
industry.—Several salts of manganese have 
been used in medicine, the most important of 


‘which are the dioxide, iodide, sulphate, and 


phosphate, and permanganate of potassium. 
The first of these is said, when slowly introduced 
into the system, as happens to those engaged 
in grinding the mineral, to act as a poison, 
finally inducing paraplegia; but this is by no 
means a common occurrence. It has been 
used as a tonic, and also as a local remedy in 
dyspepsia. The iodide, sulphate, and phos- 
phate are used together with or instead of the 
corresponding salts of iron, and are supposed 
to have a similar action. Minute quantities of 
manganese have been found in the body, but it 
is extremely doubtful whether its presence is 
of physiological importance, or is in fact any- 
thing more than an accident. Although the 
therapeutic value of these compounds may be 
doubted on theoretical grounds, yet practical- 
ly they have been occasionally found of ser- 
vice. Cases of anemia that have proved re- 
bellious to chalybeates will sometimes yield to 
the salts of manganese. In chronic nervous 
debility also these salts sometimes act favor- 
ably as a tonic to the nervous system in 
some unexplained way. The dose of the sul- 
phate of manganese is from 5 to 10 grains. 
The sirup of the iodide is one of the best prep- 
arations of manganese for medicinal use; its 
dose is from 10 to 20 drops three times a day, 
and should be given in water soon after eating. 

MANGEL WURZEL. See Beet. 

MANGLES, James, a British traveller, born 
about 1785, died about 1861. He entered the 
navy in March, 1800, took part in the expedi- 
tion to the Cape of Good Hope, and became a 
commander in 1815. In 1816 he visited the 
Levant, went up the Nile, and joined Belzoni 
in clearing away the sand from the entrance 
to the great temple of Ipsambul. They then 
crossed the desert to Syria and the Dead sea, 
whence in 1820 they returned to England. In 
1823 they printed for private circulation a 
selection from the letters written by them 
while absent, republished in 1844 under the 
title of “‘ Travels in Egypt and Nubia, Syria, 
and the Holy Land.” 

MANGOUSE, or Mongous. See IoHNEUMON. 

MANGO, the native name of an East Indian 
fruit, of species of mangifera, of which 14 are 
known; some of them have been cultivated 
and become completely naturalized in the West 
Indies and other tropical countries. The genus 
belongs to the anacardiacee or cashew family, 
of which our native representatives are the 
sumachs. The most important species is M. 
Indica, of which there are numerous varieties ; 
it is a large spreading tree, with simple, entire, 
leathery, lanceolate leaves, and large terminal 
panicles of flowers; the calyx is four- or five- 
parted, petals six; the stamens four or five, 
only one or two of which are fertile; ovary 


MANGOSTEEN 


one-celled, with a curved style; the fruit is 
large, 3 in. or more long, ovate, and very va- 
riable in shape and color; it is at first green, 
and then becomes partly or wholly orange- 
colored; beneath the skin there is in the better 
varieties a rich delicious pulp, in the centre of 
which is a large stone, to which the inner por- 
tion of the pulp is attached by coarse fibres, 


Mango (Mangifera Indica). 


something after the manner of a clingstone 
peach. The largest varieties weigh two pounds, 
but the fruit is usually not larger than a goose 
egg. In its fresh state the fruit ismuch prized 
by the inhabitants of tropical countries, and 
it is sometimes offered in a very poor con- 
dition in our seaport cities. It is sent from 
the West Indies in the form of a sweetmeat, 
but in that state it is simply sweet and fla- 
voriess. The green fruit, pickled and highly 
spiced, is imported into England from the East 
Indies; an imitation of this-pickle, called man- 
goes, is made of green melons stuffed with aro- 
matics. Some of the varieties are not edible on 
account of their strong flavor of turpentine, 
and being very stringy also, one writer com- 
pares them to “a mixture of tow and turpen- 
tine.” The tree is sometimes cultivated under 
glass as a curiosity. The wood is used together 
with sandalwood by the Hindoos in burning 
their dead; the bark possesses astringent prop- 
erties, and the tree when wounded exudes a 
gum resin which is also astringent. The na- 
tives of India are said to make use of the as- 
tringent leaves and leaf stalks of the mango to 
harden the gums, and they also employ them 
as remedial agents in other ways. The seeds 
are said to possess anthelmintic properties, and 
when boiled are eaten in times of scarcity. 
MANGOSTEEN (Malay, mangostana; Garci- 
nia mangostana), a tree growing with an up- 
right stem to the height of 20 ft., and bearing 
a very beautiful and eatable berry, esteemed 
the most delicious of East Indian fruits. The 
genus Garcinia, of which there are over 30 


MANGROVE 105 


species, belongs to the natural order guttifere, 
which contains trees that are natives of the 
hottest parts of the world, and characterized 
by thick, entire, opposite leaves and resinous 
juices. Several species of Garcinia furnish a 
portion of the gamboge of commerce. In the 
mangosteen the leaves are about 7 or 8 in. 
long, and about half as much in breadth at 
the middle, gradually tapering at both ends, of 
a shining green above, but of an olive color 
beneath. The flower resembles a single rose, 
composed of four roundish petals, of a dark 
red color, which are thick at the base, but thin- 
ner toward the margins. The fruit is about 
the size and shape of an orange, and is crowned 
by a broad peltate-lobed stigma; the rind is 
like that of the pomegranate, but softer, thick- 
er, and fuller of juice; it is green at first, but 
changes to a dark brown with some yellowish 
spots; the inside is white or of a rose col- 
or, and is divided into several cells by thin 
partitions, in which the seeds are lodged, sur- 
rounded by asoft, juicy pulp, of a delicious fla- 
vor partaking of the strawberry and the grape ; 
one writer describes its qualities as “ utterly 
inexpressible.” It can be eaten in great quan- 
tities without any inconvenience, and it is the 
only fruit which sick people in India are al- 
lowed to eat without scruple. It is said that 
Solander, when in the last stage of a putrid 
fever at Batavia, found great benefit from 
sucking this delicious and refreshing fruit. 
The pulp has a most happy mixture of the tart 
and the sweet, and is no less salutary than 
pleasant. The dried bark of the Garcinia is 


Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana). 


astringent, and has been used in dysentery and 
in infusion as a gargle for sore mouth; the 
Chinese employ it for dyeing black. The sev- 
eral species are beautiful stove plants. 
MANGROVE, a common name for three or 
four tropical plants, but mainly applied to 
species of rhizophora (Gr. pica, a root, and 
gépev, to bear), a genus so called on account 


106 MANGROVE 


of the aérial roots borne. by the plants; the 
genus gives its name to the small family of 
rhizophoracee, which is nearly related to the 
myrtle family. There are but few species, the 


Mangrove. 


best known of which is R. Mangle, a plant 
common in tropical countries; its northern 
limits upon this continent are southern Flor- 
ida on the Atlantic and Lower California on 
the Pacific coast. It is a tree sometimes 40 
ft. high, but usually much smaller, with oppo- 
site, entire, leathery leaves, and axillary, few- 
flowered clusters of showy flowers; the per- 
sistent calyx has an obovate tube and a four- 
lobed limb; the yellow petals are four, thick, 
notched at the apex, and woolly on the mar- 
gins; stamens eight; ovary two-celled with 
two ovules in each cell; 
fruit one-celled, indehis- 
cent, at length perforated 
by the radicle of the em- 
bryo, which germinates 
while the fruit is still upon 
the tree. The mangrove 
is found in muddy locali- 
ties directly upon the sea- 
shore, where it forms im- 
penetrable thickets; its 
manner of growth is like 
that of the banian tree 
in miniature, as the stem 
and branches produce long 
slender roots, which final- 
ly reach the earth and be- 
comefixed. Themangrove 
not only prevents the encroachments of the sea 
upon the land, but acts an aggressive part in 
wresting land from the sea; the seeds, which 
might be washed away if they fell as soon as 


Fruit of Mangrove. 


MANICHAANS 


ripe, germinate while yet attached to the 
stem, and when one falls it is already pro- 
vided with a long radicle; in fact they are not 
properly any longer seeds, but young plants, 
which when they drop into the mud are ready 
to grow at once; after the young tree has 
formed a stem and head of branches, it is then 
by means of its aérial roots enabled to spread 
and occupy more territory, and thus advance 
seaward, while its fruit will drop beyond the 
line of the parent tree and new plants be pro- 
duced further from dry land. The tangled 
mass of stems and roots in a mangrove thicket 
retains the débris from the land that may be 
brought down by floods, and thus upon the 
land side of the grove solid ground is gradually 
formed. From the great quantity of decaying 
vegetable matter collected in a mangrove 
thicket, such localities are highly malarious. 
The account of oysters growing upon trees is 
not, as has been supposed, a traveller’s fable, 
for the submerged portions of the branch-like 
roots of the mangrove are often studded with 
these and other mollusks, and when the tide 
recedes oysters may be literally gathered from 
trees. Other species are found on the Malabar 
coast, and one is found on the Feejee and neigh- 
boring islands. The wood of the mangroves 
is tough, hard, and durable in the water; 
hence it is employed for boat building, a use 
for which the natural curves of its branches 
and its numerous knees especially adapt it. 
The bark contains a large amount of tannin, 
and is used all over the West Indies in the 
preparation of leather, as well as by dyers, 
giving with different mordants slate-colored 
and various brown tints. Occasional ship- 
ments of the bark have been made to England, 
but as there are many products which are 
much richer in tannin in proportion to their 
bulk, it is not likely to become a regular article 
of commerce. The fruit of the common man- 
grove is ovate and crowned with the persistent 
calyx, and said to be sweet and edible; its fer- 
mented juice makes a kind of light wine. 

MANHATTAN ISLAND. See New York. 

MANHEIM. See Mannuerm. 

MANICHEANS, a religious sect of the East, 
founded about the middle of the 3d century. 
Its origin is involved in obscurity, oriental and 
occidental writers differing much in their ac- 
counts of it. According to the latter, Manes 
or Mani, the founder of the sect, was not the 
originator of his doctrines. The fullest ac- 
count of his life and of the source of his sys- 
tem is given by Epiphanius, and is in all essen- 
tials corroborated by Cyril, Socrates, Theo- 
doret, Suidas, Cedrenus, and the Acta Disputa- 
tionis 8S. Archelai from which their statements 
were derived. This work, of uncertain author- 
ship, and extant only in a corrupted form, is 
rejected by some scholars as wholly unhistori- 
cal. It contains an account of a disputation be- 
tween Manes and Archelaus, bishop of Cascar. 
It states substantially that a certain Scythianus, 
an Arabian by birth, but a native of Scythia, 


MANICHAANS 


a man of much learning, wealth, and travel, 
conceived the idea of a dualism, the doctrine 
of good and bad principles. His disciple Tere- 
binthus composed for him four books, entitled 
Mvornpia, Kegadaia, Evayyédcov, and Oycavpé.. 
Scythianus was intending to go to Judea, in 
the time of the apostles, and teach his doc- 
trines there (as he did, according to Epipha- 
nius), when he suddenly died. Terebinthus fled 
to Persia, took the name of Budda, and taught 
the doctrine of Scythianus. Seeing that he was 
not gaining disciples, he attempted to deceive 
by magic arts, and while in the act fell from a 
roof and died. The books of Scythianus be- 
came the property of an old woman in whose 
house he had been lodging, and whose slave, 
Cubricus, called also Manes, inherited them at 
her death. Manes studied the doctrine and 
undertook to teach it, but with little success. 
Attempting to cure a sick child of the king of 
Persia with some of the remedies given in his 
books, and failing, he was thrown into prison. 
Shortly before this occurrence Manes had sent 
his disciples Thomas, Hermas, and Addas or 
Adda to Jerusalem to study the Christian reli- 
gion. Upon their return they gave him the 
Christian books which they had bought, and 
he studied them in his prison, and embodied 
many Christian doctrines, changed and falsi- 
fied, in his own system. Shortly after he suc- 
ceeded in making his escape. He challenged 
Marcellus, a pious Christian of Cascar (Kas- 
kar) in Babylonia, to a religious disputation, 
and was defeated. He then went to a place 
designated as Diodori Vicus, where he disputed 
with the bishop Archelaus and the presbyter 
Trypton, and was again discomfited. He was 
finally taken prisoner and sent back to Persia, 
where he was flayed alive, and his skin, stuffed 
with straw, was publicly exhibited as a warn- 
ing. Several reasons, as pointed out by Baur 
(Das Manichidische Religionssystem, 1831), tend 
to show that the strange particulars of Epi- 
phanius’s narrative are far from being all his- 
torical. The Fihrist el-ulum (‘List of Sci- 
ences”), the oldest known literary history of 
the Arabs, written about 987 by Abulfaraj Mo- 
hammed ben Ishak en-Nedim, a book which 
still made use of the works of Manes and his 
disciples, no longer extant, has statements in re- 
gard to Manes which are at variance with those 
of Epiphanius. According to this, Manes was 
born in Ctesiphon, the son of Futtak Babek or 
Fatek, of Hamadan, and of a woman probably 
of Babylonian origin. When 12 years old Manes 
became the subject of a divine inspiration, and 
at the age of 24 he was asked to act as a pro- 
phet. De Sacy, in his Mémoires sur diverses 
antiquités de la Perse, adduces several oriental 
books which state that Manes, after hiding him- 
self in a cave for a year, pretended to have come 
from heaven, where he bad received a painted 
slate, thereafter known as the Lrteng-i-Méani. 
It is further stated that Manes alleged that he 
_ had received his doctrine from the king of para- 
dise through the mediation of an angel. He 


107 


himself was the Paraclete of whom Christ had 
spoken. His tenets were derived partly from 
Christianity and partly from the Magi. His 
writings were six in number, one in Persian 
and five in Syriac, besides a multitude of epis- 
tles. The graphic system employed by him- 
self and his disciples is said to have been pecu- 
liar, resembling both Persian and Syrian char- 
acters. Most of the oriental writers agree 
that Manes came to a violent death, and that 
he was brought before a tribunal of priests, 
charged with heresy, and condemned. Spiegel, 
in his Hrdnische Alterthumskunde (vol. ii., 
1873), is inclined to consider historical the 
statements that Manes entered the career of a 
prophet when he was 24 years old, and that 
he addressed himself both to the Zoroastrians 


and Christians of Mesopotamia.—The Mani- 


chean system is a mixture of Parseeism, Chris- 
tianity, Babylonian mythology, and Buddhism. 
It contains a dualism different from that of the 
Magi, and shows the same easy transition from 
the concrete to the abstract characteristic of 
the Iranian religion. It assumes that there are 
two kingdoms existing from all eternity, those 
of light and of darkness, coexisting with and 
bordering on each other; the former under 
the dominion of God, the latter under the 
dominion of the demon or Hyle (matter). (See 
Gnosticism.) An inroad was made by the 
kingdom of darkness, the barriers were broken 
through, the primitive man, God’s first-born 
son, was for a time imprisoned, and the mate- 
rials of light and darkness were intermixed. 
God now caused the world to be made out 
of this mixed material. It was made by the 
“living spirit,’ in order that the unmixed 
and imprisoned material of light, which is 
called by the Latin writers Jesus patibilis, 
might be separated by degrees, and the old 
boundaries restored. This recapturing of the 
material of light was effected by Christ and 
the Holy Spirit, who inhabit respectively the 
sun and moon and the air, while the demon and 
evil spirits are fettered to the stars. Adam, 
the progenitor of the human race, was created 
after the image of the primitive man. Every 
man has two souls, one of light, the other of 
darkness; and it is his mission to subject the 
latter to the former, uniting with his soul of 
light some of the material of light imprisoned 
in certain plants, and so fitting it for return to 
the kingdom of light. The demon long led 
men astray by the false religions of Judaism 
and heathenism; but at length Christ descended 
from the sun, assumed a bodily appearance, and 
taught true worship. He was not fully under- 
stood even by his apostles; still less by their 
successors, whom Manes contemptuously calls 
Galileans. Hence Christ promised the Para- 
clete, who appeared in Manes. The Maniche- 
ans therefore rejected wholly the Old Testa- 
ment, and partially the New. They appealed 
to apocryphal writings, and especially to the 
writings of Manes, which alone they acknow]- 
edged as authoritative. The spirit of their 


st 


108 


morality was self-conquest by asceticism, of 
which they held to three degrees: 1, what the 
Latin writers call signaculum oris, abstinence 
from all impure words, and even thoughts, 
and from any kind of food which might in- 
crease the power of the body over the spirit, 
and especially flesh, wine, and strong drinks; 
2, the signaculum manuum, abstinence from 
such work as makes this world an attractive 
home; 8, the signaculum sinus, abstinence 
from sexual intercourse. Legal external mar- 
riage was not absolutely forbidden, but celi- 
bacy was strongly recommended, while absti- 
nence from procreation was a moral duty. 
This rigorous asceticism imposed on the bap- 
tized members such privations that most Mani- 
chesans remained catechumens, postponing bap- 
_ tism as long as possible. The worship of the 
Manichewans was very simple. Sunday was cel- 
ebrated by fasting; they kept the day of Manes’s 
death as an annual festival; they adminis- 
tered baptism with oil, and admitted only bap- 
tized members to the Lord’s supper, which was 
celebrated in secret. Manes himself sent out 
12 apostles, and these were afterward repre- 
sented by 12 magistri, with a 13th invisible 
one, without doubt Manes himself, at their 
head. After them followed 70 or 72 bishops, 
who in turn had under them presbyters, dea- 
cons, and the other electi, or baptized members 
of the church.—The cruel execution of Manes, 
the date of which is commonly fixed at A. D. 
276, in the reign of Bahram I., was undoubt- 
edly followed by a persecution of his disciples. 
The Manicheans consequently fled from Iranian 
territory into lands occupied by Tartaric races, 
where Buddhism was the general religion, and 
toleration was shown to other sects. They re- 
turned to the west only after the fall of the Sas- 
sanian dynasty, and settled especially in Baby- 
lon and its environs, which became the seat of 
the Manichzan primate, and seems to have been 
looked upon as a sort of holy city. Many emi- 
grated to Khorasan in the reign of the caliph 
Muktadir, and still more to Samarcand. Mos- 
lem fanaticism did not disturb them here, as 
the chief of the Turkish tribe of Tagazgaz, who 
took an interest in them, threatened vengeance 
against the Mohammedans in his territory if 
any harm should be done to the Manichawans. 
At the time of the author of the Fihrist, in 
the 10th century, there were but few Mani- 
cheans in the west, and in Bagdad their num- 
ber diminished, within his own recollection, 
from 300 to 5. Manes had appointed Sis or 
Sisinnius to be his successor as the head of 
the church, and the succession was continued 
for several centuries. But in the time of the 
caliph Walid I. (705), while Mihr was the 
head of the Manicheans, a certain Zadhurmuz 
separated from the community and built in 
Madain ‘a temple, of which he declared himself 
to be the chief. He appointed Miklas to be 
his successor, and hence those who adhered to 
him were called Miklasiya, and those who 
recognized the authority of Mihr were called 


as the rival of Christianity. 


MANICHAANS 


Mihriya. It seems that the two sects were 
subsequently reunited. During the caliphate 
of Al-Mamoun (813-833) one Yazdanbakht 
caused another schism, of which very little is 
known. The doctrine of Manes succeeded in 
gaining many converts, as it appealed large- 
ly to the imaginative and philosophic charac- 
ter of the oriental mind.—Manicheism spread 
beyond Iran and Mesopotamia over Asia Mi- 
nor and Africa, and it found its way into Eu- 
rope. Its history may be divided into three 
periods. The first period extends to the end 
of the 6th century, until which time the Ma- 
nichzan doctrines continued in a measure in 
their original oriental form. In Africa its suc- 
cess was sufficiently great to be looked upon 
It numbered 
among its converts many eminent and learned 
men, aS Alexander Lycopolitanus, Faustus of 
Milevi, and even St. Augustine for at least nine 
years. St. Augustine says that the name of 
Manes or Mani was changed to Manicheus, 
in order to avoid ribald remarks called forth 
by the resemblance of the former to the Greek 
pavia. The persecutions of Diocletian, Con- 
stantine, Gratian, Theodosius, Valentinian, and 
Honorius finally succeeded in weakening their 
power, and the Vandal kings drove them out 
of Africa into Sicily and Italy, where Pope 
Leo I. and Valentinian III. soon took measures 
either to convert or destroy them. But a cen- 
tury and a half later Gregory I. still complained 
of the large number of Manicheans in Christian 
lands. Persecutions had taught them, how- 
ever, the wisdom of appearing to adopt some 
of the Christian rites and doctrines, which had 
the effect of gradually perverting the oriental 
faith into a Christian heresy, and thus Mani- 
cheism entered upon a new phase of its ex- 
istence. The second period reaches from the 
7th to the 11th century. Cappadocia and Ar- 
menia had been the cradle of strong Mani- 
chean communities, which, finally exiled into 
Bulgaria, by degrees renounced even the name 
and headship of Manes, and rejected various 
doctrines seemingly unintelligible and un- 
profitable. Constantinople was not as severe 
on them as the Roman pontiffs and emperors, 
though the East finally subjected them to the 
same persecutions which their brethren had 
suffered in the West. (See Pavrictans.) The 
Manicheans of Italy soon came under the in- 
fluence of the Bulgarian reform, and a new 
variety of the original doctrine sprung up in 
the West. This third development embraces 
the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries. Germany, 
France, and Italy proceeded against the heretics 
with unwavering severity, and even the popu- 
lace joined in a general persecution of them, 
surrendering them to the penalty of death. 
(For the history of these new sects, see ALBI- 
GENSES, and CatTuarists.) In modern timeg 
the various forms of Manichwism have gradu- 
ally disappeared, and to all appearance, per- 
haps with the exception of a few in Bulgaria 
and Persia, disciples of Manes are nowhere to 


MANIKIN 


be found. In theological polemics the term 
Manichean is still applied to doctrines repre- 
senting evil as a substance, identifying it with 
matter, or regarding the body of man as the 
source or seat of sin.—The writings of Manes 
and his immediate disciples are not extant. 
Fragments are found quoted in the writings 
of their opponents, as in the Acta Disputa- 
tionis Sancti Archelai, Episcopi Mesopotami- 
ensis, cum Manete; St. Augustine, Contra 
Faustum Manicheum, and Contra Fortuna- 
tum Manicheum; and St. Epiphanius. Be- 
sides the accounts of Manichzism found in 
works on ecclesiastical history, and the spe- 
cial works mentioned above, see Schmidt, His- 
toire et doctrine de la secte des Cathares ou Al- 
bigeois (2d ed., Paris, 1849), and Fligel, Mani, 
seine Lehre und seine Schriften, ein Beitrag zur 
Geschichte des Manichdismus, aus dem Fihrist, 
am Text nebst Uebersetzung (Leipsic, 1862). 
MANIKIN. See ANatTomicaAL PREPARATIONS. 
MANILA, a city, 
capital of the island 


MANILA 109 


commonly occupied by the family, is encircled 
by a spacious gallery, from which the sun is 
excluded by large sliding panels with mother- 
of-pearl panes, sufliciently transparent to ad- 
mit light to the apartments. In this town are 
the cathedral and some other churches, with 
all the monasteries and convents, both of which 
are numerous; the governor’s palace; the cit- 
adel, overlooking both towns; the courts of 
justice, custom house, barracks, arsenal, hospi- 
tal, and other public buildings. Binondo, on 
the N. bank of the river, is much larger and 
more animated; but the streets are less regu- 
lar and many still unpaved. Numerous canals, 
crowded with pirogues, gondolas, and other 
boats, intersect this suburb, in which reside 
the wealthy merchants, Spanish, English, In- 
dian, Chinese, and mestizos. The newest and 
most elegant houses on the banks of the Pa- 
sig, though of unassuming exterior, are highly 
adorned within. Each house has a landing 


of Luzon, and of the 


whole Philippine ar- 


chipelago, near the 


mouth of the Rio 


Pasig, which emp- 


ties into the bay of 


Manila; lat. 14° 36’ 


NowdOnis Lalo Ee: 


pop. (including the 


suburbs) from 140,- 


000 to 150,000, of 
whom the Spaniards 


and creoles are about 


one tenth, the re- 
mainder being na- 
tive Tagalas, mesti- 
zos, and Chinese. 
Most of the Chinese 
are engaged in com- 
merce, and but few 
in agriculture. The 
city is divided by the 
river into two sec- 
tions, Manila proper and Binondo. The for- 
mer, which is the military town, is surrounded 
by lofty walls, and communicates with Binon- 
do by a fine stone bridge 511 ft. long, with 10 
arches, first built in 1630, but rebuilt in 1814. 
The situation of the town is beautiful. On 
one side is the bay, in a framework of forest- 
clad mountains declining gradually toward the 
shore; and on another a picturesque plain, 
where are the military parade ground and the 
fashionable promenades, crowded in the even- 
ing with showy equipages and gay equestrians 
and pedestrians. The aspect of Manila proper 
is somewhat dull and monotonous. The streets 
are perfectly straight, macadamized, and pro- 
vided with ample granite sidewalks. The 
houses, which have in general a sort of pala- 
tial appearance, are of two stories, and built 
in a manner to resist the hurricanes and earth- 
quakes so frequent here. The upper story, 


Manila, 


place from the river, and little bamboo huts 
to which the inhabitants repair several times 
a day for bathing. In other parts of the town 
there are sombre and massive structures inter- 
spersed with airy bamboo cottages perched 
on posts, in the midst of avenues of tropical 
trees, giving to the place an appearance at 
once Spanish and oriental. The only square 
worthy of remark in either town is the Plaza 
Mayor in Manila proper, some 300 ft. square, 
and embellished with a fine statue of Charles 
IV. of Spain, presented by Ferdinand VII. in 
1824. The climate is intensely hot, but toler- 
ably salubrious; hurricanes occur frequently, 
and heavy rains fall at short intervals, espe- 
cially during the wet monsoons, which prevail 
five months out of the twelve. The tempera- 
ture is equable, seldom rising above 99° F. or 
descending below 70°. Vessels of deep draught 
have to anchor at Cavité, about 7 m. distant ; 


110 


but the anchorage in the port of Manila is ex- 
cellent for small vessels. Manila is by law the 
sole emporium of foreign trade with the Span- 
ish East Indies. The chief articles of export 
are sugar, tobacco (exclusively to Great Brit- 
ain and Spain, the latter receiving annually a 
state tribute out of the tobacco crop to the 
amount of $800,000), cigars, hemp, coffee, in- 
digo, copper, and gums and other tropical 
products. The imports include cotton, linen, 
woollen, and silk fabrics, manufactured iron, 
wines, beer, &c. The total value of the ex- 
ports for the year ending Sept. 30, 1872, was 
$18,679,770 19; of the imports, $2,557,227 42; 
the amount of duties paid on the latter was 
$284,406 31. The more important commer- 
cial relations are with Spain, Great Britain, the 
United States, France, Germany, China, Chili, 
and the Hawaiian islands. The tobacco manu- 
facture, a government monopoly, employs 20,- 
000 workers of both sexes. (For other manu- 
factures, see Luzon, and Puirippine IsLanps.) 
Educational establishments are numerous in 
Manila: there are the university of St. Thomas, 
with 500 students; that of St. John, with 250; 
a royal marine school (established in 1820), a 
commercial (1840), and a number of primary 
schools public and private.—Manila was found- 
ed by the Spaniards in 1571, on the site of a 
Malay town defended by stockades. Miguel Lo- 
pez de Legazpi, conqueror of the Philippines 
and founder of the city, was indefatigable in 
promoting its growth. He founded the cathe- 
dral, the metropolitan church of all Catholic 
Oceanica, and established a municipal organi- 
zation, which was confirmed by Philip II. of 
Spain, and continues to be the form of muni- 
cipal government in Manila. Chinese laborers 
and traders settled here in large numbers, and 
in time became very turbulent. In 1603 an 
insurrection took place, and 23,000 Chinese 
were massacred; notwithstanding which, the 
Chinese population in 1689 numbered in Ma- 
nila about 30,000. The severity of imposts 
and religious persecution again led to insurrec- 
tion, which terminated with the slaughter of 
about 25,000 Chinese, and the banishment of 
the remainder; but they soon again resorted 
to the city in large numbers, and assisted Ad- 
miral Cornish and Sir William Draper in the 
capture of it in 1762. The English expedition, 
composed of 2,300 Europeans and sepoys, 
which sailed from Madras, took the city by 
storm, after a siege of ten days. The gover- 
nor and archbishop agreed to pay $5,000,000 
to save the rich cargoes then lying in the port; 
but the king of Spain refused to ratify the 
offer. Sir William Draper has been rendered 
conspicuous by his controversy with Junius 
concerning this ransom. Manila was restored 
to Spain by the peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. 
The Japanese had much trade with the city, 
and were settled in it in large numbers during 
a portion of the 17th century, before their 
laws excluded them from all communication 
with the rest of the world. They imported 


MANILA 


the raw material extensively used in their 
manufactures directly from the Philippines. 
Earthquakes have been frequent and disas- 
trous; in that of 1645, 3,000 lives were lost; 
and those of 1762, 1824, and 1852 were also 
destructive of life and property; while in that 
of June, 1863, about 1,000 persons perished. 
In March, 1833, about 10,000 huts were burned, 
some lives were lost, and about 30,000 people 
left homeless. 

MANILA, or Manila Hemp, the fibre of musa 
textilis, a native of the Philippine islands, and 
of the same genus with the banana and plan- 
tain. The tree, known in the islands by the 
native name of abaca, has a similar habit of 
growth to the banana and other musas; the 


ie 
uitéy 


SSS 


Manila Hemp Tree (Musa textilis). 


stem proper is small, and is surrounded by the 
broad sheathing petioles of the leaves, together 
making a kind of false stem, which in the abaca 
is 15 or 20ft. high; the leaves are dark green, 
and resemble those of the banana; the fruit 
is small and triangular, resembling an abortive 
banana, and full of black seeds; the plant is 
readily multiplied by seeds and by suckers, and 
propagates itself so freely as to take complete 
possession of the land. When the stems are 
about to flower they are cut down, and split 
longitudinally in four pieces; the petioles, 
which are the portion furnishing the fibre, are 
then pulled off, the outer ones, which furnish 
the coarsest and strongest fibre, being kept 
separate from the inner; those which grow 


MANILIUS 


near the centre are rejected, as their fibres are 
not strong enough to be useful. To separate 
the fibre, the petioles are thoroughly beaten 
with wooden clubs, by which much of the ad- 
hering tissue is loosened; and the separation is 
further effected by the use of a coarse hackle, 
after which the fibres are frequently washed, 
and when freed of all extraneous matter they 
are hung upon poles or ropes to dry. The 
fibres are coarser or finer as they are from the 
outer or inner petioles, and they are carefully 
assorted, the coarsest being for cordage and 
the finer for weaving. Asa material for ropes 
and other cordage its great tenacity and dura- 
bility make it highly valuable, and large quan- 
tities are used for this purpose. From the 
finer fibres the inhabitants of the islands weave 
tissues of great delicacy; the fibres are not 
spun, but used in their natural state; those 
of a proper size being selected, the single 
fibres, which are about 15 ft. long, are tied to- 
gether at their ends, and wound into a ball, 
soaked in hot water, and dried, when they are 
ready for weaving. Tissues woven from the 
abaca fibre are almost transparent, somewhat 
rigid, light, and cool to the touch; muslins, 
veils, napkins, &c., are made from it, and it is 
even woven into shirts and other articles of 
apparel; the material readily takes dyes of all 
colors. Large quantities of paper are made in 
whole or in part from manila, usually in the 
form of worn-out rope; it possesses great 
toughness in proportion to its weight. 
MANILIUS, Marens, a Latin poet, of unknown 
date and history. Bentley supposed that he 
was an Asiatic, and Huet that he was a Car- 
thaginian, and there are indications in his only 
known poem, the Astronomica, that it was 
written under Augustus. The first manuscript 
was discovered by Poggio in 1416, and was 
printed at Nuremberg in 1472 or 1473. Other 
MSS. were afterward found, from which later 
editions were prepared. There is an English 
metrical translation by Creech (London, 1697). 
MANIN, Daniele, an Italian statesman, born in 
Venice, May 138, 1804, died in Paris, Sept. 22, 
1857. He studied law at the university of Pa- 
dua, and commenced practice about 1830. He 
early became a champion of the national party, 
though aiming to combat Austria with legal 
weapons. After the accession of Pius IX. 
Manin and Tommaseo became the leaders of 
the reform movement in Venice (1847). Ma- 
nin asked for a separate government of Venice 
and Lombardy, a revision of the codes, an an- 
nual budget, and freedom of religion and of 
the press. Upon Radetzky’s bloody suppres- 
sion of a riot in Milan (Jan. 9, 1848), his and 
his colleague’s protests (Jan. 18) resulted only 
in the imprisonment of the two patriots. The 
revolution which soon followed forced the 
Austrian commander, Count Zichy, to surren- 
der, March 22; the republic of Venice or St. 
Mark was proclaimed, March 23, and Manin 
and Tommaseo were placed at the head of 
affairs. The Venetians prepared to form an 
529 VOL, x1.—8 


MANISSA 111 


independent republic in confederation with the 
other Italian states; but the Venetian assem- 
bly, convened June 8, agreed to the fusion 
with Sardinia and Lombardy so as to form a 
united kingdom of northern Italy under Charles 
Albert. Manin resigned; but after the king’s 
defeat at Custozza (July 25), the Venetians pre- 
pared for a separate defence. The republican 
banner of St. Mark was again hoisted, Aug. 11, 
and a triumvirate was appointed to carry on a 
dictatorial government on the 13th, Manin be- 
ing its head. After the defeat of Charles Al- 
bert’s army at Novara, March 23, 1849, the 
Austrians concentrated their efforts upon the 
subjugation of Venice, while the French un- 
dertook the reduction of Rome. Fort Mala- 
ghera, one of the forts outside of Venice, fell 
into the hands of the Austrians, May 26, and 
Rome was occupied by the French at the be- 
ginning of July. Venice, however, continued 
its resistance under the military lead of Gen. 
Pepe, and Manin only capitulated (Aug. 23) 
upon terms of amnesty to all except 40 con- 
spicuous leaders, including himself, who were 
compelled to withdraw before the entrance of 
Radetzky. He spent the rest of his life in ex- 
ile in Paris, supporting himself by giving les- 
sons in Italian, and occasionally writing for 
the newspapers of Paris, London, and Turin. 
After the liberation of Venice his remains 
were brought from Paris at national expense, 
and buried with great solemnity (March 22, 
1868). An edition of some of his writings 
was published under the title Documents et 
pieces authentiques laissés par Daniel Manin 
(Paris, 1860). See also Daniel Manin, by H. 
Martin (Paris, 1859), and Errera, La vita ed 7 
tempi di Daniele Manin (Venice, 1872). 

MANIOC, or Mandioca. See Cassava. 

MANIS, an edentate animal of Asia and Af- 
rica. See Paneo.in. 

MANISSA, or Manisa (anc. Magnesia ad Sipy- 
lum), a city of Asia Minor, in the vilayet of 
Aidin, on the S. bank of the Hermus, and on 
the N. slope of Mt. Sipylus, about 20 m. N. E. 
of the city of Smyrna; pop. estimated from 
30,000 to 60,000, chiefly Turks, with nearly 
4,000 Greeks and a number of Armenians and 
Jews. There are numerous mosques, four Ro- 
man Catholic and several Greek and Armenian 
churches, and four synagogues. Among the 
public buildings are those for the Turkish 
lieutenant governor and for the Greek bishop, 
a splendid khan, a district lunatic asylum, the 
Ottoman bank, the railway station, and the 
new bazaar. The finest palace is occupied by 
the Karaosmanglu family, the former princes 
of Caramania, once omnipotent here, and still 
large landed proprietors, The principal export 
is cotton, which has been produced in consid- 
erable quantities since the civil war in the 
United States; and the Smyrna railway, opened 
in 1865, of which Manissa is the last station 
before reaching Kassaba, has rendered the cot- 
ton trade still more active in the two localities. 
(See Maqnzsia.) 


112 MANISTEE 


MANISTEE, a N. W. county of the lower 
peninsula of Michigan, bounded W. by Lake 
Michigan, and watered by the Manistee river ; 
area, about 550 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 6,074. 
The surface is level, the soil fertile, and there 
are extensive forests of pine. The chief pro- 
ductions in 1870 were 5,517 bushels of wheat, 
10,509 of Indian corn, 4,748 of oats, 29,360 of 
potatoes, 12,730 lbs. of butter, and 565 tons 
of hay. There were 1 manufactory of engines 
and boilers, 2 of sash, doors, and blinds, 1 of 
cigars, and 20 saw mills. Capital, Manistee. 

MANISTEE, a city and the county seat of Ma- 
nistee co., Michigan, on Lake Michigan, at the 
mouth of Manistee river, 185 m. N. W. of Lan- 
sing; pop. in 1870, 3,343; in 1874, 4,894. Itis 
one of the chief lumber manufacturing points 
onthe lake. The mills, about 20 in number, are 
situated on Manistee lake, an expansion of the 
river above the city. There are also an extensive 
tannery and seven shingle mills. Manistee has 
some fine residences, a good union school, and 
several churches. It was incorporated in 1869. 

MANITOBA, a province of the Dominion of 
Canada, situated between lat. 49° and 50° 30’ 
N., and lon. 96° and 99° W. It is bounded 8. 
by Minnesota and Dakota, and on all other 
sides by the Northwest territories, and is 135 
m. long E. and W. by 104 m. in breadth, form- 
ing nearly a parallelogram; area, 14,340 sq. m. 
It is divided into four counties, Lisgar, Mar- 
quette, Provencher, and Selkirk, which are 
subdivided into parishes. The capital and chief 
town is Winnipeg, on the N. bank of the As- 
siniboin or Assiniboine river, at its confluence 
with the Red, which has about 3,000 inhabi- 
tants, and contains within its limits Fort Garry, 
the American headquarters of the Hudson Bay 
company. The population of the territory 
now embraced within the province in 1823 was 
about 600; in 1843, 5,143; in 1849, 5,291; in 
1856, 6,523; in 1870 (census taken Dec. 24), 
11,963, of whom 5,757 were French half-breeds, 
4,083 English half-breeds, 1,565 whites, and 
558 Indians; in 1874, about 20,000. The 
half-breeds include all having any intermixture 
of Indian blood, and are the descendants of 
Indian mothers and French Canadian, English, 
or Scotch fathers, the Scotch element predom- 
inating over the English. The distinction of 
French and English in the census is based 
rather upon language than lineage. Since 1870 
a considerable immigration, particularly from 
Ontario, has set in. The principal settlements 
are on both banks of Red river, from about 
20 m. N. to 15 m.S. of Winnipeg, and along 
the Assiniboin for about 20 m. W. of that 
town. N. of the half-breed settlements on Red 
river is a village of settled and Christian In- 
dians of the Swampy Cree tribe. The western- 
most settlement on the Assiniboin is at Prairie 
Portage (Portage-la-Prairie), 67 m. above Win- 
nipeg. Besides the Indians enumerated there 
are uncivilized Saulteaux and Maskegons, or 
Swampies, in the province, and some Sioux 
who have been driven from Minnesota. The 


MANITOBA 


half-breeds are a handsome race, large, strong, 
and well made; they are generally swarthy, 
but many exhibit no sign of Indian extraction. 
Intrepid and indefatigable travellers, they mani- 
fest the Indian instinct in the ability to find 
their way through forests and across prairies, 
Many are employed by the Hudson Bay com- 
pany as boatmen, guides, and sledge drivers; 
others are farmers; while a large proportion, 
especially of the French, pay comparatively 
little attention to agriculture, but pursue the 
buffalo in summer and winter on the plains 
W. and S. W. of the province. In general 
they are intelligent and hospitable, but prod- 
igal of their earnings, fond of pleasure, in- 
clined to drunkenness and indolence, and res- 
tive of restraint. Those engaged in farming, 
with a settled mode of life, have acquired 
more stable and provident traits of character 
than the hunters.—The general surface is a 
level prairie, 80 ft. above Lake Winnipeg and 
700 ft. above the sea. It is broken by the Big 
ridge and Pembina mountain, ancient beaches 
of that lake which is supposed at one time 
to have extended over this region. The Big 
ridge, rising in places 60 or 70 ft. above the gen- 
eral level, commences near Lake Manitoba, N. 
of the Assiniboin river, and runs nearly par- 
allel with that stream to the Red river, cross- 
ing which below Winnipeg, it continues in a 
S. E. direction to German creck, and thence 
a little W. of S. to the Roseau river, which 
it crosses near the United States boundary and 
46 m. above its mouth. The Pembina moun- 
tain enters the province near the 98th merid- 
ian, and runs N. to the Assiniboin, just below 
Prairie portage. It marks the ascent from the 
general level to the hilly and undulating prai- 
rie on the south and west, which is about 100 
ft. higher. West of Pembina mountain, and 
a little S. of the Assiniboin river, are the Blue 
hills, 300 to 400 ft. above the plain. Stony 
mountain, W. of Red river, and about 15 m. 
N. of Winnipeg, rises 60 ft. above the sur- 
rounding prairie. The valley of Red river 
through most of its course is liable to inunda- 
tion in spring, and on several occasions has 
suffered severely. N. E. and E. of the Big 
ridge, along the border of the province, the 
country is marshy and swampy, forming part 
of the marshy region that extends from Lake 
Winnipeg S. E. to Rainy lake. Marshes also 
occur at other points both E. and W. of Red 
river.—The only important lakes are Winnipeg 
and Manitoba (from which the province derives 
its name), a small portion of the S. part of the 
former occupying the N. E. and of the latter 
the N. W. corner. The principal stream is the 
Red river of the North, which, rising in Min- 
nesota, flows N. for 140 m. of its course 
through the province, and empties into Lake 
Winnipeg. It is navigable by steamers into 
Minnesota. Red river divides Manitoba into 
two unequal parts, about a third lying on the 
E. and two thirds on the W. bank. The chief 
tributaries from the east, commencing at the 


MANITOBA 


United States boundary and going N., are the 
Roseau or Reedgrass river, Rat river, Oak 
creek, and la riviére Seine or German creek, 
which joins the Red just below Winnipeg. 
On the west the Pembina river drains the S. W. 
corner of the province, and flowing 8. E. joins 
Red river in Dakota, a little S. of the boun- 
dary. Proceeding N., the other western tribu- 
taries are the Scratching river, la riviére Sale 
or Stinking river, the Assiniboin, and Netley 
creek, which joins the main stream near its 
mouth. The Assiniboin, the largest tributary, 
rises in about lat. 52°, W. of Lake Winnipe- 
gosis, flows first S. E., then bends E., and con- 
tinues in this direction for about 150 m. of its 
course through Manitoba, emptying into Red 
river about 50 m. above Lake Winnipeg. The 
oniy other stream worth mentioning is White 
Mud river, which flows into Lake Manitoba. 
—The geological formations occurring in the 
province are the Silurian in the east, the De- 
vonian in the centre, and the cretaceous in the 
southwest, W. of Pembina mountain. These 
series run parallel with each otherin a N. N. W. 
and 8. 8. E. direction. The Laurentian series 
occurs only in the N. E. corner. The soil of 
the greater portion, and particularly of the 
prairies extending for 30 m. on each side of 
Red river, consists of a deep alluvial deposit of 
rich black mould, resting partly on limestone 
and partly on a bed of hard clay. The lime- 
stone crops out on the Red river below Win- 
nipeg, where it is suitable for building ma- 
terial. Stony mountain consists of limestone. 
The elevated prairie W. of Pembina mountain 
is covered with a light sandy clay loam, and 
near Scratching river the soil is light and sandy. 
Big ridge is composed of gravel, and Pembina 
mountain consists of clay, gravel, and sand, 
thickly strewn with granite boulders. Salt 
springs are found in the valley of la riviére Sale, 
and at one or two points on Red river further 
S.; and there are saline deposits near Stony 
mountain and in the vicinity of Lake Manitoba. 
—The climate is healthy, but exhibits great 
extremes of temperature, the thermometer 
falling in winter to 40° below zero and even 
lower, and in summer rising as high as 100.° 
Owing to the dryness of the atmosphere, the 
cold is not severely felt, and horses winter on 
the prairies without shelter, fattening on the 
grasses which they dig from beneath the snow, 
which is seldom very deep. The rainfall in 
summer is ample for agricultural purposes, and 
vegetation comes rapidly to maturity. Winter 
sets in with the commencement of November, 
and continues to the middle of April. Frosts 
are liable to occur until the end of May, and 
cold nights begin toward the end of August. 
The mean temperature at Winnipeg of the year 
ending May 31, 1878, was 33°; of summer, 
65°7°; of autumn, 87°5°; of winter, —3°3°; 
of spring, 32°1°; warmest month (July), 67°6° ; 
coldest month (December), —9°. The total 
precipitation of rain and melted snow was 
22°33 inches.—The soil is very fertile. Wheat 


113 


is the staple crop, and yields abundantly, 40 
bushels to the acre being commonly raised. 
Barley, oats, rye, potatoes, turnips, beets, car- 
rots, parsnips, cabbage, lettuce, &., also do 
well. Indian corn is not much cultivated, 
though some varieties come to maturity in the 
driest soils. Flax and hemp have been suc- 
cessfully grown. The prairie grasses furnish 
good hay, and afford nutritious pasturage. 
Considerable numbers of horses, cattle, sheep, 
and swine are raised. Grasshoppers or locusts 
are the chief pest of the farmer, and have 
on several occasions destroyed all vegetation. 
The principal wild fruits are strawberries, 
currants, raspberries, plums, cherries, blue- 
berries, whortleberries, and marsh and high- 
bush cranberries. Wood is scarce, and is found 
chiefly in narrow strips along the Red and 
Assiniboin rivers, the timber belt extending 
from 4 m. to 2 m. back from the stream on 
either bank. There are also portions of wood- 
land along the other streams. The principal 
trees are the elm, oak, maple, and poplar.; 
tamarack, spruce, cedar, and birch also occur. 
The ridges afford small aspens and pines, and 
clumps of willows and aspens are found in the 
marshes, as well as on portions of the prairies. 
The ash-leaved maple (negundo frazinifoli- 
um) yields sugar. Among the wild animals.are 
elks, rabbits, badgers, and squirrels. There are 
ducks, geese, cranes, swans, snipe, prairie hens, 
and other birds. The rivers and lakes swarm 
with whitefish, sturgeon, trout, cat fish, pike, 
perch, and gold-eyes.—There are no returns 
of the trade with the other provinces of the 
Dominion. The value of goods entered for 
consumption from foreign countries for the 
year ending June 380, 1873, was $1,029,130, of 
which $509,838 were from Great Britain and 
$441,559 from the United States. The exports 
to foreign countries amounted to $246,983, all 
but $4,915 consisting of furs. The greater 
part of the exports were to Great Britain, the 
rest to the United States. There are no rail- 
roads in Manitoba, but the projected Canadian 
Pacific line is to pass through it, and a railroad 
has been commenced from Winnipeg to the 
United States boundary, to connect with the 
Minnesota system. There is telegraphic com- 
munication with the United States.—The goy- 
ernment is based upon the British North Amer- 
ican act (1867) of the imperial parliament, and 
the Manitoba act (1870) of the Dominion par- 
liament. The executive power is vested in a 
lieutenant governor, appointed by the gover- 
nor general of the Dominion in council, and 
an executive council of six members, appointed 
by the lieutenant governor, and responsible to 
the assembly. The legislature consists of the 
legislative council of seven members, appoint- 
ed by the lieutenant governor for life, and the 
legislative assembly of 24 members, elected by 
districts for a term of four years. The sessions 
are annual. Every male person 21 years of 
age and upward, actually resident in the prov- 
ince, being a British subject or having taken 


114 


the oath of allegiance, is entitled to vote, upon 
having his name entered by the sheriff on 
the voters’ list. Voting is viva voce. Quali- 
fied voters are eligible to office. The judicial 
power is vested in a court of queen’s bench, 
county courts, and justices of the peace. The 
queen’s bench consists of a chief justice and 
two puisne judges, appointed by the governor 
general in council, and has general jurisdic- 
tion. A county court, having inferior jurisdic- 
tion, is held for each county by a judge of the 
queen’s bench without a jury. The records 
and journals of the legislature are kept and 
the laws are published in both English and 
French. Either language may be used in le- 
gal proceedings and in debates in the legisla- 
ture. The common law does not prevail, but 


the general principles in force are the same as’ 


those recognized in Quebec, and are derived 
from French and Roman sources. Manitoba 
is represented in the Dominion parliament by 
two senators and four members of the house 
of commons (one from each county). The 
amount appropriated for the support of the 
government for 1872 was $81,425, including 
$7,000 for common schools. The salaries of 
the lieutenant governor and judges are paid 
from the Dominion treasury, besides which the 
province receives grants from the Dominion 
amounting in the aggregate to $67,204 50 per 
annum. ‘The public schools are under the 
charge of a board of education of 14 mem- 
bers, of whom half are Catholics and half 
Protestants, one of the members acting as su- 
perintendent of the Catholic and another of 
the Protestant schools. There are 40 com- 
mon schools (20 Protestant and 20 Catholic), 
three Protestant female schools, several con- 
ventual academies and schools controlled by 
the Catholics, and three colleges, viz.: St. 
John’s (Episcopal), St. Boniface (Catholic), and 
Kildonan (Presbyterian). Three weekly news- 
papers are published in the province (one each 
in English, French, and English and French), 
and there are 32'post offices. A majority of 
the population are Roman Catholics; the oth- 
er principal denominations are Episcopalians, 
Presbyterians, and Wesleyan Methodists. The 
Roman Catholics have an archbishop (arch- 
bishop of St. Boniface), and the Episcopalians 
a bishop (bishop of Rupert’s Land). There are 
32 churches, viz.: 15 Episcopal, 2 Methodist, 4 
Presbyterian, and 11 Roman Catholic.—Mani- 
toba forms part of the territory granted in 
1670 by Charles II. to the Hudson Bay com- 
pany, which in 1811 sold a tract, including 
what is now the province, to Thomas Douglas, 
earl of Selkirk. Under his auspices a colony 
was established, which was sometimes called 
the Selkirk settlement, but more commonly the 
Red River settlement. The first body of colo- 
nists arrived from the highlands of Scotland 
in 1812, and a second party in 1815, and set- 
tled on the Red river near its confluence with 
the Assiniboin. Subsequently other settlers 
arrived, including a number of French Canadi- 


MANITOBA 


an families in 1818; and as the colony gained 
permanence many who had been in the em- 
ployment of the Hudson Bay company (most- 
ly natives of the Orkney islands) and others 
connected with the fur trade, generally accom- 
panied by Indian families, came in and took up 
their residence in the settlement. Until 1821, 
when the Northwest company was merged in 
the Hudson Bay company, the colonists suf- 
fered much from attacks by the employees of 
the former. In 1835 the Hudson Bay com- 
pany bought back from the heirs of Lord Sel- 
kirk the territory granted to him in 1811, and 
established a more regular government than 
had previously existed, under the style of the 
governor and council of Assiniboia, giving it 
jurisdiction over the district embraced within 
a radius of 50 m. from Fort Garry. The ofli- 
cers were appointed by the company, the coun- 
cillors being chosen from among the most in- 
fluential citizens of the district. Settlements 
having been made W. of these limits, a pro- 
visional government was formed at Prairie 
Portage in 1867, with Mr. Spence as president 
and a council of eight members styled the 
council of Manitoba, but it dissolved before 
the annexation of the country to Canada. The 
act of parliament of 1867 creating the Domin- 
ion of Canada contemplated the acquisition by 
that government of the Hudson Bay territory, 
and Dec. 1, 1869, was subsequently fixed as the 
date of transfer. In the mean time an act of 
the Dominion parliament was passed providing 
for the temporary government of the entire 
region under the name of the Northwest ter- 
ritories, a measure respecting which the inhab- 
itants of Assiniboia were not consulted. This 
fact, with other grounds of apprehension, 
caused much dissatisfaction. Upon the ap- 
proach of William McDougall, who was to act 
as lieutenant governor of the Northwest ter- 
ritories, the French half-breeds, under the 
lead of Louis Riel, resolved to prevent his en- 
trance into the settlement until some guar- 
antee was received that the rights of the in- 
habitants would be respected; and from about 
Oct. 20, 1869, to Aug. 24, 1870, they held pos- 
session of the country. A provisional govern- 
ment was formed, with Riel as president and 
a council of 24 members (12 English and 12 
French), and a bill of rights was adopted, the 
most prominent feature of which was a de- 
mand for representation in the Dominion par- 
liament and for a local legislature elected by 
the people. These were conceded by the 
Manitoba act, which passed the Dominion par- 
liament on May 20, 1870, and was accepted by 
the legislative assembly of Assiniboia on June 
24, providing for the admission of the prov- 
ince from and after the day of the queen’s 
proclamation annexing the Hudson Bay terri- 
tory. The actual transfer of this region, de. 
layed by the disturbances, took place July 15 in 
virtue of a royal proclamation of June 23. On 
Aug. 24 the 60th rifles, under Col. (now Gen.) 
Wolseley, entered Fort Garry, Riel having 


MANITOBA 


previously vacated the place; and on Sept. 8 
Mr Archibald, the lieutenant governor of the 
province, arrived. The troops soon returned, 
and were replaced by Canadian militia.—See 
“The Red River Settlement, its Rise, Pro- 
gress, and Present State,” by Alexander Ross 
(London, 1856); ‘‘ Narrative of the Canadian 
Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857,” &e., 
by H. Y. Hind (2 vols., London, 1860); Hsgwisse 
sur le Nord-Ouest de VT Amérique, by Arch- 
bishop Taché (Montreal, 1869), translated by 
_ Capt. D. R. Cameron, ‘‘ Sketch of the North- 

west of America” (Montreal, 1870); ‘The 
Creation of Manitoba,” by Alex. Begg (Toron- 
to, 1871); ‘“‘ Manitoba and the Northwest of 
the Dominion,” by Thomas Spence (Toronto, 
1871); and “Red River Country and its Re- 
sources,” by J. J. Hargrave (Montreal, 1871). 
(See supplement.) 

MANITOBA, Lake, a body of water in the 
Northwest territories of Canada, intersected 
by the 51st parallel and 99th meridian, situ- 
ated about 60 m. 8. W. of Lake Winnipeg, into 
which it discharges through the Little Saskatch- 
ewan or Dauphin river, which expands near 
the middle of its course into St. Martin’s lake. 
Lake Manitoba is about 120 m. long from N. 
N. W. to 8.8. E., and has a breadth not ex- 
ceeding 25 m.; area, about 1,900 sq.m. It is 
40 ft. above Lake Winnipeg, and is navigable 
by vessels drawing 10 ft., though its outlet only 
admits small craft. At its N. extremity it re- 
ceives through Water Hen river the waters of 
Winnipegoos or Winnipegosis, Dauphin, and 
Water Hen lakes, and at itsS. extremity White 
Mud river. It abounds in fish. The name sig- 
nifies ‘‘ supernatural strait,” the Indians attrib- 
uting the peculiar agitation of the water in a 
portion of the lake to the presence of a spirit. 

MANITOU, among some tribes of the Amer- 
ican Indians, the name of any object of wor- 
ship. ‘‘ The Illinois,” wrote the Jesuit Marest, 
‘adore a sort of genius, which they call mani- 
tou; to them it is the master of life, the spirit 
that rules all things. A bird, a buffalo, a bear, 
a feather, a skin—that is their manitou.” ‘If 
the Indian word manitou,” says Palfrey, ‘ ap- 
peared to denote something above or beside 
the common aspects and agencies of nature, it 
might be natural, but it would be rash and mis- 
leading, to confound its import with the Chris- 
tian, Mohammedan, Jewish, Egyptian, or Greek 
conception of Deity, or with any compound of 
a selection from some or all of those ideas.” 

MANITOU, a county of Michigan, comprising 
the Beaver, Fox, and Manitou islands in Lake 
Michigan, off the N. W. coast of the lower pen- 
insula; area, about 100 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
891. The largest island is Big Beaver; the 
other principal islands are Great Manitou, Lit- 
tle Manitou, Little Beaver, Garden, Hog, South 
Fox, and North Fox. The surface is rough and 
the soil only moderately fertile. Capital, St. 
James, on Big Beaver island. 

MANITOULIN ISLANDS, a group stretching E. 
and W, along the N. shore of Lake Huron from 


MANKATO 115 


Georgian bay to the N. peninsula of Michigan, 
the principal of which are Great Manitoulin or 
Sacred island, Little Manitoulin or Cockburn, 
and Drummond’s. All but the last (which 
belongs to Chippewa co., Mich.) are included 
in Algoma district, Ontario, Canada; area, 
1,183 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 2,011, of whom 
1,562 were Indians. Great Manitoulin, about 
80 m. long by from 5 to 30 broad, is deeply in- 
dented by numerous bays, and has an elevated 
and rugged surface, abounding in fine scenery. 
The interior is densely wooded with pine, and 
in the E. part are several lakes. Little Manitou- 
lin, about 10 m. in diameter, resembles Great 
Manitoulin in its general features. Drum- 
mond’s island is about 20 m. long by from 2 to 
15 broad, and has an irregular surface, covered 
with large masses of rock. It is separated from 
the mainland of Michigan by a strait scarcely 
a mile wide, which forms the principal passage 
for vessels bound to Lake Superior. 
MANITOWOC, an E. county of Wisconsin, bor- 
dering on Lake Michigan, and drained by the 
Manitowoc, E. and W. Twin, and Sheboygan 
rivers; area, 612 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 33,864. 
Tle soil is fertile and heavily timbered, pine 
lumber being the principal article of export. 
The chief productions in 1870 were 517,146 
bushels of wheat, 92,881 of rye, 386,759 of 
oats, 30,176 of barley, 108,180 of potatoes, 80,- 
410 of peas and beans, 44,421 lbs. of wool, 
575,319 of butter, and 26,937 tons of hay. 
There were 4,460 horses, 9,851 milch cows, 
11,017 other cattle, 16,403 sheep, and 11,200 
swine; 15 flour mills, 21 saw mills, 3 woollen 
mills, 11 tanneries, 11 currying establishments, 
and 10 breweries. Capital, Manitowoc. 
MANITOWOC, a city and the capital of Mani- 
towoc co., Wisconsin, on Lake Michigan, at 
the mouth of Manitowoc river, and on the 
Milwaukee, Lake Shore, and Western railroad, 
105 m. N. E. of Madison, and 75 m. N. of Mil- 
waukee; pop. in 1860, 3,059; in 1870, 5,168, 
of whom 2,577 were foreigners. It has a good 
harbor and considerable trade, and contains 
several ship-building establishments, tanneries, 
and manufactories. There are a national bank, 
graded schools, a semi-weekly and four weekly 
(two German) newspapers, and five churches. 
MANKATO. a city and the county seat of Blue 
Earth co., Minnesota, on the right bank of the 
Minnesota river, at the great bend, and on the 
St. Paul and Sioux City and Chicago and North- 
western (Minnesota division) railroads, 76 m. 
S. W. of St. Paul; pop. in 1870, 3,482; in 
1874, about 6,000. It has an important trade 
and thriving manufactures. The sales of mer- 
chandise in 1873 amounted to $2,225,000; the 
value of manufactures was $950,000. The 
principal establishments are an extensive lin- 
seed oil factory, two flouring mills, two plough 
and agricultural implement factories, three 
founderies, and manufactories of woollens, 
bricks, furniture, and sash and doors. It con- 
tains two national banks, a private bank, 15 
hotels, three public halls, a driving park and 


116 MANLEY 


fair grounds, one of the state normal schools, 
three large public school buildings, a denom- 
inational school, a public library, four weekly 
newspapers (one German), and 11 churches. 
MANLEY, John, an American naval comman- 
der, born at Torbay, Devonshire, Eng., in 1734, 
died in Boston, Feb. 12, 1793. He settled at 
Marblehead, Mass., and was master of a mer- 
chantman. Atthe outbreak of the revolution- 
ary war he had command of the armed schoon- 
_ er Lee, with which he cruised along the coast 
of Massachusetts bay, making captures of great 
value to the American army then investing 
Boston. Among these was an ordnance brig 
laden with heavy guns, mortars, and intrench- 
ing tools. He was commissioned as a captain 
by congress Aug. 22, 1776; and on June], 
1777, his ship, the Hancock, 32 guns, in com- 
pany with the Boston, 24 guns, Capt. Hector 
McNeil, encountered the British frigate Rain- 
bow, 44 guns. While Manley was preparing 
for action, McNeil deserted him; and knowing 
the disparity in strength, Manley tried to es- 
cape, but was chased and captured. After a 
rigorous confinement in Halifax, he was ex- 
changed, and in 1782 was put in command of 
the Hague frigate, which, after lying in a per- 
ilous position on a sand bank off Guadeloupe 
for three days, exposed to the fire of four Brit- 
ish ships of the line, contrived to effect her 
escape. This exploit closed the regular mari- 
time operations of the United States during 
the revolutionary war. Oapt. Manley was sub- 
sequently tried by a court martial for the loss 
of the Hancock, but was honorably acquitted, 
while McNeil was dismissed from the service. 
MANLEY (Der 1A Riviere), Mary, an English 
authoress, born in Guernsey about 1672, died 
in London, July 11, 1724. She was the daugh- 
ter of Sir Roger Manley, governor of the isl- 
and of Guernsey, who was author of “ History 
of the late Wars of Denmark” (1670), and 
Commentarii de Rebellione Anglicana (London, 
1686). He carefully educated his daughter, 
and dying when she was young committed her 
to the care of his nephew, who, having already 
another wife, enticed her into a marriage with 
himself and abandoned her in London. The 
duchess of Cleveland, formerly a. mistress of 
Charles II., then took her under her protection, 
but soon deserted her. In this emergency she 
began to write for the stage. Her “ Royal 
Mischief,” a tragedy represented at Lincoln’s 
Inn Fields theatre in 1696, brought her into 
great literary repute, and she almost imme- 
diately became the centre of a brilliant circle 
of men of fashion. Although engaged in nu- 
merous intrigues, she soon produced her ‘“‘ Me- 
moirs of the New Atalantis” (4 vols., London, 
1709), a romance describing with much free- 
dom of language and under feigned names the 
amours of several distinguished characters. 
The work created so much scandal that a crim- 
inal prosecution was commenced against the 
printer and publisher, to screen whom from 
punishment she voluntarily declared herself in 


MANN 


the court of king’s bench the sole author. She 
was in consequence imprisoned for a time, but 
was subsequently released on bail. There were 
several later editions of the work, and it was 
translated into French. Upon the accession of 
the tories to power in 1710, she resumed her 
position as a leader of fashionable profligacy, 
and employed her pen with effect in behalf of 
the ministry, under the direction, it is said, and 
with the approval of Swift. The ‘ Vindica- 
tion of the Duke of Marlborough” and other 
political pamphlets testify to her industry; and 
she also conducted the ‘‘ Examiner ” for some 
time after it had been relinquished by Swift, 
and frequently finished pieces begun by him. 
Among her remaining works are: the comedy 
of ‘‘The Lost Lover, or the Jealous Husband ” 
(1696); ‘Lucius, the First Christian King of 
Britain” (1717), a tragedy, for which Steele 
wrote the prologue and Prior the epilogue; 
and a variety of ephemeral novels, memoirs, 
dramas, and poems. During the last few years 
of her life she lived with her printer, John 
Barber, an alderman of London. 

MANLII, one of the most celebrated patrician 
gentes of ancient Rome, members of which 
held high offices in the state for about five 
centuries. The first of them who attained to 
the consulship was Cneius Manlius Cincinna- 
tus, consul in 480 B. C., who fell in battle 
against the Etruscans.—Marous Manuius Ca- 
PITOLINUS, consul in 392 B. ©., obtained his 
surname, according to Livy, from his defence 
of the capitol against the Gauls (about 390). 
Roused from sleep by the cackling of the sa- 
cred geese, he hastily collected a force, and 
repulsed the enemy, who had already gained 
the summit of the hill. He incurred the en- 
mity of the patricians by his defence of ple- 
beian debtors, was accused of aiming at the 
kingly power, and was for a time imprisoned. 
After his liberation, he instigated the plebeians 
to take up arms, but was arraigned for high 
treason before the people in the Campus Mar- 
tius, was condemned to death, and was thrown 
from the Tarpeian rock (381). The Manlian 
gens determined that the name of Marcus should 
be conferred in future upon none of its mem- 
bers.—The Torquati and Vulsones were fam- 
ilies of the Manlian gens. ; 

MANN, Horace, an American educationist, born 
in Franklin, Mass., May 4, 1796, died at Yellow 
Springs, Ohio, Aug. 2, 1859. His father was 
a farmer in limited circumstances, and the edu- 
cation of the son was obtained entirely from 
the common district schools until the age of 
20, when he fitted himself to enter the sopho- 
more class of Brown university, at Providence, 
R.1., where he graduated in 1819. The theme 
of his oration, ‘‘The Progressive Character of 
the Human Race,” foreshadowed his future 
career. After his graduation he was tutor in 
Latin and Greek in Brown university; subse- 
quently he studied in the law school of Litch- 
field, Conn., was admitted to the bar in 1823, 
and opened an office in Dedham, Mass. In 


MANN 


1827 he was elected to the legislature, and im- 
mediately took an active part in the discussion 
of all important questions, especially such as 
related to morals, public charities, education, 
or the welfare of the poor, the ignorant, or un- 
fortunate classes. He was foremost in procu- 
ring the enactment of laws for the suppression 
of intemperance and the traffic in lottery tick- 
ets, and for improving the system of common 
schools. The establishment of the state lunatic 
hospital at Worcester was due to his untiring 
efforts; he was chairman of the commission 
that erected the buildings, and in 1833 was 
chairman of the board of trustees of the insti- 
tution. He continued to be returned by large 
majorities as a representative from Dedham 
till 1833, when he removed to Boston and en- 
tered into partnership with Edward G. Loring. 
At the first election after he became a citizen 
of Boston he was chosen a member of the 
state senate, and by reélections was continued 
a senator for four years. In 1836 and again 
in 1837 he was president of the senate. While 
in the legislature he was a member and for 
part of the time chairman of the committee 
for the revision of the state statutes; and 
a large number of most salutary provisions 
were incorporated into the code at his sugges- 
tion. After the revised statutes were enacted, 
he was appointed in conjunction with Judge 
Metcalf to edit the work, for which he pre- 
pared the marginal notes and the references to 
judicial decisions.—At the organization of the 
Massachusetts board of education, June 29, 
1837, he was elected its secretary, and for the 
next eleven years was annually reélected. On 
accepting this office he withdrew from all 
other professional and business engagements 
and from politics. He introduced a thorough 
reform in the school system of the state; ex- 
tensive changes in the law relating to schools 
were adopted; normal schools were estab- 
lished; school committees were paid; a sys- 
tem of county educational conventions was 
instituted; by means of ‘‘ school registers” the 
actual condition of the schools was ascer- 
tained; and from the detailed reports of the 
school committees the secretary made valuable 
abstracts, which he embodied in his annual re- 
ports, forming several large volumes. In 1843, 
under the auspices of the board, but at his 
own expense, he visited Europe, to examine 
schools and to obtain such information as 
could be made available at home. His seventh 
annual report, made on his return, embodied 
the results of this tour. Many editions were 
printed, not only in Massachusetts, but in 
other states, sometimes by order of legisla- 
tures, sometimes by private individuals; and 
several editions were printed in England. This 
report, in which he advocated the disuse of 
corporal punishment in school discipline, in- 
volved him in a controversy with some of the 
Boston teachers, which resulted in the adop- 
tion of his views on discipline in the schools. 
The ‘Common School Journal,” which he 


117 


edited and much of which he wrote, consists 
of 10 vols. 8vo. He published a volume of 
lectures on education, at the request of the 
board. He travelled over the state every year 
to hold conventions or teachers’ institutes, at 
which he often taught during the day and 
lectured in the evening. His correspondence 
was voluminous. He was continually called 
upon for legal opinions in regard to school 
matters, which he always gave gratuitously; 
and whenever the cases were brought before 
the courts, his opinions were invariably sus- 
tained. He superintended the erection of two 
state normal school houses, and drew plans 
and gave directions for hundreds of others. 
He says in his ‘Supplementary Report” in 
1848: “From the time when I accepted the 
secretaryship in June, 1837, until May, 1848, 
when I tendered my resignation of it, I labored 
in this cause an average of not less than 15 
hours a day; from the beginning to the end 
of this period, I never took a single day for 
relaxation, and months and months together 
passed without my withdrawing a single even- 
ing from working hours to call upon a friend. 
My whole time was devoted, if not wisely, yet 
continuously and cheerfully, to the great trust 
confided to my hands.” In the spring of 1848 
he was elected to congress, to fill the vacancy 
caused by the death of John Quincy Adams. 
On June 30 he made his first speech in main- 
tenance of the right of congress to legislate 
for the territories of the United States, and 
its duty to exclude slavery therefrom. In the 
ensuing November he was reélected, receiving 
11,000 out of 13,000 votes. During his first 
session he volunteered as counsel for Drayton 
and Sayres, indicted for stealing 76 slaves in 
the District of Columbia, and at the trial was 
engaged for 21 successive days in their de- 
fence. In 1850 he engaged in a controversy 
with Daniel Webster in regard to the exten- 
sion of slavery and the fugitive slave law, and 
Mr. Webster’s famous speech of March 7 of 
that year. At the ensuing election in Novem- 
ber Mr. Webster’s friends succeeded in the 
whig convention in defeating by a single vote 
Mr. Mann’s renomination. He, however, ap- 
pealed to the people as an independent anti- 
slavery candidate, and was reélected. His last 
speech in congress was on the slavery ques- 
tion, Aug. 17, 1852. On Sept. 15 the state 
convention of the free-soil party of Massachu- 
setts nominated Mr. Mann for governor, and 
on the same day he was chosen president of 
Antioch college, a new institution just estab- 
lished at Yellow Springs, Greene co., Ohio. 
Failing in the election, he accepted the presi- 
dency of the college, and continued there till 
his death, laboring with zeal and energy in 
the cause of education and philanthropy. He 
carried the institution through its early pe- 
cuniary and other difficulties, and satisfied 
himself by the experiment that a college for 
the common education of both sexes was prac- 
ticable.—Besides his annual reports, his vol- 


118 MANNA 


ume of lectures on education, and his volumi- 
nous controversial writings, he published “A 
Few Thoughts for a Young Man” (Boston, 
1850); ‘‘Slavery: Letters and Speeches” 
(1851); ‘‘Lectures on Intemperance” (1852); 
and ‘Powers and Duties of Woman” (1853). 
See ‘Life of Horace Mann,” by his wife, Mary 
Peabody Mann (Boston, 1865); his ‘‘ Life and 


Works” (2 vols., Cambridge, 1867); and 
‘‘ Thoughts selected from his Writings ” 
(1869). His lectures on education were trans- 


lated into French by Eugéne de Guer, under 
the title De ?importance de Véducation dans 
une république, with a preface and biographi- 
cal sketch by Laboulaye (Paris, 1873). 

MANNA, the concrete juice of several species 
of fraxinus, or ash. Several of the ashes have 


flowers producing distinct petals, a character 


which some botanists consider a sufficient rea- 
son for placing them in a distinct genus, or- 
nus, the flowering ashes. (See AsH.) The 
principal manna-bearing species are F’. ornus 
and F. rotundifolia, natives of southern Eu- 
rope and Asia Minor. The juice spontane- 


The Manna Ash (Fraxinus ornus). 


ously exudes in the summer months, from the 
punctures of an insect, cicada orni, but is in- 
creased by transverse incisions made for the 
purpose in the bark. The finer kind, known 
as flake manna, is from incisions in the upper 
part of the stem; it dries upon the tree in long 
flakes, which when removed have the under 
surface conformed to the trunk of the tree and 
the upper of irregular and somewhat stalactitic 
appearance. The coarser kinds are obtained 
near the roots of the tree, where the juice is 
collected in joints of the prickly pear (opuntia), 
or upon straw placed to receive it. It is an 
article of import for the sake of its medicinal 
qualities, and is obtained chiefly from Sicily 
and Calabria. The best is of a whitish or 
light yellow color in flakes and tears, while the 
poorer sorts are darker colored from the im- 
purities with which they are mixed. It pos- 


MANNHEIM 


sesses a sweet, somewhat nauseous taste, and is 
soluble in water or in alcohol. From its boil- 
ing saturated solution it separates on cooling in 
crystalline form. It consists of a crystallizable 
sweet principle called mannite, which some- 
times amounts to 75 per cent.; of true sugar; 
and of a yellow nauseous matter, which it is 
supposed gives to the manna its purgative 
property. For the sake of this it is used in 
medicine, and is commonly prescribed with 
other purgatives, as senna, rhubarb, magnesia, 
&c., the taste of which it conceals, while it 
inoreases their effect. When given alone, the 
dose for an adult is one or two ounces.— Vari- 
ous other sacchurine exudations of plants are 
called manna; the manna of Briancon, which 
appears upon the twigs of the European larch 
(laria Huropea), is formed during the night, 
and soon disappears after the sun falls upon it. 
Another substance called manna is obtained by 
the Bedouin Arabs from the tamaria mannife- 
ra. After collecting it from among the twigs 
and leaves, they boil it, then strain it through 
cloth, and put it away in leathern bags to be 
eaten like honey with bread, as a delicate arti- 
cle of food. Dr. Robinson, in his “ Biblical 
Researches in Palestine,” mentions its being 
collected in small quantities by the Arabs of 
Mt. Sinai, and sold at very high prices to the 
Russians. According to Berthelot, the tama- 
risk manna from Sinai contains 55 per cent. of 
cane sugar, 25 of inverted sugar, and 20 of 
dextrine, &c. Manna from Kurdistan contains 
61 per cent. of cane sugar, 16°5 of inverted 
sugar, and 22°5 of dextrine. The Sinai manna 
is soluble in water or alcohol, and the aqueous 
solution readily undergoes fermentation, yield- 
ing an alcohol possessing a butyric acid odor. 
—Though the name is probably derived from 
the Syriac mano, a gift, which was applied to 
the Scriptural manna, it cannot be proved that 
there is any relationship between the natural 
mannas and the substance (Heb. man) men- 
tioned as miraculously supplied to the Israelites. 

MANNERS, John. See Gransy. 

MANNERS, John J. R. See supplement. 

MANNHEIM, or Manheim, a town of the grand 
duchy of Baden, capital of the circle of the 
Lower Rhine, situated on the right bank of the 
Rhine, at the confluence of the Neckar with 
that river, 43 m. 8.8. W. of Frankfort; pop. 
in 1871, 39,614. It is connected by steamers 
with Cologne and other places on the Rhine, 
and by railway with the principal towns of 
Europe. Goethe has appropriately called it 
“the pleasant, cleanly Mannheim.” The regu- 
larity of the buildings, however, gives it a 
somewhat monotonous appearance. It con- 
sists of 11 straight streets, crossed by 10 other 
streets at right angles, forming 110 regular 
squares. It is divided into two parts by the 
great street leading from the palace to the 
suspension bridge over the Neckar. The prin- 
cipal public squares are the Plankenplatz and 
the Schillerplatz, where Schiller resided in the 
house called eum Karlsberg, and which is 


MANNING 


adorned with fountains, and statues of Schil- 
Jer, Dalberg, and Iffand. The theatre is a fine 
building, and in it Schiller’s ‘‘ Robbers” was 
first acted. Behind the palace, which contains 
collections of art, a large library, and a cabinet 
of natural history, are beautiful gardens, end- 
ing in a raised terrace upon the brink of the 
Rhine (Rheindamm). Along the banks of the 
Neckar, in the outskirts of the town, are hand- 
some private gardens, and a broad avenue 
(Plankenstrasse) between the Heidelberg and 
Rhine gates is planted with trees. In spite of 
its fine position on two navigable rivers, the 
trade of the place was formerly unimportant ; 
but of late years, owing to its railway connec- 
tions, it has become the first commercial town 
in the grand duchy. The town was founded 
in 1606, and from 1720 to 1777 it was the capi- 
tal of the Palatinate. It suffered severely in 
the thirty years’ war, and was almost de- 
stroyed by the French in 1688 after a siege 
of 17 days. It was soon rebuilt, and was 
strongly fortified in 1699; but in the early 
part of the present century the ramparts were 
removed. During the wars of the revolution, 
the French attacked the town in December, 
1794, and occupied it Sept. 20, 1795. During 
the long siege only 14 houses remained unin- 
jured, and half of the palace was burnt. By 
the peace of Lunéville (1801), Mannheim was 
allotted to Baden. 

MANNING, Henry Edward, an English Roman 
Catholic archbishop, born at Totteridge, Hert- 
fordshire, July 15, 1808. He was educated as 
a member of the Anglican church at Harrow 
and Balliol college, Oxford, graduated in 1830, 
and was chosen fellow of Merton college and 
one of the select preachers in the university. 
In 1834 he was appointed rector of Laving- 
ton and Graffham in Sussex, and in 1840 
archdeacon of Chichester. In 1842 he pub- 
lished his first work, on the ‘Unity of the 
Church,” which classed him among the Pusey- 
ites. Two volumes of sermons published re- 
spectively in 1842 and 1846 attracted much 
attention. He also published three series of 
“Sermons preached before the University of 
Oxford” (1844, 1848, and 1850). The Gor- 
ham decision, leaving the doctrine of the effect 
of baptism an open question in the church of 
England, called forth a declaration from him, 
and other well known clergymen and laymen 
of the establishment, that, unless that decision 
was formally repudiated, it would be of bind- 
ing force upon the English church. They strove 
to free that which they conceived to be the 
church of Christ from submission to a doctri- 
nal decision given by the crown. Their at- 
tempt, however, was without result, and, with 
the exception of one or two protests, the ac- 
tion of the court was acquiesced in. Dr. 
Manning consequently gave up his preferments 
in 1851, and was received into the Roman 
Catholic church. He then went to Rome, 
where he remained till 1854. In 1857 he was 
ordained priest by Cardinal Wiseman, and ap- 


119 


pointed rector of St. Helen and St. Mary’s, 
Bayswater, where he established a house of Ob- 
lates of St. Charles Borromeo, an association 
of secular missionary priests founded in the 
16th century. About the same time the de- 
gree of D. D. was conferred on him by Pius 
IX., with the office of provost of the Roman 
Catholic diocese of Westminster and the rank 
of prothonotary apostolic. On the death of 
Cardinal Wiseman, Dr. Manning was nominated 
by the pope archbishop of Westminster, and 
consecrated June 8, 1865. He immediately set 
about promoting temperance, benevolent guilds, 
and elementary education among the poor Cath- 
olics of London, and purchased a site for a 
cathedral which was to be a memorial to Car- 
dinal Wiseman, but declared that not one stone 
of this edifice should be laid till every poor 
child in his flock was provided with a Catholic 
free school. In 1871 he conceived the project 
of a Roman Catholic university, appealed to 
the public, created a fund, and organized a 
senate and a corps of professors. The institu- 
tion was opened in Kensington Oct. 15, 1874. 
On July 2, 1869, he dedicated the pro-cathedral 
of Our Lady of Victories, Newland terrace, 
Kensington. At this time a controversy arose 
between Archbishop Manning and Bishop Du- 
panloup concerning the opportuneness of urging 
a definition of the doctrine of papal infalli- 
bility. The archbishop before departing for 
the cecumenical council addressed a pastoral 
letter to his flock on the question of infal- 
libility, which, with two others on the man- 
ner in which the deliberations of the coun- 
cil were conducted, and in elucidation of the 
defined dogma, was published, with the title 
of Petri Privilegium (London, 1871). In 1868 
he addressed to Earl de Grey a remarkable let- 
ter on Ireland, in which he sets forth the mis- 
chief of English misrule in that country, and 
pleads strongly for justice. Since then he has 
been prominent in encouraging the ‘“ Home 
Rule” movement, and has taken an active part 
in denouncing the course pursued in Germany 
and Switzerland toward the Roman Catholic 
church. The principal works of Archbishop 
Manning, besides those mentioned, are the fol- 
lowing: ‘‘The Temporal Mission of the Holy 
Ghost” (London, 1865); ‘‘The Temporal Pow- 
er of the Pope in its Political Aspect” (1866) ; 
‘‘England and Christendom” (1867); ‘‘The 
Fourfold Sovereignty of God” (1871); and 
‘Sermons on Ecclesiastical Subjects” (1872). 
MANNING, James, an American clergyman, 
born in Elizabethtown, N. J., Oct. 22, 1738, 
died in Providence, R.I., July 29,1791. He 
graduated at Princeton college in 1762, became 
pastor of a Baptist church at Morristown, N. 
J., in 1768, and soon afterward in Warren, 
R. I., where he opened a Latin school. In 
1763, at the request of an association formed 
for the purpose in Philadelphia, he proposed 
to several influential gentlemen of the denom- 
ination, assembled at Newport, the organiza- 
tion of ‘‘a seminary of polite literature, subject 


120 MANNITE 


to the government of the Baptists,” and drew 
up a plan for such an institution. In 1764 the 
legislature granted them a charter, and in 1765 
Mr. Manning, then but 27 years of age, was ap- 
pointed ‘president and professor of languages 
and other branches of learning, with full power 
to act in these capacities, at Warren or else- 
where.” The college went into operation at 
Warren in 1766, and on its removal to Provi- 
dence in 1770, Mr. Manning went with it, and 
also became pastor of the first Baptist church 
in that place. During the revolution, when the 
college edifice was occupied as a military bar- 
rack, and afterward as a hospital, he was ac- 
tively engaged in clerical duties, and also ren- 
dered important services to the patriotic cause. 
In 1783 he resumed his duties at the college, 
and in 1785 he was chosen to represent Rhode 
Island in congress, but after six months’ service 
resigned. He resigned the presidency of the 
college in 1790, and his pastorate in April, 
1791. (See Brown UNIveErsiIry.) 

MANNITE, or Mannitose, also called sugar of 
manna and sugar of mushrooms (CsH140s), 
one of the glucoses, which was discovered by 
Proust, and its composition determined by Lie- 
big. It exists in a great number of vegetables, 
and in the saccharine juices which have under- 
gone viscous or lactic fermentation; it is gen- 
erally extracted from manna, by digesting this 
substance with boiling alcohol, filtering while 
hot, and crystallizing; it should be purified by 
repeated crystallizations. On the transforma- 
tion of starch into glucose by boiling with 
dilute sulphuric acid, it is also formed as a 
secondary product; and finally Linnemann in 
1862 obtained it by the action of nascent hy- 
drogen on glucose. Mannite is a solid sub- 
stance, fusible between 160° and 165° C., and 
when once melted it can remain liquid at 140° 
C. It exercises no action on polarized light ; 
it dissolves in 64 times its weight of water at 
18° C., and in 80 parts of cold alcohol of the 
strength of 89 per cent., and much more readi- 
ly in boiling alcohol, It is not soluble in ether, 
and absolute alcohol only dissolves 14 per cent. 
of its weight of mannite. Mannite crystallizes 
in anhydrous, thin, colorless, four-sided, silky 
prisms, which sometimes grow to a consider- 
able size. It does not ferment except under 
very unusual conditions; does not reduce oxide 
of copper to the state of suboxide, but hinders 
the precipitation of sulphate of copper by the 
fixed alkalies, causing the formation of a beau- 
tiful blue-purple solution instead. In its chem- 
ical character, mannite is now regarded as a 
polyatomic (hexatomic) alcohol. Berthelot has 
shown its close analogy to glycerine, and has 
obtained a great variety of salts (called man- 
nitanides) from it by heating mannite with dif- 
ferent acids to a temperature of between 200° 
and 250° O. With a mixture of nitric and sul- 
phuric acids it gives nitro-mannite. The ni- 
trates of silver and mercury and the chlorides 
of silver and mercury are not reduced by man- 
nite even at boiling heat; the acetate and ox- 


MANOMETER 


ide of silver, however, if heated with mannite 
or left in contact with it at ordinary tempera- 
tures, yields a speculum of silver. Compounds 
of mannite with barium, calcium, strontium, 
&c., have been prepared by Ubaldini. In the 
presence of beer yeast mannite does not fer- 
ment; but if its solution be maintained at 40° 
C., after having been mixed with chalk and 
poor cheese, pancreatic tissue, or albumen, fer- 
mentation takes place, hydrogen and carbonic 
anhydride are disengaged, and alcohol is pro- 
duced along with lactic and butyric acids. 
MAN-OF-WAR BIRD. See Fricate Birp. 
MANOMETER (Gr. pavéc, rare, and pérpor, 
measure—measurer of rarity), an instrument 
employed to measure the pressure exerted by a — 
confined portion of gas or vapor. The force is 
usually expressed in units of atmospheric pres- 
sure, called atmospheres, which are equal to 30 
inches height of a column of mercury, or nearly 
15 Ibs. to the square inch. It will therefore be 
easily seen that mechanical ingenuity may devise 
several forms of the instrument. These various 
forms may be classified under three different 
general forms, which act upon different prin- 
ciples: 1, open-air manometer; 2, confined- 
air manometer; 3, metallic-spring manometer. 
An open-air manometer is shown in fig. 1. It 
consists of a vessel containing mercury in which 
a vertical tube 6 dips. The 
vessel also admits a tube, a, 
which connects with the boil- 
er or chamber of compressed 
gasorsteam. Calling Boyle’s 
or Mariotte’s law correct for 
all pressures, if the compressed 
gas has a density twice as great 
as it would have at the ordi- 
nary atmospheric pressure, it 
will raise the column of mer- 
cury in the tube 6 30 inches; 
if five times as dense, the 
height of the mercurial col- 
umn will be 150 inches, cor- 
responding to 75 lbs. to the 
square inch. There may be 
many forms of open-air ma- 
nometers, and the modifica- 
tions are generally for the 
purpose of increasing the con- 
venience of the apparatus by 
shortening the distance of the 
rise of the mercurial column. 
The multiple-branch manometer, fig. 2, is a 
convenient form. An iron tube is bent upon 
itself, forming several U-shaped flexures, ter- 
minating in a vertical tube of glass, C D, fur- 
nished with a graduated scale, and open at 
the top. Mercury occupies the lower flexures 
and portions of the tube. When the com- 
pressed steam or gas is admitted, it presses 
upon the mercury in the first branch, A, for- 
cing it down, and therefore up in the second 
branch. If it forces ‘A down 10 inches, the 
difference of level in the two branches will be 
20 inches. If there are 10 single or 5 double 


Fic. 1.—Mercurial 
Manometer. 


MANOMETER 


columns, the combined height of mercury sup- 
ported in column will be 100 inches, or about 
6°66 atmospheres, The compressed-air mano- 


fuera 


—= 
—— 1 


wel 
TANS) 


i \ } | 
20 IRA AN 
Fie. 2.—Multiple-Branch Manometer. 


meter, fig. 3, is constructed upon the assump- 
tion that the confined air in the gauge expands 
and is condensed in accordance with Boyle’s 
law. <A is a U-shaped glass tube, one end of 
which communicates with the steam cham- 
ber, while the other end is closed. It has its 
flexure stopped with mercury, and a scale is 
attached, which is graduated by connecting 
the apparatus with an open-air manometer. 
It will be seen that as the mercury in A rises, 
the pressure is doubled for every reduction of 
the confined air to one half its volume, so that 
as the column approaches the top the grad- 
uated spaces must be nearer together. The 
metallic-spring manometer may be constructed 


Fic. 4.—Bourdou’s Pressure 
Gauge. 


Fic, 38.—Compressed-air 
Manometer. 


by having a piston press against a spiral spring, 
which is also connected with an index; ora 
flat copper tube (elliptic section), bent in a spi- 


MANSART 121 


ral, may be connected at one end with the 
steam chamber, and at the other with an in- 
dex, as in Burdon’s pressure gauge, shown in 
fig. 4. Increased pressure causes the spiral to 
uncoil, by which the index is moved over the 
graduated arc. 

MANRESA, a town of Spain, in the province 
and 380 m. N. N. W. of the city of Barcelona, 
near the left bank of the Llobregat river; pop. 
about 15,000. It is one of the most picturesque 
towns in Catalonia and the centre of a rich 
farming district, and has extensive manufac- 
tures of broadcloth, cotton, silk, tape, ribbons, 
gunpowder, and brandy. The streets are clean 
and well paved, but many of them are crooked 
and steep, and lined with quaint old-fashioned 
houses. There are some elegant churches and 
other public buildings, and in the neighbor- 
hood is the famous monastery of Montserrat, 
and the “cave of St. Ignatius,” where Loyola 
passed some time in retirement before found- 
ing the society of Jesus. Manresa was taken by 
the French under Macdonald, March 30, 1811, 
when more than 800 buildings were burned, 
including hospitals and churches. This wan- 
ton act so incensed the Catalans, that they 
fell upon the rear of the French army on its 
march to Barcelona, and destroyed 1,000 men. 

MANS, Le, a town of France, capital of the 
department of Sarthe, 118 m. 8. W. of Paris, 
on the W. bank of the river Sarthe, here 
crossed by three bridges; pop. in 1872, 46,981. 
It is the seat of a bishop, consists of an old 
town and a new town, has a considerable 
trade in local products, and manufactures 
coarse woollens, yarns, lace, linen, paper, and 
soap. The cathedral of St. Julien, dating 
from the 12th century, is famous for its fine 
Gothic choir and painted windows. It is a 
place of great antiquity, having been founded 
in the 2d century by the Romans, and called 
Suindinum or Cenomani, after the Gallic peo- 
ple of the same name, in whose territory it was 
situated. During the war of the league Le 
Mans was captured by Henry IV.; and in De- 
cember, 1798, it was the scene of the destruc- 
tion of the Vendean army, when more than 
10,000 persons were slaughtered. On Jan. 11 
and 12, 1871, the French army of the Loire, 
under Gen. Chanzy, was here defeated and 
almost annihilated by Prince Frederick Charles 
of Prussia. The town itself was occupied by 
the Germans on Jan. 12. 

MANSART, or Mansard. J. Frangois, a French 
architect, born in Paris in 1598, died there in . 
1666. At the age of 22 he distinguished him- 
self by the restoration of the hétel Toulon. 
In 1624 he attracted the attention of Cardi- 
nal Richelieu, who commissioned him to erect 
the church of the Feuillants in the rue St. Ho- 
noré, and he was subsequently employed in 
many other great works in Paris and in the 
provinces. Among the numerous chateaux 
erected from his plans are those of Berny, 
Blérancourt, Choisy, Gévres, Fresnes, and Mai- 
sons. He built the facade of the church of the 


122 MANSEL 


Minims in the place Royale, which he con- 
sidered his finest work, and the church of Val- 
de-Grice. He was fickle and unstable, often 
pulling down half-completed work, and re- 
building on new plans at enormous cost. He 
is said to be the inventor of,the curb roof 
which bears his name, and which within a few 
years has become very common in the United 
States. Il. Jules Hardouin, a French architect, 
nephew and pupil of the preceding, whose 
name he adopted, and son of Jules Hardouin, 
the painter, born in Paris in 1645, died at Mar- 
ly in 1708. One of his first works was the 
chateau of Clagny, built for Mme. de Montes- 
pan, and since destroyed. Louis XIV. ap- 
pointed him his architect, and the palace of 
Versailles, where Levau had begun alterations 
and additions, was built from Mansart’s de- 
signs, which were largely directed by the vi- 
cious taste of hissovereign. Among his works, 
besides Versailles, are the places Vendome, 
Louis XIV., and des Victoires, the gallery of 
the Palais Royal, and the dome and completion 
of the hétel des Invalides, begun by Libéral 
Bruant. He was general superintendent of 
the royal buildings, arts, and manufactures, 
and acquired an immense fortune. 

MANSEL, Henry Longueville, an English author, 
born at Cosgrove, Northamptonshire, Oct. 6, 
1820, died there, July 30, 1871. He-was edu- 
cated at Oxford, became a fellow of St. John’s 
college in 1842, was ordained priest in 1845, be- 
came Waynflete professor of moral and meta- 
physical philosophy in 1859, and was appointed 
dean of St. Paul’s, London, in 1868. His first 
publication was a small volume entitled ‘‘ De- 
mons of the Wind, and other Poems” (1838). 
In 185i he produced his Prolegomena Logica, 
a philosophical introduction to logic, and pre- 
pared an edition of Aldrich’s Artis Logica 
Rudimenta (5th ed., 1860). In 1856 he deliv- 
ered at Oxford a “Lecture on the Philosophy 
of Kant,’’ which was printed, and designed by 
its brevity to attract readers who would be de- 
terred by a more elaborate exposition. His 
most important work is the Bampton lectures 
delivered before the university of Oxford in 
1858, and published under the title of ‘The 
Limits of Religious Thought” (5th ed., 1868). 
Mr. Mansel was one of the editors of the aca- 
demical lectures of Sir William Hamilton 
(1859-’61), and the author of the article on 
“‘ Metaphysics ” in the 8th edition of the ‘“ En- 
cyclopedia Britannica,” which was reproduced 
. separately in 1860 under the title “‘ Metaphys- 
ics, or the Philosophy of Consciousness” (2d 
ed., 1866). He also published “The Limits 
of Demonstrative Science Considered,” an in- 
augural lecture entitled ‘‘ Psychology the Test 
of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy,” and 
‘Philosophy of the Conditioned” (1866). A 
series of his lectures on ‘ The Gnostic Heresies 
of the First and Second Centuries,” with a 
biographical sketch, was published in 1874. 

MANSFELD, an ancient noble family of Ger- 
many, taking its name from the castle of 


MANSFIELD 


Mansfeld, the original seat of the family, and 
now in the town and circle of Mansfeld in 
Prussian Saxony. I. Peter Ernst, count of 
Mansfeld, born July 20, 1517, died in Luxem- 
burg, May 22, 1604. The greater part of his 
life was spent in the service of the emperor 
Charles V., and of his son Philip I. of Spain, 
who employed him in various important mili- 
tary and administrative capacities. He took 
part in the war against France in 1552, was 
captured, and remained a prisoner till 1557. 
Having been appointed governor of Luxem- 
burg, he maintained that province in tran- 
quillity at a time when the other provinces of 
the Netherlands were a prey to civil and re- 
ligious commotions. In 1592 he succeeded 


the duke of Parma as governor general of the 


Netherlands; but two years afterward he re- 
tired to Luxemburg, with the title of prince of 
the empire. If. Ernst, natural son of the pre- 
ceding, born in 1585, died near Zara, Dalmatia, 
Nov. 20, 1626. He was educated by his god- 
father, the archduke Ernest of Austria, and for 
his military services to the emperor Rudolph 
II. and Philip HI. of Spain was legitimated by 
the former. But having been denied the dig- 
nity and estates of his father, which had been 
promised to-him, he embraced Calvinism, and 
subsequently became one of the most active 
enemies of the house of Austria, by which he 
was called the Attila of Christendom. At the 
commencement of the thirty years’ war he 
joined the elector palatine Frederick, elected 
by the Protestants king of Bohemia, and vigor- 
ously opposed the imperial forces in that coun- 
try and also on the Rhine, where he ravaged 
the territories of the Catholic princes, and be- 
came a terror to his enemies, Though repeat- 
edly beaten, he came forth so formidable from 
every defeat, that, when fighting for a despe- 
rate cause and lying under the ban of the em- 
pire, he found himself courted at the same 
time by the kings of Spain, France, and Eng- 
land, and the republics of Holland and Venice. 
In 1625 he succeeded in raising subsidies in 
England, and landed in Holland with consid- 
erable reénforcements, with the design of in- 
vading the hereditary possessions of the house 
of Austria. Defeated by Wallenstein at Des- 
sau in April, 1626, he nevertheless pursued his 
march to Hungary, to effect a junction with 
Bethlen, the Protestant prince of Transylvania. 
But being unable to join his ally, he formed 
the design of reaching England by the way of 
Venice, and died on the march. 

MANSFIELD, a town of Tolland co., Connec- 
ticut, on the New London Northern railroad, 
25 m. E. of Hartford; pop. in 1870, 2,401. 
It is bounded W. by the Willimantic river, and 
is intersected by the Natchaug and its branches. 
Mansfield is chiefly noted for the manufacture 
of silk goods, containing eight establishments, 
There are also a manufactory of cotton goods, 
one of spool thread, and one of machinery. It 
was formerly noted for the growing of raw silk, 
which was introduced nearly 100 years ago; but 


MANSFIELD 


little is now produced. Mansfield is the seat of 
the state soldiers’ orphans’ home, and contains 
7 post offices, 16 schools, and 4 churches. 

MANSFIELD, a city and the capital of Rich- 
land co., Ohio, situated near the centre of the 
county, 65 m. N. by E. of Columbus; pop. in 
1850, 3,557; in 1860, 4,581; in 1870, 8,029. 
It is compactly built on a beautiful and com- 
manding elevation in the midst of a fertile and 
populous region. It has a number of hand- 
some public buildings, including several of the 
churches and school houses, and the court 
house, which cost $227,000. Many of the 
residences are elegant and surrounded by spa- 
cious grounds. Four railroads intersect here: 
the Sandusky, Mansfield, and Newark; the 
Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago; the At- 
lantic and Great Western; and the Mansfield, 
Coldwater, and Lake Michigan. The whole- 
sale trade is important, amounting to about 
$5,000,000 a year. The annual value of manu- 
factures is about $3,000,000, the principal arti- 
cles being threshing machines, saw mill and 
foundery products, machinery, woollens, paper, 
boilers, carriages, furniture, flour, &c. There 
are three national banks, a state bank, an in- 
surance company, water works on the Holly 
system, five public school houses, four weekly 
newspapers (one German), a library of 3,500 
volumes, and 15 churches. 

MANSFIELD, William Murray, earl of, a British 
jurist, born at Scone, Perthshire, March 2, 1705, 
died in London, March 20, 17938. He was the 
third son of Viscount Stormont, a Scottish peer 
of Jacobite tendencies, several of whose family 
became deeply involved in the rebellion of 
1745. Removed to London at an early age, he 
was educated at Westminster school, and at 
Christchurch college, Oxford. In 1731 he was 
called to the bar, and being of a vivacious tem- 
perament, with the advantages of aristocratic 
connections and signal personal graces, he be- 
came a companion of wits and men of letters, 
and in particular gained the friendship of Pope. 
Almost at the outset of his career a new class 
of business, that of appeals from the court of 
session in Scotland to the house of lords, fell 
into his. hands, and his emoluments were very 
large. His advance was rapid, and in 1743 he 
was appointed solicitor general, having the 
year previous entered parliament for Borough- 
bridge, for which place he was afterward re- 
turned in 1747 and again in 1754. As a legis- 
lator he displayed an eloquence ‘‘of which the 
clear, placid, and mellow splendor was never 
for an instant overclouded,” and a depth and 
variety of knowledge which brought him into 
great prominence, while at the same time his 
peculiar political views exposed him to the at- 
tacks of Pitt, who frequently taunted his rival 
with his Jacobite connections and presumed 
sympathies. In 1747 he was one of the man- 
agers for the impeachment of Lord Lovat, and 
performed his part in so generous a spirit as 
to elicit praise from the prisoner himself. In 
1754 Mr. Murray was appointed attorney gen- 


123 


eral, and in 1756 succeeded Sir Dudley Ryder 
as chief justice of the king’s bench, and was 
created Baron Mansfield of Mansfield in the 
county of Nottingham. Soimportant were his 
parliamentary services to his party, that ex- 
traordinary efforts were made by the duke of 
Newcastle to retain him in the house of com- 
mons, as a government leader. He was offered 
various sinecure offices with large salaries, and 
finally a pension of £6,000 a year, but steadily 
refused them all, regarding the situation of 
chief justice as preferable to the responsibilities 
and labors which the chancellorship, the pre- 
miership, or any other merely political office 
involved. Contrary to general usage, though 
not to precedent, he became when appointed 
chief justice a member of the cabinet; and in 
1757, while temporarily holding the office of 
chancellor of the exchequer, at the request of 
the king he effected the coalition between New- 
castle, Pitt, and Fox, which resulted in the cel- 
ebrated first administration of Chatham. He 
participated on important occasions in the pro- 
ceedings of the house of lords, where Lord 
Camden and subsequently Chatham became his 
chief antagonists. On questions ailecting pop- 
ular privileges or influence he showed a decided 
leaning toward an arbitrary government. The 
stamp act, which he aided in preparing, found 
in him an earnest and able advocate, and the 
doctrine of taxation without representation was 
by no one more persistently defended. In ref- 
erence to the agitation in the North American 
colonies which preceded the repeal of the act, 
he held that the Americans must first be com- 
pelled to submit to the power of parliament, 
and must exhibit ‘‘the most entire obedience ” 
before an inquiry could be had into their griev- 
ances. The utterance of opinions like these 
marked him out as an object of popular dislike 
and party violence, and for many years he was 
attacked with a vindictiveness which found its 
fullest expression in the letters of Junius, by 
whom ‘‘all the resources of the English lan- 
guage were exhausted in desolating and unpun- 
ished party libels on the chief justice of Eng- 
land.” He nevertheless performed his judicial 
duties with dignity and courage; and on the 
occasion of the application of Wilkes in 1768 
for the reversal of his outlawry, when public 
excitement had reached an almost unprece: 
dented height, and the chief justice had been 
repeatedly threatened in anonymous letters, he 
announced to the partisans of Wilkes, who 
crowded Westminster hall, his contempt for 
the means that had been taken to deter the 
court from its duty. His unpopularity was 
still further increased by his direction to the 
jury in the trial of Woodfall, the publisher of 
Junius, “that the printing and sense of the 
paper were alone what they had to consider 
of.” This attempt to restrict the right claimed 
by juries, in criminal prosecutions for libel, of 
determining whether a paper was a libel or 
not, brought upon Lord Mansfield the charge 
of arrogating to himself the functions of a le- 


124 MANSFIELD 


gislator rather than of an administrator of the 
Jaw; and Junius in his letter of Nov. 14, 1770, 
said to him: ‘‘No learned man, even among 
your own tribe, thinks you qualified to preside 
in a court of common law; yet it is confessed 
that, under Justinian, you might have made an 
incomparable pretor.” In the Gordon or ‘no 
popery ” riots of 1780 his house in Bloomsbury 
square, with its valuable library of books and 
manuscripts, his private papers, furniture, and 
other valuables, was destroyed by the mob, 
from whose fury he only escaped by taking ref- 
uge in Buckingham palace. He bore these mis- 
fortunes with a calmness which seemed to dis- 
arm his enemies, declining any pecuniary com- 
pensation from the treasury; and during the 
remainder of his life parties generally united in 


a feeling of respect for his character and virtues. | 


He retained his office of chief justice till 1788, 
having in the interim several times declined the 
chancellorship, and passed the last few years 
of his life in retirement. He left no children, 
and his title of earl of Mansfield, granted in 
1776, descended to his nephew Viscount Stor- 
mont, to whom the greater part of his large 
property was bequeathed. The title of Baron 
Mansfield expired with him.—As a jurist the 
character of Lord Mansfield contrasts favor- 
ably with the timidity and narrow-mindedness 
which marked his legislative career; and when 
not influenced by political views his decisions 
were almost uniformly correct. Commencing 
his judicial career as a reformer, he aimed at 
expediting legal proceedings, and by diminish- 
ing the expenses of suitors, and preventing 
unnecessary delays, caused the business of 
the courts, though greatly increased, to be 
despatched with unexampled rapidity. Gifted 
with an acute and powerful intellect, and with 
a wonderfully retentive memory, he was in the 
habit of considering the intent and spirit of the 
law rather than its letter; but his eagerness to 
discourage technicalities, and preference of the 
principles of the civil law, occasionally led him 
to make the law instead of expounding it. In 
constructing a system of jurisprudence and 
adapting a progressive state of society to cir- 
cumstances and cases entirely new, he was 
eminently successful; and English commercial 
law, particularly that branch of it relating to 
marine insurance, will be an enduring monu- 
ment of his genius and industry. His conduct 
on the bench was marked by great dignity and 
amenity of manners, and in general he showed 
himself so worthy of his high office that Lord 
Chatham, for many years his determined polit- 
ical opponent, comparing him with two of the 
most illustrious British jurists, Somers and 
Holt, exclaimed: “I vow to God, I think the 
noble lord excels them both in abilities.” 
Though opposed to liberal ideas, he was uni- 
formly tolerant in matters of religious opinion. 
His arguments and decisions are preserved in 
Atkins’s, Burrows’s, Douglas’s, and Cowper’s 
reports; and his life has been written by John 
Holliday (1797), Henry Roscoe (1888), and Lord 


MANSLAUGHTER 


Campbell in ‘Lives of the Chief Justices” 
(1849-57). See also ‘Sketches of Statesmen 
who flourished in the Time of George III.,” by 
Lord Brougham (1839-’43); and ‘‘ The Judges 
of England,” by Edward Foss (1848-’64). 
MANSLAUGHTER. In the article Homicrpg, 
it is said that felonious homicide is either 
manslaughter or murder. These two are dis- 
tinguished from each other by the intent which 
causes or accompanies the act. If a homicide 
be not justifiable nor excusable, and yet be not 
committed with malice aforethought, it is man- 
slaughter. It is quite certain that the intent 
need not be to kill; for while there must be a 
criminal intent to make a person amenable to 
law asa criminal, yet if one crime be intended, 
and in the act of committing it another of a 
higher character be also committed without in- 
tent, the criminal is responsible for this higher 
crime. The general principle laid down in re- 
spect to manslaughter is, that not only a posi- 
tive intention to commit some crime, but mere 
negligence, may make one guilty. If any one 
take upon himself an office or duty requiring 
care or skill, he is liable for the want of either ; 
and if death be the consequence of his ignorance 
or carelessness, he is guilty of manslaughter. 
So if one driving furiously run over and kill 
a person whom he did not see, or if one in com- 
mand of a steamer or sailing vessel by reason 
of gross negligence run down a boat and some 
one in it be drowned, this would be man- 
slaughter. So if any one, whether medical by 
profession or not, deal with another as a physi- 
cian, and through gross want of care or skill 
kill him; or if any one charged with building 
a house of any kind construct it so badly thet 
it falls and kills persons within or near it; or if 
in building he drop astone upon some one pass- 
ing below, and kill him; in all these cases he 
would be guilty of manslaughter, provided he 
were grossly negligent in the act causing the 
death. This is the essential question; thus, in 
the last case, if he were building in a place 
where few persons were, and it was by a rare 
occurrence that some one happened to be where 
the stone fell, it is said that there would be no 
such negligence as would make the killer re- 
sponsible as a criminal; while, on the other 
hand, if it were a crowded thoroughfare, and 
the person dropping the stone gave no notice 
or warning and used no precaution to prevent 
mischief, the crime would then amount to mur- 
der. So if one ride a vicious horse, who kicks 
some one to death, it is no crime whatever if 
the rider did not know his character and did 
nothing by his carelessness to bring about the 
fatal result; but if he knew that the animal 
was vicious, and carelessly rode him near a 
crowd and exposed him to alarm likely to make 
him run into the crowd and do mischief, then 
the killing would be manslaughter. Sometimes 
it is said that if manslaughter be charged upon 
one on the ground of negligence only, without 
intent, this charge can be sustained only by evi- 
dence of the grossest negligence. It has been 


MANSLAUGHTER 


held that the mere omission to do an act can- 
not, although death ensue, make the man guilty 
of manslaughter. But if the omission were of 
an act which was certainly a duty, and such an 
act that any reasonable person must know that 
its omission would be very dangerous to life, 
the principles of criminal law would lead to 
the conclusion that this might be manslaughter. 
Thus, a man employed to wall a shaft in a 
colliery, and whose duty it was to place a 
stage over the mouth of the shaft, having omit- 
ted this, and a man being thereby killed, the 
court of king’s bench held him guilty of man- 
slaughter. It seems to be agreed that if the act 
omitted were a legal duty, it would certainly 
amount to that crime. It should be added 
that the law always presumes (in the absence 
of clear proof to the contrary) that a man in- 
tended to do the thing he actually did, and in- 
tended the consequences which naturally and 
actually flow from his act; and this principle 
applies even where the act causes death. So 
a very nice distinction is taken in law between 
a malum prohibitum and a malum per se. 
Thus, if there be a law prohibiting the shoot- 
ing of woodcocks before the 4th of July, one 
who shoots at one in June intends to break a 
law; but if, while thus shooting, by mere ac- 
cident and without negligence, he should kill 
a man, this would be no crime, because shoot- 
ing a woodcock at that season is an offence 
only because the law has made it so. But if 
he shoot at his neighbor’s poultry, and by ac- 
cident kill his neighbor, this is manslaughter ; 
because the destroying his neighbor’s property 
was an offence of itself, independently of muni- 
cipal law.—But by far the most frequent and 
most difficult questions in practice are those 
which must be determined either by the means 
used to produce death, or by the presence or 
absence of previous hostile intention. It isa 
general rule, that if one kills another with a 
deadly weapon, it is more than manslaughter ; 
and it has been said authoritatively, that 
whether the weapon used be a deadly weapon 
or not, is not a question of fact for the jury, 
but a question of law for the court. (See 
Murper.) The other question, as to previous 
hostility, generally turns upon the preliminary 
question, whether the act was committed in 
“the heat of passion,” or under sudden provo- 
cation. If one, being angry, attacks another, 
his anger is not an entire excuse. But if a 
quarrel and conflict ensue, and the assailant 
kills the man whom he attacked, while this is a 
felonious homicide, it is not murder, because 
there is an absence of that malice aforethought 
which is of the essence of murder; and there- 
fore it is manslaughter. Still further would it 
be from murder if the party killing had been 
himself attacked. But neither would this ex- 
cuse the act if it were not made necessary by 
the nature of the attack; but it would reduce 
the crime to manslaughter. Here, however, it 
is to be remembered that such a quarrel makes 
that to be only manslaughter which would 


125 


otherwise be murder, for no other reason than 
because it negatives the supposition of malice 
aforethought. If therefore this be proved, as 
if it be shown that the killer had a grudge 
against the deceased, and had manifested a vio- 
lent hatred and intention to injure him, it 
might be inferred that he provoked the quarrel 
merely to give him the opportunity of gratify- 
ing his malice. In such a case the quarrel, in- 
stead of negativing malice, would help to prove 
it; and therefore, of course, it could not have 
the effect of reducing the felony to manslaugh- 
ter. So if there had been a quarrel and much 
provocation, and the quarrel had abated, and 
one of the parties withdrew and provided him- 
self with a dangerous weapon, and returning 
killed the other, the excuse of ‘‘ heat of passion ” 
would not apply, for there would then be evi- 
dence of deliberate purpose. So, too, let the 
provocation be what it may, if there be no 
excitement or heat of passion, the killing will 
be deemed deliberate and intentional. Still, 
where there was much provocation, and no evi- 
dence of hostile purpose previous to the proy- 
ocation, the killing itself would generally be 
deemed evidence of excited temper. There are 
other cases which the law regards as only man- 
slaughter, without evidence of momentary ex- 
citement ; partly because the law infers that 
from such a provocation there must be excite- 
ment; and partly, perhaps, because the party — 
killed brought his death upon himself by his 

outrageous wrong. ‘Thus, if a husband detects 
his wife in adultery, and instantly and purpose- 
ly takes either her life or her paramoutr’s, it is 
only manslaughter. Not so, however, if he 
waits for a subsequent opportunity, for then the 
first reason wholly fails, and the killing becomes 
murder. In one English case, where a man 
had his pocket picked, and with the assistance 
of others threw the thief into a pond to punish 
him by a ducking, and the man was drowned, 
this was held only manslaughter.— Questions 
of this kind are so frequent, and at the same 
time so difficult, that the legislatures of many 
of the United States have endeavored to aid in 
their determination by discriminating between 
different classes and degrees of manslaughter, 
defining each degree, and affixing to it appropri- 
ate punishment. We have not space to speak 
of these in detail, but to illustrate the prevail- 
ing principles of classification refer to the stat- 
utes of New York. By these, four degrees of 
manslaughter are defined. The first degree, 
briefly stated, consists of killing without the 
purpose of death, when the deceased was en- 
gaged in perpetrating or attempting a crime less 
than felony, and where such killing would be, at 
common law, murder. Assisting in self-murder 
is manslaughter in the first degree, as also wil- 
fully killing an unborn quick child by injury to 
the mother, if it would be murder in case the 
mother died from the injury. The second de- 
gree consists in procuring abortion otherwise ; 
killing in the heat of passion without the in- 
tent of death, but in a cruel and unusual man- 


126 MANT 


ner; or killing unnecessarily one attempting to 
commit a felony. The third degree is killing 
in heat of passion, without intent of death, 
but with a dangerous weapon; involuntary kill- 
ing, by procurement or negligence of another, 
while the person killed is engaged in commit- 
ting a trespass on property ; suffering an animal 
known to be mischievous to go abroad without 
care, or keeping it without care, and thereby 
causing death; receiving wilfully or negligent- 
ly so many persons into a boat or vessel as to 
cause death; racing while in command of a 
steamboat carrying passengers, bursting the 
boiler, and so killing; killing by a physician 
while in-a state of intoxication. The fourth 
degree may be said to include all other modes 
of manslaughter, known as such at common 
law, and of a milder kind than the preceding. 
MANT, Richard, an English bishop, born in 
Southampton in 1776, died in November, 1848. 
He was educated at Winchester and Trinity 
college, Oxford, and was chosen fellow of Oriel 
college in 1798. He became vicar of Great 
Coggeshall, Essex, in 1810; of St. Botolph’s 
Bishopsgate, London, in 1815; and of East 
Horsley, Surrey, in 1818. In 1820 he was 
made bishop of Killaloe and Kilfenora, Ireland ; 
was translated to Down and Connor in 1823; 
and received in addition Dromore in 1842. 
His most important works are: ‘‘An Appeal 
to the Gospel, or an Inquiry into the Justice of 
the Charge that the Gospel is not preached by 
the National Clergy” (Bampton lectures for 
1812; 6thed., 1816); ‘‘Sermons” (8 vols., 18138- 
16); in conjunction with Dr. D’Oyly, an edi- 
tion of the Bible, with notes for family use 
(republished in New York, under the supervi- 
sion of Bishop Hobart, 1818-’20); ‘“‘ Book of 
Common Prayer, with Notes” (1820; 5th ed., 
1840); ‘‘ Happiness of the Blessed consid- 
ered ” (1833); ‘ History of the Church of Ire- 
land” (2 vols., 1839-41); and Hore Liturgice 
(1845). He also published volumes of poems. 
MANTCHOORIA, or Mantehuria, the land of the 
Mantchoos, a country of Asia, a dependency 
of the Chinese empire, bounded N. by the 
Amoor river, which separates it from the 
Russian province of the Amoor, E. by the 
Usuri river, which separates it from the Rus- 
sian district of the Amoor, S. by Corea and 
the Yellow sea, and W. by Mongolia, between 
lat. 40° and 53° 80’ N., and lon. 118° and 135° 
E.; area about 400,000 sq. m.; pop. estimated 
at 3,000,000. Formerly the territory extended 
to lat. 58° N. and lon. 142° E.; but in 1858 
China ceded to Russia all of Mantchooria N. 
of the Amoor and E. of the Usuri river. (See 
Amoor Country.) A large part of this coun- 
try is an uninhabited wilderness, and but lit- 
tle of it has been visited by Europeans. Near- 
ly the whole of it is drained by the Amoor 
river and its branches. There are few lakes; 
the most important of them is Lake Khan- 
ka, which is 40 m. long and 25 m. broad. 
The province is traversed by several moun- 
tain chains. The Sih-hih-tih mountains ex- 


‘fish are especially plentiful. 


MANTCHOORIA 


tend from the boundary of Corea in a N. E. 
direction. The 8. W. portion of this range 
bears the Mantchoo name of Shan Alin, and 
the Chinese name of Shangpe-shan or Long 
White mountains. The lykhoori Alin, in the 
north, forms three sides of the extensive valley 
of the upper Nonni, its eastern branch ex- 
tending between the Amoor and the Songari 
to near their junction. The Khingan moun- 
tains, running N. and §., and rising to a height 
of 15,000 ft., form part of the W. boundary. 
The greatest part of Mantchooria is covered 
by forests, the abode of wild animals, many of 
which afford valuable furs. Among them are 
bears, wolves, deer, the argali, and the dziggetai. 
The rivers and coasts abound in fish, among 
which carp, sturgeon, salmon, pike, and shell 
Among the birds 
of prey is a vulture which in size and fierceness 
rivals its congener the condor of the Andes. 
The southern part of Mantchooria is cultivated, 
and produces wheat, barley, pulse, millet, buck- 
wheat, and silk. It also supports large herds 
of horses, cattle, and sheep. Ginseng and 
rhubarb are a government monopoly. The 
country is rich in iron and coal. The climate 
of the greater part of Mantchooria resembles 
that of Canada in the contrasts of temperature 
in different seasons; in summer varying from 
70° to 80°, while in winter in the northern 
parts snow is abundant, the ground is frozen 
to a considerable depth, and the mercury 
ranges from 45° above to 10° below zero,.— 
Mantchooria is divided into three provinces, 
Liaotung or Shinking, Girin, and Saghalin-ulu. 
Liaotung contains a population, according to 
the Chinese census of 1812, of 2,187,286; the 
others together about 1,000,000. Liaotung is, 
however, sometimes included in China proper. 
The three capital cities are Mukden or Shin- 
yang, Girin, and Tzitzikhar. Mukden is 3880 
m. N. E. of Peking, and is a large city sur- 
rounded by a wall 10 m. in circuit. Hing- 
king, 60 m. E. of Mukden, is also a consider- 
able city; it was formerly the family residence 
and the family burial place of the Mantchoo 
emperors of China. Kingchow, on the gulf of 
Liaotung, 8. W. of Mukden, of which it is the 
port, carries on a considerable trade in cattle, 
provisions, and drugs. Its harbor is shallow 
and unsafe. Kaichow, on the E. side of the 
gulf, has a better harbor. Girin is a very ex- 
tensive province, but thinly inhabited.—The 
Mantchoos belong to the Tungusic branch of 
the Mongolian division of mankind. They are 
of lighter complexion and heavier build than 
the Chinese, and some of them have florid 
complexions, blue eyes, aquiline noses, brown 
hair, and heavy beards. They have the same 
peculiar conformation of the eyelids as the 
Chinese, and resemble them closely in other 
respects; but their countenances are generally 
of a higher intellectual cast, and their charac- 
ter haughtier and more determined. They are 
the dominant race in the Chinese empire, being 


; dispersed over the whole of it as officers and 


MANTEGNA 


soldiers, and the skill and energy with which 
they have governed their vast dominions since 
1644, when they took possession of the throne, 
show them to be possessed of high qualities. 
During the same period they have greatly im- 
proved the condition of their own original coun- 
try. When the Mantchoos conquered China, 


they imposed upon the subject people a portion. 


of their dress and many of their usages. The 
mode of arranging the hair in a tail now in use 
by the Chinese was forced upon them by the 
Mantchoos, to whom it had long been familiar. 
On the other hand, they have adopted many of 
the customs of the Chinese. They began to be 
conspicuous in eastern Asia about the begin- 
ning of the 17th century, when after a long 
series of internal wars their tribes were united 
into one nation under a chieftain named Tien- 
ming, who in 1618 declared war against China, 
then ruled by the Ming dynasty. He overran 
and devastated the N. E. provinces, but died 
about 1627, leaving the prosecution of his design 
of conquest to his son Tien-tsung, who made 
alliances with rebels whose leaders pretended 
to be rightful heirs to the throne. With their 
aid he made himself master of Peking, and the 
last of the Chinese emperors, Hwai-tsung, hav- 
ing committed suicide in 1648, the Mantchoo 
chief took possession of the government. He 
died in 1644, and his son and successor Shun- 
chi is regarded as the first emperor of the 
Mantchoo dynasty which still holds the throne. 
(See Curna.)—An account of the country, by 
the archimandrite Palladius of Peking, was 
communicated to the British royal geographical 
society in 1872. (See Turantan Races Anp 
LANGUAGES. ) ; 

MANTEGNA, Andrea, an Italian artist, born 
near Padua in 1431, died in Mantua, Sept. 13, 
1506. When quite young he was placed under 
the instruction of Francesco Squarcione. At 
the age of 17 he painted an altarpiece, and 
soon afterward the four evangelists for the 
church of St. Sophia at Padua. The works 
and reputation of the young artist induced the 
painter Jacopo Bellini to give him his daugh- 
ter, Nicolasa, in marriage. His frescoes in 
the church degli Eremitani, representing the 
life of St. James and the legend of St. Chris- 
topher, and his St. Mark in the church of St. 
Giustina, were among his next works in Padua. 
He was invited about 1468 by Ludovico Gon- 
zagato Mantua. Between 1485 and 1490 he 
visited Rome at the invitation of Innocent 
VIII., and painted with almost miniature-like 
delicacy a series of frescoes in a chapel in the 
Belvedere, all of which however perished when 
Pius VI. destroyed the chapel toward the close 
of the last century to make room for his new 
museum. Of his works extant, the principal 
is the celebrated series representing in nine 
compartments the triumph of Julius Cesar 
after his conquest of Gaul, originally painted 
for Ludovico Gonzaga, and which upon the 
downfall of that family were purchased by 
Charles I. of England. They were sold by 

530 VOL. XI.—9 


MANTEUFFEL 127 


parliament with the rest of Charles’s pictures, 
but were repurchased on the return of Charles 
II., and placed in Hampton court. They were 
engraved by the painter, and were copied in 
chiaroscuro by Andrea Andreani. Of his easel 
pictures the most famous is the Madonna della 
Vittoria, now in the Louvre, painted in com- 
memoration of the victory gained by Gonzaga 
over Charles VIII. of France in 1495. Many 
other pictures by him are to be found in Italy 
and the large galleries of central Europe. 
Mantegna, according to Lanzi, engraved up- 
ward of 50 of his own designs, of which about 
30 are known to collectors. 

MANTELL, Gideon Algernon, an English geolo- 
gist, born in Lewes, Sussex, in 1790, died in 
London, Nov. 10, 1852. He was educated as 
a surgeon, and attained a lucrative practice 
in his native town. Inclination, however, led 
him to devote much time to geological re- 
searches, and in a few years his discoveries in 
the Wealden formation, the extraordinary fos- 
siliferous richness of which had been previous- 
ly little known, gave him a high rank among 
living paleontologists. To his labors science 
is indebted for the discovery of four out of 
five of the genera of extinct dinosaurian rep- 
tiles, viz.: the iguanodon, the hylaosaurus, the 
pelorosaurus, and the regnosaurus ; and his 
valuable museum collected from the Wealden 
and chalk formations, and which was purchased 
in 1839 for £5,000 by the trustees of the Brit- 
ish museum, contains well preserved fossils of 
these, and also of many extinct fishes, insects, 
and plants. His geological drawings were be- 
queathed to Yale college, from which institu- 
tion he received the degree of LL. D. in 1844. 
In 1825 he was elected a member of the royal 
society; in 1835 he received the Wollaston 
medal of the geological society, and in 1849 
the royal medal of the royal society. In 18389 
he removed to London, where he continued his 
medical practice and geological researches, and 
was remarkably successful asa lecturer. His 
chief scientific work separately published is 
‘“‘ Fossils of the South Downs, or Illustrations 
of the Geology of Sussex” (4to, London, 1822), 
He is also the author of two popular treatises 
of great merit, ‘‘The Wonders of Geology ” 
(2 vols., London, 1888), and ‘‘The Medals of 
Creation, or First Lessons in Geology ” (2 vols., 
1844), both of which have been translated into 
German, and of a number of other works illus- 
trating the geology of the British isles and his 
own discoveries, including a “ Pictorial Atlas 
of Fossil Remains” (4to, 1850). In Agassiz 
and Strickland’s Bibliographia Zoologia et Ge- 
ologie, 67 works and memoirs by Dr. Mantell 
are cited, besides which he wrote several pa- 
pers on antiquarian and professional subjects. 

MANTEUFFEL. I. Otto Theodor, baron, a Prus- 
sian statesman, born at Libben, Feb. 3, 1805. 
He entered the civil service at an early age. 
In 1844 he was made a member of the council 
of state, and in 1847, in the first united diet, 
he was conspicuous as an ultra conservative. 


128 MANTINEA 
During the administration of Count Branden- 
burg (1848-50) he was minister of the interior. 
Upon the death of the count he was appointed 
minister of foreign affairs, and soon after, at 
the conference of Olmiitz (November, 1850), 
brought about a settlement of the disputes be- 
tween Austria and Prussia, by abandoning the 
position previously assumed by his state in 
North Germany. In December following he 
was appointed prime minister, still retaining 
his place as the head of the department of for- 
eign affairs. In January, 1852, he became 
president of the council of state, and in 1858 
was superseded and retired to private life. IL. 
Karl Rochas Edwin, baron, a Prussian soldier, 
cousin of the preceding, born in Magdeburg, 
Feb, 24, 1809. He became aide-de-camp to the 
king in 1848, and rose to the rank of adjutant 
general, lieutenant general, and chief of the 
military cabinet. In 1865-’6 he became con- 
Spicuous as military and civil governor of 
Schleswig, by the invasion of Holstein, by his 
operations against Hanover, and by his vigor- 
ous proceedings against the city of Frankfort. 
In the Franco-German war he commanded the 
first Prussian army corps before Metz, and on 
the capitulation of Bazaine (Oct. 27, 1870) he 
commanded the first German army against the 
French army of the North, capturing Amiens, 
Rouen, and Dieppe. In January, 1871, he was 
placed in command of the South German troops 
operating against the French army of the East 
under Bourbaki, and afterward under Clin- 
chant, which he drove across the Swiss fron- 
tier, thus ending the war. In June, 1871, he 
was appointed commander-in-chief of the Ger- 
man army of occupation, his headquarters be- 
ing at first at Compiégne, and afterward at 
Nancy, where he remained until the final evac- 
uation of the French territory in 1878. He has 
received the rank of field marshal.—See Aus 
dem Leben des General-Feldmarschalls Edwin 
Freiherrn von Manteuffel (Berlin, 1874). 
MANTINEA, one of the oldest and most pow- 
erful towns of Arcadia, on the borders of Ar- 
golis and the river Ophis. Its democratic po- 
litical constitution was, according to Polybius, 
one of the best in antiquity. Like the other 
Arcadian towns, it acknowledged the Spartan 
supremacy prior to and during the Persian war. 
It was an ally of Sparta in the early part of the 
Peloponnesian war, but in 421~’20 B. CO. formed 
a confederacy with Argos, Elis, and Athens, 
which was defeated and dissolved by the Lace- 
demonians in 418. Though it became again 
an ally of Sparta, its increasing power ren- 
dered it obnoxious to the latter city, and in 
385 the Spartans attacked and destroyed it by 
turning the waters of the Ophis against its 
walls. The Mantineans rebuilt their city after 
the overthrow of the Spartan supremacy by the 
battle of Leuctra in 871. They were promi- 
nent in the formation of the Arcadian con- 
federacy, but soon abandoned it for an alli- 
ance with their ancient enemies the Spartans. 
To prevent this coalition Epaminondas marched 


MANTIS 


into the Peloponnesus, and Mantinea is chiefly 
celebrated as the scene of the great battle (362) 
between the Thebans and Spartans, in which 
he fell. It continued one of the most impor- 
tant towns of. Arcadia till the time of the 
Achwan league, which it at first joined, but 
subsequently deserted for the AZtolian confed- 


‘eracy, an event which occasioned the Cleo- 


menic war. In 226 it was surprised and ter- 
ribly chastised by Aratus, and in 222 it was 
plundered by Antigonus Doson, and its name 
changed to Antigonea, which it bore till its an- 
cient appellation was restored by the emperor 
Hadrian. The ruins of Mantinea are visible 
at the modern village of Paleopoli, in a bare 
plain, 8 m. N. of Tripolitza; they consist of 
the remains of the theatre and three courses 
of masonry of the entire circuit of the walls, 
which were elliptical, 1,250 yards in diameter, 
with 10 gates and 118 towers. 

MANTIS (Fabr.; Gr. pdvric, a soothsayer), a 
genus of orthopterous insects of the group of 
graspers (raptoria). In the best known spe- 
cies, I. religiosa (Linn.), the head is triangular, 
the eyes large, the prothorax very long, and 
the body narrowed and lengthened; the an- 
terior feet are armed with hooks and spines, 
and the shanks are capable of being doubled 
up on the under side of the thighs. When at 


Mantis religiosa. 


rest it sits upon the four posterior legs, with 
the head and prothorax nearly erect, and the 
anterior feet folded backward; from this sin- 
gular attitude it is called the praying mantis 
or soothsayer (the prie-Diew of the French). 
The insects are slow in their motions, waiting 
on the branches of trees and shrubs for some 
insect to pass within their reach, when they 
seize and hold it with the anterior feet, and 
tear it to pieces. They are voracious, some- 
times preying upon each other; they are bene- 
ficial to man in destroying caterpillars and oth- 
er insects injurious to vegetation. The eggs 
are deposited in two long rows, protected by 
a parchment-like envelope, and attached to the 
stalk of a plant; the nymph is as voracious as 
the perfect insect, from which it differs prin- 
cipally in the less developed wings. They are 
most abundant in the tropical regions of Afri- 
ca, South America, and India, but are found in 
the warmer parts of North America, Europe, 
and Australia. In the south of France it was 
once a popular belief that this insect, if spo- 
ken to, would point out the way to a lost child, 
and in central and south Africa it is still re- 
garded with veneration. The American spe- 
cies is the M. Carolina. 


MANTUA 


MANTUA (Ital. Mantova). 1. A N. province 
of Italy, formerly included in Lombardy, but 
lately attached to Venetia, bordering on Bres- 
cia, Verona, Rovigo, Modena, Reggio, Parma, 
and Cremona; area, 855 sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 
288,942. It is an extensive plain, in many parts 
swampy and insalubrious, but has been much 
improved by draining, and is generally very 
fertile. It is watered by the river Po and its 
affuents the Mincio and Oglio, and its princi- 
pal products are grain, flax, silk, hemp, rice, 
fruits,.and wine. The province is divided into 
the districts of Gonzaga, Mantua, Ostiglia, Re- 
vere, and Sermide, and embraces the former 
duchy of Mantua. II. A city, capital of the 
province, 80 m. E. 8. E. of Milan and 22 m. 8. 
S. W. of Verona, on an island in the middle of 
a lagoon formed by the Mincio; pop. in 1872, 
26,687. The swamps and marshes surround- 


129 


ing Mantua, in connection with the formidable 
works which guard all its approaches and en- 
close it on every side, once constituted its most 
important defences, and made it so strong that 
it was deemed impregnable by any means but 
famine; but of late years the marshes have been 
partially drained and diked, and the salubrity of 
the city is greatly improved. The communica- 
tion between the island and the mainland is by 
several bridges, the longest of which, the ponte 
di San Giorgio, forms the principal approach 
to the city. The latter is entered by five gates, 
one of which, the porta Mulina, presents a cu- 
rious specimen of ancient engineering. Man- 
tua has a desolate appearance, except in the 
central parts, where there is commercial activ- 
ity; but it contains many fine streets, the via 
Larga being the widest avenue. Among the 
finest squares are the piazza di Virgilio, sur-: 


rounded by elegant houses; the piazza delle | tage than in the decorations of this palace. 


Erbe, where the market is held; the esplanade or 
piazza di San Pietro; and the piazza del Argine, 
with a marble pillar crowned by a bust of Vir- 
gil. Great masses of buildings, consisting of 
feudal castles with their battlemented turrets 
and Lombard arches, extend from the porta di 
San Giorgio to the piazza Delpurgo, and in- 
clude the ancient palatial castle (castello di 
Corte) of the Gonzagas, now used partly as a 
prison and partly for. public offices. Adjoin- 
ing it is the immense structure begun in 1302, 
now comprising the so-called palazzo Imperiale, 
palazzo Vecchio, and corte Imperiale, contain- 
ing about 500 apartments, and mainly indebted 
for its present beauty to the genius of Giulio 
Romano, whose works as a painter and archi- 
tect form the greatest artistic glory of the city, 
but are nowhere displayed to greater advan- 


The palazzo del Te, outside of the city, origi- 
nally intended for ducal stables, also grew up 
under the genius of Romano to the dimensions 
of a vast and magnificent building. The prin- 
cipal churches are the cathedral of St. Peter, 
Sant’ Andrea, and Sta. Barbara, all more or less 
rich in paintings, particularly the last, which 
also contains in its sacristy a golden vase at- 
tributed to Benvenuto Cellini. San Maurizio 
contains the ‘Martyrdom of St. Margaret,” 
one of the finest works of Ludovico Carracci. 
The shambles (beccheria) and fish markets 
(pescheria) were planned and built by Giulio 
Romano. Mantua is a bishop’s see, erected in 
808, and contains a number of educational and 
charitable institutions, a botanic garden, a mu- 
seum of antiquities, a library of about 80,000 
volumes, an academy of science and fine arts 


130 MANUEL 


(Virgiliana), now chiefly used as a school of 
drawing, a chamber of commerce and indus- 
try, a monte di pietd, a general house of cor- 
rection, a military arsenal, a theatre, and an 
elegant amphitheatre. The manufactures, in- 
cluding silk, linen, sail cloth, woollens, soap, pa- 
per, and parchment, are limited, and the princi- 
pal article of trade is silk.—Mantua is supposed 
to have been founded by the Etruscans 400 years 
before the building of Rome, and it came un- 
der Roman power in 197 B. OC. It derives its 
chief classical celebrity from associations with 
Virgil, who has celebrated Mantua as the place 
of his birth in several passages of his works. 
Charlemagne gave it its first fortifications, 
which in modern times were completed in their 
present form by the Austrians. 
ages it was one of the most important cities in 
Italy, and was greatly improved and embel- 
lished by the Gonzaga family, under whom it 
became with the surrounding territory a duchy. 
(See Gonzaca.) In 1630 it was seized by the 
imperialists and subjected to terrible calamities, 
from which the city has never recovered. In 
1796—’7 Bonaparte, hopeless of reducing the 
fortress by force of arms, kept it under strict 
blockade for five months till famine com- 
pelled it to capitulate, Feb. 2,1797. The Aus- 
trians regained it in July, 1799, and the French 
again, after Marengo, in 1800. It belonged to 
the kingdom of Italy till 1814, when it was 
restored to Austria. In July, 1842, the Jews, 
who formed a considerable portion of the pop- 
ulation, then confined in a separate quarter 
(ghetto), were subjected to great persecutions. 
In the war of Sardinia with Austria in 1848, 
the victory depended on the possession of Man- 
tua; it was blockaded for several months by 
the troops of Charles Albert, till his defeat 
by Marshal Radetzky in the battle of Cus- 
tozza (July 25). During the wars of 1859 and 
1866 Mantua was again of high strategical 
importance, as one of the most formidable 
strongholds of Austria. By the treaty of Vil- 
lafranca, July 11, 1859, it was excepted from 
the territory ceded to the king of Sardinia; 
but it was annexed to Italy Oct. 11, 1866. 
MANUEL, the name of two Byzantine em- 
perors. 1. Manuel f. Comnenus, born about 1120, 
died Sept. 24,1180. The valor which he had 
displayed against the Turks induced his father 
John II. (Calo-Joannes) to bequeath the crown 
to him rather than to his elder brother Isaac, 
and he succeeded him in 1148. He was at once 
involved in wars both in the East and the West, 
which lasted with brief intermissions through 
his reign. In 1144 he subjected Raymond, 
the Latin prince of Antioch. In 1145 he de- 
feated the sultan of Iconium in successive 
pitched battles. In 1147 he promised his aid 
to the new crusade headed by Louis VII. of 
France and Conrad III. of Germany; and he 
allowed them a passage through his dominions, 
but gave secret information to the Turks. In 
1148 he began the most important war of his 
reign with Roger, the Norman king of Sicily, 


In the middle. 


MANUMISSION 


who had taken Corfu and prepared to invade 
Greece. He formed an alliance with the Vene- 
tians, who within a year joined him before 
the fortress of Corfu, which was surrendered 
after an obstinate siege. He was prevented 
from invading Sicily by hostilities of the Ser- 
vians and Hungarians, instigated by Roger, the 
former of whom were vanquished in two cam- 
paigns, but the latter protracted the war till 
1152. In that year he suffered a reverse from 
the Turks in Cilicia, but his general John Ducas 
gained so great successes in southern Italy that 
Manuel conceived the project of reuniting the 
eastern and western empires. The defeat of 
Alexis, the successor of John Ducas, by Wil- 
liam, the successor of Roger, soon followed; 
the Sicilian admiral Maius routed the Greek 
fleet off Negropont, and advanced toward Con- 
stantinople; and Manuel therefore accepted an 
honorable peacein 1155. Those Greek prisoners 
who were silk weavers were retained in Italy, 
and gave origin to the Italian silk manufac- 
tures. In the following years he waged suc- 
cessful wars with Raymond, prince of Antioch, 
and Az ed-Din, the Turkish sultan. A new 
war soon broke out with Gejza II., king of Hun- 
gary, which was terminated by the defeat of 
the Hungarians. In 1176 he was defeated by 
Az ed-Din in the mountains of Pisidia, and was 
obliged to sign a disadvantageous peace. By 
breaking the treaty and renewing the war he 
obtained honorable terms. Depressed by this 
disastrous expedition, he never recovered his 
former military enterprise and ambition. II. 
Mantel II. Palsologus, born in 1348, died July 
21, 1425. At the death of his father John V. 
in 1391, he fled to Constantinople from the 
court of the sultan Bajazet, with whom he 
had been left as a hostage. The consequence 
was a war with Bajazet, in which Manuel 
was supported by an army of Hungarians, 
Germans, and French. The allies, under the 
command of Sigismund, king of Hungary and 
afterward emperor of Germany, were defeated 
in the bloody battle of Nicopolis in 1396, 
with the loss of 10,000 men. Constantino- 
ple was besieged, and its fall seemed impend- 
ing, when the conquests of Tamerlane diverted 
the arms of the sultan. Manuel visited Italy, 
France, England, and Germany, vainly seeking 
assistance from the western princes. In the 
conflict between the Tartars and the Turks, 
he acted with diplomatic skill, and secured 
peace to his empire. He sent ambassadors to 
the council of Constance with instructions to 
urge a union of the Latin and Greek churches; 
but his real object was only to obtain aid from 
the kingdoms of the West, and to alarm the 
Turks by the negotiations. 

MANUMISSION, in Roman antiquity, the form 
by which slaves, or other persons not sui ju- 
ris, were released from their condition. There 
were three modes of effecting a legal release, 
by vindicta, census, or will, by any of which 
the freedman might obtain the rights of a 
citizen. The vindicta was the oldest, and as 


MANURES 


follows: The owner brought his slave before 
the magistrate, and stated the grounds on 
which he intended his manumission. The 
lictor laid a rod on the head of the slave, and 
declared him free by right of the Quirites; 
the master, who in the mean time held the 
slave, pronouncing the words, ‘‘I wish this 
man to be free,” turned him round, and let him 
go (emisit e manu, whence the term). The 
magistrate then declared him to be free. The 
manumission by census was effected by the 
slaves giving in their names at the lustral cen- 
sus at the bidding of their masters. By will a 
slave could be made free conditionally or un- 
conditionally, or free and an heir to the tes- 
tator. Laws at different periods enacted re- 
strictions, such as limiting the proportion of 
slaves aman might manumit in his will and 
preventing manumission to defraud creditors. 
The act of manumission established the rela- 
tion of patron and freedman between the 
manumittor and the manumitted; and if the 
former was a citizen, the latter became a mem- 
ber of his gens, and assumed his family as well 
as personal name, to which he added some 
other as surname, commonly that by which he 
was previously known. 

MANURES. See AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, 
vol. i., p. 197. 

MANUSCRIPT (Lat. manu scriptum, written 
with the hand), in bibliography, a written book 
or document, in distinction from a printed 
one. (For the various materials that have 
been used for this purpose, see Boox, PapEr, 
and Papyrus.) Inform, ancient manuscripts 
were either rolls (volumina) or flat pages like 
our printed books (codices). The Egyptian 
papyri are usually in rolls of an indefinite 
length, according to the subject matter, but 
some of the smaller ones are flat. Leaves of 
parchment were sometimes interspersed with 
papyrus leaves to strengthen the latter. Parch- 
ment and vellum manuscripts also were origi- 
nally in rolls, but codices were made as early 
as the 3d and 4th centuries. The pages of the 
latter are usually quarto, rarely folio or octavo. 
Some of the oldest are square, but they are 
generally a little higher than broad. The 
manuscripts of the Mexicans were sometimes 
in rolls, but more generally in book form, the 
paper, which was continuous, being folded 
like a chart, with a tablet or cover of wood at 
each end. As the writing was on one side 
only, each page could thus be referred to sepa- 
rately, as ina modern book.—The transcribing 
of manuscripts was committed by the Greeks 
and Romans principally to slaves, who were 
esteemed of great value when they excelled in 
the art. They are called by Horace scriptores 
librarii, and in later times antiquarit. Becker 
thinks that the latter term was applied, after 
the cursive writing came into use, to those 
who copied books in the old uncial characters. 
There were also at Rome professional copyists, 
some of whom were women. About the 5th 
century associations of scribes, who worked 


MANUSCRIPT 131 


under stringent rules, were formed. In the 
middle ages copying was almost exclusively 
in the hands of ecclesiastics, who were called 
clerks (clerici). In all the principal monasteries 
a room called scriptorium was devoted to the 
scribe or scriptores, where they could pursue 
their work in quiet. The text was sometimes 
read aloud by a dictator. The manuscript 
when finished was corrected by one appoint- 
ed for the purpose, and it then passed into 
the hands of the miniator, who added the or- 
namental capitals and other embellishments. 
The earliest form of illumination was the use of 
different colored inks. The Egyptian papyri 
are generally written in red and black, but some 
are ornamented with other colors and with 
gilding, and some with vignettes, many of 
which are remarkable for the delicacy and 
beauty of their execution. In the vellum 
manuscripts of the 4th and 5th centuries the 
initial letters, the first words, or the first three 
or four lines of books are often in red ink, 
while the body of the work is in black. Other 
colors, as purple, blue, green, and cinnabar, 
were used early, and sometimes the entire 
manuscript was written in gold or silver let- 
ters on purple, blue, or rose-colored parch- 
ment. One of the most interesting examples 
of this is the Argenteus Codex in the library 
of the university of Upsal, written in silver 
letters, with the initials in gold, on violet-col- 
ored vellum. (See ArgenTEvs CopEx.) The 
Codex Aureus of the royal library at Stock- 
holm is a Latin manuscript of the Gospels, 
written in Gothic characters of gold on leaves 
of vellum alternately white and violet; it be- 
longs to the 6th century. In the earlier Greek 
and Latin manuscripts there was no distine- 
tion of initial letters, but after the 4th cen- 
tury the first letters of books and chapters, 
and sometimes of each page, were made lar- 
ger than the body of the letters, and were fre- 
quently profusely ornamented in design and 
color. In the 6th and 7th centuries initial let- 
ters were one or two inches high, and from the 
7th to the 10th century were often a foot high, 
covering nearly the whole page. The Irish 
manuscripts of this period exhibit some of the 
most extraordinary work of this kind, the ini- 
tials being formed of complicated interlaced 
patterns, and ornamented with figures of men, 
birds, animals, and grotesque deformities. One 
of the finest specimens of this class is the copy 
of the Gospels known as the Book of Kells, in 
the library of Trinity college, Dublin; it dates 
from the 7th century. The early Franco-Gallic 
manuscripts show a distinct style of Ulumina- 
tion of initial letters in arabesque patterns with 
elegant foliage. In the middle ages colored and 
gilded designs and illustrations were so com- 
mon that it was said: Hodie scriptores non sunt 
scriptores, sed pictores. Miniatures and pic- 
tures were early introduced into manuscripts. 
Pliny says that physicians painted represen- 
tations of medicinal plants in their treatises, 
and that Varro illustrated his biography of 


132 


eminent persons with 700 portraits. In the 
imperial library at Vienna is a Roman calen- 
dar with allegorical figures of the months, sup- 
posed to have been executed in the first half of 
the 4th century; and in the same library is a 
copy of Dioscorides, dating from the beginning 
of the 6th century, containing numerous minia- 
tures and illustrations of plants. There is also 
a fragment of a Virgil of the 4th century in 
the Vatican library, which is profusely orna- 
mented with miniatures. The Codex Cottoni- 
anus Geneseos, the remains of which are in 
the British museum, had originally 250 minia- 
tures, each about four inches square. This 
manuscript, which contained fragments of the 
Old and the New Testament in 165 quarto 
leaves, is said by tradition to have belonged 
to Origen in the first half of the 3d century; 
but it is now ascribed to the 6th century. It 
was almost entirely destroyed at the burning 
of the Cottonian library in 1731. In the Am- 
brosian library in Milan is a part of a very an- 
cient copy of the Iliad illustrated with minia- 
tures. The Persians, Hindoos, Chinese, and 
other eastern nations illuminated their manu- 
scripts, but no very ancient specimens are 
known to be extant. Some of the Arab man- 
uscripts are remarkable for the beauty of their 
arabesque ornamentation, and for the absence 
of any representations of living figures, the 
painting of which is forbidden by the Koran. 
—The most ancient manuscripts extant are 
the papyrus rolls from the tombs of Egypt, 
where the dryness of the climate and of the 
sand beneath which they were buried pre- 
served them in an almost perfect condition for 
thousands of years. They may be considered 
under two general heads, the Egyptian proper 
and the Greek. Of the former three classes 
are found, written respectively in the hiero- 
glyphic, the hieratic, and the demotic or en- 
chorial characters. The first are mostly books 
of a religious and moral character, the most 
common one being the ritual of the dead. Hie- 
‘ratic manuscripts contain the great body of 
Egyptian literature. One of the oldest known 
is the Prisse papyrus in the national library at 
Paris, a moral treatise written by Prince Ptah- 
hotep of the 5th dynasty, the beginning of which 
is placed by Mariette at 3951 B.C. Manuscripts 
in the demotic character, consisting principal- 
ly of contracts, bills of sale, accounts, letters, 
&c., are found dating from the beginning of 
the 9th century B. C. to about the 2d century 
A.D. (See Eaypt, Lanevace anv Litera- 
TURE OF.) The Greek papyrus manuscripts 
found in Egypt are of two classes: books prop- 
er, written in uncial letters, and public and pri- 
vate documents, in cursive characters. Among 
the oldest specimens of the first class extant 
are fragments of a treatise on rhetoric and a 
part of the 13th book of the Iliad, written in 
the 3d century B. C., in the national library 
at Paris; and among the papyri recovered 
from Herculaneum is a fragment of a treatise 
‘on music by Philodemus, of the 1st century 


MANUSORIPT 


B. C. Among the oldest cursive manuscripts 
is a petition to Ptolemy Philometor, written 
in the 2d century B. C., also in Paris.—The 
invention of parchment is usually ascribed to 
the reign of Eumenes II., king of Pergamus, 
in the 2d century B. C., but manuscript rolls 
of brown leather of the 14th dynasty have 
been found in the Egyptian tombs, and rolls 
of white parchment made more than 1,000 
years before Eumenes are preserved in the 
British museum. A recently discovered leath- 
er manuscript of the ritual of the dead, written 
in black and red hieratic characters, is now in 
the Berlin museum. It is ascribed to the 18th 
dynasty. Of parchment manuscripts made 
since the beginning of the Christian era, prob- 
ably the most ancient one in existence is the 
palimpsest of Cicero’s De Republica in the 
Vatican library, supposed by its discoverer, 
Cardinal Mai, to have been written in the 2d 
or 3d century. (See Paummpsest.) It con- 
tains 302 pages, and is written in double col- 
umns of 15 lines each, in fine Roman uncials, 
with no division of words. Over it is St. Au- 
gustine’s commentary on the Psalms. In the 
library of Verona is a palimpsest Virgil of the 
3d or 4th century, with the Gregorian com- 
mentary on Job written over it in a script of 
the 8th century. The same library possesses 
the celebrated palimpsest of the 4th century, 
containing the greater part of the Institutes 
of Gaius, overwritten with a copy of the let- 
ters of St. Jerome. A palimpsest in the Brit- 
ish museum contains, under fragments of the 
sermons of St. Chrysostom, written in Sy- 
riac, the only extant portion of the annals of 
Licinianus, in uncial characters of the 4th 
century. In the Vatican are a Terence of the 
4th or 5th century and a fragment of a Sal- 
lust of the 5th. The Laurentian library of 
Florence possesses the celebrated Medicean 
Virgil, the most perfect of the ancient copies 
existing, wanting only a part of the Bucolics. 
It contains 440 leaves, is written on both sides, 
and the first three lines of each book are in 
vermilion. It belongs to the 4th or 5th cen- 
tury.—No authentic manuscripts or fragments 
of manuscripts of the Bible of the first three 
centuries are known to exist. The Codex Si- 
naiticus, which was obtained by Tischendorf 
in 1859 from the convent of St. Catharine on 
Mt. Sinai, and is now in the imperial library 
at St. Petersburg, is generally conceded to 
have been written about the middle of the 4th 
century. Tischendorf considers it not improb- 
able that it is one of the 50 copies of the 
Scriptures which the emperor Constantine in 
the year 331 directed to be made for Byzan- 
tium, under the care of Eusebius of Casarea. 
It consists of 3454 leaves of very fine vellum, 
made probably from the skins of antelopes or 
of asses, each leaf being 14% inches high by 
134 inches wide. The writing on each page 
is in four columns (excepting in the poetical 
books of the Old Testament, where there are 
but two), each containing 48 lines of from 12 


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MANUSORIPT 


to 14 letters each. The characters are well 
executed uncials, unconnected with each other, 
without spaces between the words, with no 
large initial letters, no breathings nor accents, 
and with few marks of punctuation. The first 
line of each of the psalms and of the other 
poetical books isin red ink. It contains both 
the Old and the New.Testament, the latter per- 
fect. The Codex Vaticanus, a manuscript of 
the Greek Bible, deficient in some parts of the 
New Testament, is also ascribed to about the 
middle of the 4th century, although Tischen- 
dorf considers the evidence not quite so con- 
clusive as in the case of the Sinaiticus. Its 
early history is not known, but it appears in 
the first catalogue of the Vatican library in 
1475. It is a quarto volume, 104 inches high, 
10 broad, and 44 thick, and is bound in red 
morocco; contains 146 leaves of fine thin vel- 
lum, has three columns of 42 lines each to the 
page, and is written in elegant uncials, some- 
what smaller than those of the Sinaiticus, with 
no spaces between the words. As originally 
written, it had no large capital letters and no 
breathings nor accents; but capital letters in 
blue or red, three fourths of an inch high, have 
been added at the beginning of each book by 
a later corrector, who also put in the breath- 
ings and accents, and probably the stops. Of 
the Biblical manuscripts of the 5th century, the 
Codex Alewandrinus of the British museum, 
containing nearly the whole of the Greek Bible, 
is the most important. It isin four quarto vol- 
umes, with pages 13 inches high by 10 broad, 
has two columns of 50 lines each to the page, 
and is written in uniform uncials, with the first 
three or four lines of each book in red letters. 
It differs from the Sinaiticus and the Vatica- 
mus in having large initial letters. Scholars 
are generally agreed in ascribing it to the mid- 
dle of the 5th century. (See ALEXANDRIAN 
Copex.) Of the same century is the Ephraem 
palimpsest of the national library in Paris. It 
is about the size of the Codex Alexandrinus, 
though not quite so high, and has 209 leaves, 
of which 64 contain fragments of the Septua- 
gint and 145 various parts of the New Testa- 
ment. The original text, which was partly 
erased in the 12th century to make room for 
the writings of Ephraem Syrus, is in elegant 
uncials, without division of words or chapters, 
and with but one column to the page, consist- 
ing of from 40 to 46 lines. The Codex Bezw 
or Cantabrigiensis, in the library of the uni- 
versity of Cambridge, beiongs to the 6th cen- 
tury. It isa Greek manuscript, with a Latin 
translation on the opposite pages, of the four 
Gospels and Acts, with a number of pages miss- 
ing. It is a quarto volume of 414 leaves, with 
pages 10 inches high by 8 wide, and written 
stichometrically in a single column of 33 lines 
to the page. The first three lines of each book 
are in red ink. The characters are uncials, and 
the words are undivided. (See Brzza’s CopEx.) 
Among the fragments of manuscripts of this 
century, one of the most interesting is the Codex 


133 


Purpureus, four leaves of which are in the Brit- 
ish museum, six in the Vatican, and two in the 
imperial library at Vienna. Tischendorf found 
33 additional leaves in the island of Patmos. 
It is written in silver letters, now quite black 
from age (the names of God and Christ in 
gold), on very thin purple vellum, and has 
two columns of 16 lines each to the page. The 
characters are large Greek uncials, written 
without division of words. Among the old- 
est and most important of the cursive Greek 
manuscripts of the New Testament is the Co- 
dex Lasilensis, in the library of Basel, ascribed 
to the 10th century. It has one column of 88 
lines to each page, and is written in small ele- 
gant characters, with breathings, accents, iota 
subscripts, and a few illuminations, among 
which are portraits of the emperor Leo the Phi- 
losopher and his son Constantine Porphyro- 
genitus. The Codex Ruber, a cursive manu- 
script containing fragments of the New Tes- 
tament, in the national library at Paris, is writ- 
ten entirely in red ink; it belongs to the 10th 
or lith century. Of the manuscripts of the 
Latin Bible, the Codex Amiatinus, in the Lau- 
rentian library at Florence, is the most impor- 
tant. It derives its name from the Cister- 
cian monastery of Monte Amiato, in Tuscany, 
where it was owned previous to its acquisition 
by the Laurentian library. From intrinsic 
evidence it is supposed to have been written 
about 541 by Servandus, abbot of the Benedic- 
tine monastery near Alatri, on the borders of 
Latium. It consists of 1,029 leaves, of which 
796 are devoted to the Old Testament and 232 
to the New. It is written in well formed Ro- 
man uncials, and has two columns to the page, 
each having in general 43 lines stichometri- 
cally arranged. ‘The first line of each book is 
rubricated. Other renowned manuscripts of 
the same century are a Virgil in the Vatican, 
a Prudentius, the sermons of St. Augustine 
on papyrus, the psalter of St. Germain-des- 
Prés in silver letters, and a copy of the Theo- 
dosian code, all in the national library at 
Paris; the unique copy of the fifth decade of 
Livy, in the imperial library at Vienna; a 
Lactantius and the breviary of Alaric at Bo- 
logna; and a palimpsest containing 4,000 lines 
of the Iliad in the British museum. The cele- 
brated manuscript of the Digest of Justinian 
too, in the Laurentian library at Florence, be- 
longs probably to the close of the 6th century. 
—The science of reading and judging ancient 
manuscripts is called diplomatics, and is a 
branch of paleography. In examining a man- 
uscript in order to judge of its antiquity, it is 
necessary to consider the quality and charac- 
ter of the material on which it is written; 
the style of the writing; the inks used; its 
miniatures, vignettes, and arabesques, and the 
colors with which they are executed; the cov- 
er, its material and ornamentation; and the 
character of the contents. The oldest Greek 
and Latin manuscripts are written in square 
capital letters, without division of words or 


134 MANUSCRIPT 


sentences, and without punctuation. This 
style was in use until about the 6th century, 
when it was superseded by uncial writing, 
which had coexisted with it from the 3d cen- 
tury. <A kind of capitals called rustics, having 
the letters slightly inclined, were used how- 
ever until a much later time. Uncials differ 
from pure capitals in having some of the let- 
ters, particularly A, D, E, and M, curved. The 
most of the extant Greek and Latin manu- 
scripts written between the 4th and 6th cen- 
turies are in uncial characters; but from the 
6th to the close of the 8th century semi-un- 
cial writing, a mixture of small and capital 
letters, came gradually into use, and led even- 
tually to the small cursive or minuscule wri- 
ting of the 10th century. These remarks ap- 
ply more particularly to book manuscripts, for 
Greek cursives were used in letters and docu-. 
ments before the Christian era. Latin cursives 
were introduced into book manuscripts as ear- 
ly as the 4th century. In the oldest manu- 
scripts the characters are written separately 
each from another, and there are no divisions 
into words or sentences, nor distinction of ini- 
tial letters. Abbreviations early came into use. 
At first they were limited to principal words, 
such as names of the Deity; but in time, par- 
ticularly in the 12th and 13th centuries, they 
became so common as to render many manu- 
scripts almost unintelligible. Many of these 
abbreviations are arbitrary signs derived from 
the so-called Note Tironiane, or Roman sys- 
tem of shorthand, ascribed by some to the in- 
vention of Tiro, the freedman of Cicero. A 
line is generally drawn above each abbreviated 
word to denote contraction. When the period 
or dot came into use, it was placed generally 
above, not in the line; the comma was intro- 
duced about the close of the 10th century, and 
marks of interrogation and exclamation and pa- 
rentheses about the 15th century. The repeti- 
tion at the foot of each page of the first word 
of the following page belongs to the 12th and 
subsequent centuries. The Arabic numerals 
first appear in writing near the beginning of 
the 12th century.—The most important works 
on manuscripts and paleography are: Mabil- 
lon, De Re Diplomatica (Paris, 1681); Mont- 
faucon, Paleographia Greca (Paris, 1708), and 
Libliotheca Bibliothecarum Manusecriptorum 
Nova (2 vols., 17389); Maffei, storia diplo- 
matica, &c. (Mantua, 1727); Baring, Clavis 
Diplomatica (Hanover, 1737-54); Toussaint 
and Tassin, Nowveau traité de diplomatique, 
par deux religieux bénédictins, &c. (6 vols. 4to, 
Paris, 1750-65); Vaines, Dictionnaire rai- 
sonné de diplomatique (2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1773- 
4); Astle, ‘‘ Origin and Progress of Writing” 
(London, 1784); Kopp, Paleographica Oriti- 
ca (4 vols., Mannheim, 1817—’29); Ebert, Zur 
Handschriftenkunde (2 vols., Leipsic, 1825-7) ; 
Wailly, Hléments de paléographie (2 vols. 4to, 
Paris, 1838); Silvestre, Paléographie -univer- 
selle, facsimiles, with descriptions by Cham- 


MANUTIUS 


fol., Paris, 1839-45); Marini, Diplomatica 
pontificia (Rome, 1841); Westwood, Palao- 
graphia Sacra Pictoria (London, 1845); Chas- 
sant, Dictionnaire des abréviations latines et 
Frangaises usitées dans les manuscrits .. . du 
moyen dge (Evreux, 1844; 3d ed., Paris, 1866) ; 
and Wattenbach, Anleitung zur griechischen 
Paléographie (Leipsic, 1867). 

MANUTIUS (Manuzio). I. Aldus, called the 
Elder, the first of a well known family of Ital- 
ian printers, born at Bassiano about 1449, died 
in Venice, Feb. 3, 1515. He was deeply versed. 
in classical literature, and about 1490 established 
a printing press in Venice, which soon became 
celebrated for the variety and excellence of the 
works issuing from it. In 1494 appeared his 


‘edition in Latin and Greek of the ‘‘ Hero and 


Leander” of Museus, followed within a few 
years by editions of Plato, Aristotle, Herodo- 
tus, Pindar, the Greek dramatists, &c., many of 
which were printed from original manuscripts 
procured from distant countries at considera- 
ble expense. His Latin editions, published 
subsequent to 1500, and commencing with Vir- 
gil, are printed in a character cast, it is said, 
in imitation of the handwriting of Petrarch, 
and now called Jtalic; and the editorial la- 
bors of the publisher were shared by a society 
of learned men who met at his house and 
formed what was called the Aldine academy. 
These impressions are said to be more correctly 
printed than the Greek. He suffered by the 
wars in which Venice was engaged in the be- 
ginning of the 16th century, but subsequently 
pursued his avocation with industry and suc- 
cess until his death. Besides the numerous 
prefaces and dissertations in Greek and Latin 
embodied in his publications, he produced 
grammars of the Greek and Latin languages, a 
Greek-Latin dictionary, translations, &c. The 
title pages of his books have a device repre- 
senting a dolphin coiled about the shank of an 
anchor, on the sides of which are the syllables 
Al and Dvs. I. Paulus, youngest son of the 
preceding, born in Venice, in 1511 or 1512, 
died in Rome, April 6, 1574. He was a man 
of equal learning and critical ability with his 
father, and was distinguished by the correct- 
ness of his editions of the Latin classics, par- 
ticularly of his Cicero, with prefaces, notes, 
and an index. Failing to receive adequate 
patronage in Venice, he repaired about 1562 to 
Rome, and was for some time employed in edit- 
ing and printing the manuscripts of the church 
fathers deposited in the capitol. He returned 
to Venice in 1570, but again went to Rome, 
and died in poverty. He published a Latin 
translation of the Philippics of Demosthenes, 
and a number of original works in Latin and 
Italian, which entitle him to rank among the 
most polished writers of the 16th century. 
III. Aldus, called the Younger, son of the pre- 
ceding, born in Venice, Feb. 18, 1547, died in 
Rome, Oct. 28, 1597. He published at the age 
of 11 a collection of choice specimens from 


pollion-Figeac and Aimé Champollion (4 vols. | Latin and Italian authors, and three years later 


MANZONI 


produced a treatise on Latin orthography, 
Orthographie Ratio, founded on inscriptions, 
medals, and manuscripts. Notwithstanding 
these evidences of precocity, his mental capa- 
city and attainments were inferior to those of 
his father or grandfather; and in consequence 
of his neglect to employ competent persons, 
his publications are the least valuable of all 
emanating from the Aldine press. He re- 
signed his press in 1584 to one of his workmen, 
and during the remainder of his life was pro- 
fessor of belles-lettres successively in Bologna, 
Pisa, and Rome. He published works in Lat- 
in and Italian, besides commentaries on Hor- 
ace, Cicero, &c. (See Atpine Epirtons.) 
MANZONI, Alessandro, count, an Italian novel- 
ist, born in Milan, March 8, 1784, died there, 
May 22, 1873. His father possessed little cul- 
tivation; his mother was a daughter of the 
distinguished philosophical economist Becca- 
ria. He studied first at Milan and afterward 
at Pavia, where he was an enthusiast for Al- 
fieri, Monti, and Foscolo. In 1805 he went 
with his mother to Paris. The sudden death 
of a friend furnished the subject of his first 
poem, in blank verse, entitled Jn morte di Car- 
lo Imbonati (Paris, 1806). Returning to Milan 
in 1807, he married in the following year the 
daughter of a banker of Geneva, and published 
in 1809 his mythological poem Urania. His 
education and residence in Paris had led him 
to imbibe skeptical opinions, and his wife 
belonged to the Calvinistic church; but both 
now became devout Roman Catholics. The 
change was announced by his Jnni sacri (Milan, 
1810), a collection of religious lyrics. In 1820 
appeared his romantic tragedy [7 conte di Car- 
magnola, dedicated to Fauriel, which violated 
the unities of time and place, but was remark- 
able for its simplicity of plot and purity of 
style. It attracted attention throughout Eu- 
rope, was severely criticised, was admired by 
Goethe, and was defended by the author in a 
letter written in French Sur Vunité de temps et 
de lieu. It was followed in 18238 by another 
tragedy, Adelchi ; and on occasion of the death 
of Napoleon, he published an ode, J/ cinque 
Maggio (1821), one of the finest modern Italian 
lyrics, in which he highly extolled the empe- 
ror. His greatest success was achieved by the 
novel J promessi sposi (3 vols., 1827), a Milan- 
ese story of the 17th century, which was trans- 
lated into the principal languages of Europe, 
and was republished in America under the title 
of ‘‘The Betrothed Lovers.” In an illustrated 
edition (1842), he added to the original text a 
Storia della colonna infame, in which he gives 
an account of the executions caused by the pop- 
- ular superstition during the plague of 1630, 
and touches upon some of the highest ques- 
tions of social economy. In 1834 he wrote Os- 
servaziont sulla morale cattolica (Florence), in 
reply to Sismondi’s depreciation of the moral 
influence of the Catholic church in the middle 
ages; it was translated into English (London, 
1836). He married a second time in 1833, and 


MAP 135 


was afflicted by the death of all his children (in- 
cluding a daughter married to Massimo d’Aze- 
glio), the last dying a few weeks before him. 
In February, 1860, he was named senator of 
Italy. His 80th birthday was celebrated with 
much enthusiasm by his countrymen in 1864. 
In 1868, with R. Bonghi, he prepared a report 
on the means of establishing the unity of the 
Italian language on the basis of the Florentine 
dialect. Almost to the day of his death he 
was engaged in the preparation of a ‘“ History 
of the French Revolution.” At his funeral 
the highest honors were paid to his memory, 
and the royal princes were among his pall- 
bearers. The chapter of the Prussian order 
pour le mérite which had been conferred upon 
Manzoni was in 1874 given to Carlyle. 

MAORI. See New ZEaranp. 

MAP (Lat. mappa), a representation of a por- 
tion of the earth’s surface, or of the celestial 
sphere, upon a plane. Its object is to present 
to the eye the bearings of objects upon the 
surface from each other, and their relative dis- 
tances apart, as nearly correct as may be. But 
this can be done with accuracy only upon a 
globe, the surface of which is similar to that 
of the earth itself. Various plans, however, 
have been devised by which in the more con- 
venient form of plane sheets true delineations 
of the surface are presented, reference being 
had to the principles upon which these maps 
are constructed. By the method called pro- 
jection, the rules of perspective are applied to 
the delineation of objects upon the surface 
according to four principal modes. In the 
method of projection called orthographic, the 
eye is supposed to be at an infinite distance 
from the sphere, so that the rays of light 
coming from every point of the hemisphere 
opposite to it may be considered as parallel to 
one another. The sphere is intersected through 
its centre by a plane perpendicular to these 
rays, and it is upon this plane that the objects 
are projected, as their shadows might be cast 
upon it from the sun through a transparent 
medium. Objects near the centre of the plane 
would by this method be delineated in nearly 
correct proportions; but in receding from this, 
as the rays strike more obliquely upon the sur- 
face of the sphere, their projection becomes 
more and more distorted, and the parallels of 
latitude or meridians of longitude (as the eye 
is placed opposite the pole or the equator) are 
drawn more and more closely together.— In 
the stereographic projection, the eye is sup- 
posed to be placed at the surface of the sphere, 
and the surface to be delineated is the opposite 
hemisphere or a portion of it, of which the 
inner or concave side is presented to the eye. 
The plane upon which the objects are project- 
ed is supposed to be transparent, and placed so 
as to pass through the centre of the earth, its 
surface perpendicular to the line passing from 
the eye to the centre. In this method the 
meridians and parallels intersect each other as 
they do upon the globe; and though there is 


136 


distortion increasing from the centre, it is less 
than by some of the other methods. The 
stereographic method is much used for the 
maps of the world drawn in two hemispheres ; 
and the meridian of 20° W. from Greenwich 
is usually selected for the plane of projection, 
because this throws the two great continental 
divisions of the earth into their respective 
’ hemispheres.—In the central or gnomic pro- 
jection, the eye is supposed to be at the centre 
of the earth, and the objects upon the surface 
are projected upon a plane which is a tangent 
to its surface. This method is obviously ap- 
plicable to maps of a limited extent only; and 
except for maps of the polar regions, where 
the parallels of latitude are concentric circles, 
and the meridians are straight lines, they are 
troublesome to execute on account of the ir- 
regular curves the parallels assume.—In the 
globular projection, the eye is supposed to be 
at a distance from the sphere equal to the sine 
of 45°; or, the diameter being 200, this dis- 
tance is 70°7. In order, however, that the 
meridians may intersect the equator at equal 
distances, the distance for the eye is generally 
fixed at 594, the diameter being 200. Maps 
are also constructed in which the meridians 
are represented by ares of circles cutting the 
equatorial diameter at equal distances, and the 
parallels by arcs of circles cutting the polar 
diameter at equal distances. These maps are 
not projections, and founded upon no geomet- 
rical principle which can be of service in their 
use; nevertheless they give a very good repre- 
sentation of the forms and relations of areas, 
and are of very simple construction. They 
are called globular maps, but must not be con- 
founded with maps constructed upon the prin- 
ciple of globular projection, mentioned above. 
—Another method of map making is based 
upon the principle called development, which 
is a mode of projecting the forms upon the 
surface of the earth upon the inner surface of 
a cone or of a cylinder, which is supposed to 
envelop the earth and touch it only around 
the circle which is to be the middle latitude of 
the map. The points on the earth’s surface 
being projected by other lines drawn through 
them from the centre, the inner surface of the 
cone or cylinder is afterward supposed to be 
unrolled or developed, and thus present the 
various objects upon a plane surface. Those 
situated nearest the middle latitude will be 
most correctly represented. In the use of the 
cylinder the latitude circles and meridians ap- 
pear as parallel straight lines, and thus most 
correctly represent for nautical purposes the 
angles at which they are cut by objects moving 
over the surface on any other lines. This 
principle is in part the foundation of the pro- 
jection known as Mercator’s, and applied by 
him to charts for navigators, in which the cor- 
rect bearings of objects upon the surface are 
of more importance to determine than the true 


MAP 


the special purposes for which they are de- 
signed. In maps of small areas, the figure of 
the earth may be neglected, and the positions 
and forms of bodies be represented as if the 
surface were itself a plane. Some have special 
objects in view, as the delineation of the coast 
lines, channels, shoals, reefs, lighthouses, &c., 
hence called hydrographic maps or charts; 
others are intended to show the political divi- 
sions of states, counties, and towns; and others, 
designated topographical maps, to represent the 
natural features of a country, as its mountains, 
hills, rivers, plains, &c., for all of which certain 
conventional signs are adopted. Maps have 
also been constructed to represent the courses 
of the winds and of oceanic currents over the 


surface of the earth; to designate the position 


of the isothermal lines; to indicate the geolo- 
gical formations found in different regions;, 
and others to indicate the flora and the fauna 
of different countries. In the construction of 
geographical maps covering large areas, the 
principal places are located according to their 
latitudes and longitudes, and the lines of coasts 
and of countries, roads, &c., are plotted from 
the most exact surveys that have been made. 
Those which have been conducted under gov- 
ernment patronage have furnished the mate- 
rials for the best maps, and these are constant- 
ly improving as new materials are collected. 
Of the United States, the most complete maps 
are those of the state of Massachusetts made by 
order of the legislature, of the coast survey 
under the general government, Whitney’s sur- 
vey map of California, and Clarence King’s 
survey map of the 42d parallel. The great 
lakes, more especially on the Canadian side, 
have been surveyed and mapped with great 
accuracy by Lieut. Bayfield of the royal army. 
Maps of the Spanish provinces in America 
have been made by the Spanish hydrographical 
depot in Madrid; and Brazil and other South 
American states have executed maps of their 
territories.—The ancient Egyptians had some 
knowledge of maps, as Sesostris caused the 
territories he possessed and had conquered to 
be represented upon tablets for the instruction 
of his people; and the Israelites appear to 
have acquired the same knowledge, from the 
record, in Josh. xviii. 6, of a map of the coun- 
try being ordered by that lawgiver. The first 
map of the world, as known to the ancients, 
is said to have been made by Anaximander 
the Milesian. Herodotus makes mention of 
maps constructed by the Persians in the time 
of Darius, and of one by Aristagoras of Mile- 
tus. Eratosthenes introduced the lines of lati- 
tude and longitude, and the use of these was 
established by Hipparchus upon a mathemati- 
cal principle. Still, for want of exact surveys, 
and owing to the dependence of geographers 
upon the reports of travellers and their ztine- 
raria picta, or painted itineraries, the maps 
afterward made were extremely inaccurate. 


figures of countries.—Still other principles are | Even those of Strabo and Ptolemy, of which 
employed in constructing maps, according to | those of the latter were for centuries the chief 


MAPES 


authorities in geography, contained most ex- 
travagant errors, such as giving to the Medi- 
terranean 1,400 miles greater length than be- 
longed to it; and what is equally extraordi- 
nary, some of their gross exaggerations were 
continued in all the maps from that period 
down to the commencement of the 18th cen- 
tury. The system upon which Ptolemy’s maps 
were drawn was that of stereographic pro- 
jection. After the discovery of America, the 
early maps representing the position of the 
new world relative to the old were exceedingly 
inaccurate. In one published in Venice in 
1546 Asia and America are joined together in 
lat. 38°. The great difficulty was in deter- 
mining the true longitude of places; and until 
this could be done there was no means of 
avoiding such errors. In 1700 De Lisle pub- 
lished a new map of the world, and others of 
Europe, Asia, and Africa, founded on compara- 
tively accurate astronomical observations, and 
in them the errors introduced from the maps 
of the ancients were first corrected. The true 
system of map making may be considered as 
at that time established.—Maps were first en- 
graved on metal by Bickink and Schweyn- 
heim in 1478, and on wood by Holl in 1482. 
An “Essay toward a Circumstantial History 
of Maps,” by Hauber, was published in Ulm in 
1724. A historical account of the art is also 
given in a series of lectures by J. G. Kohl, 
published in the report of the Smithsonian in- 
stitution for 1856—’7. See also Santaran, Essai 
sur la cartographie pendant le moyen dge (3 
vols., Paris, 1849-52). 

MAPES, or Map, Walter, an English Latin 
poet, born about the middle of the 12th cen- 
tury, probably in Herefordshire, died about 
1210. He studied in Paris, and after his return 
became a great favorite on account of his 
learning and courtly manners, especially with 
Henry II., by whom he was sent on a mission 
to the French court, and to the council sum- 
moned by Pope Alexander III., at which he 
was called on to refute the deputies of the 
Waldenses. He received several livings, was 
made canon of the cathedrals of St. Paul and 
of Salisbury, precentor of Lincoln, incumbent 
of Westbury in Gloucestershire, and finally in 
1196 archdeacon of Oxford. His tastes were 
however for elegant literature, and he is only 
known at the present day as a genial, festive, 
and satirical writer, to whom is attributed a 
great portion of the humorous rhyming Latin 
Leonine lyrics and Norman French romances 
of the latter half of the 12th century. Of late 
years it has been doubted whether Mapes was 
really the author of the poems which pass 
under his name, but the fact that they were 
for several centuries so generally attributed to 
him has been thought to prove that he ex- 
celled in a peculiar style of writing, and that a 
part of them at least are his. He also wrote 
much prose, both in Latin and Anglo-Norman. 
Among the former is his De Nugis Curialium, 
a work containing much curious information 


MAPLE 137 


of a very varied character; and among the 
latter are a large portion of the existing ro- 
mances of the round table. The “‘ Latin Poems 
commonly attributed to Walter Mapes” were 
printed in London by the Camden society in 


(1841, and De Nugis Curialium in 1850. 


MAPIMI, a desert in N. Mexico, extending 
from the great bend of the Rio Grande, in lat. 
30°, southward to the vicinity of Parras, in lat. 
25° 380’, and averaging 24 degrees in width. It 
embraces two thirds of the state of Coahuila 
and parts of Chihuahua and Durango, and 
consists chiefly of a vast basin called the Bol- 
son, or pocket, bounded N. by the Sierra del 
Carmen, E. by a portion of the Sierra Madre, 
and W. by low ranges of mountains. From 
the mountains to the northeast the rivers Es- 
condido, Alamos, and Nadadores take their 
rise, but in the central basin there is no water 
except the brackish lagoons called Jaco, Agua 
Verde, Cayman, and El Muerto. Nomadic 
Apaches are the only inhabitants, but well 
preserved mummies have been found in caves 
near the 8. border. There is rarely any vege- 
tation. Meteoric iron and coal abound, and 
the precious metals are believed to exist. 
Only the S. portions, called the Cafion de San 
Marcos, and the plains of La Paila and La Ban- 
durria, have been explored with any care. The 
Kickapoo Indians established themselves in 
1864 near the N. border of this desert, and 
remained there till 18738, when they were re- 
moved to their former reservation in the Indian 
territory. At the W. entrance to the Bolson 
is situated the mining town of Mapimi, with 
5,000 inhabitants. The emperor Maximilian 
erected a department under this name, with 
limits differing from those of the desert. 

MAPLE, the common name of trees of the 
genus acer (Celtic ac, hard), belonging to the 
natural order sapindacee, of which with two 
other genera it forms the suborder acerinea. 
There are about 50 species, distributed in 
North America, Europe, northern Asia, Java, 
and the Himalayas; some are small shrubs and 
others large trees, frequently with a saccharine 
sap and rarely with a milky juice; the leaves 
are opposite, deciduous, simple, palmately three- 
to seven-lobed, rarely entire. The flowers are 
in axillary and terminal racemes and usually 
polygamo-diwcious; 2. ¢@., some have stamens 
only, others pistils only, or both organs may 
be in the same flower; the usually five-parted 
calyx is colored and deciduous; petals want- 
ing, or when present as many as the lobes of 
the calyx; stamens four to twelve, inserted 
upon a disk; pistil of two united ovaries with 
two styles; from the back of each ovary grows 
a wing converting the fruit into two one-seeded 
keys. Our North American species, of which 
there are about 10, differ in their time of flow- 
ering; in some the flowers appear long before 
the leaves, others produce their flowers at the 
time the leaves unfold, and in others they do 
not appear until after the foliage is well de- 
veloped.—Our commonest species is the red 


138 


or swamp maple (A. rubrum); this and the | 


next, the silver maple, flower in March and 
April, and perfect their seeds about the first 
of June; when the seeds fall, they germinate 
in a few days, and by the autumn of the same 
year form a young tree one or two feet high; 
this peculiarity must be observed by those who 
would raise these trees, as the seeds will not 
retain their vitality if kept until the following 
spring. The red maple is found in swamps 
and damp woods from Canada to the gulf of 
Mexico, and is also known as the soft, the 
swamp, and the white maple, which last name 
should be discarded, as it properly belongs to 
the next species; it is usually a small tree, 
though it sometimes reaches 60 or 70 ft., with 
a diameter of 2 or 3 ft.; the young twigs are 
red, and gradually change to a clear ashy gray. 
This is a conspicuous tree when in bloom in 
early spring, as its flowers are produced in such 
profusion as to make the tree appear at a dis- 
tance as a mass of color, varying from crim- 
son to scarlet; the individual trees differ much 
in shade, some being very pale, while others 
are exceedingly brilliant ; the leaves vary great- 
ly in size and shape, and the number and depth 
of the lobes.. The trees with pistillate or per- 
fect flowers produce a profusion of fruit, which 
makes them objectionable near a garden, as 
the seeds find their way to every nook and the 
young maples spring up as weeds. The beauty 
of our autumn landscape is largely due to the 
brilliant colors assumed by the foliage of the 
red maple; it presents every shade of orange, 
scarlet, and crimson, and these colors, together 
with green, are frequently to be found upon the 
same leaf. The wood is white with a tinge of 
rose color, fine, close, and smooth; it is used 
for a great variety of turned work and for 
making the cheaper kind of furniture; it is a 
useful wood for any purpose if it is not to be 
exposed to dampness. Some of the trees, in 
which the fibres take a serpentine course, 
afford the handsome wood known as curled 
maple, valued for inside work and for gun 
stocks; other varieties are known as landscape 
and mountain maple. As a fuel, the wood of 
red maple ranks below that of the sugar or 
rock maple; it burns rapidly and does not 
make a lasting fire. The bark is used in do- 
mestic dyeing, forming with iron salts a good 
black.—The white or silver maple (A. dasy- 
carpum) is more common in the western than 
in the eastern states, but it is more or less 
abundant along rivers from Maine to Georgia; 
as the red maple is often called white maple, 
the two trees are frequently confounded, but 
they are readily distinguished by the color of 
the young twigs, which in this species are 
green, while in the other they are red, and by 
the silvery whiteness of the under surface of 
the leaves, which has given one of its common 
names to this species. The leaves are usually 
five-lobed, with the lobes deeply and hand- 
somely toothed; the flowers, which appear be- 
fore the leaves, are greenish yellow; the fruit, 


MAPLE 


the early ripening of which has been mention- 
ed, is downy when young, but smooth when 
ripe; the two wings diverge widely and are 
about 2 in. long. The tree grows to about 50 
or 60 ft. with very spreading limbs; specimens 
with a circumference of 12, 16, and 18 ft. 
are recorded, but the usual diameter is about 
2 ft. On account of the wide spread of its 
branches and its fine foliage, this is much val- 
ued as a shade and ornamental tree; but as the 
wood has little strength, the branches are apt 
to be broken by gales and by accumulations of 
snow and ice. For planting in prairie coun- 
tries no tree is more highly prized than this, 
as by its rapid growth it gives a quick return 
in valuable fuel. The wood is soft, white, and 
fine-grained, but it has little strength and is 
very perishable; hence its use as lumber is 
limited; as a fuel it is much esteemed.—The 
most valuable of all our species is the sugar or 
rock maple (A. saccharinum), which is most 


Sugar Maple (Acer saccharinum). 


abundant north of lat. 40° and east of the Mis- 
sissippi; in the southern states it is found only 
along the mountains. The tree when young is 
usually very symmetrical, and indeed some- 
what too formal in its outline, but when old it 
assumes a great diversity of forms, which seem 
to depend upon soil and situation; it some- 
times reaches 70 or 80 ft., but is usually much 
smaller. The. leaves are broader than long, 
often heart-shaped at base, three- to five-lobed, 
with the sinuses or spaces between the lobes 
rounded, while in the two species above men- 
tioned these are acute. The flowers, which ap- 
pear with the leaves, are greenish yellow, in 
umbel-like clusters upon very slender hairy 
pedicels; the fruit, which has a broad wing, 
ripens in October, and if intended for sowing 
should be kept through the winter in damp 
sand. As an ornamental tree the sugar maple 
has been strangely neglected in this country ; 
its growth is quite slow when young, and nur- 


MAPLE 


serymen prefer to produce more rapidly grow- 
ing trees; as a tree to plant in the streets of 
towns and villages, and along country roads, 
it has great merit; not the least of its excel- 
lent qualities is the great brilliancy of its au- 
tumnal colors. The wood is one of the most 
valuable for fuel, ranking next to hickory, and 
for charcoal it is esteemed above all others. 
While the wood of some trees is perfectly 
straight-grained, that in other specimens pre- 
sents marked and often elegant varieties; the 
curled hard maple presents a pleasing surface 
of light and shade, and the bird’s-eye maple has 
its fibres so singularly contorted as to produce 
numerous little knots which look like the eye 
of a bird; these varieties and others are much 
valued for cabinet work of various kinds and 
interior finishing, while the straight-grained 
wood is used for making lasts, buckets, tubs, 
and a variety of other useful articles; it is also 
employed in ship building. The sap of this 
species contains cane sugar, a fact recognized 
in its common and botanical names; other 
maples, the birches, hickories, and some other 
trees, yield sugar, but none of them in such 
large quantities or in so pure a state as the 
sugar maple. On many farms a maple orchard 
or sugar bush, as it is called, is an important 
part of the property, and yields a good share 
of the yearly income. The trees are tapped 
by boring near the ground, a tube, frequently 
of elder, inserted, and a vessel is set or hung 
to catch the sap as it trickles out; the flow 
begins in early spring, often in February, and 
is most abundant when there are warm days 
and frosty nights. The process of making the 
sugar is often very crude, and consists of 
merely collecting the sap and boiling it down 
in kettles over an open fire; when sufficiently 
concentrated the sirup is poured into moulds 
to granulate. Of late years much more care 
is given to the manufacture of the sugar, and 
a house is provided expressly for the purpose, 
and furnished with improved evaporators and 
other apparatus to facilitate the operation ; 
there is a large demand for maple sirup, and 
some makers send all their sugar to market in 
this form. According to the census of 1870, 
the total production of maple sugar in the Uni- 
ted States was 28,443,645 Ibs., in 28 different 
states, of which the following contributed the 
largest amounts: New Hampshire, 1,800,704 
lbs.; Vermont, 8,894,302; Massachusetts, 399,- 
800; New York, 6,692,040; Pennsylvania, 
1,545,917; Virginia and West Virginia, 755,- 
699; Kentucky, 269,416; Ohio, 38,469,128; 
Indiana, 1,382,332; Wisconsin, 507,192. The 
total quantity of maple molasses or sirup re- 
turned was 921,057 gallons. The black sugar 
maple, which was described by Michaux as a 
distinct species, is now regarded as only a 
variety (var. nigrum) of the ordinary sugar 
maple; the leaves are less deeply lobed, and 
the whole tree has a darker appearance; it is 


said to be more productive of sugar.—The 


striped maple or moosewood (A. Pennsylva- 


139 


nicum) is a small and slender tree from 12 to 
20 ft. high, found in rich woods from Maine 
to Wisconsin and southward along the moun- 
tains; its branches and trunk become striated 
with dark lines, giving a character by which 
the tree is readily identified; the leaves are 
three-lobed at the apex and doubly serrate; 
the flowers, which do not appear until after 
the leaves, are in terminal pendulous racemes, 
and the cluster of fruit is quite conspicuous, 
In the northern woods the young twigs of this 
tree are browsed upon in winter by the moose. 
The wood is regarded as more durable than 
that of any other maple, but it is too small to 
be of much value; it is said to reach three or 
four times its ordinary size if grafted upon the 
larger species of maple. Its chief value is as 
an ornamental tree; its ample leaves, which at 
the time of opening are rose-colored, the striped 
appearance of the trunk, and the conspicuous 
flowers and fruit all commend it to the atten- 
tion of the planter. The mountain maple (A. 
spicatum), found in the same range as the 
moosewood, is rather a tall shrub than a tree, 
and forms clumps in moist woods; the three- 
to five-lobed leaves are downy beneath, and 
their very long petioles become scarlet in Sep- 
tember; the flowers are in terminal, usually 
erect racemes, and the fruit, which is smaller 
than in any other of our native species, has 
very divergent wings.—The large-leaved maple 
(A. macrophyllum) of the Pacific coast is es- 
pecially abundant in Oregon, associated with 
the firs and spruces; it is a remarkably grace- 
ful tree, from 40 to 90 ft. high, with widely 
spreading branches and a rough brown bark; 
it is very conspicuous on account of its very 
large leaves, which are sometimes a foot broad, 
though variable in size; they are deeply five- 
lobed and rather thick; the flowers are in 
large pendent racemes, yellow and fragrant, 
and succeeded by clusters of hairy fruit with 
smooth, slightly diverging wings. The wood 
of this species is close-grained and hard, and 
according to Nuttall handsomely veined; it is 
much valued in Oregon as furnishing almost the 
only hard wood obtainable in some parts of the 
state; its sap is said to be abundant and saccha- 
rine. This magnificent tree has been so little 
planted in the Atlantic states that its hardiness 
cannot be considered as fairly tested. Another 
far western species is the round-leaved maple 
(A. circinatum), called in Oregon the vine ma- 
ple on account of its manner of growth; in the 
moist forests several stems spring from the 
same root and arch over until the tops reach 
the ground, where they take root and thus form 
an almost impenetrable thicket; it sometimes 
grows 20 or 80 ft. high, but has more the habit 
of ashrub than of atree. The leaves are heart- 
shaped, seven- to nine-lobed, about the size of 
those of the red maple; the flowers are pur- 
plish, and the fruit is remarkably divaricate ; 
the wood is heavy, fine-grained, and valued for 
making handles and other small articles. The 
smooth maple (A. glabrum) of the Rocky moun- 


140 


tains is a small shrub with leaves resembling 
those of the common currant in size and shape; 
its foliage is variable, and one form has been 
described as a distinct species, A. triparti- 
tum.—Among the exotic species cultivated in 
this country, the largest and finest is the syca- 
more maple (A. pseudo-platanus); it attains 
the height of 60 ft. or more, with wide-spread- 
ing branches; specimens in England have 
reached 100 ft. with a diameter of 6 to 9 ft.; 
its foliage resembles that of the sugar maple, 
but the leaves are much larger, somewhat 
downy beneath, and on long reddish petioles; 
the flowers are in long racemes, and the fruit 
has only moderately spreading wings; the wood 
is much esteemed in Europe for turners’ work 
and other uses. 
this species, one of which has purple leaves, 
and another with leaves variegated with yel- 
low. The tree does not well bear transplant- 
ing when large. The Norway maple (A. pla- 


Soa \Y 
i 
( 


») << 
Ly $ 
h 


IKK \ 
\ WY \ 
AY \ 
AS W \'} 
SSV7 \ ‘ \ 


S 


=S=s5 
SSS 
——\ 


= 
——= 


Sycamore Maple (Acer pseudo-platanus). 


tanoides), from northern Europe, is probably 
more generally planted, at least in the eastern 
states, than any other species; though of but 
slow growth when young, after four or five 
years from the seed it increases very rapidly, 
and forms a tree 60 ft. or more high; the con- 
tour of the tree is much like that of the sugar 
maple, and the leaves somewhat resemble those 
of that species. This tree can be readily dis- 
tinguished by the milky juice of the leaves, 
which is best seen on breaking the petiole; the 
fruit is smooth, the wings diverging in a straight 
line. It is a most valuable shade tree, espe- 
cially for streets and avenues; for this use it 
has some advantages over the sugar maple, as 
its foliage is more dense, and appears earlier 
and holds on later; it is remarkably free from 
the attacks of insects, a fact that has been as- 
cribed to its milky juice. The eagle’s-claw and 
the shred-leaved maples are accidental forms 
of this. The common European or English 


There are several varieties of ' 


MAPLE 


field maple (A. eampestre), as seen in this coun- 
try, is scarcely more than a bush, seldom above 
10 or 15 ft. high; in the south of Europe it 
grows much larger; its heart-shaped leaves 


BP 1/1 \N 
py 


ZG 
/ 


puff 


Y 
y 


Y 


y 


Common European Maple (Acer campestre). 


are 2 to 3 in. broad, and five-lobed; flowers in 
short erect clusters and wings of the fruit di- 
verging horizontally; there are several named 
varieties which differ from the type in foliage; 
the wood makes excellent fuel, and when large 
enough is used for cabinet and other work. 
Its chief value with us is as a lawn tree; it 
makes a regular and formal growth, and when 
well developed and branching to the ground 
presents a dense mass of foliage as broad as it 
is high. The Oandian (A. Creticum), almost 
an evergreen, the Tartarian (A. Tartaricum), 
the Montpellier (A. Monspessulanum), and the 
Colchian maple (A. Colchicum), and some 
others, are met with in collections of rare trees. 
A highly ornamental class of maples is found 
in Japan, several of which have been intro- 
duced into this country by Mr. Thomas Hogg; 
these include varieties of A. palmatum, A. po- 
lymorphum, and others of which the species 
are not determined; they present a great va- 
riety in the lobing and dissection of their leaves 
and the most exquisite variegations in color.— 
The ash-leaved maple, called acer negundo by 
Linneus and Michaux, is now placed in a sep- 
arate genus, negundo, which differs from acer 
in having perfectly dicecious flowers and pin- 
nate leaves. There are but three or four spe- 
cies of this genus, which is peculiar to North 
America and Japan. The common species is 
N. aceroides, which is found from the Red river 
of the North to North Carolina, but mainly 
westward, and is more abundant on the banks 
of streams than elsewhere. It is a rapid-grow- 
ing tree when young, but is short-lived on dry 
soils; in favorable situations it becomes a fine 
tree 40 to 60 ft. high, but is usually much 
smaller; it forms a handsome round head with 


MAQUET 


dense foliage; its compound leaves have three 
or five leatlets, which are ovate, pointed, and 
toothed; the staminate flowers are in small 
clusters, and the pistillate ones in racemes, 
which later are several inches long and conspic- 
uous on account of the numerous fruits, like 
those of the maple, with incurved wings. The 
wood is similar to that of the red maple, and 
useful for fuel. The abundant sap yields sugar, 
and it is by some regarded as purer than that 
afforded by the sugar maple. This tree is in 
the western states generally called box-elder, 
and is a favorite with those engaged in tree 
planting upon the prairies, a purpose for which 
its rapid growth well adapts it; and though 
not long-lived, it will furnish both fuel and su- 
gar while slower but more valuable kinds are 
growing. It is much valued as an ornamental 
tree, its symmetrical growth and neat habit 
making it suitable for the lawn. <A variegated 
form of this has been recently introduced, in 


eZ 


Ash-leaved Maple (Negundo aceroides). 


which the leaves are abundantly marked with 
white; a specimen of this seen against a back- 
ground of evergreens produces a striking effect 
in landscape gardening. 

MAQUET, Auguste, a French novelist, born 
in Paris in 1818. He studied and taught at 
the collége Charlemagne, and wrote for Alex- 
andre Dumas parts of many works which the 
latter claimed exclusively as hisown. In 1846, 
however, Maquet’s pamphlet, La maison Ales- 
andre Dumas et compagnie, forced Dumas to 
acknowledge his share in these productions; 
and in 1851 they dissolved their literary partner- 
ship. Maquet has published La belle Gabrielle 
(5 vols., 1858-5); Le comte de Lavernie (10 
vols., 1853-5); La maison du baigneur (2 vols., 
1856); L’envers et V'endroit (4 vols., 1858) ; and 
La rose blanche (8 vols., 1859). Among the 
novels ostensibly by Dumas, the best known of 
those in the writing of which Maquet had a 
considerable if not the principal share are Les 


MARABOU 141 


trois mousquetaires, Vingt ans apres, Le vicomte 
de Bragelonne, Monte Cristo, and Joseph Bal- 
samo. He took the same share in dramatizing 
some of these novels, chiefly in conjunction 
with Dumas, but also with Jules Lacroix. 
MARABOD, the popular name of several large 
birds of the stork family, of the genus leptop- 
tilus (Lesson), natives of Asia and Africa, 
whose delicate vent feathers were formerly 
highly esteemed as ornaments. The LZ. argala 
(Lath.), the Asiatic marabou or adjutant, has 
no equal in size except the jabiru and ostrich; 
the length from the point of the bill to the 
claws is 74 ft., and the expanse of wings is 
nearly 15 ft.; it stands 5 ft. high. The bill is 
about 2 ft. long, straight, strong, and sharp- 
pointed; the wings long and ample, the tail 
moderate and broad, tarsi strong, and toes long, 
the anterior webbed at the base. The head 
and neck are nearly bare of feathers, and in 
front of the neck hangs a pouch or dewlap 
several inches long and capable of considerable 
distention. The bill is yellowish white, and 
its gape is such that it can swallow whole an 
animal as large as a cat; front of the neck 
yellowish, back of neck reddish with a few 
hairy warty excrescences; the back and wing 
coverts deep bluish ash, wings dusky, breast 
and belly dusky white; the feathers of the 
sides beneath the wings, and those of the vent 
and under tail coverts, are whitish, downy, 
about 12 in. long, and so light and delicate as 
to command a high price for ladies’ head dress- 
es; a feather a foot long and 7 in. wide weighs 
only 8 grains. It is common in Bengal, and 
by the natives each is believed to be possessed 
by the soul of a Brahman; by the English it is 
called adjutant from its resemblance at a dis- 


INSSSs 
INU 
a 
» XY 


i \ 


KN & Y f C Hf AS 
Ne Y S 
mS SN WATE Y, Ce i ANS a\ 


/) 
i 


f Z Pes, 
ify / : ja 
; = 
SG 2 


[ 
f 
v' 
A\\\Y x} iG 
Ne 7 =. 


Marabou (Leptoptilus marabou) 


tance to an officer with white waistcoat and 
breeches. Its voracity is extreme, exercised 
upon anything which comes in its way, from 
offal, fish, and reptiles, to birds and quad- 


142 MARACAYBO 


rupeds, and even to the cooked meats of the 
natives; its services are valuable as a scaven- 
ger, and its presence is encouraged; it has 
even been domesticated. In the wild state, 
they live in small flocks near the mouths of 
rivers; their power of flight is great, and their 
vision very keen. <A smaller species (L. mara- 
bou, Temm.) occurs in tropical Africa, assisting 
the vultures in consuming the filth of the ne- 
gro villages; it is more ugly, if possible, than 
the Asiatic bird, and its delicate plumes are 
equally valued; maradou is the native African 
name. Other species are described, with simi- 
lar characters. 

MARACAYBO, or Maracaibo. I. A city of Ve- 
nezuela, capital of the state of Zulia (formerly 
Maracaybo), situated on the W. shore of a 
channel connecting the lake and gulf of the 
same name, about 25 m. from the gulf, and 
300 m. W. of Caracas; lat. 10° 40’ N., lon. 
71°-40' W.; pop. about 15,000. The city is 
built on a dry sandy soil, and the N. portion, 
upon a rising ground, commands a fine view 
of the lake. The houses, a few of which are 
handsome, are for the most part of chalk and 
sand, or of wood, and covered with reeds. 
The harbor is commodious and well defended 
by three forts; but, owing to the bar at the en- 
trance, only vessels drawing less than 10 ft. can 
come up tothe town. The climate is excessively 
hot, but more salubrious than that of the low- 
land towns of the eastern and inland states. 
Heavy rain falls from May to November; and 
in the other months violent and even disastrous 
rains, accompanied by terrific lightning and 
thunder, are not infrequent, but hurricanes are 
unknown. LEarthquakes are common. The 
principal articles of export are cacao, cotton, 
sugar, fustic, and coffee; of the last 23,000,000 
Ibs. were exported in the year ending June 380, 
1872. Cattle are reared in large numbers in 
the surrounding country. Ship building, for 
which a dockyard in the port offers superior 
facilities, is extensively carried on. There is 
an important coasting trade. The foreign 
trade is mostly in the hands of English, French, 
and Germans.—This city was founded in 1571 
by Alonso Pacheco, who named it Zamora; it 
was afterward called Maracaybo, after a power- 
ful cacique of the lake region. It has frequent- 
ly suffered by fire and earthquakes. II. Lake 


of, a large lagoon or inlet of the sea, in shape. 


resembling a guitar, lying immediately 8. of the 
city ; length, nearly 100 m.; greatest breadth, 
75m. The channel connecting the lake with 
the sea is 45 m. long and from 4 to 14 m. wide, 
and deep enough except over the bar at its 
mouth for the largest vessels. The shores of 
the lake are low and barren, and at certain 
seasons inundated to a distance of 10 or 20 m. 
Its waters, being fed by about 500 small streams 
(only about 100 of which however are peren- 
nial), are generally fresh when the S. wind 
prevails; at other times they are brackish. On 
the N. E. shore is a mine of mineral pitch, 
which at night during the hottest months emits 


that of the province of Grao Para. 


MARANHAO 


a brilliant phosphoric light resembling light- 
ning, and called by navigators the lighthouse 
(faro) of Maracaybo. The carrying trade on 
the lake is done by schooners; but it is now 
proposed to establish also one or two lines of 
steamers. III. Gulf of. See Venrzvueta. 
MARAJO, or Joannes, an island of Brazil, in 
the mouth of the Amazon, which it divides into 
two unequal branches; length about 180 m., 
greatest breadth about 150 m.; pop. about 
20,000, almost exclusively Indians. The land 
is generally low and flat, and is watered by 
several navigable rivers and a number of small 
streams; the principal of the former are the 
Moudin, with a course of about 50 m., and the 
Arajiz, of 60 m. The climate is similar to 
The soil, 
though marshy, favors the cultivation of most 
of the tropical products, especially rice, which 
is grown in prodigious quantities; but the 
principal occupation of the people is the rear- 
ing of cattle, which find excellent pasture in 
the vast prairies of the island.—Maraj6é was 
first given to Antonio de Souza de Macedo, 
baron Joannes, and was long known by his 
name. The Tupinamba Indians, who inhabit- 
ed it, were civilized by the Jesuit priest An- 
tonio Vieira; they were celebrated canoe build- 
ers and coasters. The island was united to the 
province of Grio Para about 1830. 
MARANHAO, or Maranham. I. A N. E. prov- 
ince of Brazil, bounded N. by the Atlantic, E. 
by the province of Piauhy, 8. W. by Goyaz, and 
W. by Grao Parad; area, 168,000 sq. m.; pop. 
about 385,000, consisting chiefly of Indians. 
The coast line is very regular to the east; but 
about the middle it is deeply indented by the 
vast bays of Sao Jozé and Sao Marcos, between 
which lies the island of Maranhao, opposite the 
embouchures of the Maranhao and Itapicurti 
rivers; still further W. occur at short intervals 
the bays of Cuma, Cabello, and Turiasst, the 
last forming the mouth of the river of the 
same name. From this point to the extreme 
west, and indeed to the mouth of the Para, or 
more properly the Amazon, the shore is fringed 
with innumerable islets, keys, and reefs. The 
coast of Maranhao is mainly low and flat; high 
red cliffs border the shore of the island, and 
of the mainland to a considerable distamce 
westward. The principal elevations are in 
the southwest and south, whence low parallel 
ridges slope almost due N., where they sink 
into extensive plains. Of the numerous rivers 
the largest are the Parnahyba, forming the en- 
tire E. boundary, and receiving a host of im- 
portant tributaries from the southern corner 
of the province; the Itapicurfé, Mearim, and 
Pindaré, all navigable nearly to their sources, 
and the last two uniting 15 m. N. of the town 
of Mearim to form the Maranhao; the Turiassi 
and the Gurupi, separating the province from 
that of Grao Para; while the 8S. W. boun- 
dary line is constituted by the Tocantins and 
its N. E. affluent the Manoel Alves Grande. 
A great part of the country is densely wood- 


MARANHAO 


ed, but in the interior occur some extensive 
campos and alluvial flats, which are frequently 
inundated. Gold mining on a large scale was 
attempted at Marcassumé, but was abandoned 
about 1867. Silver, platinum, rich copper ore, 
antimony, and arsenic have been discovered 
in many parts; iron is general throughout 
the province; there is petroleum on the Ita- 
picurtij; sulphur is said to exist at Rosario, 
and saltpetre and hydraulic lime at Alcan- 
tara and Guaraji; and about 60,000 tons of 
salt are annually produced on the Alcantara 
coast. The climate is hot and damp, like that 
of the Amazonian valley, of which, according 
to Agassiz, it once formed a part; the ther- 
mometer ranges from 69°8° to 97°8° F. The 
light rains begin in October, but the rainy sea- 
son sets in in December and lasts till May, 
with much thunder and lightning, especially 
toward the close; and from June to Decem- 
ber the general winds blow steadily from the 
northeast by day, and from the east by night. 
The principal products are rice, cotton, sugar, 
and coffee; the last is now abundantly grown 
on the mountain slopes inland, and will prob- 
ably soon take the place of cotton as a staple 
for exportation. Oils of various kinds are ex- 
tensively extracted, but mostly for domestic 
use, except copaiva, the annual production of 
which is about 100 pipes; and sarsaparilla, 
annotto, vanilla, caji rosin, and many valuable 
medicinal plants are found in great plenty, but 
have not yet become important commodities. 
In 1854, 138,000,000 lbs. of cotton were ex- 
ported, valued at $987,197; and in 1869, 12,- 
500,000 lbs., valued at $1,784,955. The total 
value of exports in 1867 was $3,150,426, and 
of imports (consisting mainly of machinery 
and manufactured goods) $2,712,560. Man- 
teiga de tartaruga, a kind of butter from tor- 
toise eggs, is extensively manufactured. There 
are three founderies and one machine shop; 
superior embroideries and laces are made; but 
the larger portion of the inhabitants are en- 
gaged in agricultural pursuits. Maranhao has 
eight cities and 28 towns; the more important 
of the former, besides the capital, are Caxias, 
Vianna, and Alcantara. Education is here 
more general than in any other province of the 
empire, there being a lyceum with 12 chairs 
of languages, sciences, and law, several semina- 
ries, and numerous other schools. Maranhao 
has produced many of the most prominent 
Brazilian men of letters, arts, and sciences. 
II. San Luiz de Maranhio, a maritime city, capital 
of the province, on the W. side of the island 
of the same name, lying at the mouths of the 
Itapicurii and Maranhao rivers, 1,410 m. N. of 
Rio de Janeiro; Jat. 2°31'S., lon. 44° 18’ W.; 
pop. of the island in 1872, 34,023, of whom 
about 30,000 were in the city. The city is de- 
fended by a line of high red cliffs skirting the 
shore of the island to the north, from which 
direction it is accessible only by narrow passes. 
The streets are regularly laid out, are spacious, 
well paved, and lighted with gas. The houses 
531 VoL. x1.—10 


MARAT 143 


are well built, many of them being of two 
stories, and surrounded with gardens. The 
finest of the public buildings are the cathedral 
and the episcopal palace, both the work of the 
Jesuits. There are ten other churches and 
chapels, eight convents, the governor’s house, 
town hall, custom house, post office, prison, 
and one military, one foundling, and several 
general hospitals. The benevolent institutions 
comprise asylums for orphans and indigent 
females, besides several societies for the pro- 
tection and relief of artisans. There are two 
banks, several mercantile and industrial asso- 
ciations, and a number of insurance companies. 
The educational establishments are a lyceum 
in which are taught languages, sciences, law, 
and philosophy, two seminaries, and many 
primary and grammar schools. The public 
library contains about 10,000 volumes. Eight 
periodicals are published. A botanic garden 
has lately been established. The climate is 
extremely hot and unhealthy.—Maranhio is 
the entrepot for the productions of its own 
province and those of Grao Para, Piauhy, Rio 
Grande do Norte, and Ceara. The port is easy 
of access, well defended by a series of forts, 
and affords good anchorage for vessels draw- 
ing 20 ft. of water. The exports and imports 
for the second half of 1871 amounted to 
$1,021,468 64 and $1,063,225 80 respectively. 
In 1870 there were exported 12,183,000 Ibs. 
of cotton and 6,338,280 lbs. of sugar. Among 
other exports are hides, balsam copaiva, and 
unprepared isinglass. The chief imports are 
manufactured goods and machinery. Half of 
the foreign trade is with Great Britain, and 
about one tenth with Portugal. The maritime 
statistics for the year ending June 80, 1872, 
were: entered, 40 steamers and 86 sailing ves- 
sels, tonnage 44,272; cleared, 39 steamers and 
51 sailing vessels, tonnage 52,280. Besides a 
direct line of steamers to Lisbon and Liverpool, 
there are two touching at Cearé and Belem or 
Para, all established since 1867, and almost mo- 
nopolizing the carrying trade between Mara- 
nhao and Europe. The rivers Itapicurt, Mea- 
rim, and Pindaré are navigated by steamers, and 
there are also coasting lines to Rio de Janeiro 
and to Paré.—Maranhiao was founded in 1612. 

MARANHAO RIVER. See Mearim. 

MARANON. See Amazon. 

MARAT, Jean Paul, a French revolutionist, 
born of Protestant parents at Baudry, near 
Neufchatel, Switzerland, May 24, 1744, assas- 
sinated in Paris, July 13, 1798. He was edu- 
cated as a physician; but the narrow sphere 
in which he lived offering scanty means to 
satisfy his ambition, he went abroad. At 80 
years of age he was at Edinburgh, where he 
obtained a living as private tutor, and pub- 
lished a revolutionary pamphlet in English, 
entitled ‘The Chains of Slavery,” which. ap- 
peared in French at Paris in 1792 (latest ed., 
1850). Inthe following year, by a more volu- 
minous publication, De Vhomme, ou des prin- 
cipes et des lois de Vinfluence de Vadme sur le 


144 MARAT 


corps et du corps sur l’dme (3 vols., Amsterdam, 
1775), he appeared as an opponent of Voltaire, 
and a literary controversy ensued between 
them. He removed to Paris, and from 1779 
to 1788 published a series of writings, in which 
he attempted to revolutionize natural philoso- 
phy, and to refute the Newtonian theory. His 
success being far inferior to his pretensions, 
he relinquished the field of literature and en- 
deavored to establish himself as a physician; 
but after many disappointments he was ob- 
liged to accept a position as veterinary surgeon 
to the count of Artois, afterward Charles X. 
The outbreak of the revolution gave him the 
opportunity to play the part of a demagogue. 
Although physically not prepossessing, being 
hardly five feet high, with a strange mixture of 
the ludicrous and terrible in his countenance, 
he soon obtained a vast influence over the low- 
er classes by his energy and resolution. On 
Sept. 12, 1789, he published the first number 
of the Publiciste Parisien, the title of which 
was afterward changed into Ami du Peuple. 
As early as August of that year he had publicly 
proclaimed that 800 members of the national as- 
sembly ought to be hanged, Mirabeau the fore- 
most among them. In the same spirit every 
page of the Ami du Peuple was written. This 
journal, under the successive titles Le Journal 
dela République Frangaise and Le Publiciste de 
la République Frangaise, was continued with- 
out interruption till July 14, 1798. At the 
same time he also published several revolution- 
ary pamphlets, and 13 numbers of a political 
journal entitled Le Junius Frangais. Having 
been introduced by Danton into the club of 
the Cordeliers, he created there disturbances 
so violent that the municipality ordered his 
arrest in January, 1790. He evaded it by se- 
creting himself in the cellars of the Cordeliers, 
whence he continued to issue his periodical. 
After the king’s unsuccessful attempt at flight, 
Marat again ventured into publicity, and di- 
rected his attacks against the Girondists. Hay- 
ing been prosecuted in consequence, he re- 
turned to his former underground haunts, from 
which he again emerged in the riots of Au- 
gust, 1792. He now became the right-hand 
man of Danton, then minister of justice, intro- 
duced himself into the vigilance committee es- 
tablished by the municipality of Paris, and was 
one of the chief instigators of the massacres 
of September. To reward him for the part he 
had taken, in these atrocities, the people of 
Paris .elected him to the national convention. 
Here his speeches were received by the party 
of the majority with a feeling of abhorrence 
mingled with contempt. They moved a vote 
of censure against him for having advocated 
the establishment of a dictatorial power. When, 
after angry discussions, the motion was at last 
withdrawn, Marat produced a pistol from his 
pocket, exclaiming that, if the motion had 
passed, he would have blown his brains out in 
the presence of the convention. Emboldened 
by impunity, he grew more fanatical every day, 


MARATHON 


and his paper denounced the French generals 
and armies as incapable, and asked for the 
heads of 270,000 “traitors,” and the massacre 
of three fourths of the members of the conven- 
tion. In vain the Girondists endeavored to 
break down his influence. Under the pressure 
of popular excitement, created by foreign in- 
tervention, the ultra-revolutionary party had 
gradually obtained the ascendancy, and the 
most sanguinary proceedings being considered 
unavoidable in order to prevent a codperation 
of the anti-revolutionary elements with the 
foreign foe, Marat, who excelled all others in 
this respect, was almost adored by the Parisians 
as the saviour of the country. Thus, in April, 
1798, he succeeded in obtaining the passage of 
a “law for the arrest of suspicious persons,” 
by the operations of which no fewer than 400,- 
000 individuals were imprisoned throughout 
France. Having, as chairman of the Jacobin 
club, signed an address to the people, in which 
the assassination of the Girondists was openly 
called for, he was prosecuted before the revo- 
lutionary tribunal. But his trial became a tri- 
umph. The public prosecutor, the jurors, and 
the audience did him homage, and he was car- 
ried in triumph to the national convention, 
where Danton delivered an eloquent eulogy in 
his honor. He now rapidly rose to the cul- 
minating point of his career. Having made 
the municipality subservient to his plans, he 
instigated the mob of May 31, 1798, by which 
the Girondist party was completely destroyed. 
With Robespierre and Danton he formed a 
triumvirate, which for the time determined 
the destinies of France. Confined by disease 
in his garret, Marat was restlessly active in 
stirring up, by letters and denunciations, the 
passions of the people and of the national con- 
vention. He was finally assassinated by Char- 
lotte Corday, while preparing a list of Giron- 
dists to be sacrificed to the common weal, only 
a few days before his life would probably have 
ended from natural causes. (See Corpay.) 
Robespierre used his death as a pretext for 
carrying the reign of terror to its utmost ex- 
tent. Hundreds of victims were sacrificed to 
the ‘“‘manes of the martyr.” The entire na- 
tional convention attended his funeral. His 
body was transferred, Nov. 4, 1793, to the 


-Pantheon, and his portrait, executed by Da- 


vid, adorned the hall of the convention. A 
pension for life was voted by the ‘grateful 
nation” to his concubine. Two years later, 
when the revolutionary passions had cooled 
down, the remains of Marat were removed 
from their resting place and his portrait taken 
down. Though vain and egotistic, Marat was 
doubtless sincere in his sanguinary ravings, and 
was so disinterested that, even in the height of 
his power, he lived in the most abject poverty. 

MARATHON, a town of Greece, near the E. 
coast of Attica, about 18 m. N. E. of Athens, 
near which the Persians under Datis and Ar- 
taphernes were defeated, in 490 B. C. (Sept. 28 
or 29, according to somewhat uncertain compu- 


MARATHON 


tations), by the Greeks under Miltiades. The 
Persians, having crossed the AZgean and taken 
Eretria in Eubcea, passed over to Attica, land- 
ing on the plain of Marathon; their numbers 
were about 110,000. To oppose them was an 
Athenian force of 10,000 heavy-armed infan- 
try and a small body of light-armed troops 
and attendants. According to Athenian law, 
there were ten generals, each of whom in turn 
was entitled to command for a day; but the 
other generals waived their authority in favor 
of Miltiades, who thus became sole comman- 
der. Having received a reénforcement of 1,000 
heavy-armed Plateans, Miltiades resolved to 
sally from his strong position on the heights 
and attack the Persians, who were crowded in 
the plain. So little was an attack anticipated 
that it was really a surprise. The Greeks ad- 
vanced in three bodies, a centre and two wings, 
with a considerable interval between. Both 
attacks by the wings were successful, and the 
enemy was driven to the right and left; but 
in the centre the heavy masses of the Per- 
sians repelled the Athenians, who were forced 
back, for a considerable space. Miltiades 
then recalled his victorious wings, which fell 
upon the flanks of the Persian centre; this 
was speedily broken, and the whole army fled 
in rout to their ships, which were drawn up 
on the beach. The Persian loss was 6,400, that 
of the Greeks only 192. A tumulus, still 
standing near the modern village of Vrana, 
which probably occupies the site of the ancient 
Marathon, marks the burial place of the Greeks 
who fell in this action. The battle of Mara- 
thon is justly considered one of the most im- 
portant in history, not so much on account of 
the numbers engaged or the losses incurred, as 
for its historical results. Had the Athenians 
been defeated, there was no power capable of 
resisting the Persian invasion, and Greece must 
have become a Persian satrapy. 

MARATHON, a N. county of Wisconsin, bor- 
dering on Michigan, and drained by the Wis- 
consin river and its branches; area, 6,048 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 5,885. It has a diversified 
surface, extensive pine forests, and numerous 
small lakes. The chief productions in 1870 
were 35,327 bushels of wheat, 76,482 of oats, 
22,164 of potatoes, 8,385 of peas and beans, 
and 2,843 tons of hay. There were 273 horses, 
1,331 milch cows, 2,754 other cattle, 1,482 
sheep, and 1,215 swine. Capital, Wausau. 

MARATTI, Carlo, an Italian painter, born 
near Ancona in 1625, died in Rome, Dee. 15, 
1713. At about the age of 12 he was sent to 
Rome and put under the instruction of Andrea 
Sacchi, with whom he remained eight years. 
He became a student of the works of Raphael, 
and his contemporaries, supposing that he could 
only paint madonnas, called him Carluccio delle 
Madonne; but he silenced their sneers by exe- 
cuting for the baptistery of St. John Lateran 
a picture of Constantine destroying the idols, 
which caused him to rank among the first 
painters of the day. He restored the frescoes 


MARBLE 145 


of Raphael in the Vatican, and those of Anni- 
bale Carracci in the Farnese palace. His mas- 
terpiece is the ‘‘ Martyrdom of St. Biagio” at 
Genoa. He also executed several etchings from 
his own designs and from Italian masters. 

MARBEAU, Jean Baptiste Francois, a French 
philanthropist, born at Brivesin 1798. He be- 
came an advocate in Paris, and published in 
1824 a treatise on proceedings at civil law, and 
in 1834 one in the interest of the working 
classes. In 1844 appeared his Htudes sur l’éco- 
nomie sociale. In the same year. he was ap- 
pointed adjunct mayor, and founded the first 
infant asylum (eréche) at Chaillot. He set 
forth the utility of such institutions in Des 
eréches (1845), which has had many editions 
and translations, and obtained a Montyon prize 
of 3,000 francs, which he appropriated to one 
of the principal asylums. His beneficent en- 
terprise led to the establishment of hundreds 
of infant asylums all over France. 

MARBECK, John, an English composer, born 
early in the 16th century, died about 1585. He 
was one of the earliest composers of the re- 
formed church of England. About 1544 there 
were formed at Windsor associations in sup- 
port of the Lutheran doctrines. Marbeck, then 
organist at St. George’s chapel, Windsor, lent 
his support to one of these, and with three 
other members was seized on a charge of here- 
sy. An examination of his papers discovered 
a concordance to the English Bible, complete 
as far as the letter L. The special charge 
against him was for copying an epistle of Cal- 
vin’s against the mass. All four were con- 
demned to be burned, but Marbeck was saved 
through the influence of the bishop of Win- 
chester, and resumed his post as organist. He 
finished his ‘‘ Concordance,” the first complete 
one ever made, and published it (fol., London, 
1550). He also published ‘‘ The Boke of Com- 
mon Praier, noted” (4to, 1550), the oldest pub- 
lished for the use of the Anglican church. 
Robert Jones of Ely cathedral issued a new 
edition of this work, entitled ‘‘ Marbeck’s Book 
of Common Prayer for voices in unison, ar- 
ranged for modern use, with an ad libitum or- 
gan bass accompaniment.” The work unalter- 
ed was reprinted in London in 1844. Smith’s 
Musica Antiqua, in the collection of the Brit- 
ish museum, contains a Ze Deum and a mass 
for five voices by Marbeck. His other works 
are: “The Lyves of Holy Sainctes, Prophets, 
Patriarches, and others” (4to, 1574); ‘The 
Holie Historie of King David, drawn into Eng- 
lish Meetre” (4to, 1579); and ‘‘ A Kipping up 
of the Pope’s Fardel” (8vo, 1581). 

MARBLE, a rock used as an ornamental build- 
ing stone, for interior decorations, and for 
sculpture. Generally, any limestone that can 
be obtained in large sound blocks, and is sus- 
ceptible of a good polish, is marble; and the 
only marble that is not limestone is the ser- 
pentine and the oriental verd antique (the lat- 
ter a mixture of serpentine and limestone). It 
is found in beds in various geological forma- 


146 


tions. In the azoic group it is a metamorphic 
rock of granular and crystalline structure, and 
often presents a fineness of texture and purity 
of shading that fit it for the choicest works of 
the sculptor. In the palewozoic formations it 
bears more of the character of a sedimentary 
rock, and it is apt to contain organic vestiges, 
as corallines and fossil shells, which indeed 
sometimes compose nearly its whole substance ; 
it is also of variegated colors, and sometimes is 
of brecciated structure, evidently made up of 
fragments of an older rock, the layers of which, 
broken up and confusedly rearranged, have 
been cemented together. Though thus vary- 
ing greatly in color, texture, and structure, the 
composition of marble is for the most part es- 
sentially the same; it is a carbonate of lime, 
or a combined carbonate of lime and carbonate 
of magnesia, and is readily burned to quick- 
lime. It is soft and easy to work with the chisel 
or hammer, generally of even grain, so as to be 
split with wedges, and of specific gravity about 
2°7, making the weight of a cubic foot about 
169 lbs. Its durability is very variable, some 
varieties retaining sharp edges when exposed 
for many years to the weather, and others soon 
crumbling away.—Many varieties of marble 
have acquired a name and celebrity from re- 
mote times. The ease with which the rock is 
worked caused it to be selected for the earliest 
‘structures. The names of many marbles fa- 
“mous among the ancient Greeks and Romans 
are still retained, and their localities are known. 
Mt. Pentelicus in Attica furnished the valua- 
ble Pentelican white marble, called by the mod- 
erns Penteli marble; the islands of Paros and 
Naxos, the still celebrated Parian marble; and 
other similar white marbles came from Mt. 
Hymettus in Attica, from Thasos and Lesbos, 
from Corallus in Phrygia, from Cyzicus on the 
Propontis, and one variety, exceeding the Pari- 
an in whiteness, from Luna in Etruria. Of the 
first named (the Pentelican) the Parthenon was 
built, and also the temple of Ceres at Eleusis, 
besides many celebrated statues. Though of 
finer grain than the Parian, it is said not to 
retain its polish and beauty so well. The Pari- 
an marble is placed first by both Theophrastus 
and Pliny in their enumeration of ancient mar- 
bles. Pindar and Theocritus also celebrated 
its praise. The statues of Venus de’ Medici; 
Diana Venatrix, the Oxford marbles known as 
the Parian chronicle, and many other famous 
works, are of this marble. Black marbles are 
occasionally referred to by the ancients; but 
some of those named, as the Chium marmor 
from the island of Chios, appear to be of ques- 
tionable character. This one is sometimes called 
lapis obsidianus antiquorum. It was glossy 
black, and received so high a polish that it was 
made into mirrors. The green marbles were 
serpentines from various localities. Yellow 
marble was obtained at Corinth. The marmor 
Phengites of Cappadocia was white with yel- 
low spots; the Rhodian was marked with gold- 
en-colored spots, and that of Melos (Milo) was 


MARBLE 


yellow.—The marbles of modern times have 
been variously classified and named. In south- 
ern Europe two general divisions are made of 
antique and modern. The quarries of the 
former being lost or abandoned, the stone is 
obtained only from ancient monuments; and 
being consequently most highly prized, meth- 
ods are resorted to, and sometimes with suc- 
cess, to attach the name antique to stone from 
quarries now worked. It is also the case that 
some of the marbles held in the highest es- 
timation in France, being transported from 
monuments at Rome, are the product of quar- 
ries worked in ancient times in France. It is 
probable these might be again discovered. With- 
out reference to these marbles, however, the 
French boast that their country surpasses even 


Italy in the beauty and variety of this class of 


stones.—The following are convenient divisions 
in which marbles may be arranged for a general 
notice of the most important of them: 1, the 
simple or single-colored marbles; 2, the varie- 
gated; 3, the brecciated; 4, the lumachella or 
fossiliferous. These sorts, however, pass into 
each other, so that some may be placed indif- 
ferently either in one or the other of two groups. 
1. The best known of the first class are the plain 
white marbles, some of which have been already 
named. The white marble of Carrara, of which 
an account is given in the article CarRARA 
Marstz, is of a texture like loaf sugar, differing 
in this respect from the Parian marble, which 
on close examination appears to be made up of 
the most delicate plates or scales, confusedly | 
but most closely united together. Pure black 
marble is found in some ancient Roman sculp- 
tures. Some varieties of it are obtained in Der- 
byshire, England, and in Kilkenny, Ireland; 
but as the latter is more or less intermixed 
with fossil shells, it should come under the 
fourth division. It is quarried in the United 
States at Shoreham, Vt., and Glen’s Falls, N. Y., 
and specimens are obtained from some other 
localities. The colored marbles are generally 
variegated; but the Siena marble of Italy is 
sometimes of a uniform’ yellow color, or the 
same clouded. Some of the red marbles of 
Italy also display only the one color. In North 
America white marbles are worked at various 
places on the range of the great belt of meta- 
morphic rocks through Canada, Vermont, west- 
ern Massachusetts, a little back of the cities of 
New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Wash- 
ington, and thence through Virginia and the 
Carolinas into northern Georgia and Alabama. 
It is this formation that supplies the white 
marble for building purposes to the different 
cities along its range, and its quarries in Mas- 
sachusetts and New York furnish the marble 
for the most costly editices of southern cities. 
The statuary marble is only the finest grained 
variety of this common building stone. Many 
localities are known to furnish it in small beds 
interstratified with the coarser marble. Sev- 
eral quarries of fine statuary marble have been 
opened in Vermont. The first were at Rut- 


MARBLE 


land, but other localities have since been found. 
Excellent quarries are also found in other parts 
of the United States. 2. The variegated mar- 
bles are those variously spotted, shaded, and 
veined. They are the most numerous class, 
and include the most beautiful of the colored 
marbles. Noneare more highly esteemed than 
the variegated yellow marble of Siena. This 
and the Italian dark red marbles may be seen 
in many of the costly mantels in our marble 
shops; and also the soft, shaded, dove-colored 
Lisbon marble, of which are made the smaller 
columns in the entrance of the Unitarian church 
at the corner of 4th avenue and 20th street, 
New York. The black Genoese marble, with 
golden-colored and white veins, called Portoro 
marble, the best of which is from Porto Ve- 
nese, has for many years past been the most 
popular and the best known foreign marble in 
all parts of the United States, though now 
rather out of fashion. It is a weak stone, and 
is for the most part used in thin slabs cemented 
upon a back of slate. The marbles of this 
class found in the United States east of the 
Rocky mountains have not attained much celeb- 
rity, nor do we know of any worthy of it, unless 
we should include among them certain varieties 
of the brecciated marbles from northern Ver- 
mont and Tennessee. The gray and white 
clouded limestones of Thomaston, Me., are 
quarried to considerable extent for marble, and 
may be seen in common use in portions of the 
eastern states. They possess little beauty. Cali- 
fornia has furnished of this class some very 
showy marble of brilliant reddish and brown- 
ish colors, and susceptible of a high polish. 
It is imported into New York and used for 
mantels. 38. The brecciated marbles are com- 
posed of angular fragments, it may be of va- 
rious mineral substances, united in a bed or 
paste of calcareous cement; or the mass may 
be so divided by numerous veins into pieces as 
to present the appearance of broken fragments 
irregularly united. Brocatellas are breccias, in 
which the fragments are very small; we incor- 
rectly apply the name only to a reddish brec- 
ciated marble brought to this country from 
Spain. The varieties of this class are very nu- 
merous; but some of the most celebrated are 
never seen here, such as those called le grand 
deuil and le petit deuil, literally the full mourn- 
ing and the half mourning. These come from 
the Pyrenees and different parts of France ; 
they are of a black ground spotted with white 
fragments. Among the brecciated marbles of 
the United States, the best known is that of 
the Potomac on the Maryland side, some miles 
below the Point of Rocks. The principal use 
that has been made of it was to furnish the 
columns in the old chamber of representatives 
at Washington. The irregularities of hardness 
in the different ingredients render it an expen- 
sive stone to work; still the quarries are de- 
serving of more than government patronage. 
The stone is certainly handsomer than the 
Italian red and white breccia imported for the 


147 


inner columns of the central arched entrance 
of the church before mentioned. Quarries have 
been opened in the northern part of Vermont, 
near Lake Champlain, which produce the most 
beautiful of the American colored marbles. They 
are brecciated, though they pass into the varie- 
gated. They present a great variety of colors, 
from a deep red, traversed with veins of white, 
to rose-tinted flesh color mottled with whitish 
spots. In some specimens the brecciated struc- 
ture is very strongly marked, the fragments 
being large with sharp edges and of decided 
shades of dark red, drab, and salmon, upon a 
ground of white bordered with rose. Unlike 
the Potomac marble, the fragments are not dif- 
ferent varieties of rock, but are all limestone. 
The stone, though somewhat hard for marble, 
is still of uniform texture and takes an even 
high polish. Some large blocks closely resem- 
ble the foreign brocatella. It is however very 
difficult to work. Other marbles of this char- 
acter and of rather dark red colors abound 
near Knoxville, Tenn., and have been brought 
into notice by the extent to which they are 
employed in the construction of the capitol at 
Washington. 4. Lumachella or fossiliferous 
marbles are those which contain petrified shells. 
These are sometimes so crowded upon one an- 
other, that they compose the whole mass of 
the stone; sometimes single shells are seen 
scattered throughout the block. These mar- 
bles are very abundant in Europe, and also 
throughout New York and the western states, 
Handsome mantels are made of American va- 
rieties which are composed entirely of fossil 
shells, but they are rather to be regarded as 
curious than beautiful. They lack the high 
colors of the brecciated and variegated mar- 
bles, and though they take a good polish, they 
are from their plain colors comparatively dull 
and sombre. Some of the best of the kind is 
from Becraft’s mountain, back of Hudson, N. 
Y., which is thus noticed by Prof. Silliman 
(“American Journal of Science,” vol. vi., p. 
371): ‘The marble is of a grayish color with a 
slight blush of red; its structure is semi-crys- 
talline, and in some places highly crystal- 
line, especially in and around the organized 
bodies which in vast numbers it embraces. The 
large slabs present a great diversity of appear- 
ance, and can scarcely be distinguished from 
the similar transition marble of the Peak of 
Derbyshire, which it quite equals in beauty and 
firmness.”—Serpentine, as before stated, dif- 
fers in composition from the other marbles. 
It consists of about equal parts of silica and 
magnesia with 12 per cent. of water. It is a 
soft mineral of different shades of green, of 
waxy lustre, and susceptible of a high polish. 
It is better adapted to ornamental work with- 
in doors than to be exposed to the action of 
the weather. Verd antique is a mixture of 
green serpentine and light-colored limestone. 
These varieties come from Genoa and Tus- 
cany, and the best verd antique from Egypt. 
In Vermont and Canada serpentine abounds ; 


148 MARBLE 


and verd antique may be obtained in various 
places in New York and Pennsylvania, and in 
any of the New England states. At Milford, 
Conn., a quarry of serpentine and verd antique 
was worked more than 50 years ago, which 
furnished slabs pronounced by good judges 
quite as fine as the European stone. — The 
methods of preparing marble for use differ 
from the working of granite. This hard rock, 
after being quarried, is split by small wedges 
driven into holes drilled in a line, and is then 
dressed by hammers or used in the rough. 
Marble, being a comparatively soft rock, is cut 
into slabs by a process of sawing with smooth 
iron saws fed with sharp sand and water. 
Several of these plates or saws are set in one 
frame, and in a large establishment 20 or more 
of the frames may be seen kept in steady oper- 
ation by a steam engine. The progress of the 
saws cutting down through the great blocks of 
marble seems very slow, for the most part not 
exceeding an inch per hour, The thickness of 
the slabs is usually four or six inches. In this 
form the marble is used for facing the walls 
of buildings upon a back of brick, giving all 
the effect of a solid wall of marble at much 
reduced cost. In the most expensive structures 
only are the walls built of solid blocks of mar- 
ble or freestone. Marble slabs for mantels and 
other interior work are sawed like those for 
building, and are then rubbed smooth upon a 
heavy revolving table of cast iron, called the 
rubbing bed, and afterward polished.—Accord- 
ing to the census of 1870, there were 22 mar- 
ble quarries in operation in the United States, 
employing a capital of $1,316,600. The total 
products amounted to $804,300. The most ex- 
tensive quarries were in Maryland, where the 
products for the year were valued at $275,000 ; 
New York, $222,000; Vermont, $130,800; 
Pennsylvania, $101,000; and Massachusetts, 
$59,500. Marble valued at $3,709,518 was 
worked into monuments and tombstones, val- 
ued at $8,916,654. The value of marble and 
stone and manufactures thereof, imported into 
the United States during the year ending June 
30, 18738, was $1,099,280, of which $423,818 
was from Italy. 

MARBLE, Manton, an American journalist, 
born in Worcester, Mass., Nov. 16,1885. He 
graduated at the university of Rochester in 
1855, was soon after connected with the Bos- 
ton “ Journal,” and subsequently was editor 
of the Boston “Traveller.” In 1858 he went 
to New York and joined the staff of the 
‘“‘Evening Post.” In 1859 he made a trip to 
Red river and beyond, corresponding with the 
‘“‘Kvening Post,” and contributing three papers 
descriptive of the journey to ‘‘ Harper’s Maga- 
zine.” He has been connected with ‘The 
World” newspaper from its establishment, 
June 16, 1860, and became its proprietor and 
editor in April, 1862, making it a free-trade 
and democratic journal. 

MARBLEHEAD, a town and port of entry of 
-Essex co., Massachusetts, at the terminus of a 


vessels, of 2,554 tons. 


MARBLES 


branch of the Eastern railroad, 12 m. N. E. of 
Boston; pop. in 1870, 7,703. It is built upon 
a peninsula projecting into Massachusetts bay, 
about 4 m. in length and 2 in breadth, with an 
area of about 3,700 acres, and joins Salem on 
the west. The surface is elevated, and is ex- 
ceedingly irregular and rocky. The harbor is 
deep and convenient, and is about 14 m. long 
by $m. wide. The town has been noted from 
the first settlement of New England for the 
enterprise of its people in the fisheries. More 
recently the inhabitants have also engaged ex- 
tensively in the manufacture of boots and 
shoes. For the year ending June 30, 1873, the 
number of vessels engaged in the cod and 
mackerel fisheries was 59, with an aggregate 
tonnage of 2,098; belonging to the port, 64 
There are two national 
banks, a savings bank, graded public schools, 
with a high school, a weekly newspaper, and 
eight churches.—Marblehead was originally a 
part of Salem, and was incorporated as a dis- 
tinct town in 1649, at which time it contained 
44 families. Many of the settlers were from 
the Channel islands; and their peculiarities of 
language are still to be noticed among the in- 
habitants, and formerly existed to such a degree 
as almost to constitute a separate dialect. At 
the commencement of the revolutionary war 
Marblehead was reckoned the second town in 
Massachusetts in population and wealth. It 
contributed a regiment of 1,000 men to the 
army, and at the end of the war there were 


600 widows and 1,000 fatherless children in its 


population of less than 4,000. During the war 
of 1812 the frigate Constitution was chiefly 
manned by men from Marblehead, and the town 
also sent out a great number of privateers; 
and when peace was declared it was found 
that 500 of its citizens were held in England 
as prisoners of war. In the civil war it was 
the first town to send troops to Boston (April 
16, 1861), and furnished altogether 1,440 men. 

MARBLES, Playing, little balls of marble, baked 
clay, agate, or other stony substance, used as 
toys for children. Marbles are made in im- 
mense quantities in Saxony for exportation to ~ 
the United States, and to India and China. 
They are also largely manufactured in the agate 
mills at Oberstein on the Nahe, in Germany, 
particularly for the American market. The 
material used in Saxony is a hard calcareous 
stone, which is first broken up into square 
blocks with ahammer. These are then thrown 
100 to 150 together into a mill, which is con- 
structed of a stationary flat slab of stone, with 
a number of concentric furrows upon its face. 
Over this a block of oak of the same diameter, 
partially resting upon the small stones, is kept 
revolving, while water flows upon the stone 
slab. In15 minutes the marbles are worn com- 
pletely round, and are fit for sale. An estab- 
lishment with three mills will manufacture 60,- 
000 marbles in a week. Agates are made into 
marbles at Oberstein by first chipping the 
pieces nearly round with a hammer, and then 


MARBOIS 


wearing them down upon the face of large 
grindstones. The hard stones are managed 
with great dexterity by the workmen, who in 
a few minutes bring them into the shape of 
perfect spheres. : 
MARBOIS, Barbé. See Barpé-Marsors. 
MARBURG, a town of Prussia, in the prov- 
ince of Hesse-Nassau, on the river Lahn, 49 
m. 8. W. of Cassel; pop. in 1871, 9,065. The 
principal public buildings are the church of St. 
Elizabeth, a fine, perfectly preserved specimen 
of the pointed Gothic, built in the 13th cen- 
tury, and the ancient castle of the landgraves 
of Hesse on the Schlossberg (now used as a 
penitentiary), where the famous discussion on 
transubstantiation between Luther and Zwingli 
took place,-Oct. 1-8, 1529. The university of 
Marburg was the first founded in Germany after 
the reformation, by the landgrave Philip the 
Magnanimous (May 30, 1527); it was richly 
endowed from the proceeds of the confiscated 


MARCEAU 149 


educational institutions, a society for natural 
history, and a Bible society. The chief man- 
ufacture is pottery. The town was several 
times besieged during the seven years’ war. 
In 1806 and 1809 it was the scene of risings 
of the Hessian peasantry against the French, 
who destroyed in 1810 and 1811 the greatest 
part of the fortifications of the castle. 

MARC’? ANTONIO. See Rarmonp1. 

MARCEAU, Frangois Séverin des Graviers, a 
French soldier, born in Chartres, March 1, 1769, 
died at Altenkirchen, Rhenish Prussia, Sept. 
23, 1796. His father, a lawyer, intended him 
for the legal profession ; but he enlisted in 1785, 
and was sergeant in 1789, when he was prom- 
inent in the taking of the Bastile. In 1792 
he was assigned to the army of the Ardennes, 
where as commander of volunteers he restored 
obedience to the commanding general Lafay- 
ette. Rapidly promoted for bravery, he was 
made general of division in 1793, and distin- 
guished himself with 
Kléber in the war of 


the Vendée, especially 


at the battle of Save- 


nay. His magnanim- 


ity in saving the life 


of Angélique de Mel- 


liers, a female royalist 
combatant, was mis- 
represented as an act 
of treason, but he was 
acquitted. In 1794 he 
mainly decided the vic- 
tory at Fleurus (June 
26), which placed Bel- 
gium at the mercy of 
France. The commit- 
tee of public safety 
called him “the lion 


of the army,” and im- 
mediately placed him 


Marburg. 


property of the clergy, and attracted students 
from all parts of Protestant Europe. Although 
a rival university was established in Giessen 
in 1607, it continued to flourish until the out- 
break of the thirty years’ war. From 1625 to 
1650 the Giessen university was united with 


-that of Marburg, but they have since been 


again separated, the former being now the na- 
tional university of Hesse-Darmstadt. In the 
first part of the 18th century Marburg derived 
great celebrity from the philosopher Christian 
von Wolf, who was one of the professors. In 
the winter of 1873-4 the university was at- 
tended by 483 students, mostly medical. It 
contains a library of about 130,000 volumes, 
an anatomical theatre, an observatory, an admi- 
rable chemical laboratory, a botanic garden, a 
lying-in asylum, a clinique, a school for veteri- 
nary surgeons, a zodlogical museum, a philo- 
iogical seminary, and one for political sciences. 
Marburg possesses also a gymnasium and other 


in charge of the right 
wing of the army of 
the Sambre and Oise, 
Jourdan being commander-in-chief, and Klé- 
ber at the head of a division. In October 
he achieved a brilliant success in capturing 
Coblentz, the great focus of the emigrant no- 
bles. In 1795 he took part in the siege of 
Ehrenbreitstein. While commanding the rear 
guard on the right bank of the Rhine, he was 
driven to despair by the premature destruction 
of a pontoon on the Sieg, and would have com- 
mitted suicide if it had not been for the inter- 
vention of one of his aides-de-camp. Kléber 
arrived in time to rescue him from his perilous 
position. In 1796 he was placed at the head 
of the first division to cover the retreat of 
Pichegru from Mentz, and to protect the oper- 
ations of Jourdan, whom he enabled to effect 
a junction with Kléber. At the end of July 
he took Konigstein, after having baffled an at- 
tempt of the enemy to make a sortie from 
Mentz, which place he invested, and gained 
several other important successes. While occu’ 


150 MARCELLO 


pying the plain of Altenkirchen, awaiting the 
arrival of Jourdan, he undertook a reconnois- 
sance, Sept. 20. He was severely wounded by 
a ball, and was carried within the enemy’s 
lines, where he died three days after. His ob- 
sequies were celebrated with great pomp, the 
Austrians firing minute guns in his honor. A 
pyramid erected near the spot where he fell 
was subsequently removed to the neighborhood 
of Coblentz. In his native town monuments 
were erected in his honor; and in September, 
1851, a bronze statue of him was placed in the 
principal square.—See léber et Marceau, by 
Charles Desprez (Paris, 1857). 

MARCELLO, Benedetto, an Italian composer, 
born in Venice, July 24, 1686, died in Brescia, 
July 17,1739. His father was a Venetian sen- 


ator, and personally superintended his educa-- 


tion. He studied music thoroughly, learning 
counterpoint under Gaspari, became an advo- 
cate, and held several important offices, being 
a member of the council of forty and treasu- 
rer at Brescia. His most esteemed work is his 
music for Giustiniani’s version of 50 of the 
Psalms. The pieces were written for two, 
three, and four voices, with accompaniment 
for organ or clavichord, several having also 
obbligato for violoncello or two violas. John 
Garth of Durham published a fine edition of 
these psalms in eight folio volumes, with Eng- 
lish words. Marcello’s other works consist 
of oratorios, masses, cantatas, madrigals, and 
different parts of the Roman Catholic service. 
He wrote also what he styled a ‘‘ Drama for 
Music,” and Calisto in Orsa, a pastoral with 
the use of scenery; a variety of instrumental 
compositions, and two satirical madrigals. Be- 
sides these musical works, he left a treatise in 
manuscript on music, a poem upon the re- 
demption, and a collection of sonnets, verses, 
burlesque poems, and dramas. He is justly 
considered as one of the greatest of the Italian 
masters; his style being noble and sustained, 
his invention poetic, and his thought and mu- 
sical forms full of originality. 

MARCELLUS, Marenus Claudius, 2 Roman gene- 
ral, born about 268 B. C., killed near Venu- 
sia, in Apulia, in 208. The family to which 
he belonged (a plebeian branch of the great 
OClaudian gens) was of the highest distinction 
in Rome. Marcellus was early known as a 
bold and skilful soldier, serving in the first 
Punic war. His first office was that of curule 
sadile, to which he was chosen about 226. 
Shortly afterward he was elected augur, and in 
222 he was made consul. While holding that 
office he brought the Gallic war to a success- 
ful termination, killing the leader of the Gauls 
with his own hands. Marcellus dedicated the 
spoils of the Gallic chief as spolia opima in the 
temple of Jupiter Feretrius, being the third 
and last instance of such dedication in Roman 
history. He was one of the pretors in 216, 
when the second Punic war was at its height, 
and was about.to sail for Sicily when the defeat 
of the Romans at Canne caused a change in his 


MARCH 


destination. Employed against Hannibal, he 
prevented the town of Nola from falling into 
his hands, and repulsed his forces, which was 
the first check received by the Carthaginian. 
He was summoned to Rome to take part in the 
consultations concerning the conduct of the 
war, and then sent back to Campania as pro- 
consul. Elected consul in 215, with another 
plebeian for colleague, he resigned the office 
rather than offend the senate, which was 
averse to the whole consular power being in 
plebeian hands. Returning to his proconsular 
position in Campania, he again baffled Hanni- 
bal at Nola, and inflicted great loss on his 
army. He was elected consul in 214, having 
Fabius Maximus for his colleague, and resumed 
his Campanian command, repulsing Hannibal 
at Nola for the third time. Casilinum having 
capitulated to Fabius, Marcellus massacred all 
the garrison but 50. He was then sent to Sici- 
ly, which he nearly conquered in three years. 
The siege of Syracuse, which he maintained for 
two years, and in which he was opposed by the 
science of Archimedes, who was killed during 
the sack of the town (212), was one of the 
most famous sieges of ancient warfare. Re- 
turning to Rome in 211, he was refused the 
honors of a triumph because he had not entirely 
subdued Sicily. His ovation was very brilliant, 
but the magnificence of his Sicilian spoils, com- 
prising rich works of art, gave much offence to 
the old Roman party. He was a fourth time 
consul in 210. Prevented from returning to 
Sicily by the opposition of the Sicilians, whom 
his cruelty and rapacity had alienated, he was 
placed at the head of the army which acted 
against Hannibal that year, and the next year 
retained the command of it as proconsul. The 
Romans complained of his want of vigor du- 
ring the latter part of his proconsulate, but he 
defended himself successfully, and was elected 
consul for the fifth time. Having appeased 
the Arretians, who threatened revolt, he again 
assumed command of the army in presence of 
Hannibal, his colleague being with him. While 
reconnoitring the Carthaginian camp, he fell 
into an ambuscade, and was slain. 

MARCELLUS, Nonias, an early Latin gramma- 
rian, in regard to whose personal history there 
is no authentic information, but who is known 
as the author of Nonit Marcelli Peripatetici 
Tuberticensis de Compendiosa Doctrina per: 
Litteras ad Filium, first published in Rome 
about 1470. The first critical editions appeared 
in 1565 and 1586. Mercier’s Paris edition of 
1614, with a new version of the text, was re- 
published in Leipsic in 1826. In 1842 ap- 
peared a superior edition by Gerlach and Roth, 
and in 1872 the best of all by the French gram. 
marian Louis Marie Quicherat. 

MARCH (Lat. Martius, pertaining to Mars), the 
third month of the year, consisting of 31 days. 
It was the first month in the early Roman ¢al- 
endar, and it also marked the commencement 
of the year among some of the Latin Christian 
nations till the 18th century. The English 


MARCH 


legal year began March 25 until the change of 
style in 1752. There is an old English and 
Scottish proverb: ‘‘ March borrows three days 
of April, and they are ill.” 

The first, it shall be wind and weet; 

The next, it shall be snaw and sleet; 


The third, it shall be sic a freeze, 
Sall gar the birds stick to the trees. 


It is disputed whether these ‘‘ borrowing days” 
were the last three in March or the first three 
in April. Dr. Jamieson explains that when 
they were stormy March was said to borrow 
them from April that he might extend his 
power so much longer. 

MARCH, or Morawa, a river of Austria, which 
rises on the N. frontier of Moravia, near AI- 
stadt, and flows S.5S. E., passing Olmiitz, Krem- 
sier, and Hradisch; then turning S. 8. W. it 
separates Hungary from Moravia and the arch- 
duchy of Austria, and flows into the Danube 
7 m. above Presburg. Its principal affluents 
are the Hanna, Miava, Beczwa, and Thaya. 
Its length is about 200 m., and it is navigable 
as far as Géding, 50 m., and improvements for 
extending navigation to Olmiitz are proposed. 
At its mouth it is 400 yards wide. Its position 
on the boundary of Hungary and proximity to 
Vienna have made it often of historical im- 
portance. The extensive plain between the low- 
er March and the Danube, called the Marchfeld, 
has been the scene of several great battles, in- 
cluding those of Aspern, Essling, and Wagram. 

MARCH, Charles W., an American author, born 
in Portsmouth, N. H., Dec. 15, 1815, died in 
Alexandria, Egypt, Jan. 24, 1864. He gradu- 
ated at Harvard college in 1837, studied law, 
practised in Portsmouth, and was a member of 
the state legislature. Removing to New York, 
he became a writer for the “ Tribune” and 
the ‘‘ Times,” and correspondent of the Boston 
‘** Courier.” He was for some time vice consul 
at Cairo. He published ‘“‘ Daniel Webster and 
his Contemporaries, or Reminiscences of Con- 
gress” (New York, 1850), and “Sketches and 
Adventures in Madeira, Portugal, and the An- 
dalusias of Spain ” (1856). 

MARCH, Earl of. See Mortimer, Rocer. 

MARCH, Francis Andrew, an American scholar, 
born at Millbury, Mass., Oct. 25, 1825. He 
graduated at Amherst college in 1845, where 
he was tutor from 1847 to 1849. He studied 
law in New York, and was admitted to the bar 
in 1850. After teaching at Fredericksburg, 
Va., from 1852 to 1855, he was appointed tu- 
tor in Lafayette college, at Easton, Pa., in 
1856 adjunct professor, and in 1858 professor 
of the English language and comparative phi- 
Jology. He received the degree of LL. D. from 
the college of New Jersey in 1870, and from 
Amherst college in 1871; and in 1873 he was 
elected president of the American philological 
association. He has contributed articles on 
philological subjects to the ‘Transactions ” of 
that body and of the national educational asso- 
ciation, and to the Jahrbuch fir romanische 
und englische Literatur in Berlin; and arti- 


MARCHESI 151 


cles on jurisprudence and psychology, inclu- 
ding discussions of Sir William Hamilton’s 
theory of perception and his philosophy of the 
conditioned, to the “‘ Princeton Review ” (1860; 
reprinted in England, 1861). He has published 
‘“ A Method of Philological Study of the Eng- 
lish Language” (New York, 1865); ‘ Parser 
and Analyzer for Beginners” (1869); “* Anglo- 
Saxon Grammar” (1870); and ‘“ An Introduc- 
tion to Anglo-Saxon: Grammar, Reader,” &c. 
(1871). Heis now (1875) editing a series of 
text books for college use of the Greek and 
Latin Christian authors, of which “ Latin 
Hymns” and “ Eusebius” have appeared. 

MARCHE, La, or La Marche Limousine, an an- 
cient province of France, bounded N. by Berry 
and Bourbonnais, E. by Auvergne, S. by Li- 
mousin, and W. by Angoumois and Poitou. 
It now forms the department of Creuse, a 
considerable portion of Haute-Vienne, and 
fractions of several other departments. It 
was divided into Haute- and Basse-Marche, 
with Guéret as capital of the former and Bel- 
lac of the latter. Under the Romans it was 
part of Aquitania Prima. William III., duke 
of Aquitaine, converted La Marche into a 
county in the 10th century. In 1177 it was 
sold to England, but Hugh IX. de Lusignan, 
of a family several of whose members be- 
came kings of Jerusalem and Cyprus, gained 
possession of the county, and it belonged to 
that house until early in the 14th century, 
when the last descendant of this branch of the 
Lusignans ceded it to Philip the Fair, king of 
France. Subsequently it passed through va- 
rious hands. The most distinguished of the 
counts of La Marche was Bernard d’Armagnac 
(died in 1462); his son Jacques d’Armagnac 
was sentenced to death in 1477 by Louis XI., 
who confiscated the county for the benefit of 
his son-in-law Pierre de Bourbon; and after 
undergoing some more changes, it was perma- 
nently united to the crown toward the middle 
of the 16th century. 

MARCHES, The, a geographical division of 
the kingdom of Italy, embracing the provinces 
of Ancona, Ascoli Piceno, Macerata, and Pesa- 
ro ed Urbino; area, 3,746 sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 
915,419. The boundaries in general corre- 
spond to those of the mediseval marches of 
Ancona and Fermo. 

MARCHESI, Pompeo, an Italian sculptor, born 
in 1790, died in Milan, Feb. 6, 1858. His 
earlier works were executed under the direc- 
tion of Canova, and he became professor in 
the academy of fine arts, ranking among the 
foremost of modern Italian sculptors. Among 
his principal works are statues of the Venus 
Urania, of St. Ambrose, Charles Emanuel, 
Volta, Beccaria, Bellini, and of Goethe in the 
public library at Frankfort; of the emperor 
Francis, and of Philibert Amadeus of Savoy ; 
a monument to Malibran; and 12 busts in terra 
cotta of warriors, which he executed gratui- 
tously for the embellishment of the fort of 
Milan. His colossal marble group, the ‘‘ Mater 


152 MARCHISIO 


Dolorosa with the Dead Christ on her Lap,” 

known as ‘‘ The Good Mother,” or ‘‘ The Cele- 

bration of Good Friday,” is considered to be 

his masterpiece; this was presented by the 

emperor Francis to the city of Milan, and 
laced in the church of San Carlo. 

MARCHISIO, Carlotta, an Italian vocalist, born 
in Turin in 1835, died in 1872. She inherited 
the musical talents of several members of 
her family, and thoroughly studied harmony, 
counterpoint, and other departments of the art. 
Her magnificent soprano voice secured her 
success on her first performance in Venice in 
1858. Her surviving sister, BarBara (born in 
1838), who has a fine contralto voice, appeared 
on the same occasion, and the two sisters per- 
formed together in Italy, France, and almost 
all over Europe. Rossini composed for them 
his Petite messe, which they executed for the 
first time in 1865. They were much admired 
in Paris in Sémiramis, and Barbara won great 
applause as Azucena in J/ trovatore. 

MARCION. See Gnostics, vol. viii., pp. 53, 54. 

MARCOMANNI (Ger., men of the marches or 
borders), an ancient German people of Suevic 
race. They appear to have originally dwelt in 
the regions of the Main and Neckar in 8. W. 
Germany, whence they followed Ariovistus 
across the Rhine on his invasion of Gaul, and 
afterward their own chief Maroboduus into the 
land of the Boii, which embraced parts of mod- 
ern Bohemia and Bavaria. Having subdued 
that people, they established a powerful king- 
dom N. of the Danube, which soon became in- 
volved in wars with the Cherusci, and after- 
ward with the Romans. Their longest and 
bloodiest war was that waged in alliance with 
the Quadi, Hermunduri, Narisci, and other Ger- 
man tribes, against the emperor Marcus Aure- 
lius. The latter having died (180) in Vindo- 
bona (Vienna) on his last expedition against 
them, his son and successor Commodus has- 
tened to conclude by purchase a shameful 
peace with the barbarians. In the 3d and 4th 
centuries the Marcomanni made some new in- 
cursions into the Danubian provinces of the 
Romans, but during the following great mi- 
gration of northern nations they finally disap- 
peared from history. 

MARCO POLO. See Poto. 

MARCOU, Jules, a French geologist, born at 
Salins, in the department of Jura, April 20, 
1824. He completed his studies at the col- 
lége St. Louis in Paris, and published in 1846, 
in the memoirs of the geological society, his 
Recherches géologiques sur le Jura salinois. 
In the same year he was attached to the min- 
eralogical department of the Sorbonne. In 
1847 he was employed in classifying the pa- 
leontological collection at the museum, for 
which institution he made geological inves- 
tigations in various parts of Europe, and from 
1848 to 1850 in the United States and Canada. 
In 1853-4 he explored the Rocky mountains, 
under the auspices of the American govern- 
ment; and he continued his American explora- 


* 


MARCY 


tions in 1860, after having in the interval filled 
the chair of paleontological geology at the poly- 
technic school in Ziirich. His principal works 
are: ‘‘Geological Map of the United States” 
(English, 1853), followed in 1855 by a résumé 
of the same, including Canada; Le terrain car- 
bonifere dans lV Amérique du Nord; Sur le 
gisement de Vor en Californie ; Lettres sur les 
rochers du Jura et leur distribution géogra- 
phique dans les deux hémisphéres (1857-'60) ; 
‘Geology of North America” (1858); Drias 
et trias, ou le nowveau grés rouge en Europe, 
dans V Amérique du Nord et dans UInde 
(1859); Carte géologique de la terre, according 
to the Jura strata (1862); and Derniers tra- . 
vaux sur le drias et le trias en Russie (1870). 
MARCUS AURELIUS. See AnTONINUS. 
MARCY, William Learned, an American states- 
man, born at Southbridge, Mass., Dec. 12, 1786, 
died at Ballston Spa, N. Y., July 4, 1857. He 
was the son of a farmer, graduated at Brown 
university in 1808, and studied law in Troy, 
N. Y., where he was admitted to practice. 
When the war with England broke out in 1812, 
he was a lieutenant in a military company be- 
longing to Troy, and was stationed at French 
Mills, now Fort Covington. On the night of 
Oct. 22, 1812, he was sent with a detachment 
under command of Major Young to capture a 
party of Canadian militia posted at St. Regis. 
Lieut. Marcy led the attack, broke open the 
door of the blockhouse occupied by the Cana- 
dians, and when they surrendered received 
their arms. These were the first prisoners 
taken by the Americans on land, and their flag 
the first standard captured in the war. He re- 
mained in service till the close of. hostilities. 
From 1816 to 1818 he was recorder of Troy. 
He then became editor of the Troy ‘‘ Budget,” 
a daily newspaper, which he soon made a lead- 
ing organ of the democratic party. In January, 
1821, he was appointed adjutant general of the 
state militia; and in February, 1823, he was 
elected by the legislature comptroller of the 
state, when he removed to Albany. In 1829 
he was appointed an associate justice of the 
New York supreme court, which office he held 
till Feb. 1, 1831, when he was elected United 
States senator. During his term he was chair- 
man of the committee on the judiciary. In 
1882 he was elected governor of New York, 
and resigned his senatorship. He was re- . 
elected in 1834, and again in 1836, but was de- 
feated by Mr. Seward in the election of 1838. 
He was appointed by President Van Buren one 
of the commissioners to decide upon the claims 
of the Mexican government under the conven- 
tion of April, 1839, and performed the duties 
of this office till 1842. In 1845 President Polk 
appointed him secretary of war, a post whose 
duties were made peculiarly difficult and re- 
sponsible by the breaking out of the war with 
Mexico in the spring of 1846. As a member 
of President Polk’s cabinet his diplomatic pow- 
ers were exerted to advantage in the settlement 
of the Oregon boundary dispute with England, 


MARDI GRAS 


and his abilities as a statesman were called into | 


requisition upon many other questions. In 
March, 1853, he was appointed by President 
Pierce secretary of state, and in the latter part 
of that year he greatly distinguished himself 
at home and abroad by his correspondence with 
the Austrian government on the subject of 
the release of Martin Koszta by Capt. Ingraham 
of the United States navy. (See Ineranam, 
Dunoan NatuAnizEL.) Besides his Koszta let- 
ter, his state papers on Central American af- 
fairs, on the enlistment question, on the Danish 
Sound dues, and on many other topics of na- 
tional interest, exhibited his remarkable ability 
as a writer, statesman, and diplomatist. He 
retired from office on the inauguration of Mr. 
Buchanan, March 4, 1857, and just four months 
later died suddenly while lying on his bed read- 
ing. He left a reputation among all parties as 
a statesman of the highest order of abilities. 

MARDI GRAS. See supplement. 

MARDIN, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the 
vilayet of Diarbekir, 350 m. N. W. of Bag- 
dad; pop. about 12,000. It is situated on a 
rocky eminence, more than 2,000 ft. above the 
level of the sea. Near it is a Jacobite monas- 
tery, said to have a large library, containing 
works in 12 different languages. The town is 
the seat of a United Syrian and a Chaldean 
bishop, and of a flourishing Protestant mission. 
It has several mosques and churches, and man- 
ufactories of linen, cotton, and leather. 

MARDONIDS. See Greece, vol. viii, pp. 
189, 190. 

MAREMME (sing. maremma, a salt marsh), 
tracts of marshy country in some parts of mid- 
dle Italy, on the Mediterranean coasts, especial- 
ly from the mouth of the Cecina to Orbetello, 
which are extremely unhealthy from midsum- 
mer to the middle of autumn. During this pe- 
riod it is dangerous to spend even a single night 
in the Maremma; those who do so are almost 
surely attacked by fever. There is nothing 
apparent in the air, either to sight or smell, to 
account for this insalubrity; on the contrary, 
the atmosphere seems to be remarkably clear 
and pure. The malaria does not proceed from 
the water of the marshes, for it is equally vir- 
ulent on dry elevations, and has been attrib- 
uted to unhealthy exhalations of sulphur and 
alum in the soil. In ancient times the Cam- 
pagna di Roma, which is now almost deserted 
in consequence of the malaria, was cultivated 
like a garden, and was the seat of a dense pop- 
ulation. The city of Rome itself has been in- 
vaded by the mephitic air, and the malarious 
fever prevails in some of the streets. The 
Maremme, in different basins, occupy altogether 
an area of nearly 1,000 sq. m. Of late years 
efforts, which to some extent have been succegs- 
ful, have been made to redeem the marshes by 
drainage, banking in the lakes, planting trees, 
and bringing the ground into tillage. 

MARENCO, Carlo, an Italian dramatist, born 
at Cassolo, Piedmont, May 1, 1800, died in Sa- 
vona, Sept. 20, 1848. He took his degree in 


MARENZIO 153 


jurisprudence at Turin in 1818, but became 
famous in 1828 by his drama, Bondelmonte. 
His Famiglia Foscari is especially admired. 
He spent most of his life at Ceva, excepting 
shortly before his death, when the government 
appointed him to a public office at Savona. 
His posthumous 7ragedie inedite, edited by G. 
Prati (Florence, 1856), contain several poems. 
MARENGO, a W. county of Alabama, bounded 
W. by the Tombigbee river, which unites with 
the Black Warrior on the N. W.; area, 975 
Sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 26,151, of whom 20,058 
were colored. It has a nearly level surface; 
the soil is very fertile, and a tract known as 
the “‘ Canebrake” is among the most produc- 
tive cotton land in the south. The chief pro- 
ductions in 1870 were 598,988 bushels of In- 
dian corn, 38,691 of sweet potatoes, 164,981 Ibs. 
of butter, and 23,614 bales of cotton. There 
were 1,377 horses, 3,629 mules and asses, 4,116 
milch cows, 8,815 other cattle, 1,763 sheep, 
and 16,531 swine. Capital, Linden. 
MARENGO, a village of Piedmont, Italy, on 
the river Bormida, 2 m. 8. E. of Alessandria, 
situated on an extensive plain of the same 
name, where a victory was gained by Bona- 
parte over the Austrian general Melas, June 14, 
1800. Bonaparte, having crossed the Great 
St. Bernard in the latter part of May and over- 
run a large portion of Lombardy, entered the 
plain of Marengo with the object of prevent- 
ing Melas, who had concentrated his forces at 
Alessandria, from escaping him by a march 
southward to Genoa. On the morning of 
June 14 the village of Marengo was occupied 
by two French divisions under Victor. Melas 
attacked them with 31,000 men and 200 can- 
non, and at 11 o’clock, when Bonaparte ar- 
rived, Victor’s divisions with Lannes’s corps 
were in fullretreat. The fugitives, reanimated 
by the presence of Bonaparte, rallied and kept 
the Austrians in check. At 4 P. M. Desaix’s 
corps, which was on the road to Novi, and had 
been hurriedly recalled, arrived on the field and 
took position on the left, while Victor and 
Lannes reformed on the right, with Marmont’s 
masked battery in the rear, Thus reénforced, 
Bonaparte turned the tide and completely over- 
whelmed the Austrians, the younger Keller- 
mann’s cavalry charge deciding the day. The 
Austrians lost 7,000 killed and wounded, 3,000 
prisoners, 20 pieces of artillery, and 8 stand- 
ards. The French, who brought about 28,000 
men into the field, lost about 7,000 in killed 
(including Desaix) and wounded and 1,000 pris- 
oners. An armistice followed, by the terms 
of which the Austrians were allowed to retire 
beyond the Mincio on condition of giving up all 
their fortified places in Italy west of that river. 
MARENZIO, Luca, an Italian composer, born 
near Brescia about 1550, died Aug. 22, 1599. 
His parents were poor, and he received instruc- 
tion from the parish priest and the chapel- 
master at Brescia. His first collection of mad- 
rigals brought him into notice, and he was en- 
gaged in the service of the king of Poland. 


154 MAREOTIS 


The climate of the north being too severe for 
him, he returned to Italy and entered the ser- 
vice of Cardinal d’Este, and later of Cardinal 
Aldobrandini as chapelmaster. In 1595 he 
was admitted to the college of precentors of 
the pontifical chapel. He is considered as one 
of the greatest composers of the 16th century, 
and was surnamed 2/1 pid dolce cigno, ‘the 
sweet swan,” and “the divine composer.” He 
gave himself almost wholly to the composition 
of madrigals for four, five, and six voices; but 
in these, of which he wrote a great number, 
he displayed an invention, grace, and skill that 
won for him universal admiration. 

MAREOTIS (Arab. Birket el-Maryoot), a lake 
in Lower Egypt, S. E. of Alexandria, whose 
southern walls it once washed; length nearly 40 
m., breadth 15 m., depth from 4to 14 ft. It is 
separated from the Mediterranean on the west 
by the narrow neck of land on which Alexan- 
dria is situated. In former times its connec- 
tion by canal with the Rosetta branch of the 
Nile, and with the sea at Port Eunostu, the 
old harbor of Alexandria, made it available for 
inland navigation, and its shores were covered 
with vineyards and gardens. With the decay 
of Alexandria the canal was neglected, and the 
lake, ceasing to receive the Nile waters, grad- 
ually dried up. In 1801 the British, then be- 
sieging the French in Alexandria, cut the nar- 
row isthmus separating the lakes of Mareotis 
and Aboukir, and the sea water flowing in filled 
the bed of the lake. Mehemet Ali reéstablished 
the isthmus by filling up the channel cut by the 
British, and restored the canal connecting with 
the Rosetta branch of the Nile at Fua. 

MARESCH, J. A., a Russian horn player, born 
in Bohemia in 1709, died in St. Petersburg in 
1794, In 1744 he entered the Russian impe- 
rial service, where his talent was noticed by 
Prince Narishkin, under whose direction he 
set about the improvement of the Russian 
horns. The instruments of this class then in 
use were very inferior in construction, giving 
but one tone. He made 387 of these, giving 
all the tones and semi-tones comprised within 
three octaves. The horn producing the lowest 
tone was 7 ft. in length, that producing the 
highest, one foot. He distributed these 37 
horns to as many men, and by severe drilling 
enabled them to execute the most difficult and 
rapid passages. Each performer waited for 
the proper instant for him to sound his par- 
ticular note with the necessary degree of force. 
The first trial of this singular music was made 
in 1755 in presence of the imperial court at 
Ismailov, near Moscow. Maresch was munifi- 
cently recompensed for the astonishing results 
which he obtained. 

MARET, Henri Leuis Charles, a French theolo- 
gian, born at Meyrueis, Lozére, April 20, 1805. 
He was ordained in 1830, appointed to a charge 
in Paris in 1832, and in 1839 published Essai 
sur le panthéisme dans les sociétés modernes, 
which brought him prominently before the 
public. In 1840 he was appointed professor 


MAREZOLL 


of dogmatic theology in the Sorbonne, and 
honorary canon of Notre Dame. In 1844 he 
published the result of his lectures at the Sor- 
bonne under the title of Théodicée chrétienne, 
which was a parallel between the Christian 
and the rationalistic notion of God. In 1849 
he was appointed vicar general of Paris, and in 
1853 dean of the faculty of theology. His Phi- 
losophie et religion (1856) has been translated 
into several languages. He was in 1860 nomi- 
nated by the government bishop of Vannes, 
but on account of his Gallican opinions he was 
not confirmed by the pope; and in 1861 he 
was consecrated bishop of Sura in partibus 
infidelium, and appointed by the emperor a 
member of the imperial chapter of St. Denis. 
In 1869, before the opening of the Vatican 


council, he published Du coneile général et de 


la paix religieuse (2 vols. 8vo), which was trans- 
lated into German and Italian. This work was 
assailed by the Univers, as well as by Arch- 
bishop Manning, to whose arguments Bishop 
Maret replied in Le pape et les évéques. At 
the council he voted with the opposition; but 
in September, 1871, he wrote to the pope to 
express his acceptance of the decree of infalli- 
bility, and his regret for everything which he 
had written against it. His other principal 
works are: L’ Hglise et la société laique (1845), 
and L’ Anti-christianisme (1864). When La- 
cordaire in 1848 founded L’Hre Nouvelle, he 
placed it under the direction of M. Maret. 
MARET, Hugues Bernard. See Bassano. 
MAREY, Etienne Jules, a French physiologist, 
born in Beaune in 1830. He took his medical 
degree in Paris in 1860, subsequently lectured 
on the circulation of the blood, and in 1867 suc- 
ceeded Flourens as adjunct professor of natural 
history at the collége de France. His princi- 
pal works are: Tableau sommaire des appareils 
et experiences cardiographiques de MM. Chau- 
veau et Marey (Paris, 1863), and Du mouve- 
ment dans les fonctions de la vie (1867). His 
experimental researches on the movements of 
animals are also of great originality and ex- 
cellence. His latest book is Za machine ani- 
male: Locomotion terrestre et aérienne (Paris, 
1873), of which the English translation (‘‘ Ani- 
mal Mechanism, a Treatise on Terrestrial and 
Aérial Locomotion,” New York, 1874) forms 
vol. xi. of the ‘‘ International Scientific Series.” 
MAREZOLL, Gustav Ludwig Theodor, a German 
jurist, born in Gottingen, Feb. 13, 1794, died in 
Leipsic, Feb. 25, 1873. He wasason of Johann 
Gottlob Marezoll (1761-1828), an eloquent Prot- 
estant clergyman, whose writings, especially 
his Andachtsbuch fiir das weibliche Geschlecht 
(2 vols., Leipsic, 1788-9), had many editions 
and translations. He studied in Jena and Got- 
tingen, where he took his degree in 1815; and 
was professor at Giessen from 1817 to 1837, 
and subsequently at Leipsic till 1864, when he 
retired. His principal works are: Lehrbuch 
der Institutionen des rimischen Rechts (Leipsic, 
1839; 9th ed., 1869), and Das gemeine deutsche 
Oriminalrecht (1841; 3d ed., 1856). 


MARGARET 


MARGARET, titular queen of Navarre, or Mar- 
GARET OF ANGOULEME, born in Angouléme, 
April 11, 1492, died at the chateau of Odos, in 
Bigorre, Dec. 21, 1549. She was the daughter 
and eldest child of Charles of Orleans, count 
of Angouléme, and of Louise of Savoy. Her 
father died when she was in her 12th year, 
and she was educated by her mother at the 
court of Louis XII. She was married in 1509 
to Charles, duke of Alengon, a prince of the 
blood royal, and the five years immediately 
following were passed in the duchy of Alen- 
con; but on the accession of her brother to the 
throne of France as Francis I. (1515), she be- 
came attached to his court, and had a large 
part in the government. She was superior to 
her brother in ability, spoke several languages 
fluently, and her learning and wit made her 
the fit companion of the statesmen of those 
times. After the defeat and capture of her 
brother at Pavia, in February, 1525, Margaret 
aided her mother to carry on the government 
for some months; but in August she went to 
Madrid, where Francis was then a prisoner. 
During this visit she was efficient in negotia- 
ting the treaty of January, 1526, which even- 
tually led in 1530 to the marriage between 
Francis and Eleanor, sister of the emperor, 
and queen dowager of Portugal. The duke 
of Alencgon, her husband, died in 1525, and 
in January, 1527, she became the wife of 
Henri d’Albret, count of Béarn and titular 
king of Navarre, whose kingdom was held 
by Spain. Francis, besides bestowing a lib- 
eral portion on Margaret, pledged himself to 
effect the restoration of her husband to the 
throne of Navarre, for which Margaret, as her 
correspondence shows, was anxious; but cir- 
cumstances baffled his purpose. In 1529 she 
and her husband retired to the principality of 
Béarn, where they labored with success for 
the improvemeut of the country. Margaret 
also paid much attention to the government 
of her duchy of Alengon. She sympathized 
with the reformers, several of whose leaders, 
and especially Calvin, were protected by her 
in Béarn against their persecutors. How far 
she favored the new doctrines is unknown, 
and it has been asserted by adherents of the 
old faith that she admitted, some time before 
her death, that she had been in error, and 
when dying declared that what she had done 
for the reformers was more from compassion 
for them than from ill will to Rome. It is 
certain, however, that the zealous Catholics 
regarded her as a heretic, and that one of her 
works, Le miroir de Vdme pécheresse (1583), 
contains Protestant doctrines. The Sorbonne 
censured it, and it was denounced in other 
ways. Francis was told that if he wished to 
destroy the heretics, he must begin with the 
queen his sister; but he never would allow 
her to be injured, and punished some of those 
by whom she had been insulted, or who had 
sought to poison his mind against her. Mar- 
garet was a voluminous writer in verse and 


155 


prose, and one of her works, the Heptaméron, 
is an old French classic. It was publishéd in 
Paris in 1559 (best ed., 1863), and has been 
translated into English by W. K. Kelly (Lon- 
don, 1855). It is written in imitation of the 
Decamerone of Boccaccio, but was left incom- 
plete at her death, as it contains but 72 tales, 
instead of 100 as originally intended. It is so 
far an original work, that most of the adven- 
tures described befell some of the author’s 
contemporaries. She wrote many poems, 
dramas, poetical epistles, rondeaux, and the 
like, several of which have been printed, while 
others remain in manuscript. Her letters to 
her brother Francis were published in Paris, 
from the originals, in 1842. On the death of 
Francis I. (1547) Margaret, who was much 
afflicted by his loss, became devout, passed 
most of her time in seclusion, and solaced her 
mind with religious thoughts and literary pur- 
suits. Her daughter, Jeanne d’Albret, who 
married Antoine de Bourbon, became the 
mother of Henry of Navarre, afterward Henry 
IV. of France, and founder of the royalty of 
the house of Bourbon. The best life of Mar- 
garet of Navarre is that by Martha Walker 
Freer (2 vols., London, 1854). 

MARGARET, queen and patron saint of Scot- 
land, born in Hungary in 1046, died in Edin- 
burgh, Nov. 17, 10938. She was the niece of 
Edward the Confessor, and daughter of Ed- 
ward, son of Edmund Ironside, and of Agatha, 
daughter of the emperor Henry III. With her 
brother Edgar Atheling and her sister Chris- 
tina she was reared at the court of Hungary till 
1056, when she returned to England. She fled 
to Scotland in 1070 with Edgar, and was re- 
ceived at Dunfermline by King Malcolm Can- 
more, whose wife she became soon afterward. 
Margaret was gentle, pious, learned, and ac- 
complished, and anxious to introduce among 
the people of Scotland a higher civilization. 
She enlightened her husband’s mind and 
soothed his fierce spirit; invited the Scottish 
clergy and monks to a council, in which she 
prevailed on them to adopt the Roman man- 
ner of celebrating Easter; and put into prac- 
tice several wise regulations for the instruc- 
tion of their flocks. She also prevailed on the 
king to encourage commercial intercourse with 
other countries. She regulated the royal house- 
hold, introducing the ceremonial of European 
courts. She was lavish in her charities to the 
poor, and founded a number of churches, work- 
ing with her own hands for their embellish- 
ment. She bestowed her chief care on the 
education of her nine children, especially her 
six sons; the youngest, David I., was called by 
Buchanan ‘the perfect exemplar of a good 
king,” and his sister, Queen Matilda or Maud, 
who founded London bridge, inherited all their 
mother’s virtues. King Malcolm and Edward, 
his eldest son, having been slain before the 
walls of Alnwick, Nov. 13, 1093, the news of 
their death so affected the queen that shes 
died four days afterward (though according to 


156 | MARGARET OF ANJOU 


some she lingered till June 10, 1094). She 
was ‘canonized in 1251 by Innocent IV.; and 
Clement X. in 1673 made her the patron saint 
of Scotland. Her feast is celebrated on June 
10. St. Margaret’s chapel, built in her honor 
by David I., is still visited in the castle of 
Edinburgh. It was restored in 1853, and in 
the chancel are three stained-glass windows 
with portraits of the saint, Malcolm Canmore, 
and David I. The life of St. Margaret was 
written in Latin by her chaplain and confessor, 
Theodoric or Thierry, a monk of Durham; in 
French by Lefebvre (Douai, 1660); and by the 
Bollandists in Acta Sanctorum.—‘ St. Marga- 
ret’s cup” or “‘ draught”? was a custom intro- 
duced by her into the Scottish court for the 
purpose of repressing drunkenness, and con- 
sisted in her filling with her own hand a cup 


of choice wine, of which all partook, with the 


promise to drink no more. After this grace 
was said. This custom became general in 
Great Britain, Flanders, and Germany, several 
popes attaching an indulgence to the “ grace 
cup” on condition that it should be the last 
for that day. This was especially observed by 
guilds and brotherhoods at their yearly ban- 
quets, and many of these indulgenced cups, 
called ‘‘ mazers,” are still preserved. 
MARGARET OF ANJOU, queen of England, 
daughter of René, duke of Lorraine and count 
of Provence, and titular king of Sicily and 
Jerusalem, and of Isabella of Lorraine, born 
at Pont-a-Mousson, March 23, 1429, died at 
the chateau of Dampierre, Aug. 25,1481. Her 
childhood was passed, amid the troubles that 
befell her family, in Italy, France, and Lor- 
raine. Her hand was sought by the count de 
St. Pol and by the count de Nevers. Report 
of her beauty having reached Henry VI. of 
England, from a gentleman of Anjou, who 
acted under the inspiration of Cardinal Beau- 
fort, her portrait was obtained for his inspec- 
tion. This decided the king’s action, and com- 
missioners were appointed to negotiate a truce 
with France and Burgundy. Charles VII. fa- 
vored the marriage, with the view of making 
it the basis of peace. Not only was no dowry 
asked with Margaret, but England ceded An- 
jou and Maine to René, who claimed them as 
his hereditary dominions. The war party in 
England, headed by the duke of Gloucester, 
opposed both the peace and the marriage, but 
the Beaufort party proved victorious; and 
Suffolk, who was elevated to a marquisate, 
married Margaret as Henry’s proxy at Nancy 
in November, 1444. Margaret did not reach 
England until the next April, when her mar- 
riage took place in Titchfield abbey. In 1447 
occurred the death of the duke of Gloucester, 
of which she has been accused by some histo- 
rians. She soon became unpopular, and the 
English connected the loss of their French 
possessions with her marriage. The York 
family, taking advantage of the weakness of 
*the king, aimed to obtain the crown, which 
belonged to their chief by the law of descent. 


Margaret’s only child, Edward, born Oct. 13, 
1453, was said by her enemies to be either 
the offspring of adultery or a supposititious 
child. Prince Edward was born while his 


father was suffering from one of his fits of. 


imbecility, and when the queen was at the 
head of the government. The duke of York 
was made protector, but on the restoration of 
the king’s health he was dismissed, where- 
upon he asserted his right by an appeal to 
arms, and the Yorkists won the first battle of 
St. Albans, which restored them to power. 
Parliament censured the queen and her friends, 
but in 1456 Henry assumed his rights, and the 
government was virtually in Margaret’s hands. 
Personal ill feeling between the queen and the 
earl of Warwick, the most powerful of the 
Yorkist leaders, caused a renewal of the war, 
and the Lancastrians were at first victorious; 
but the Yorkists rallied, defeated their foes, 
and obtained possession of the person of the 
king, who recognized York as his successor. 
Margaret fled with her son, first to Wales, and 
thence to Scotland. Receiving assistance from 
the Scotch, she returned to England, and was 
joined by her supporters in the northern coun- 
ties. York advanced to oppose her, and was 
defeated and slain at Wakefield. Marching to 
London, she defeated Warwick in the second 
battle of St. Albans, and released her husband. 
The Londoners would not admit her into their 
city, but recognized York’s eldest son as king, 
by the title of Edward IV. She retreated 
north, and was followed by Edward. After 
the fatal battle of Towton, March 29, 1461, 
Margaret fled to Scotland with her husband 
and son. Thence she went to France, in the 
hope of obtaining aid from Louis XI., in which 
she met with little success. Pierre de Brezé, 
seneschal of Normandy, armed in her support, 
and by his aid she landed in England, but ac- 
complished nothing, and returned to Scotland. 
There she raised forces and invaded England, 
and at first obtained some successes, but was 
defeated in the battle of Hexham, in 1464. 
She returned again to Scotland, and afterward 
went to Flanders. After remaining some time 
at Bruges, she took up her residence in her 
father’s dominions, where she superintended 
her son’s education, aided by Sir John Fortes 
cue. She visited the French court, at Tours, 
in 1469; and it was under the mediation of 
Louis XI. that a reconciliation between her 
and the earl of Warwick was effected in 1470, 
the earl having broken with Edward IV. and 
fled from England. The earl’s youngest daugh- 
ter, Anne Neville, was betrothed to the queen’s 
son, Edward of Lancaster. Warwick returned 
to England and marched to London; the Lan- 
castrians were for the time triumphant; Ed- 
ward IV. fled to the continent, and Henry VI. 
regained thethrone. Margaret prepared to re- 
turn to England, but contrary winds delayed her 
purpose, and it was not till April 14, 1471, that 
she landed at Weymouth, accompanied by her 
son. Warwick, however, had been defeated 


= 
ae 


MARGARET OF AUSTRIA 


and slain on the same day in the battle of Bar- 
net, and the queen took sanctuary in Beaulieu 
abbey. Some of the Lancastrian leaders, who 
had a strong force, induced her to join them; 
and while seeking to effect a junction with their 
friends in Wales, they were assailed and de- 
feated at Tewkesbury, May 4, 1471, by Edward 
IV. Margaret fell into the hands of the vic- 
tor, her son having previously been slain. Her 
husband was put to death a few weeks later. 
She was imprisoned in the tower, and afterward 
at Windsor and at Wallingford, till Nov. 3, 
1475, when she was ransomed by Louis XI., 
who paid 50,000 crowns for her liberty, her 
father having ceded Provence to him for the 
purpose. She formally renounced all the rights 
her English marriage had given her, and resided 
in deep seclusion at Reculée, near Angers, one 
of the possessions of her father, seldom leaving 
that retreat. Her last days were passed in the 
chateau of Dampierre, to the lord of which 
her father at his death had consigned her.—See 
‘“‘Life and Times of Margaret of Anjou,” by 
Mary Ann Hookham (2 vols., London, 1872). 

MARGARET OF AUSTRIA, daughter of Maxi- 
milian I., emperor of Germany, and of Mary of 
Burgundy, born in the Low Countries, Jan. 10, 
1480, died there, Dec. 1, 1530. Before she was 
three years old she was, by the treaty of Arras, 
concluded between her father and Louis XI. 
of France, affianced to the dauphin, with a 
large territorial dowry. To prepare her for 
her future station, she was educated at the 
French court; but Charles VIII. broke the 
contract, and returned her to her father, in 
order that he might wed Anne of Brittany, 
whom Maximilian himself was seeking in mar- 
riage. This gross insult, which happened in 
1491, was never forgiven by the house of Aus- 
tria. In 1495 a treaty of alliance was made 
between Maximilian and Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella, one of the terms of which was that 
John, prince of the Asturias, and heir appa- 
rent of the Spanish sovereigns, should marry 
Margaret. Sailing for Spain in winter, the 
weather was so stormy that many of the ves- 
sels composing the fleet were wrecked, and 
that which bore the princess was in great dan- 
ger of being lost; but she was so cool that she 
wrote her own epitaph: 


“Ci gist Margot, la gentil’ damoiselle 
Qu’a deux maris, et encore est pucelle.” 


Landing in Spain in March, 1497, Margaret 
was married to Prince John on April 3. Their 
union was of brief endurance, as John died of 
.fever on Oct. 4. In a few months Margaret 
gave birth to a still-born child, and in 1499 she 
returned to the Netherlands. In 1501 she mar- 
ried Philibert the Fair, duke of Savoy, who 
died without issue in 1504. On the death of 
her brother Philip in 1506, she was made re- 
gent of the Netherlands by her father, and su- 
perintendent of the education of her nephew, 
the future emperor Charles V., and his sis- 
ter Mary. She was an able ruler, and was con- 


MARGARET OF PARMA 157 


cerned in some of the principal negotiations 
of that time, proving herself a vindictive ene- 


my of France, and a zealous servant of the 


house of Austria. In connection with Louise 
of Savoy, mother of the king of France, she 
negotiated the treaty of Cambray, in 1529, be- 
tween Francis I. and Charles V., which was 
called the ‘‘ ladies’ peace,” the terms of which 
were most humiliating to the French. Through- . 
out her life she showed a fondness for literary 
pursuits, and wrote well in prose and verse. 

MARGARET OF DENMARK, called the Semi- 
ramis of the North, queen of the united king- 
doms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, born 
in Copenhagen in 1353, died in Flensburg, Oct. 
28, 1412. She was the third daughter of Wal- 
demar III., king of Denmark, and at the age 
of 10 was married to Haco, king of Norway. 
Upon the death in 1387 of Olaf, the offspring 
of this marriage, and the king of Denmark and 
Norway, she procured her election as queen of 
the former kingdom, and by skilful manage- 
ment soon after secured the crown of Norway. 
In 1888 the Swedes, who were oppressed by 
their king Albert, having offered her the throne 
of that kingdom, she defeated Albert, who 
after seven years’ imprisonment was released 
on condition of formally resigning his crown. 
Thenceforth she reigned with absolute author- 
ity. When urged to secure an heir to her 
thrones by another marriage, she promised to 
designate a successor, and at the assembly of 
the estates of the three kingdoms at Calmar, 
in 1397, presented to the deputies her grand- 
nephew Eric as her appointed heir. On this 
occasion, by her eloquence and address, she 
procured the adoption of a fundamental law, 
called the ‘“‘ Union of Calmar,” establishing a 
perpetual union of the three kingdoms. Eric 
was at the same time associated with her in 
the government. Although holding extreme 
opinions on the royal prerogative, Margaret 
was in the main a just, magnanimous, and suc- 
cessful sovereign. 

MARGARET GF PARMA, regent of the Nether- 
lands under Philip IJ. of Spain, born in Brus- 
sels in 1522, died at Ortona, Italy, in 1586. 
She was the natural daughter of Charles V. by 
Margaret van der Geenst, a lady of a noble 
Flemish family in Oudenarde, and received an 
education suited to her rank in the household 
of Mary, queen dowager of Hungary. In 1536 
she became the wife of Alessandro de’ Medici, 
duke of Florence, a man of profligate habits, 
and her senior by about 12 years. Within 
a year of the marriage Alessandro was assas- 
sinated by his kinsman, Lorenzino de’ Medi- 
ci, and the young widow, upon reaching the 
age of 20, was united to Ottavio Farnese, 
then 13 years old, receiving as her dowry the 
duchies of Parma and Piacenza. Toward Far- 
nese she entertained feelings of contempt. 
Her birth, her masculine bearing, her un- 
doubted capacity and training in the astute 
school of Italian politics, and above all her 
orthodoxy in matters of religion, suggested 


158 MARGARET OF VALOIS 


her to Philip, when about to take his depar- 
ture from the Netherlands in 1559, as a suit- 
able person to fill the office of regent of 
those provinces. Her administration, which 
lasted eight years, and witnessed the opening 
scenes in the great revolt of the Netherlands, 
was mild and beneficent in comparison with 
those which followed. She left the Nether- 
lands Dec. 30, 1567, was amply pensioned by 
Philip, and passed the remainder of her life 
chiefly in Italy. Her tastes, including her love 
for the chase, were masculine; and in person- 
al appearance ‘she seemed,” in the language 
of a contemporary historian, ‘like a man in 
petticoats,” the illusion being heightened by a 
somewhat hairy chin and upper lip. She died 
of gout. Alexander Farnese, the great com- 
mander, was her son. 

MARGARET OF VALOIS, queen of France, born 
at St. Germain, May 14, 1553, died in Paris, 
March 27, 1615. She was the daughter of 
Henry II. and of Catharine de’ Medici, and 
was famous for beauty, talents, and profli- 
gacy. The third duke of Guise, Henri de 
Lorraine, would have married her, although 
aware of her vices; but she desired a crown, 
and agreed to become the wife of Sebastian 
of Portugal, a union which was prevented by 
the influence of Spain. In August, 1572, she 
was married to the king of Navarre, after- 
ward Henry IV. of France. Her mother, 
just before the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 
sought her consent to have her marriage with 
a heretic annulled, but this Margaret refused. 
There was no attachment between her and her 
husband, and she hated his religion. A short 
time after he left Paris in 1576 she was per- 
mitted to join him in Béarn, where she re- 
mained five years, tolerating his infidelities, 
though he would not tolerate her religion. In 
1581, on the invitation of her mother, she re- 
turned to the French court. There the prof- 
ligacy of her life drew upon her the condem- 
nation of her brother, Henry III., who com- 
pelled her to return to her husband, by whom 
she was received with bitter reproaches. She 
fled from him, and took up her residence at 
Agen, whence she made war on him as a here- 
tic. That place being taken in 1585, she vain- 
ly sought another asylum, and was seized and 
imprisoned in the fortress of Usson; but her 
arts made her: mistress of the place, from 
which she drove the governor, and held it for 
20 years. She became queen of France in 
1589, on the death of Henry III.; but her hus- 
band, even after his triumph in 1594, refused 
to restore her to freedom until she should 
renounce her rank, to which she would not 
consent until after the death of his mistress, 
Gabrielle d’Estrées. They were divorced in 
1599, but she did not recover her liberty un- 
til some years later. She visited the court 
in 1605, where she did homage to her suc- 
cessor, Maria de’ Medici. The remaining 10 
years of her life were passed in Paris or its 
vicinity. Almost to her last days she led a 


MARHEINEKE 


vicious life; but at length she fell into hypo- 
chondria, and was terrified at the approach 
of death. She founded the convent of the 
Petits Augustins in Paris, and instructed the 
children of the choir in music. Her Mémoires 
(latest ed., Paris, 1860), written by herself, are 
valuable because of the details they contain of 
the last days of the line of Valois. 
MARGARINE, and Margaric Acid. When olive 
oil is cooled down to 82° F. and submitted to 
pressure, a solid residuum is obtained, which, 
when more completely separated from the oily 
portion after melting and slowly cooling to the 
temperature of 55° or 60° by a second pressing, 
is the substance formerly called margarine. It 
dissolves in about 400 times its weight of boil- 
ing alcohol, and separates in pearly scales as 


the alcohol cools; whence its name, from Gr. 


papyapirnc, a pearl. It is also obtained from 
human fat, goose grease, and other fatty sub- 
stances. When saponified it yields an acid in 
the form of white pearly scales or fine needles, 
called margaric acid. This, according to Heintz, 
is a compound of stearic and palmitic acids, 
into which it may be separated. The term 
margaric acid is now restricted to an artificially 
prepared fatty acid having the definite com- 
position C,;Hs,O2. This acid is produced by 
the action of potash on cyanide of cetyle (mar- 
garonitrite). The margarine or margaric acid 
described by Chevreul in 1820 has been shown 
to be a compound of stearic acid and other 
fatty acids of lower melting point. 

MARGARITA, Island of. See Nurva Sparta. 

MARGARITONE D°AREZZO, an Italian artist, 
born in Arezzo about 1236 (according to Wor- 
num; about 1215 according to others), died 
there at the age of 77. He attained great celeb- 
rity in Italy before the time of Cimabue. He 
executed many works in fresco and distemper 
in the churches and convents of Arezzo, in the 
Byzantine style, of which few remains are now 
to be seen. His ‘‘ San Francesco,” however, 
which Vasari calls one of his masterpieces, still 
exists, and bears his inscription. He was more 
celebrated as a sculptor than as a painter, and 
one of his chief works, a reclining statue of 
Pope Gregory X., is still preserved at Arezzo. 

MARGATE, a seaport town of Kent, England, 
on the isle of Thanet, 15 m. N. E. of Canter- 
bury, and 63 m. E. by S. of London; pop. in 
1871, 12,054. The great source of prosperity 
is the visitors in summer, who occasionally 
number, it is said, 100,000. . 

MARGAY. See Oortor. 

MARGRAVE. See Marauis. 

MARHEINEKE, Philipp Konrad, a German . 
theologian, born in Hildesheim, May 1, 1780, 
died in Berlin, May 31, 1846. He was educated 
at Géttingen, and in 1806 became professor 
extraordinary of theology at Erlangen; in 
1809 ordinary professor at Heidelberg; and in 
1811 ordinary professor at Berlin, and pastor 
of the church of the Trinity. The first edition 
of his Grundlehren der christlichen Dogmatih, 
which was founded on the philosophy of Schel- 


MARIA CHRISTINA 


ling, appeared in 1819. The second revised 
edition (Berlin, 1827) was adapted to the He- 
gelian philosophy. His most important his- 
torical work is the Geschichte der deutschen 
Reformation. (4 vols., Berlin, 1816-34), which 
reproduces many documentary records. In 
his Christliche Symbolik (3 vols., Heidelberg, 
1810-14), and his Jnstitutiones Symbolice (3d 
ed., 1830), he took a historical and comparative 
rather than dogmatic view of the principal 
Christian creeds. The practical results of his 
aim to demonstrate the unity and harmony of 
the Scriptures, the church, and the reason ap- 
pear in his Entwurf der praktischen Theologie 
(Berlin, 1837). He published several volumes 
of minor writings and sermons, was one of the 
editors of the works of Hegel, and was prom- 
inent in the controversies excited by the Sym- 
bolik of Mohler, and the mystical tendencies 
of Goérres, both of whom he opposed. 

MARIA CHRISTINA, former queen dowager of 
Spain, born in Naples, April 27, 1806, died 
Aug. 21, 1878. Her father was Francis I. of 
Naples, and her mother Maria Isabella, daugh- 
ter of Charles IV. of Spain. She became the 
fourth wife of Ferdinand VII., Dec. 11, 1829, 
to the consternation of the Carlists, whose hope 
that the childlessness of the king would secure 
to his brother Don Carlos the succession to the 
throne was prostrated by the restoration on 
March 29, 1830, of the law by which the crown 
was made heritable by the female line. Maria 
Christina gave birth to a daughter, afterward 
Isabella II., on Oct. 10, 1830. In October, 1832, 
Maria Christina, at the request of the king, 
took the reins of government into her own 
hands, and courted popularity by promulgating 
a general amnesty two weeks afterward. The 
king resumed the conduct of affairs in Decem- 
ber, but died Sept. 29, 1833. In his will he 
appointed Maria Christina regent and guar- 
dian of Isabella, and of a second daughter, 
Maria Louisa Fernanda, that she had borne to 
him in 1832, and who afterward became the 
wife of Antoine, duke of Montpensier, the 
youngest son of Louis Philippe. Maria Chris- 
tina assumed the regency Oct. 2, 1833. Hav- 
ing conceived a violent passion for Ferdinand 
Mujioz, a private soldier in the royal body 
guard, whose parents had a tobacco shop at 
Tarancon, where he was born, she married him 
secretly, Dec. 28, 18338. Meanwhile she lost 
ground with the people, partly on account of 
her subserviency to the moderado party and to 
France, to which policy she was instigated by 
her ministers Martinez de la Rosa and Toreno, 
but chiefly owing to her clandestine relations 
with Mufioz. The new charter granted by her 
was far from giving satisfaction to the proy- 
inces, which revolted. In the night of Aug. 
13, 1836, a detachment of the provincial mili- 
tia, led by ewaltados, entered her palace of La 
Granja near Madrid, and after being joined by 
a corps of the guards stationed in the palace, 
they compelled the queen regent to dismiss her 
Ininisters and swear to the constitution of 

5382 VoL. x1.—I11 


MARIA II. DA GLORIA 159 


1812; and a new constitution was promulgated 
in June, 1837. Her position, however, con- 
tinued precarious. The ministers, Zea Bermu- 
dez, Toreno, Martinez de la Rosa, and Isturiz, 
who were successively at the head of affairs, 
were unable to restore her popularity. This 
received the greatest blow from her decree, 
issued June 15, 1840, in obedience to French 
influence, which put an end to the old mu- 
nicipal liberties of Spain. The people rushed 
to arms, and she abdicated on Oct. 12 in favor 
of Espartero as regent, and repaired to Paris. 
After the downfall of Espartero, she returned 
to Madrid in 1844, and on Oct. 13 she cele- 
brated her marriage with Mufioz in public, on 
which occasion she created him duke of Rian- 
zares. Though Isabella had been declared of 
age, she continued to intermeddle in public 
affairs till 1854, when she was expelled from 
Spain by a new revolutionary movement. 
She retired with her husband and their ten 
children to France, where she had purchased 
the chateau of La Malmaison, which she sold 
to Napoleon III. in 1861. She then removed 
to Paris, though residing part of the time 
at Beaumont lodge, near Windsor, England, 
which she subsequently sold to the Jesuits to 
be used as a college. In September, 1864, she 
returned to Madrid, where she remained till 
she was driven out with Isabella by the revo- 
lution of September, 1868, when she went back 
to Paris. Her husband Mufioz died near Havre, 
Sept. 12, 1873. 

MARIA Il. DA GLORIA, queen of Portugal, 
born in Rio Janeiro, April 4, 1819, died in Lis- 
bon, Noy. 15,1853. Her mother, a daughter of 
the emperor Francis I. of Austria, and her grand- 
father, John VI. of Portugal, both died in 1826, 
when her father succeeded as Pedro 1V.; but 
having been made emperor of Brazil in 1822 as 
Pedro I., he ceded the Portuguese throne to his 
infant daughter (May 2, 1826), whom he wished 
to marry his brother Dom Miguel. But the 
latter, having succeeded (Feb. 26, 1828) his 
sister the princess Maria as regent during 
his niece’s minority, usurped the crown four 
months afterward, before the queen’s arrival in 
Portugal. Her rights were not established un- 
til after his final overthrow through a protract- 
ed civil war, and she was formally recognized 
as queen in September, 1834. In January, 
1835, she married Duke Augustus of Leuchten- 
berg, who died two months afterward. In the 
following year she became the wife of Prince 
Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, to whom she bore 
three sons (the late king Pedro V., the pres- 
ent king Louis I., and Prince Augustus) and 
two daughters. At the instigation of her dic- 
tatorial prime minister Costa-Cabral, she sub- 
stituted in 1842 the reactionary charter of 
1826 for the liberal constitution of 1820, which 
she had formally adopted in 1838; but Costa- 
Cabral and his brother were driven from pow- 
er by an insurrection in 1846, and the deposi- 
tion of Maria was prevented only by foreign 
intervention. She discarded Saldanha in 1849 


160 MARIA DE’ MEDICI 


to reappoint Costa-Cabral; and she insisted 
upon retaining his services despite his resigna- 
tion in consequence of the adverse vote in the 
cortes in February, 1851, and consented to dis- 
pense with them only after Saldanha had set 
on foot a revolution for his rival’s overthrow. 
Saldanha remained prime minister until after 
the queen’s death. 

MARIA DE’ MEDICI, queen of France, daugh- 
ter of Francis I., grand duke of Tuscany, and 
of the archduchess Johanna of Austria, born in 
Florence, April 26, 15738, died in Cologne, July 
3, 1642. She was educated in utter seclusion, 
and knew nothing beyond the circle of the 
Florentine court, when, in 1599, her hand was 
asked for Henry IV. of France of her uncle, 
Ferdinand I., grand duke of Tuscany. Her 
marriage with Henry had been contemplated 
seven years before; though but for the inter- 
position of Philip I. of Spain she would have 
married the duke of Parma. She was married 
in 1600, and in 1601 gave birth to the first 
dauphin who had been born since 1548, and 
who became Louis XIII. Maria had great 
cause to complain of the infidelities of her hus- 
band, and her domestic life was full of bick- 
erings. Henry often threatened to send her 
back to Italy, with her favorites the Concinis, 
by whom she was ruled. Her coronation did 
not take place till May 13, 1610, the day be- 
fore her husband was assassinated. By the 
‘aid of the duke of Epernon, colonel-general of 
‘the French guard, she became regent. She got 
rid of the prime minister Sully, and soon her 
government became one of the worst ever 
known in France. The Concinis were put 
to death in 1617, and she was herself exiled 
to Blois, her son being the chief of .her ene- 
mies. She was freed from prison by Eper- 
non, and a reconciliation was effected be- 
tween her and Louis, chiefly through the aid 
of Richelieu, and by the same assistance Maria 
maintained her ascendancy at court for some 
years. Becoming jealous of Richelieu, she 
sought to overthrow his power, but was de- 
' feated and imprisoned in 1631. Escaping to the 
Netherlands, she remained there till 1638, and 
was concerned in many intrigues against the 
government of Richelieu. She then went to 
England, where her daughter Henrietta Maria 
was queen. Charles I. unsuccessfully endeav- 
ored to prevail upon the French government to 
allow her to return to France; and she became 
so unpopular in England that the long parlia- 
ment requested her to leavethe kingdom. She 
departed in August, 1641, parliament giving her 
£3,000, and promising her £6,000 more. .She 
went to Antwerp, and took up her residence 
in the house of Rubens, whose patron she had 
been. After residing there for some weeks, 
she was ordered to leave Antwerp, and to pro- 
ceed to Cologne, where she arrived Oct. 12. 
Here she finally died in comparative destitu- 
tion, in a squalid chamber. 

MARIA LOUISA, second wife of Napoleon I. 
See Bonaparte, vol. iii., p. 47. 


MARIA THERESA 


MARIANA, Juan, a Spanish historian, born in 
Talavera in 1536, died in Toledo, Feb. 6, 1623. 
He was educated at the university of Alcala, 
and when 17 years of age joined the society 
of Jesus. In 1561 he was appointed professor 
of theology in the Jesuit college at Rome. 
He afterward lectured on divinity in Sicily and 
Paris, and finally retired to the Jesuit house in 
Toledo. Having been employed to examine 
the polyglot Bible, edited by Arias Montanus 
at Antwerp in 1569-’72, which had been de- 
nounced to the inquisition, he returned a fa- 
vorable opinion of it, which brought upon him 
the displeasure of his superiors. His arrange- 
ment of the Jndex Hxepurgatorius of 1584, and 
still more his work De Rege et Regis Institu- 
tione (Toledo, 1599), in which he intimates that 
unrighteous kings and usurpers may be put to 
death, were also displeasing. In Paris, where 
Henry III. had been assassinated a few years 
before, the latter work was condemned to be 
burned by the common hangman. It aroused 
a violent controversy, and brought great popu- 
lar odium upon the order to which Mariana 
belonged. In 1609 he published at Cologne 
‘Seven Theological and Historical Treatises,” 
two of which, ‘‘On Mortality and Immortal- 
ity” and De Alteratione Moneta (denouncing 
the falsification of the coinage by the king of 
Spain’s ministers), were censured by the inqui- 
sition, and the author was subjected to impris- 
onment and penance. To the ‘History of 
Spain” he devoted the last 30 or 40 years of 
his life. It was published in Latin (1592-1609) 
and Spanish (1601; enlarged ed., 1628), and 
extends from the supposed peopling of Spain 
by Tubal, son of Japheth, to the accession of 
Charles V., with a summary of later events, 
down to 1621. The best edition is the 14th 
(2 vols. fol., Madrid, 1780). There is an Eng- 
lish translation by Steevens (London, 1699). 
Among his other works are Scholia Brevia in 
Vetus et Novum Testamentum (Madrid, 1619), 
and Discursus de Hrroribus qui in Forma Gu- 
bernationis Societatis Jesu occurrunt, published 
after his death and of disputed authenticity 
(Bordeaux, 1625). 

MARIANNA, a city of Brazil, in the province 
of Minas Geraes, between the rivers Caruco 
and Seminario, 170 m. N. by W. of Rio de 
Janeiro; pop. about 7,000. It is situated at an 
elevation of 3,000 ft. above the sea, between two 
mountains, that to the east, Itacolumi, being 
nearly 6,000 ft. high. There are two large 
squares, seven fountains, and a bridge of asingle 
arch crossing a torrent which runs through the 
centre of the town. There are eight churches, 
including a cathedral, a hospital, court house, 
and prison. Outside the town are an episcopal 
palace andaseminary. The climate is temper- 
ate and salubrious. Mining and agriculture are 
the principal occupations of the inhabitants, 

MARIANNE ISLES. See Lapronss. 

MARIA THERESA, a German empress, and 
queen of Hungary and Bohemia, born in Vien- 
na, May 18, 1717, died there, Nov. 29, 1780. 


MARIA THERESA 


She was the daughter of the emperor Charles 
VI. of Hapsburg, whose principal aim during a 
long reign seemed to be to secure to his heiress 
the succession to all the hereditary dominions 
of his house. By ample cessions of territory 
to various princes of Europe, he finally at- 
tained a general acknowledgment, though not 
by the Bourbons, of the “‘ pragmatic sanction ;” 
and Maria Theresa, a princess of rare beauty 
and talents, received not only an education 
fitting her future condition, but was also early 
initiated into the secrets of state and admitted 
to the council of her father. In 1736 she was 
married to Francis Stephen of Lorraine, after- 
ward grand duke of Tuscany, and eventually 
German emperor under the name of Francis I., 
who was always glad to leave affairs of state 
to his consort, while he employed himself in 
profitable private speculations. Charles died 
Oct. 20, 1740, and at once, in spite of the prag- 
matic sanction, claimant after claimant raised 
pretensions to the whole or parts of his posses- 
sions. The young princess saw herself sur- 
rounded by enemies. Frederick the Great of 
Prussia occupied Silesia; Charles Albert of Ba- 
varia was elected emperor under the name of 
Charles VII.; Spain, Sardinia, and Augustus 
III. of Poland and Saxony threatened to en- 
force various claims by force of arms; and 
France, which had no rights of succession of 
its own, was ready to support those of others. 
George II. of England alone proved a faithful 
ally. At the diet-of Presburg in 1741 she put 
herself and her infant son Joseph under the 
protection of the Hungarians, who promised to 
die for their “king” Maria Theresa; and their 
enthusiasm became a support powerful beyond 
allexpectation. Frederick made peace at Bres- 
lau (1742), retaining Silesia, which he had con- 
quered; but Charles VII. lost even his own 
dominion, Bavaria. This success of the Aus- 
trian arms, however, raised the apprehensions 
of Frederick, and the second Silesian war en- 
sued (1744), France simultaneously declaring 
war against England. Louis XV. himself ap- 
peared on the field, and Marshal Saxe won battle 
after battle in the Netherlands; Frederick, too, 
was successful. Saxony, however, was now 
the ally of Maria Theresa. Charles VII. died 
soon after reéntering his capital Munich, and 
his son and successor not only renounced all 
his claims, but also supported the election of 
Maria Theresa’s husband to the imperial throne 
of Germany (1745). Frederick, confirmed in 
the possession of Silesia, made peace at Dres- 
den (1745). The war against Spain and France 
was continued, Marshal Saxe being victorious at 
Fontenoy (1745), Raucoux (1746), and Lawfeldt 
(1747), while England was successful against 
the pretender, in the colonies, and on the seas. 
Elizabeth of Russia declaring for Maria Theresa, 


the war was terminated by the peace of Aix- 


la-Chapelle (1748), Austria ceding Parma, Pia- 
cenza, and Guastalla to Don Philip, prince of 
Spain, and some districts of the duchy of Milan 
to Sardinia. Maria Theresa now turned her 


MARICOPA 161 


principal attention to the internal affairs of 
her states. Following chiefly the advice of her 
minister Kaunitz, she introduced numerous re- 
forms, organized the administration, alleviated 
the burdens of the peasantry, abolished tor- 
ture, created various institutions of learning, 
promoted industry and trade, and, though a 
zealous Catholic herself, subjected the papal 
bulls to the placet regium. In regard to Hun- 
gary, she observed a mild but slowly dena- 
tionalizing policy. The external diplomacy of 
Kaunitz was also active, and when he finally 
succeeded in gaining over with Mme. de Pom- 
padour the court of France, in addition to the 
alliance of Russia and the house of Saxony, 
Frederick sought and obtained the alliance of 
England, and the seven years’ war began (1756), 
of which the Prussian monarch became the 
hero, Laudon and Daun being his most effec- 
tive Austrian antagonists. The war extended 
to almost all parts of the world, from the coast 
of Coromandel to Canada, and nearly all pow- 
ers partook in it. The double peace of Paris 
and Hubertsburg (1763) terminated it to the 
advantage of Prussia and England, Frederick 
remaining now undisputed master of Silesia, 
Two years later Francis I. died, and was suc- 
ceeded in the empire by his son Joseph II., and 
in Tuscany by Leopold, their sister Marie An- 
toinette being afterward married to the future 
French king Louis XVI. Joseph, however, 
enjoyed in the hereditary states of his mother 
only the rights of a co-regent, though his in- 
fluence generally prevailed in foreign affairs, as 
in the case of the annexation of Galicia at the 
first division of Poland (1772), and of Buko- 
wina from Turkey (1777). The peace of Te- 
schen (1779) terminated, according to the ener- 
getic decision of the old empress, the war of 
the Bavarian succession. A monument 60 ft. 
high, representing Maria Theresa surrounded 
by the principal statesmen of her time, is to 
be completed at Vienna in 1875. Her corre- 
spondence, comprising several previously un- 
known letters, has been published in French 
by Alfred von Arneth (8 vols., Paris, 1874). 

MARIA-THERESIOPEL. See SzapapKa. 

MARIAZELL, a village in Styria, Austria, 55 
m. S. W. of Vienna (pop. about 1,000), situated 
in a picturesque country, and celebrated.for its 
shrine of the Virgin, which makes it the-prin- 
cipal resort of pilgrims in the Austrian »mon- 
archy. From May to September there.are 80 
great processions from different parts of Aus- 
tria, and the number of pilgrims annually is 
estimated at 250,000. 

MARICOPA, a central county of Arizona, 
bounded E. by New Mexico and S, by the Gila 
river, and intersected by the Salt river and 
other tributaries of the Gila; area, about 14,500 
sq. m. It has been recently formed, and is 
not included in the census of 1870. The set- 
tlements are chiefly in the valley of Salt river, 
one of the largest and most productive in the 
territory. Irrigation is practised, the river 
supplying abundant water. The chief crops 


162 MARICOPAS 


are wheat, barley, and Indian corn. The val- 
ley of the Gila also contains large tracts of 
land suited to agriculture, and the table lands 
and mountains adjacent furnish good pasture 
throughout the year. The E. portion is gen- 
erally broken and mountainous, but is watered 
by a number of streams, and contains much 
timber. Gold, silver, copper, and lead exist in 
most of the mountain ranges. The Apaches 
_ have held possession of the greater portion of 
the county. Capital, Phoenix. 

MARICOPAS. See Coco—Marroopas. 

MARIE, Charles Frangois Maximilien, a French 
mathematician, born in Paris, Jan. 1, 1819. 
He left the military school of Metz in 1841, 
and has since devoted himself to researches in 
the most abstruse parts of mathematical science. 


His methods were for a long time the subject’ 


of ridicule, notwithstanding they had been 
approved by M. Lamé and M. Poncelet. In 
1858 M. Léonville gave him the use of the 
columns of his mathematical journal to explain 
his discoveries; and in 1863, after violent op- 
position, he was appointed an examiner in the 
polytechnic school. He has published Legons 
@Marithmétique (Paris, 1860), and Legons d’alge- 
bre (1860), treating the theory of the quantities 
called imaginary, and Questions sociales (1869). 

MARIE AMELIE, queen of the French, born 
at Oaserta, near Naples, April 26, 1782, died 
at Claremont, near Windsor, England, March 
24, 1866. Her father was Ferdinand [., king 
of the Two Sicilies, and her mother Carolina 
Maria, archduchess of Austria. Her brother 
succeeded to the throne of Naples, and her 
four sisters were respectively empress of Aus- 
tria, grand duchess of Tuscany, queen of Sar- 
dinia, and queen of Spain. In 1798, when 
Naples was invaded by the French, she retired 
with her mother to Palermo. In June, 1800, 
she went to Vienna, and returned in 1802 
to Naples, but renewed political outbreaks 
forced the royal family to return to Palermo. 
There she became acquainted in 1808 with 
Louis Philippe, whose wife she became, Nov. 
25, 1809. She continued to reside at Palermo 
till the restoration called her husband to Paris 
in September, 1814. The events of the hun- 
dred days soon compelled her and her family 
to take refuge in England. She returned to 
France in 1817, and from that time to 1830 re- 
sided at Neuilly. Her legitimist tendencies led 
her to view with regret the revolution of 1830, 
and she manifested a repugnance, based on 
scruples, to Louis Philippe’s acceptance of the 
crown. After his accession Marie Amélie de- 
voted herself exclusively to domestic life, and 
was remarkable for her charities, accomplish- 
ments, and piety. In 1848 she implored Louis 
Philippe not to abdicate; but when further 
resistance was useless she accompanied him to 
tvreux, where for safety she separated from 
him, rejoined him at Honfleur, and accompa- 
nied him to Claremont, where she took the title 
of countess of Neuilly.—See Vie de Marie--Amé- 
lie, reine des #rangais, by Trognon (Paris, 1871). 


MARIE ANTOINETTE 


MARIE ANTOINETTE, Joséphe Jeanne de Lor- 
Taine, queen of France, born in Vienna, Nov. 2, 
1755, executed in Paris, Oct. 16, 1793. She was 
the youngest daughter of the emperor Francis 
I. (who died in 1765) and Maria Theresa. Her 
marriage with the French dauphin, the future 
Louis XVI., was early determined upon by her 
mother, with a view of strengthening Austria 
against Prussia. The princess was brought up 
in the unconventional manner of the imperial 
family circle; but while taught to be natural 
and unaffected, her attainments were not above 
the superficiality of merely fashionable accom- 
plishments. French actors taught her elocu- 
tion; a Frenchman instructed her in dancing; 
and though Maria Theresa inculcated in her 
mind solid moral principles, she regarded the 
rather frivolous character of her education as 
necessary to qualify her for the French throne. 
The abbé de Vermond, a worthless person, was 
brought in 1769 from Paris as her tutor, and 
afterward became her reader. She went to 
France in her 15th year, and was enthusiasti- 
cally received all along the journey, and espe- 
cially at Strasburg by the prince de Rohan, 
then coadjutor of his uncle the cardinal, who 
afterward, as ambassador in Vienna, shocked 
Maria Theresa by his levity and dissipations, 
and who subsequently, while cardinal and roy- 
al chaplain, implicated Marie Antoinette in the 
affair of the diamond necklace. Her marriage 
with the dauphin was celebrated at Versailles, 
May 16, 1770, and was followed by sumptuous 
festivities, marred however by a number of cas- 
ualties, involving the loss of several lives, which 
were regarded by the superstitious as ominous. 
The powerful anti-Austrian party at the court, 
and the daughters of Louis XV., as well as 
Mme. du Barry, the king’s mistress, were un- 
friendly to the new dauphiness, though the 
old king himself was pleased with her vivaci- 
ty. But this peculiar trait of her character, 
and her dislike of the restraints of court life, 
alienated from her the rigid upholders of eti- 
quette among the nobility, while no greater con- 
trast could be imagined than that between the 
joyous and impulsive young princess, fond 
of pleasure, excitement, and society, and her 
grave, sedate, and ungainly, though good-na- 
tured and upright husband, who delighted 
chiefly in mechanical pursuits, and in a life 
of good fare, seclusion, and meditation. She 
was consequently left to drift along in a so- 
cial set including many persons of inferior 
moral culture, who encouraged her in indis- 
cretions which were misconstrued and injured 
the popularity which her youth and fascina- 
ting manners had at first gained for her. Af- 
ter her husband’s accession to the throne 
(May 10, 1774), her charities enlisted popular 
sympathy for a time, but her wayward con- 
duct, which occasionally wore a coloring of 
positive impropriety, was grossly exaggerated 
by her detractors. Yet, though her admirers 
were numerous, she gave no cause of com- 
plaint to her husband, with whom she lived 


MARIE ANTOINETTE 


in perfect harmony, and to whom she bore 
four children. Louis XVI. humored and hon- 
ored her, while she, without deep feelings of 
love, never ceased to respect him. According 
to the best authorities, she led a virtuous life 
in the midst of vicious associations. But the 
haughty spirit of her race, which asserted itself 
occasionally despite her general urbanity, could 
not always be reconciled with her fondness for 
familiar intercourse and her desire to please. 
Shortly after she became queen she conceived 
a warm friendship for the princess de Lamballe, 
and insisted upon restoring for her benefit the 
office of superintendent of the queen’s house- 
hold. This entailed additional expense, and 
gave offence to her former ladies in waiting, 
who resigned, while other ladies of the court 
declined to serve under the princess. At the 
same time she was on bad terms with her 
brother-in-law the count of Provence (after- 
ward Louis XVIII.), the prince de Condé, and 
the duke of Orleans, and she made bitter ene- 
mies of many of the women of easy virtue 
who had flourished under Louis XV., and 
whom she discarded. Yet while setting such 
examples, she was forbearing toward the fail- 
ings of some of her own favorites; and this 
want of consistency strengthened her enemies, 
who made every effort to injure her in public 
estimation. In this they succeeded, especially 
after the sensation produced by the affair of 
the necklace (1785), in which Marie Antoinette 
was scandalously implicated by the woman 
Lamotte and the cardinal de Rohan, and for 
which the two latter were imprisoned. (See 
LamortrTs-Vatois.) Nothing could be proved 
against Marie Antoinette, who exerted herself 
to alleviate the condition of the prisoner La- 
motte, whose husband, and she herself after- 
ward, overwhelmed the queen with defama- 
tions. This affair became a convenient weapon 
in the hands of the queen’s enemies. Her 
famous parties at the Trianon were described 
as orgies, and her fondness for private the- 
atricals and for unceremonial balls and amuse- 
ments became pretexts for atrocious calumnies. 
At the same time she was denounced as hos- 
tile to France, and as solely laboring in the 
interest of Austria. Ever since the birth of 
the first dauphin (1781) she had been charged, 
and not without some reason, with mixing her- 
self up too much with politics. But at length 
she was accused of being the cause of all the 
national and financial troubles; of having pro- 
- cured vast sums for her brother, the emperor 
Joseph II.; of having helped the Polignac 
family to grow rich at the expense of the state; 
and of warmly supporting the administration 
of the unpopular Calonne, who gratified all her 
caprices, and whose influence became para- 
mount after the death of Vergennes (1787). 
Marie Antoinette was often admonished by her 
brother Joseph, as she had been by her mother, 
who were especially alarmed at her loss of 
prestige consequent upon her over-familiar in- 
tercourse with the Polignacs and other friends, 


163 


Many sarcastic songs were circulated in Paris, 
in which she was held up to ridicule and op- 
probrium. Her opposition to the assembling 
of the notables for the consideration of the 
financial situation confirmed the popular pre- 
judices against her, and she was nicknamed 
Madame Déficit. The aid afforded to the 
American colonies, of which she was an en- 
thusiastic advocate, had been an additional 
source of financial embarrassment. In fact, 
she wrote to one of her friends, April 9, 
1787: ‘Dearly enough do we pay to-day for 
our rejoicing and enthusiasm over the Amer- 
ican war.” Calonne was removed at her in- 
stigation, and replaced by Loménie de Bri- 
enne, archbishop of Toulouse, a prelate fond 
of theatricals and puerilities, and an especial 
favorite of the queen. She joined him in a 
strenuous opposition to Necker’s suggestion of 
a convocation of the states general, which was 
taken up by Lafayette and by public opinion 
as the only alternative to revolution. But, 
frightened at the tumults in Paris and other 
places, she at last prevailed upon the prime 
minister to issue a decree (Aug. 8, 1788) for 
the meeting of the states general in May, 
1789. The king continued to lead his placid 
life, while the queen controlled affairs of state. 
Loménie de Brienne having lost her confi- 
dence, she placed Necker at the head of the 
cabinet. But the outbreak of the political 
storm which was gathering round the mon- 
archy:was accelerated by her want of earnest- 
ness and sincerity in the proposed creation of 
a third estate, which she regarded as a death- 
blow to the nobility and as a menace to the 
throne. At the opening of the states general, 
May 5, 1789, she was received in a manner 
which deeply offended her pride; and so low 
had she already sunk in public estimation that 
the habitual expression of sympathy on occa- 
sions of bereavement in the royal family were 
withheld by that body on.the death of her first- 
born son, the dauphin, June 4, 1789. During 
the subsequent political developments the count 
de la Marck in vain appealed to her to come to 
an understanding with Mirabeau, to which she 
replied that her husband would probably never 
become so miserable as to be obliged to resort 
to such an expedient; but at a later period, 
when she in her turn in vain attempted to 
conciliate Mirabeau, she exclaimed that it was 
her destiny to make mischief. Appalled at 
the signs of the times, and at the detestation 
in which she was held by the populace, she led 
an uneasy life at the Trianon till Oct. 5, 1789, 
when that palace was invaded by the mob, 
from whose violence she only escaped by her 
own intrepidity. While she fully recognized 


the peril of the situation, the king consented 


to accompany the populace to Paris, a step 
which she regarded. as fatal, and she very re- 
luctantly went with him and their children. 
Feeling that her unpopularity aggravated the 
difficulties of her husband’s position, she now 
strove to remain in the background, but still 


164 MARIE ANTOINETTE 


virtually continued to control affairs; and as 
some of her measures conflicted with those 
urged by the king’s other advisers, many cross 
purposes increased the prevailing uncertainty 
and confusion. She was unable, and the king 
was too lethargic, to secure the codperation of 
competent statesmen in building up a constitu- 
tional monarchy, which might perhaps have 
saved the throne. Despairing at last, she ob- 
tained Mirabeau’s consent, shortly before his 
death, to the flight of the royal family, which 
ended so ignominiously (1791). During the 
insurrection of June 20, 1792, Madame Blisa- 
beth, the devoted sister of the king, was mis- 
taken for Marie Antoinette by the mob, who 
shouted bas 1 Autrichienne. The people 
had long been made by her adversaries to be- 


lieve that she was surrounded by a so-called 


Austrian cabinet, which was planning the ruin 
of France; andthe mourning at the court over 
the death of Marie Antoinette’s brother, the 
emperor Leopold, which began March 13, 1792, 
was jeered at and turned into public rejoicing. 
During the attack upon the Tuileries, June 20, 
she overawed the coarse women who came to 
insult her by her firm and noble attitude, 
which she also displayed on Aug. 10, when the 
palace was sacked, and she and her family took 
refuge in the national assembly, though she 
long declined to leave the Tuileries, imploring 
the king rather to nail her to the walls of the 
palace. On Aug. 13 the royal family was re- 
moved to the Temple prison, where she was 
separated from her friends, including Mme. de 
Lamballe, who soon fell a victim to the Septem- 
ber massacre, and whose bleeding head was 
paraded before the queen’s windows. She was 
also speedily separated from her husband, and 
did not see him again till Jan. 20, 1798, the eve 
of his execution. In the night of Aug. 1-2, 
when she was removed to the Conciergerie, she 
took leave of Madame Elisabeth and of her 
daughter; and having long prepared herself 
for her inevitable fate, she bore all her agonies 
with stoical fortitude. Before the revolutionary 
tribunal (Oct. 14), she showed the same calm- 
ness and resignation. Instead of vindicating 
herself, as her husband had attempted to do, 
she hardly condescended to reply, excepting in 
the most laconic manner, to the questions put 
to her; and she demonstrated by her attitude 
that she regarded the trial as a farce and her 
death sentence as a foregone conclusion. Only 
when she was accused by Hébert (Pére Du- 
chesne), the principal witness against her, of 
having debauched her own boy, who had slept 
in the same bed with her and Madame Elisa- 
beth, her indignant denial of that accusation, 
and appeal to all the mothers present, struck 
conviction into the minds of the most obdu- 
rate. Even Fouquier-Tinville, the public pros- 
ecutor, and the most infuriated women seemed 
to sympathize for once with the unfortunate 
queen. The trial lasted two days. She insist- 
ed that nothing was proved against her, and 
that she had only done her duty as a wife in 


MARIENWERDER 


obeying her husband. She was found guilty of 
having conspired against France abroad and 
at home, and sentenced to death at 4 A. M., 
Oct. 16. She was then taken to a cell of con- 
demned prisoners at the Conciergerie, where 
she immediately wrote a touching and spirited 
letter to Madame Elisabeth, which has been 
preserved. Girard, the metropolitan vicar, 
having been sent to her by the authorities to 
attend her last moments, he besonght her to 
dedicate her life to God in expiation of her 
crimes; to which she replied that he should 
speak of her mistakes, but never of her crimes, 
Dressed in plain white, and having cut off her 
beautiful blonde hair with her own hands, she 
was conveyed to the guillotine like other vic- 
tims, only that more than 30,000 soldiers were 
stationed in the streets, and that the cries of 
Vive la république! A bas la tyrannie! were 
incessant. She showed neither haughtiness nor 
humility in her bearing, stepped with firmness 
upon the scaffold, and her head fell at 12.15 
P.M. Her remains were interred in the ceme- 
tery of the Madeleine, by the side of those of 
Louis XVI. In 1815 they were removed to the 
vaults of St. Denis.—The most faithful likeness 
of Marie Antoinette is the portrait by the Swe- 
dish painter Rossline. It was also drawn by 
Mme. Vigée-Lebrun, who published souvenirs of 
the queen. Seealso Mémoires sur la vie privée 
de Marie- Antoinette, by Mme. Campan (Paris, 
1826); Histoire de Marie-Antoinette, by Ed- 
mond and Jules de Goncourt (1859); Maria 
Theresa und Marie Antoinette: Ihr Briefwech- 
sel wihrend der Jahre 1770-80 (Vienna, 1865), 
and Marie Antoinette, Joseph II. und Leopold 
IT.: Ihr Briefwechsel (Vienna, 1866), both by 
Alfred von Arneth. Arneth’s Correspondance 
de Marie-Thérése (8 vols., Paris, 1874) shows 
that Marie Antoinette was constantly watched 
by her mother, through secret agents, with a 
view of protecting her. 

MARIENBAD, a watering place in Bohemia, 
20 m. 8. 8S. W of Carlsbad, and 76 m. W. by 
S. of Prague; pop. about 1,000. It contains 
a number of mineral springs, beneficial for dis- 
eases of the chest, bowels, and skin, as well as 
for rheumatic complaints, and is annually vis- 
ited by thousands of persons. The waters of 
some of the springs, particularly of the Kreuz- 
brunnen, are largely exported to foreign coun- 
tries. The watering place is of comparatively 
recent origin, and was opened out of the forest 
which covered its site in 1810. 

MARIENBURG, a town of Prussia, in the 
province of West Prussia, on the Nogat, 28 m. 
S. E. of Dantzic; pop. in 1871, 8,235. It has 
a& gymnasium, a normal school, and an institu- 
tion for the deaf and dumb. The castle, which 


‘was formerly the seat of the grand master of 


the Teutonic order, was restored in 181724, 
The town remained with the Teutonic order 
till 1457, when Poland took possession. In 
1772 it was united with Prussia. 
MARIENWERDER, a town of Prussia, capital 
of an administrative district in the province of 


MARIES 


West Prussia, on the Little Nogat, 45 m. 8S. E. 
of Dantzic; pop. in 1871, 7,172. It is one of 
the most beautiful towns of eastern Germany, 
has a large cathedral church, a gymnasium, a 
hospital for blind soldiers, and an ancient cas- 
tle which is now used as a prison. The most 
important branches of industry are woollen 
cloth weaving, brewing, and distilling. 

MARIES, a 8. central county of Missouri, in- 
tersected by the Gasconade river; area, about 
500 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 5,916, of whom 22 
were colored. The surface is broken and gen- 
erally well timbered; the soil of the valleys is 
fertile, that of the uplands poor. Iron, lead, 
and copper are found. The chief productions 
in 1870 were 79,243 bushels of wheat, 163,479 
of Indian corn, 72,075 of oats, 8,887 of pota- 
toes, 17,672 lbs. of tobacco, 15,152 of wool, 
and 41,633 of butter. There were 2,720 
horses, 466 mules and asses, 1,998 milch cows, 
4,337 other cattle, 8,095 sheep, and 10,759 
swine. Capital, Vienna. 

MARIETTA, a city and the capital of Washing- 
ton co., Ohio, at the confluence of the Ohio 
and Muskingum rivers, and at the terminus of 
the Marietta and Cincinnati and the Marietta, 
Pittsburgh, and Cleveland railroads, 85 m. E. 
S. E. of Columbus; pop. in 1850, 3,175; in 
1860, 4,323; in 1870, 5,218. Including Har- 
mar, which is part of the town, the popula- 
tion is over 7,000. It is regularly laid out, 
with wide streets and neatly built houses. 
On the site of the city there is a remarkable 
group of ancient works, which are described 
in Squier and Davis’s ‘“‘ Ancient Monuments 
of the Mississippi Valley” as consisting of 
“two irregular squares (one containing 40 
acres area, the other about 20 acres), in con- 
nection with a graded or covered way, and 
sundry mounds and truncated pyramids. The 
town of Marietta is laid out over them, and, in 
the progress of improvement, the walls have 
been considerably reduced and otherwise much 
obliterated; yet the outlines of the entire 
works may still be traced. The walls of the 
principal square, where they remain undis- 
turbed, are now between 5 and 6 ft. high by 
20 or 30 ft. base; those of the smaller enclo- 
sure are somewhat less. The entrances or 
gateways at the sides of the latter are each 
covered by a small mound placed interior to 
the embankment; at the corners the gateways 
are in line with it. The larger work is desti- 
tute of this feature, unless we class as such an 
interior crescent wall covering the entrance at 
its southern angle.” Marietta has considerable 
trade in petroleum, which is obtained in the 
vicinity, and contains several iron founderies, 
manufactories of buckets, chairs, &c., a union 
bank, and two national banks. It is the seat 
of Marietta college, the grounds of which oc- 
cupy a square, and contain four buildings. 
This institution was established in 1835, and 
in 1873-4 had 11 professors and instructors, 
182 students (93 in the collegiate and the rest 
in the preparatory department), 360 alumni, 


MARIETTE 165 


and libraries containing 25,000 volumes. The 
city has flourishing graded schools, including a 
high school, three weekly newspapers (one 
German), and 15 churches. Marietta is the 
oldest town in the state, having been settled in 
1788 by New Englanders under Gen. R. Put- 
nam, and named in honor of Marie Antoinette. 

MARIETTE, Auguste Edouard, a French Egyp- 
tologist, born in Boulogne, Feb. 11, 1821. He 
was educated at the college of Boulogne, in 
which he was subsequently a teacher of gram- 
mar and of drawing. He early became inter- 
ested in antiquities, and his first publication, 
Lettres d M. Bouillet (Paris, 1847), was a dis- 
sertation on the names of the cities that had 
formerly occupied the site of Boulogne. Egyp- 
tian hieroglyphics attracted his attention, and 
by the aid of books he became so well versed 
in Egyptology that he was appointed in 1848 
to a situation in the Egyptian museum in the 
Louvre; and in 1850, at the recommendation 
of the institute, he was sent by the govern- 
ment on a scientific mission to Egypt. There 
his attention was chiefly directed to the re- 
mains of Memphis, and his excavations led to 
most important discoveries. Among these is 
the discovery of the Serapeum, close by the 
three great pyramids, and the first of the tem- 
ples of Memphis disinterred. M. Mariette told 
Mr. Bayard Taylor, who visited him at the 
scene of his, explorations in 1851, that an in- 
scription which he found on one of the blocks 
quarried out of a mound near Mitrahenny in- 
duced him to believe that the principal part of 
the city lay to the westward, and accordingly 
he began to sink his pits four miles from the 
spot which archeologists had fixed upon as 
the site of Memphis. He soon struck upon an 
avenue of sphinxes, which led to the Serapeam 
or temple of Serapis mentioned by Strabo, 
an enormous structure of granite and alabaster, 
containing within its enclosure the sarcophagi 
of the bulls of Apis from the 19th dynasty to 
the time of the Roman supremacy. He found 
also 2,000 sphinxes, between 4,000 and 5,000 
statues, reliefs, and inscriptions, eight colossal 
statues, evidently the product of Grecian art, 
and streets, colonnades, public and private edi- 
fices, and other marks of a great city. Subse- 
quently he discovered an entrance to the great 
sphinx at Gizeh, and the clearing away of the 
sand at the base has left no doubt that this 
monument was sculptured from the immense 
rock which forms its foundation. On his re- 
turn home, he was in 1855 appointed assis- 
tant conservator of the Egyptian museum in 
the Louvre, and in the same year sent to 
study Egyptian antiquities in the museum at 
Berlin. Having returned to Egypt, he was 
made by the viceroy director of the depart- 
ment for the preservation of Egyptian antiqui- 
ties, with the title of bey, and an annual al- 
lowance for the prosecution of his researches. 
Among his later excavations, resulting in in- 
teresting and important discoveries, are those 
at Tanis, disclosing the monuments of the 


166 MARIGNANO 


kings of the shepherd dynasty, and at Thebes 
and elsewhere of monuments and inscriptions 
which explain the genealogy and chronology 
of different dynasties. In 1860 he discovered 
at Thebes the mummy of Queen Aah-hotep, of 
the 18th dynasty, and her jewels, consisting of 
a long gold chain, a diadem with two golden 
sphinxes, a breastplate of open work, a richly 
chased dagger, bracelets, earrings, and other or- 
naments, all of exquisite workmanship. These 
were shown in the Paris exhibition of 1867, 
and are now spoken of as ‘the pride of the 
museum of Boolak.” This museum is tem- 
porarily located, and is to be removed to Cairo. 
In April, 1874, Bayard Taylor again visited 
Mariette, and described his collections, which 
are arranged in the Boolak museum according 
to their civil or religious character, those of 
the earlier dynasties having the most conspicu- 
ous place. Three statues in the court belong 
to the age of the shepherd kings. The main 
vestibule is crowded with relics of the oldest 
Egyptian art. In the main hall are wooden 
statues belonging to the 4th dynasty, two 
painted limestone statues belonging to the 3d, 
and a granite statue of Cephren, the builder 
of the second pyramid, found by Mariette in a 
well in the granite temple discovered in 1866 
near the sphinx. Even more interesting is the 
vast collection of furniture, household articles, 
implements of trade, glass and earthern ware, 
&c., revealing the civilization and domestic life 
of Egypt 4,000 years ago. In this museum is 
also the trilingual Canopic stone discovered at 
Tanis in 1866 by Lepsius, Reinisch, and Résler. 
Mariette’s discoveries thus far have thrown 
comparatively ‘little light upon the sojourn of 
the Israelites in Egypt, though they have af- 
forded grounds for many probable chronologi- 
cal conjectures ; but the revelations of the ear- 
liest periods resulting from his researches are 
of great value. He has published Mémoire sur 
la mére @ Apis (1856); Apergu de Vhistoire 
@iEgypte (1864); Nouvelle table d’ Abydos 
(1865); Le Sérapéum de Memphis (in 9 parts 
fol., with 110 plates, 1857~’64); and Fouzlles 
exécutées en Kgypte, en Nubie et au Soudan 
@aprés les ordres du viceroti @Hgypte (fol., 
1867). The Nouvelle table d’ Abydos gives an 
account of the discovery of a more perfect 
tablet than the one formerly found in Abydos 
and preserved in the British museum. This 
second tablet supplies nearly all the vacancies 
which occur by mutilation in the first, and fur- 
nishes a list of kings of the first six dynasties, 
nearly as complete as Manetho’s, and corrobo- 
rating the list of that historian. For the im- 
portance of Mariette’s discoveries, historically 
and chronologically considered, see Lenormant 
and Chevalier, Manuel d'histoire ancienne de 
P Orient (3 vols., Paris, 1868-9; English edi- 
tion, 2 vols., 1869-70). 

MARIGNANO, or Marignan. See MELEGNANO. 

MARIGOLD, the usual name of garden plants 
of two distinct genera of composite. The old 
naturalists called them Mary Gowles, a name 


MARIGOLD 


from the Anglo-Saxon for another plant, which 
has been transferred to these, probably on ac- 
count of a similarity in color. The garden or 
pot marigold, calendula officinalis, a spreading 
plant about a foot high with succulent oblong, 
entire, strong-smelling leaves, is still to be 
found in country gardens; the heads have nu- 
merous ray flowers, and these are the only 
ones that produce seed, which are in long, 
curved, roughened achenes; the disk flowers as 
well as those of the ray are yellow; the flow- 
ers have been rendered double in cultivation. 
The common marigold was once used in cook- 
ery, imparting a flavor to soups and broths, 
and thus has long had a place in the kitchen 
garden. It was formerly, among other uses, 
employed as a carminative ; and its dried florets 
were used to adulterate saffron, and by dairy 
maids to impart a rich color to their cheese 
and butter. There are lemon-colored varieties, 
but the usual color is a rich orange yellow. 
—The showy plants known in gardens as the 
African and French 
marigolds belong to 
the genus tagetes, and, 
notwithstanding their 
geographical garden 
names, are natives of 
South America and 
Mexico; they are an- 4 
nuals, with mostly pin- 

nate leaves and heads iy 
of yellow, orange, 
or brownish flowers, 
with a smooth cup- 
shaped involucre; the 


ray flowers only are me eT] me, 
pistillate, but in most shag WK J hy 
of the garden forms ma) eee : 
they aredouble bythe #/y # Q 


conversion of the disk 
flowers into ligulate 
ones like those of the 
ray. The so-called 
African marigold (7. 
erecta) has large flowers varying from lemon 
color to orange. Itisshowy, but amuch coarser 
plant than the French (7. patula), which has 
more delicate leaves, and flowers varying from 
pale yellow to a rich orange brown, often 
handsomely striped or bordered with differ- 
ent shades. The most beautiful and delicate of 
all is the comparatively recent tagetes signata, 
with very finely divided foliage of a rich deep 
bluish green color, and producing a great pro- 
fusion of small single flowers, with five orange- 
colored rays which are marked with a darket 
spot at the base; a dwarf form of this, var. 
pumila, is a fine plant grown as a single speci- 
men, and it is useful in masses. The foliage of 
the species before mentioned has a strong and 
unpleasant odor, but there is a sweet-scented 
one, 7. lucida, the leaves of which have the 
odor of anise; its flower heads are very small 
and borne in clusters; it is much less cultivated 
than formerly, and though a perennial is treat- 


African Marigold (Tagetes 
erecta). 


MARIN 


ed as an annual. The different sorts are read- 
ily raised from seeds, sowing in June in the 
open ground, or earlier in hotbeds, and trans- 


French Marigold (Tagetes patula). 


planting when 3 or 4 in. high.—On the allu- 
vial banks of rivers, from Illinois southward, 
is an American plant belonging to this group, 
known as the fetid marigold (dysodia chrysan- 
themoides), furnished with pellucid glands, 
which give out a strong odor; the flower heads 
are terminal and the flowers yellow. The 
marsh marigold (caltha palustris) belongs to 
the order ranunculacee. 

MARIN, a W. county of California, bounded 
E. by the bays of San Pablo and San Francisco, 
and §. and W. by the Pacific ocean; area, 570 
sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 6,908, of whom 361 were 
Chinese. The surface is rugged and moun- 
tainous, and only a small portion of the soil is 
adapted for cultivation, though much of it is 
well suited for grazing. The valleys are highly 
productive. It is intersected by the San Fran- 
cisco and North Pacific railroad. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 57,880 bushels of 
wheat, 297,744 of oats, 37,755 of barley, 157,- 
245 of potatoes, 2,107,755 lbs. of butter, 381,- 
300 of cheese, and 12,054 tons of hay. There 
were 2,671 horses, 18,655 milch cows, 10,448 
other cattle, 2,067 sheep, and 6,606 swine; 
11 brick kilns, 1 saw mill, and 1 paper mill. 
Capital, San Rafael. ' 

MARINA, Malintzin, or Malinche, an Indian wo- 
man who rendered efficient aid in the conquest 
of Mexico. She was a native of the province 
of Guazacoaleos, and of noble blood, though 
sold as a slave in her childhood to the Maya In- 
dians of the frontier of Yucatan. Being thus 
familiar with the two principal languages of 
Mexico, she was presented to Cortes in Tabasco 
by a native chief, and, quickly acquiring Span- 
ish, made herself indispensable to the conquer- 
ors as an interpreter. She was much beloved 
by the Mexicans, and exerted a great influence 


MARIO 167 


in restraining the barbarities against her coun- 
trymen which were but too common. Cortes 
made her his mistress, and by him she had a 
son, Don Martin Cortes, who figured in the 
political history of the colony. After the mar- 
riage of Cortes, she became the wife of the 
comendador Juan de Jaramillo, and survived 
till after the year 1550, living chiefly at Jalpan 
on the isthmus of Tehuantepec, where a mound 
is still shown as her burial place. 

MARINER’S COMPASS. See Compass. 

MARINI, or Marino, Giambattista, an Italian 
poet, born in Naples, Oct. 18, 1569, died there, 
March 25, 1625. He was driven from his home 
on account of his repugnance to the legal pro- 
fession, and devoted himself to poetry under 
the influence of Tasso. The grand admiral, 
Prince Conca, made him his secretary, but a 
love affair drove him from Naples, In Rome 
he found a patron in Cardinal Pietro Aldo- 
brandini, whom he accompanied to the court 
of Duke Charles Emanuel at Turin. His pane- 
gyric on the latter won for him the post of 
ducal secretary; but he wrote a satire against 
Murtola, a fellow secretary, who wrote a coun- 
ter satire and attempted to shoot him; and on 
being released from prison at Marini’s inter- 
cession, he ruined the latter by pointing out 
disparaging allusions to the duke in one of his 
poems. Marini was imprisoned, and recovered 
his liberty only through the intervention of 
Cardinal Gonzaga. He next went to Paris, 
to the court of Margaret of Valois, widow of 
Henry IV., and after her death he became a 
favorite and pensioner of Maria de’ Medici. 
He returned to Italy in 1622, and was received 
with great enthusiasm at Rome, and elected 
prince of the academy of the Umoristi. His 
Adone (Paris, 1623; new and complete ed., 4 
vols., London, 1789) was regarded as a mas- . 
terpiece at the time of its publication, though 
full of mannerism and defects, and so licentious 
that its circulation was not permitted. Among 
his other works are La strage degli innocenti 
(Rome, 1633), and several exquisite sonnets. 
There was for a time a large class of imitators 
of his style, called Marinists. 

MARIO, Giuseppe, marquis di Candia, an Ital- 
ian singer, born in Cagliari, Sardinia, Oct. 18, 
1810. He received an excellent musical edu- 
cation, and in 1830 entered the Sardinian mili- 
tary service. Having been ordered to Cagliari 
for certain youthful indiscretions, he resigned 
his commission; but upon the refusal of gov- 
ernment to accept his resignation, he escaped 
to Paris, and by his admirable tenor voice soon 
attracted attention in the musical salons of 
that city. For the sake of satisfying his cred- 
itors, he accepted an engagement at the French 
opera at a liberal salary, assumed the name of 
Mario, and, after two years’ study at the con- 
servatory, made his début in December, 1888, 
in Robert le diable, with decided success. In 
the succeeding year he sang with Rubini at the 
Italian theatre, and formed one of that bril- 
liant galaxy of singers then upon the stage, 


168 


comprising Rubini, Lablache, Tamburini, Mali- 
bran, Sontag, Persiani, and Grisi. From that 
period, he was constantly before the public, 
occupying the position of the first tenor singer 
upon the stage. After performing principally 
in London and Paris, he visited Russia in 1845, 
remaining there five years, and ‘in 1850-60 
generally sang in London in the spring and 
summer and in Paris in the winter. In 1854- 
5 he accompanied Grisi, with whom he had 
lived for many years, having by her a family 
of children, and whom he finally married, on 
an operatic tour through the chief cities of the 
United States. In 1859 he appeared in Lon- 
don and Paris in the part of Don Giovanni, in 
the opera of that name, transposed to suit his 
voice. On June 18, 1871, he took his farewell 
of the stage at Covent Garden in La Javorita. 
In the autumn of 1872 he again visited the 
United States on a concert tour. His voice 
had quite failed him, however, and his reap- 
pearance was a detriment to his reputation. 
He possessed respectable dramatic abilities, 
and excelled in parts like Almaviva in the 
‘Barber of Seville.” Among the operas in 
which he has principally appeared are La 
donna del lago, La gazza ladra, Cenerentola, 
Moise, and others by Rossini; La sonnambula, 
Norma, and I puritani, by Bellini; Lucia di 
Lammermoor, La favorita, Lucrezia Borgia, 
Don Pasquale, &c., by Donizetti; and Hrnani, 
La traviata, and Il trovatore, by Verdi. 
MARION, the name of 17 counties in the Uni- 
ted States. I. A N. county of West Virginia, 
drained by the Monongahela and its branches; 
area, 275 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 12,107, of 
whom 78 were colored. It has an undulating 
surface with considerable woodland, and a fer- 
tilesoil. Coal and iron ore abound. The Bal- 
timore and Ohio railroad intersects it. The 
chief productions in 1870 were 26,538 bushels 
of wheat, 63,643 of Indian corn, 29,819 of 
oats, 12, 780 lbs. of wool, 22,927 of ‘butter, and 
3, 780 tons of hay. There were 907 horses, 
1, 110 milch cows, 2,377 other cattle, 4,994. 
sheep, and 508 swine. Capital, Fairmont. I 
An E. county of South Carolina, bordering 
on North Carolina, bounded E. by Little Pe- 
dee and Lumber rivers, and S. by the Great 
Pedee and Lynches creek: the Little and Great 
Pedee also intersect it; area, 1,200 sq. m. 
pop. in 1870, 22,160, of whom "10, 732 were 
colored. The Wilmington, Columbia, and Au- 
gusta railroad traverses it. The surface is lev- 
el and the soil moderately fertile. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 190,326 bushels of 
Indian corn, 11,412 of oats, 58,103 of sweet 
potatoes, 12, 450 of peas and ‘beans, 6,910 bales 
of cotton, and 415,382 lbs. of rice. There 
were 1 419 horses, 957 mules and. asses, 3,633 
milch cows, 5,468 ‘other cattle, 4,420 sheep and 
19,521 swine. Capital, Marion Court House. 
Il. AW. county of Georgia, drained by trib- 
utaries of the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers; 
area, 432 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 8,000, of whom 
3, 830 were colored. The surface is undulating 


MARION 


and the soil generally fertile. A branch of 
the Southwestern railroad passes through the 
N. W. corner. The chief productions in 1870 
were 9,523 bushels of wheat, 163,298 of Indian 
corn, 20,967 of sweet potatoes, 15,050 lbs. of 
butter, 5,439 bales of cotton, and 5,330 gallons 
of molasses. There were 514 horses, 1,002 
mules and asses, 1,404 milch cows, 2,480 other 
cattle, 1,260 sheep, and 7,448 swine. Capital, 
Buena Vista. IV. A central county of the pen- 
insula of Florida, intersected by the Ocklawa- 
ha river,°and partly bounded 8. by the With- 
lacoochee; area, 1,760 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
10,804, of whom 17,878 were colored. The 
surface is level and the soil fertile, There are 
numerous lakes, of which the largest are Or- 
ange, Bryant, and Ware. The chief produc- 


| tions in 1870 were 129,596 bushels of Indian 


corn, 8,355 of oats, 23,968 of sweet potatoes, 
and 3,858 bales of cotton. There were 637 
horses, 906 mules and asses, 3,035 milch cows, 
306 working oxen, 458 other cattle, 442 sheep, 
and 8,488 swine. Capital, Ocala. V. A N. W. 
county of Alabama, bordering on Mississippi, 
drained by branches of the Tennessee and 
Tombigbee rivers; area, about 700 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1870, 6,059, of whom 224 were color- 
ed. The surface is uneven and the soil gener- 
ally fertile. The chief productions in 1870 were 
5,108 bushels of wheat, 90,429 of Indian corn, 
15, 546 of sweet potatoes, 1. 010 Ibs. of tobacco, 
9, 691 of wool, 25,335 of butter, and 463 bales 
of cotton. There were 662 horses, 1,269 milch 
cows, 665 working oxen, 1,707 other cattle, 2,- 
999 sheep, and 5,765 swine. Capital, Pikeville. 
Vi. A S. county of Mississippi, bordering on 
Louisiana, and drained by Pearl river; area, 
1,224 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 4,211, of whom 
1,649 were colored. It has an undulating sur- 
face and a fertile soil on the borders of the 
streams. The chief productions in 1870 were 
69,691 bushels of Indian corn, 22,268 of sweet 
potatoes, 4,949 gallons of molasses, 793 bales 
of cotton, and 32,038 Ibs. of rice. There were 
797 horses, 2,206 milch cows, 4,687 other cat- 
cle, 4,827 sheep, and 8,574 swine. Capital, 
Columbia. VI. A N. E. county of Texas, 
bordering on Louisiana, and bounded S. by 
Big Cypress bayou and several lakes, which 
with Red river afford navigation to New Or- 
leans; area, 320 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 8,562, 
of whom 4,362 were colored. The bottom 
lands are very fertile. It has an abundance of 
timber of all kinds, and iron ore of superior 
quality; and there are seven mineral springs. 
The chief productions in 1870 were 73,118 
bushels of Indian corn, and 8,345 of sweet 
potatoes. There were 362 horses, 943 milch 
cows, 2,363 other cattle, and 3.241 swine, 
Capital, Jefferson. VII A N. county of Ar- 
kansas, bordering on Missouri, drained by 
White river and its branches; area, 900 sq. m. ; 
pop. in 1870, 3,979, of whom 19 were colored. 
It contains lead ore, and a variegated marble 
is found in the W. part. The chief productions 
in 1870. were 12,822 bushels of wheat, 115,169 


MARION 


of Indian corn, 802 bales of cotton, 19,861 Ibs. 
of tobacco, 39,024 of butter, and 4,720 gallons 
of sorghum molasses. There were 845 horses, 
849 milch cows, 1,763 other cattle, 2,283 sheep, 
and 7,952 swine. Capital, Yellville. IX. A 
S. county of Tennessee, bordering on Alabama, 
partly bounded S. E. by the Tennessee, and 
intersected by the Little Sequatchie river; 
area, 600 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 6,841, of whom 
915 were colored. The surface is hilly and 
broken, being traversed by ridges of the Cum- 
berland mountains. The Jasper branch of the 
Chattanooga railroad terminates at the county 
seat. The chief productions in 1870 were 
28,134 bushels of wheat, 265,100 of Indian 
corn, 27,989 of oats, 7,504 of Irish and 10,662 
of sweet potatoes, 17,487 lbs. of tobacco, 9,157 
of wool, 64,742 of butter, and 724 bales of 
cotton. There were 1,571 horses, 1,977 milch 
cows, 4,289 other cattle, 5,605 sheep, and 17,020 
swine. Capital, Jasper. X. A central county 
of Kentucky, drained by the Rolling fork of 
Salt river; area, 304 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
12,838, of whom 3,343 were colored. The 
surface is hilly and the soil generally fertile. 
The Knoxville branch of the Louisville, Nash- 
ville, and Great Southern railroad passes 
through it. The chief productions in 1870 
were 93,530 bushels of wheat, 395,170 of In- 
dian corn, 72,812 of oats, 16,676 of potatoes, 
132,293 lbs. of tobacco, 22,102 of wool, 193,397 
of butter, and 3,274 tons of hay. There were 
3,398 horses, 1,138 mules and asses, 2,070 milch 
cows, 4,042 other cattle, 7,578 sheep, and 22,460 
swine; 3 manufactories of agricultural imple- 
ments, 5 of carriages and wagons, 4 of saddlery 
and harness, 1 woollen factory, 5 distilleries, 
2 tanneries, 2 flour mills, 5 saw mills, and 2 
planing mills. Capital, Lebanon. XI. A cen- 
tral county of Ohio, drained by the Scioto, 
Little Scioto, and Whetstone or Olentangy 
rivers; area, 384 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 16,184. 
It has a level surface and fertile soil. It is 
intersected by the Atlantic and Great Western 
and the Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati, and 
Indianapolis railroads. The chief productions 
in 1870 were 285,019 bushels of wheat, 635,291 
of Indian corn, 196,639 of oats, 53,720 of po- 
tatoes, 702,090 Ibs. of flax, 337,617 of wool, 
439,226 of butter, and 29,062 tons of hay. 
There were 6,715 horses, 4,897 milch cows, 
9,160 other cattle, 89,616 sheep, and 16,800 
swine; 2 manufactories of agricultural imple- 
ments, 15 of carriages and wagons, 1 of ma- 
chinery, 3 of furniture, 4 tanning and currying 
establishments, 15 saw mills, and 3 flour mills. 
Capital, Marion. XII. A central county of 
Indiana, drained by the West fork of White 
river; area, 360 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 71,939. 
It has a nearly level surface and fertile soil. <A 
number of railroads concentrate at the county 
seat. The chief productions in 1870 were 
613,267 bushels of wheat, 1,305,988 of Indian 
corn, 78,246 of oats, 220,885 of potatoes, 
37,439 lbs. of wool, 378,968 of butter, and 
17,464 tons of hay. There were 7,483 horses, 


169 


6,424 milch cows, 7,705 other cattle, 18,173 
sheep, and 27,989 swine. The total number 
of manufacturing establishments was 740, hay- 
ing a capital of $8,303,185 and an annual 
product of $16,642,105.. The principal pro- 
ducts were leather, boots and shoes, bricks, 
carriages, cars, clothing, cooperage, cotton and 
woollen goods, furniture, iron and hardware, 
machinery, paper, saddlery and harness, tobac- 
co and cigars, varnish, planed lumber, flour, and 
pork. Capital, Indianapolis, which is also the 
capital of the state. XII. A S. central county 
of Illinois, drained by Skillett fork of Little 
Wabash river; area, 579 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
20,622. It has an undulating surface and fer- 
tile soil. The Illinois Central and the Ohio and 
Mississippi railroads intersect it. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 178,652 bushels of 
wheat, 1,034,057 of Indian corn, 389,446 of 
oats, 37,689 of potatoes, 40,285 lbs. of wool, 
81,014 of butter, and 21,242 tons of hay. 
There were 6,605 horses, 4,457 milch cows, 
7,027 other cattle, 14,511 sheep, and 21,888 
swine; 18 manufactories of carriages, 10 of 
saddlery and harness, 6 of tin, copper, and 
sheet-iron ware, 3 of machinery, 9 saw mills, 
and 11 flour mills. Capital, Salem. XIV. A 
S. central county of Iowa, intersected by the 
Des Moines river; area, 576 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 24,486. The surface is undulating, with 
much prairie, and the soil fertile. The Des 
Moines Valley railroad passes through it. The 
chief productions in 1870 were 374,414 bushels 
of wheat, 2,110,900 of Indian corn, 189,331 of 
oats, 152,763 of potatoes, 88,820 lbs. of wool, 
499,153 of butter, and 21,522 tons of hay. 
There were 8,975 horses, 7,162 milch cows, 
12,322 other cattle, 29,074 sheep, and 41,238 
swine; 5 manufactories of carriages and wag- 
ons, 2 of woollen goods, 2 flour mills, and 6 
saw mills. Capital, Knoxville. XV. AN. E. 
county of Missouri, separated by the Missis- 
sippi from Illinois, and drained by North and 
South Fabius and North Two and South Two 
rivers; area, 425 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 23,780, of 
whom 8,592 were colored. It has an undulating 
surface, mostly prairie, and a very fertile soil. - 
It is traversed by the Hannibal and St. Joseph, 
the Quincy, Missouri, and Pacific, and the. 
Toledo, Wabash, and Western railroads. The 
chief productions in 1870 were 230,822 bushels 
of wheat, 805,256 of Indian corn, 158,715 of 
oats, 25,936 of potatoes, 33,438 lbs. of tobacco, 
41,481 of wool, 22,700 of butter, and 10,212 
tons of hay. There were 6,340 horses, 1,145 
mules and asses, 4,806 milch cows, 9,130 other 
cattle, 14,976 sheep, and 20,019 swine; 1 manu- 
factory of railroad cars, 2 of machinery, 2 of 
tobacco, 1 of woollen goods, 2 iron founderies, 
4 breweries, 11 saw mills, and 4 flour mills. 
Capital, Palmyra. XVI. An E. central county 
of Kansas, watered by Cottonwood river; area, 
1,044 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 768. It is traversed 
by the Atchison, Topeka, and Sante Fé rail- 
road. The surface is undulating and the soil 
fertile. The chief productions in 1870 were 


170 


7,722 bushels of wheat, 20,827 of Indian corn, 
1,879 of oats, 1,814 of potatoes, 12,745 lbs. of 
butter, and 3,555 tons of hay. There were 
407 horses, 5387 milch cows, 2,831 other cattle, 
485 sheep, and 291 swine. Capital, Marion 
Centre. XVIE A N. W. county of Oregon, 
bounded W. by the Willamette river, and wa- 
tered by the N. Santiam and other streams; 
area, 2,900 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 9,965, of 
whom 127 were Chinese. The E. part is 
mountainous, bordering on the Cascade range, 
and here are extensive forests and deposits of 
gold, silver, coal, and iron; further W. the 
surface is hilly, while the 8. W. portion is a 
broad and level prairie, with a fertile soil. It 
is traversed by the Oregon and California 
railroad. The chief productions in 1870 were 
232,091 bushels of wheat, 164,087 of oats, 
37,464 of potatoes, 51,169 lbs. of wool, 70,838 
of butter, and 3,405 tons of hay. There were 
1,707 horses, 1,830 milch cows, 2,133 other 
cattle, 12,760 sheep, and 6,458 swine; 3 manu- 
factories of furniture, 1 of linseed oil, 2 of 
sash, doors, and blinds, 2 of woollen goods, 6 
flour mills, and 5 saw mills.. Capital, Salem, 
which is also the capital of the state. 

MARION, a town and the capital of Perry 
co., Alabama, on the Selma, Marion, and Mem- 
phis railroad, 60 m. W. by N. of Montgomery ; 
pop. in 1870, 2,646, of whom 1,455 were col- 
ored. It has a savings, insurance, and trust com- 
pany, two weekly newspapers, and a monthly 
periodical published by the college students, 
and is the seat of three institutions of learn- 
ing: Howard college (Baptist), founded in 
1837; Judson female institute (Baptist), and 
Marion female seminary, institutions of colle- 
giate grade founded in 1836. The college has 
a theological department, and in 1878-’4 had 6 
professors, 148 students (40 preparatory, 96 
collegiate, and 12 theological), and a library of 
1,000 volumes; Judson institute, 12 instruc- 
tors, 133 students (24 preparatory and 109 col- 
legiate), and a library of 3,000 volumes; Ma- 
rion seminary, 8 instructors, 127 students (25 
preparatory and 102 collegiate), and a library 
of 1,000 volumes. 

MARION, Francis, an American revolutionary 
officer, born in Winyaw, near Georgetown, S. 
C., in 17382, died near Eutaw, 8. C., Feb. 28, 
1795. He was of a Huguenot family which 
emigrated from France to South Carolina 
about 1690. He received little education, for 
which the facilities in his native district were 
then very slight. In 1759 he was a volunteer 
in an expedition against the Cherokees, and 
served in a cavalry troop commanded by one 
of his six brothers. In 1760 and 1761 he was 
again in the field on similar expeditions. He 
led the forlorn hope in the battle of Etchoee, 
and was one of the few who escaped. In 1775, 
at the outbreak of the revolution, he was 
elected to the provincial congress of South 
Carolina from St. John’s parish, Berkeley. 
In the military organization which ensued, he 
was made (June 21, 1775) a captain in the 


MARION 


regiment of which William Moultrie was col- 
onel. Marion’s company was one of those de- 
spatched from Charleston for the capture of 
the British fort Johnson. The place was taken, 
and the guns were directed upon the men-of- 
war in the harbor. The British shipping was 
completely expelled from the harbor by the 
cannon from another fort established by Moul- 
trie on Haddrell’s point. <A fortification at 
Dorchester was confided to Marion, who was 
promoted in his regiment. He was soon sum- 
moned thence to the defence of the fort begun 
on Sullivan’s island, menaced by a powerful 
British fleet. It was assailed before it was fin- 
ished, but the hostile fleet was repelled with 
great loss. In February, 1777, Marion was 
despatched with 600 men to the defence of 
Georgia, where he served at intervals until the 
British with overwhelming forces had gained 
possession of the state. Fort Moultrie (Sulli- 
van) was again confided to his charge, and he 
held this post during Gen. Prevost’s attempt 
at a coup de main on Charleston (1779). Sub- 
sequently he joined the united French and 
American forces in the fruitless attack on Sa- 
vannah, During the siege of Charleston he 
accidentally broke his leg, and was therefore 
conveyed with all other invalids out of the 
city. As he grew able for service, the Caro- 
linas being left almost defenceless, he gath- 
ered his neighbors about him and laid the 
foundation of that brigade which finally be- 
came famous for its partisan successes. Mean- 
time Gen. Gates had been despatched by con- 
gress to take command of the southern army. 
At the approach of the continental forces, 
Marion, then a colonel, joined them in North 
Carolina; but so wretched were his equip- 
ments, and so paltry his numbers, that Gates 
remarked only the ridicule which they pro- 
voked in the camp, and failed to appreciate 
their patriotism and ability. He despatched 
Marion on an idle mission to cut up the boats 
on the rivers to prevent the escape of the 
British. A few days later Gates was defeat- 
ed in the battle of Camden (Aug. 16, 1780), 
while Marion, waylaying the British guards, 
dispersed them and rescued their continental 
prisoners. From this period dates the series 
of adventurous flights, forages, marches, coun- 
termarches, and surprises which distinguished 
the brigade of Marion until the establish- 
ment of peace. He kept alive the spirit of 
patriotism, taught the inexperienced frontier- 
man to be both bold and vigilant, how to dis- 
cipline himself, and how to arm and support 
himself, at a time when the country had no 
resources for him. In 1780 Marion was pro- 
moted to a brigadiership, and his command 
was termed a brigade whether it numbered 20 
or 1,200 men. It is impossible to pursue in 
detail the progress of so restless and eager a 
chieftain in a career marked by so great a va- 
riety of action and resource. Even popular 
tradition fails to follow him. His camp at 
Snow’s island, his potato feast to the British 


MARION 


officer, his quiet humor when dealing with 
both friend and foe, his perpetual vigilance 
and sudden movements, have all entered into 
the legends of the country. Though Snow’s 
island, a natural fortress of swamps and for- 
ests accessible only under good guidance, was 
his favorite hiding place, yet he had other re- 
treats in almost every swamp of Carolina, 
where he found ready refuge from a superior 
enemy, and whence he could rapidly emerge. 
His food was chiefly potatoes and corn; his 
only drink was vinegar and water; for months 
he slept without a blanket, and marched with- 
out a hat; and he trained his followers to his 
own habit of cheerful endurance. He disci- 
plined in his style of warfare many young offi- 
cers, who proved in time worthy of their mas- 
ter. In December, 1780, Gen. Greene, super- 
seding Gates, took command of the southern 
army. He was able to appreciate the courage 
and services of Marion, who now united his 
brigade with the main army or acted separate- 
ly, as the occasion or the wishes of the con- 
tinental general required. He was Greene’s 
great resource for obtaining intelligence; had 
his spies in the British camps and garrisons, in 
Camden, Charleston, Georgetown, and Savan- 
nah; and was himself almost ubiquitous with 
his brigade. He baffled Tarleton, Barfield, 
Doyley, Gainey, McArthur, Coffin, and We- 
myss, all of whom were in turn or in concert 
despatched for his express capture or defeat. 
After Cornwallis had driven Greene’s army 
out of the state Marion held his ground, 
pressed his predatory warfare to the gates of 
Charleston, and interrupted the line of com- 
munication between the metropolis and all 
parts of the interior. Col. Watson with a 
picked force was sent to expel or crush him. 
Major Gainey, of whom great expectations 
were formed, was also sent in pursuit; yet he 
was defeated by Marion, narrowly escaping 
with his life. Ool. Tyne, whom Marion had 
once before defeated, was also on his track, 
and was again foiled. Major Mcllraith, sent 
with another division to codperate with Wat- 
son, was in close pursuit of him, but he baf- 
fled them both, so palpably that McIlraith was 
disgraced. The next auxiliary of Watson was 
Col. Doyle, subsequently distinguished as a 
British general in India. Each took the field 
with a regiment of British, and a large addi- 
tional force of loyalists. Unable openly to 
meet either division, Marion determined to 
prevent their junction. Watson was led into 
one ambush after another until, having lost a 
large part of his men, he reached Georgetown. 
Marion then turned upon Doyle, who made a 
precipitate retreat and avoided him. This re- 
treat was in part occasioned by the necessities 
of Rawdon, who called in his detachments at 
the approach of Greene. Being joined by Lee’s 
legion and supplied with ammunition, Marion 
determined to attack Fort Watson on the San- 
tee river. It was on high ground, and as he 
was without artillery, towers made of logs 


MARIOTTE wal 
were extemporized during the night, and raised 
sufficiently high to enable the riflemen to plant 
themselves on an elevation equal to that of the 
fortress; and while the sharpshooters plied 
their bullets, a storming party scaled the walls, 
and the garrison surrendered. Lee then re- 
joined Greene, but after the battle of Hobkirk’s 
Hill aided Marion in investing Fort Motte on 
the Congaree. The besiegers again felt the 
want of artillery, but Mrs. Motte, the original 
owner of the house around which the fort had 
been constructed, furnished an Indian bow 
with arrows, which, tipped with combustibles, 
set fire to the roof over the heads of the gar- 
rison, which then capitulated. Marion distin- 
guished himself by prudence and humanity su- 
perior to his times, and prevented Lee’s men 
from hanging some of the prisoners. Some 
causes of complaint tempted him soon after 
to resign his commission and join the main 
army under Washington; but Greene succeed- 
ed in dissuading and retaining him, and he was 
soon repeating his exploits on the skirts of 
Lord Rawdon’s forces, and while holding him 
in check captured Georgetown. He subse- 
quently joined Greene and Sumter in the pur- 
suit of Rawdon, till he intrenched himself in 
Orangeburg, and declined battle. After the 
evacuation of Orangeburg and the departure 
of Rawdon for Europe, the forces of Marion 
and Sumter swept the country to the gates of 
Charleston. He then resumed his indepen- 
dent command in the Santee country, took an 
important part in the battle of Eutaw Springs 
(Sept. 8, 1781), and pursued the enemy in their 
retreat. The British were gradually confined 
almost to the walls of Charleston, and the le- 
gislature of the state again assembled for the 
purpose of restoring civil authority. Marion 
steadily refused to engage in any unnecessary 
enterprise after the prospect of peace. He 
disbanded his brigade soon after the British 
fleet and army evacuated Charleston (Dec. 14, 
1782), taking a tender farewell of his follow- 
ers, and returned to the avocations of a farm- 
er almost in poverty. He was subsequently 
returned to the senate of the state by the elec- 
tors of St. John’s parish, Berkeley. In 1784 he 
accepted the appointment under the state of 
commandant of Fort Johnson, and soon after 
married. In 1790 he was a member of the 
convention for framing a state constitution, 
and in 1794 he resigned his commission as one 
of the generals of the state militia. He was 
buried at Belle Isle, in the parish of St. John’s, 
and a slight oblong tomb, the tribute of a pri- 
vate citizen, covers the remains of one of the 
purest men, truest patriots, and most adroit 
generals that American history can boast. 
MARIOTTE, Edme, a French physicist, died 
May 12,1684. The date and place of his birth 
are unknown. He was prior of St. Martin- 
sur-Beaune, Dijon, and one of the original 
members of the French academy of sciences. 
Condorcet says that ‘‘ Mariotte was the first 
one in France who introduced into physics a 


172 MARIPOSA 


* 


spirit of observation and doubt, and who in- 
spired that scrupulousness and caution so ne- 
cessary to those who interrogate nature and in- 
terpret her responses.” His collected works 
were published at Leyden in 1717, and at the 
Hague in 1740, in 2 vols. 4to. They contain 
papers upon a great variety of subjects in phys- 
ics and natural philosophy, and are filled with 
accounts of his numerous and ingenious ex- 
periments. His principal discoveries were: 1, 
the law in regard to gases, usually called Mari- 
otte’s law, that, the temperature of a gas re- 
maining fixed, its volume varies inversely as 
the. pressure upon it (see PNEuMATICcs) ; 2, that 
air exists in liquids, especially in water ; 3, that 
the part of the retina where the optic nerve 
enters it is insensible to light. He also in- 
vented the now common experiment of drop- 
ping a coin and a feather in the exhausted re- 
ceiver of an air pump, to show that both will 
fall through equal distances in equal times. 

MARIPOSA, an E. county of California, 
drained by the Merced and Mariposa rivers, 
affluents of the San Joaquin; area, 1,440 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 4,572, of whom 1,084 were 
Chinese. The surface is mountainous, the E. 
part being traversed by the Sierra Nevada; 
the soil in the W. is of great fertility. Gold 
abounds throughout the county, being found 
in nearly every creek and gulch and in quartz 
veins. Three placers and three quartz mines 
were in operation in 1870. It contains the 
Yosemite falls and the Mammoth Tree grove. 
(See OatirorniA.) The chief: productions in 
1870 were 4,275 bushels of wheat, 8,185 of 
barley, 1,712 of potatoes, 87,816 lbs. of wool, 
and 2,499 tons of hay. There were 1,110 
horses, 923 milch cows, 6,118 other cattle, 
18,442 sheep, and 8,577 swine; 1 iron foun- 
dery, 2 breweries, 4 saw mills, and 2 quartz 
mills. Oapital, Mariposa. 

MARITZA (anc. Hebrus), a large river of Rou- 
melia, European Turkey. It rises on the N. E, 
flank of the Despoto Dagh (anc. Rhodope), a 
branch of the Balkan mountains, flows E. S. E. 
and 8. S. W., and after a course of about 300 
m., during which it passes Filibe (Philippopo- 
lis) and Adrianople, enters the Grecian archi- 
pelago by two mouths. 

MARIUS, Cains, a Roman soldier, born near 
Arpinum in 157 B. C., died in Romein 86. His 
origin was humble, and his parents are said to 
have been clients of the Herennii, an eminent 
plebeian family. That he ever labored for 
wages may be doubted, and may have been 
one of the reports invented to injure him by 
the optimates, and accepted by him to make his 
elevation seem the greater by contrast with his 
original position. Marius had no third name, 
or cognomen, nor did he ever win one, not- 
withstanding his brilliant military services. A 
passage in Velleius Paterculus, which repre- 
sents him to be of equestrian birth, is believed 
to be an error of some transcriber. Plutarch 
expressly states that his parents were obscure, 
and that they gained their living by the labor 


MARIUS 


of their hands. The first mention of him in 
history is as a soldier in the army with which 
the second Scipio Africanus besieged Numantia 
in 184, when he was but 23 years old. His bra- 
very, his sobriety, and the readiness with which 


he submitted to the severe reforms that Scipio » 


found it necessary to introduce into the Ro- 
man army, attracted the attention and won 
the commendation of that great general. The 
tradition was, that Marius was so encouraged 
by Scipio’s words, deeming them to form a di- 
vine intimation, that he entered on a political 
career; yet it was not until 15 years later that 
he achieved his first political success, being 
then chosen tribune of the people (119). This 
office he obtained through the influence of 
Metellus, who belonged to the Cecilian gens, 
one of the most distinguished plebeian houses 
in Rome. He had previously been unanimous- 
ly elected military tribune. As tribune of the 
people he introduced a bill calculated to pro- 
mote the freedom of elections, which was op- 
posed by the optimates, then at the height of 
their power, immediately after the fall of Caius 
Gracchus; but Marius, by the most vigorous 
measures, carried his point, though the oppo- 
sition was headed by his patron, the consul 
Metellus. He showed his firmness in another 
way, by opposing a distribution of corn among 
the people, because he believed it injurious to 
their interests. He sought the curule edile- 
ship, but was forced to withdraw from the 
contest; and he was beaten as a candidate for 


the plebeian edileship. Elected preetor, his . 


name was the lowest on the list. He was then 
proceeded against for bribery, but escaped con- 
viction, the votes of his judges being equal- 
ly divided. He was preetor in 115, but did not 
leave Italy. As propretor, the next year, he 
served in Further Spain, which he is report- 
ed to have cleared of robbers. Shortly after- 
ward he married Julia, a sister of the father of 
Julius Cesar, who belonged to one of the most 
illustrious of the patrician gentes. When Q. 
Ceecilius Metellus took command of the Roman 
army employed against Jugurtha (109), Marius 
became one of his legates, and distinguished 
himself in the war, being very popular with 
the common soldiers, and attracted the atten- 
tion of his countrymen at home. He asked 
leave of Metellus to go to Rome, that he might 
offer himself as a candidate for the consulship ; 
but his commander, after first seeking to argue 
against his supposed unreasonable ambition, 
and then declaring that he could not be spared 
from the army, finally refused his request in 
an insulting manner. Marius then commenced 
intriguing against Metellus, whom he accused 
of prolonging the war, which he offered to 
bring to a prompt conclusion with one half the 
force then employed against Jugurtha. These 
things were all known at Rome, where they 
increased the popularity of Marius. To get rid 
of an enemy, Metellus granted him the permis- 
sion he had asked, but only 12 days before the 
time of election. Arriving at Rome, Marius en- 


MARIUS 


tered on the contest at once, and became con- 
sul in 107, at the age of 50. He did not bear 
his success with meekness, but made use of the 
harshest language when speaking of the aristoc- 
racy. The province of Numidia was assigned 
him, which made him the successor of Metel- 
lus. In levying soldiers he did not confine 
himself to the classes whence the legions had 
formerly been recruited, but enrolled men from 
the lowest orders, and slaves, which is regard- 
ed as the first of those acts through which the 
Roman armies were led finally to look for law 
more to their commanders than to the state. 
He led his new levies to Africa, where he vigor- 
ously waged the war against Jugurtha until the 
latter took refuge with Bocchus, king of Mau- 
ritania, who betrayed him to Sulla, the questor 
of Marius (106). This caused Sulla to claim 
the merit of having closed the war, and so laid 
the foundation of a personal quarrel destined 
to have memorable consequences. Marius re- 
mained two years longer in Numidia, bringing 
the country into order and establishing the 
Roman government there. While thus en- 
gaged, he was elected consul without opposi- 
tion, the approach of the Teutons and Cimbri 
and the Ambrones, who had destroyed several 
Roman armies, having caused great fear: in 
Italy, and drawn all men’s minds to the con- 
clusion that power could be intrusted to no 
one but the conqueror of Numidia. His Ju- 
gurthine triumph took place Jan. 1, 104, the 
first day of his second consulship. Jugurtha 
walked in the procession, and afterward was 
thrown into a dungeon and starved to death. 
The barbarians not appearing in Italy, Marius 
employed the time in effecting reforms in the 
army, and in disciplining the newly raised 
troops. His discipline was severe, but the im- 
partiality of his conduct made him a favorite 
with the men, who had the utmost confidence 
in his ability and good fortune. He was cho- 
sen consul a third time for the year 103. The 
enemy still remaining in Spain, the aristocrati- 
cal party determined to oppose his reélection ; 
but the people supported him, and he was ele- 
vated afourth time. This year he encountered 
the Teutons and Ambrones in Gaul, totally 
destroying them in a great battle fought near 
Aquez Sextix, the modern Aix. Just after the 
battle Marius received news that he had been 
elected consul for the fifth time. Meantime 
the Cimbri, who had separated from their al- 
lies, had penetrated into Italy, where the ter- 
ror of their name caused the army of Catulus, 
the other consul, to fly before them. Marius 
was recalled to Rome. Refusing the triumph 
offered him by the senate until the Cimbri 
should be conquered, he joined the army of 
Catulus, with which the troops who had con- 
quered the Teutons were now united. On 
July 80, 101, the Cimbri were annihilated in 
a pitched battle, fought on a plain called the 
Oampi Raudii, near Vercellew, the modern Ver- 
celli. The victory was really due to Marius, 
though hia enemies sought to give the credit 


173 


of it to Catulus, who was then proconsul; but 
the Romans were so convinced that they owed 
their deliverance to the consul, that among 
other high honors they gave him the title of 
third founder of the state, thus ranking him 
with Romulus and Camillus. His triumph was 
brilliant, and Catulus was allowed to share in 
it. For the sixth time he was chosen consul; 
but the good fortune which he had experienced 
in the field deserted him in the city, where his 
ignorance of civil life led him into various mis- 
takes, which caused his popularity to decline as 
rapidly as it had risen. The aristocracy art- 
fully placed him in opposition to the tribune 
Saturninus, who was his instrument and asso- 
ciate, and whom he had to proceed against to 
the tribune’s ruin and death. He entrapped 
his old enemy Metellus into a position that 
caused him to be banished. Solow had Marius 
sunk by the time his sixth consulship was draw- 
ing to a close, that he durst not become a can- 
didate for the censorship. The next year (99) 
he visited Asia, where he sought to rouse Mith- 
ridates to make war on Rome, being confident 
that he should recover his popularity when 
once more placed at the head of an army. He 
was chosen augur during his absence. After 
his return to Rome, he did not rise in popular 
esteem; he could obtain no command in the 
East, and Sulla, who had supplanted him in 
the popular favor, exasperated him by his con- 
duct. The Mauritanian king had set up in the 
capitol figures showing the surrender of Ju- 
gurtha to Sulla. Marius was making prepara- 
tions to pull down these figures, and Sulla to 
resist him, when, in 90, the social or Marsic 
war broke out, which threatened the subversion 
of the Roman power in Italy. Both Marius 
and Sulla had to contend against the confed- 
erate Italians in the social war, and both did so 
with success. It was thought, however, that 
the exploits of Sulla were the more striking, 
but it is certain that Marius twice defeated the 
Marsi, the most warlike of all the ailies, and 
whose name furnished to the Romans a title 
for the war. He returned to Rome after these 
victories, avowedly because of his inability to 
encounter the fatigues of the service. He was 
67 years old, and had grown fat and unwieldy. 
After this war had been finished, the rivalry 
of Marius and Sulla was resumed. War against 
Mithridates having been commenced, Marius 
sought the command in the East. He fre- 
quented the Campus Martius, and went through 
exercises appropriate to the young, in order to 
show that he was equal to the fatigues of war. 
He failed, and Sulla was appointed to the office 
he sought (88). Marius now procured the 
passage of a law to distribute the Italian allies, 
who had been admitted to the Roman fran- 
chise, among all the tribes, so that they should 
control the old citizens. His tool was P. 
Sulpicius Rufus, a tribune, and he was suc- 
cessful, though not without having resort to 
violence. The Italians then conferred the 


eastern command upon Marius; but Sulla, who 


174 MARIUS 


had joined the army destined to act against 
Mithridates, incited it to resistance, marched 
to Rome, and compelled Marius and his friends 
to fly, they having no force to send against 
him. Marius vainly endeavored to raise an 
army by offering freedom to all slaves who 
should join him. He then sought to reach 
Africa, but was compelled by bad weather 
and want of provisions to land in Italy, near 
which he was coasting. Taking refuge in a 
wood, and suffering from cold and hunger, 
he predicted that he should yet receive a 
seventh consulship. He told his compan- 
ions that in his childhood a nest with seven 
eaglets in it had fallen into his lap, and that 
the soothsayers had prophesied to his pa- 
rents that he should seven times enjoy su- 
preme power. Flying from immediate pur- 
suit, he and his company were forced to swim 
to two merchant vessels, the crews of which 
refused to give them up, but afterward made 
them land at the mouth of the Liris. Here, 
while concealed in a marsh, Marius was found 
by his pursuers, and imprisoned at Minturne. 
A Cimbric soldier was ordered to despatch 
him, but was so affected by the old man’s 
look and language that he lost courage, and 
declared that he could not kill Caius Marius. 
The people of the town rose in his favor, 
and furnished him with a vessel, in which he 
sailed to Africa, meeting with many dangers 
on the way. He landed at Carthage, where a 
message was sent him by the Roman pretor, 
ordering him to leave the country. His answer 
was: ‘Tell the preetor that you have seen 
Caius Marius a fugitive sitting on the ruins of 
Carthage ;” a reply, says Plutarch, in which he 
not inaptly compared the fate of that city and 
his own changed fortunes. He was soon com- 
pelled to leave, and went with his son to the 
island of Cercina. Meantime a revolution had 
taken place in Italy, where the consul Cinna, 
who was of the Marian party, had placed him- 
self in opposition to the Sullan faction, head- 
ed by his colleague Octavius. The latter, after 
a severe struggle, expelled Cinna from Rome, 
who raised a large army, composed of the new 
citizens. Marius, on hearing of this, returned 
to Italy, and on landing proclaimed freedom to 
the slaves, and sent to Cinna, offering to obey 
him as consul.. Cinna accepted the offer, and 
named him proconsul. This office Marius 
would not accept, saying its title and insignia 
were not suited to one in his state. One idea, 
that of vengeance, alone had possession of his 
mind. Rome was soon compelled to surrender 
to the army headed by Cinna and Marius. The 
former was disposed to proceed mildly, but 
Marius had other intentions. At first he re- 
fused to enter the city until the comitia repealed 
the law under which he had been banished; 
but while the voting for that purpose was go- 
ing on, he entered at the head of his guards, 
who were composed of the slaves by whom he 
had been joined, and an immediate massacre of 
the anti-Marians was begun. The slaughter 


MARJORAM 


was continued for several days, and among its 
victims were many of the noblest of the Ro- 
mans, Cinna and Marius declared themselves 
consuls for the next year, 86. But though 
Marius had thus irregularly obtained his seventh 
consulship, he did not long enjoy it, dying on 
its 18th day, from illness brought on by age, 
fatigue, andcare. The statement that his mind 
was disordered by fear of Sulla’s return is 
probably one of the libels of the Sullan party. 
After the triumph of Sulla, the ashes of Marius 
were thrown into the Anio, by order of the 
victor. The representative and leader, though 
perhaps not in strictness the founder, of the 
party which bears his name in the subsequent 
history of the Roman republic, and which he 
was clearly incompetent to conduct to success, 


-his character has probably suffered, like that 


of other party chiefs, at the hands of his ene- 
mies. No Roman ever rendered greater ser- 
vices to the state, and no Roman ever rose so 
high, to fall so low, with the single exception 
of Pompey, who in the next generation headed 
the opposite party. 
MARIVAUX, Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de, a 
French author, born in Paris in 1688, died 
there, Feb. 12, 1763. He wrote about 30 
comedies, the greater part for the Italian thea- 
tre, and now seldom performed. Among the 
best are Le jeu de lVamour et du hasard, the 
author’s dramatic masterpiece, and Les fausses 
confidences. He is now known chiefly by his 
romances, La vie de Mariane and Le paysan 
parvenu. He also wrote Le spectateur fran- 
gois and Le philosophe indigent, distinguished 
by an eccentric and affected style, called after 
him marivaudage. He was elected a member 
of the French academy in 1748, Voltaire being 
a rival candidate. i 
MARJORAM, the common name of plants of 
the genus origanum, in the natural order Ja- 
biate, having nearly entire leaves and purplish 
or whitish flowers crowded in cylindrical or 
oblong spikes, which are imbricated with fre- 
quently colored bracts. About 25 species are 
enumerated, of which the most common in the 
gardens is the sweet marjoram (0. majorana), 
native of Barbary and middle Asia. It is a 
clean, pretty, low, bushy plant, usually treated 
as an annual, but properly a perennial. The 
fragrant leaves and buds, being carefully dried, 
are pulverized by rubbing them in the hands, 
and are employed by cooks as a seasoning for 
forced-meat balls, stuffing, soups, &c. On ac- 
count of the compact clusters or heads, it is 
in some localities known as knotted marjoram. 
The wild marjoram (0. vulgare) has become 
sparingly naturalized in the United States, ad- 
ventitiously introduced from Europe. It can 
be found occasionally upon dry banks and sunny 
slopes. Its flowers are very pretty, appearing 
in the months of July and August. Essential 
oils may be extracted from either of the spe- 
cies mentioned above, but the oil which is now 
known in commerce as oil of origanum has been 
shown to be really derived from the thymus 


Z 


MARK 175 


eulgaris, amint growing in the south of France. 
This is sometimes used as an external irritant, 
especially in veterinary practice, and, like many 


GRA 


a \f 
p> IP 
Cw Ss 


Marjoram. 


other volatile oils, will allay toothache when 
introduced into a carious cavity. Internally 
it is a stimulant, but has no great value. 
MARK, Saint, the evangelist, according to the 
opinion of most theologians, identical with 
John Mark, mentioned in the Acts (xii. 12, 
25). By comparing the passages of the New 
Testament relating to both Mark and John 
Mark, we learn the following facts of his life. 
He was the son of a certain Mary, who pos- 
sessed a house at Jerusalem which served the 
Christians as a place of refuge. About the 
time when James the Elder was executed, he 
left Jerusalem with Paul and Barnabas, his 
kinsman (A. D. 42), went to Antioch, and from 
there to Cyprus and Asia Minor, but sepa- 
rated from them at Perga, in order to return 
to Jerusalem. Paul blamed this conduct; and 
when later Barnabas proposed to take Mark 
along on a new missionary tour, Paul objected, 
and Barnabas and Mark undertook a journey 
of their own. But we find him again as a 
friend and fellow laborer of Paul during the 
first captivity of the latter. It appears that 
both intended, after the end of the captivity, 
to visit the Christians of Asia Minor. Mark 
probably executed this design, for Paul re- 
quests Timothy (2 Tim. iv. 11) to bring Mark 
to Rome. He was with the apostle Peter, 
near Babylon (which, according to many in- 
terpreters, designates Rome), when that apos- 
tle wrote his first epistle. According to the 
testimony of the ancient church, Mark was in 
a particularly intimate relation to the apostle 
Peter, who employed him as secretary in the 
same way as Titus was employed by Paul. 
After the death of Peter, Mark is said to have 
gone to Egypt, and especially to Alexandria, to 
have collected congregations there and in the 
533 VOL. XI.—12 


neighborhood, to have been the first bishop of 
Alexandria, and, finally, to have suffered mar- 
tyrdom there. He is the patron saint of Ven- 
ice, which city claims to possess his body. His 
festival is celebrated in the Roman Catholic 
church on April 25.—The Gospel of Mark is 
distinguished from the three others by being 
more exclusively historical, and excluding long- 
er didactic portions, such as the sermon on 
the mount. All the facts recorded in it may 
be found also in Matthew or Luke, and only 
27 verses belong exclusively to Mark; a cir- 
cumstance which has given rise to wide differ- 
ences of opinion concerning the position of 
Mark in relation to the other two. Augustine 
advanced the opinion that Matthew wrote first, 
that Mark wrote an abridgment of the Gospel 
of Matthew, and that Luke in writing his Gos- 
pel made use of both Matthew and Mark. This 
view continued to prevail among exegetical 
writers until the 18th century, when the ques- 
tion of priority of composition among the three 
synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) 
became the subject of vehement controversy, 
every possible combination finding its defend- 
ers. Eichhorn in 1794 advanced the theory 
that all the three synoptic Gospels of our can- 
on had made use of a primitive Gospel (Ur- 
Evangelium), no longer extant. Many Ger- 
man critics assume a primitive Gospel of Mark 
(Ur-Markus), of which the Gospel in our canon 
is a revised and enlarged copy. Among the 
prominent defenders of this view are Ewald 
(1849), Scholten (1867), Volkmar (1870), and 
Weiss (1872). Others have advanced similar 
views with regard to Matthew and Luke. Most 
of these writers agree in regarding the Gospel 
of Luke as the latest of the synoptic Gospels in 
their present form ; the most notable exception 
being Keim, who (in his ‘‘ Life of Jesus’’) main- 
tains that the Gospel of Mark is the latest of 
the three. The defenders of the originality of 
the Gospel of Mark in its present form gener- 
ally place the time of its compilation between 
the death of the apostles Peter and Paul and 
the destruction of Jerusalem. Rome is almost 
unanimously regarded as the place where it - 
was written. The evangelist undoubtedly used 
the Greek language ; a note to the Syrian trans- 
lation, stating that the Gospel was compiled in 
Latin, received for a time wide currency among 
Roman Catholic scholars through the support 
of Baronius, but it has been almost entirely 
discarded since the time of Richard Simon. 
Doubts are entertained also by prominent the- 
ologians of the orthodox school whether the 
last 12 verses are by Mark, or were added after 
his death; in support of the latter view it is 
adduced that Jerome, Gregory of Nyssa, and 
other fathers expressly mention that the Gos- 
pel closed with the words, ‘‘For they were 
afraid ” (xvi. 8); in favor of the other, that all 
the Latin and Syrian manuscripts have these 
verses.—For commentaries on Mark, see the 
collective works on the Gospels mentioned in 
the article Luxe. Commentaries on Mark 


| 


176 MARK ANTONY. 


alone have been published, among others, by J. 
A. Alexander (New York, 1858), Klostermann, 
Das Markus-Hvangelium (Gottingen, 1868), 
and Weiss, Das Markus-Hvangelium und seine 
synoptischen Parallelen (Berlin, 1872). <Ac- 
counts of the modern discussions about the 
origin and history of the Gospel of Mark may 
be found in Wilke, Der Urevangelist (Leipsic, 
1838), F..C. Baur, Das Markus-Evangelium 
(Tubingen, 1851), and in the commentaries of 
Klostermann and Weiss. <A full account of 
the literature on the subject is given by Se- 
vin in Lrklérung der drei ersten Hvangelien 
(Wiesbaden, 1873). 

MARK ANTONY. See Anrony. 

MARKHAM, Clements Robert, an English geog- 
rapher, born at Stillingfleet, near York, July 
20, 1880. He was educated at Westminster 
school, and entered the navy in 1844. In 1846 
he was appointed naval cadet on board a vessel 
on the Pacific station, and, having passed for 
a lieutenant, left the navy in 1851. In 1850 
—'51 he served in the expedition in search of 
Sir John Franklin, and in 1852-’4 explored the 
forests of the eastern Andes. In 1855 he be- 
came clerk in the board of control, and in 
1858 secretary of the Hakluyt society. Be- 
tween 1859 and 1866 he again went to Peru 
and twice visited India, where he introduced 
the cultivation of the cinchona tree. In 1868 
he was made secretary of the royal geographi- 
cal society, and in 1867 assistant secretary in 
the India office, receiving charge of its geo- 
graphical department in 1868. In the latter year 
he was appointed geographer to the Abyssinian 
expedition, and was present at the storming 
of Magdala. Besides many translations for 
the Hakluyt society and papers in the journal 
of the royal geographical society, he has pub- 
lished ‘‘ Franklin’s Footsteps” (1852) ; ‘‘ Cuzco 
and Lima” (1856);. ‘Travels in Peru and In- 
dia” (1862); ‘‘Quichua Grammar and Dic- 
tionary ” (1868); ‘Spanish Irrigation ” (1867) ; 
“History of the Abyssinian Expedition ” 
(1869); ‘Life of the Great Lord Fairfax” 
(1870); Ollanta, a Quichua Drama” (1871); 
‘*Memoir on the Indian Surveys” (1871); a 
translation, printed by the Hakluyt society, 
of the ‘Reports on the Conquest of Peru” 
(1872); “The Threshold of the Unknown 
Regions” (1873); and a ‘General Sketch of 
the. History of Persia” (1874). He is the 
editor of the. ‘‘ Geographical Magazine.” 

MARKIRCH, or Mariakireh (Fr. Ste. Marie-aua- 
Mines), a town of Alsace-Lorraine, Germany, 
22m. N. W. of Colmar; pop. in 1871, 12,319. 
It is one of the most flourishing centres of Al- 
satian industry. Among the principal manu- 
factures are silk, wool, and cotton weaving, dye- 
ing, and bleaching. ‘The valley of Markirch is 
one of the most picturesque of Alsace. There 
are lead and copper mines in the neighboring 
mountains. The town is of recent origin. 

MARKS, Henry Stacy. See supplement. 

MARL, a clay containing a large proportion 
of carbonate of lime, sometimes 40 to 50 per 


MARLBOROUGH 


cent. Ifthe marl consists largely of shells or 
fragments of shells, it is called shell marl. In 
New Jersey the layers of greensand are very 
generally known as marl beds, a name more 
correctly applied to the tertiary beds made up 
of marine fossil shells which are found near 
the coast of the middle and southern states, 
and are employed for fertilizing the soil. In 
the northern states rich marl deposits are often 
found at the bottom of ponds, in the form of a 
thin white mud filled with minute fresh-water 
shells of living species. (See GREENSAND.) 

MARLBOROUGH, a N. E. county of South 
Carolina, bordering on North Carolina, bound- 
ed W. by the Great Pedee river, and watered 
by its affluents; area, 505 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 11,814, of whom 6,668 were colored. 
The surface is level and the soil productive. 
The chief productions in 1870 were 6,321 
bushels of wheat, 158,088 of Indian corn, 20,- 
748 of oats, 17,894 of peas and beans, 42,356 
of sweet potatoes, 17,677 Ibs. of rice, and 
8,843 bales of cotton. There were 916 horses, 
919 mules and asses, 1,637 milch cows, 2,907 
other cattle, 974 sheep, and 8,870 swine. Cap- 
ital, Bennettsville. 

MARLBOROUGH, a town of Middlesex co., 
Massachusetts, on a branch of the Fitchburg 
railroad, and on the Boston, Clinton, and 
Fitchburg railroad, 25 m. W. of Boston, and 
15 m. E. N. E. of Worcester; pop. in 1870, 
8,474. It is built on numerous hills, and con- 
tains within its limits Lake Williams, a beau- 
tiful sheet of water covering 160 acres. It 
has a handsome soldiers’ monument of granite, 
a brick town hall costing $87,000, three ho- 
tels, gas works, and a‘good fire department. 
There are 25 boot and shoe manufactories, of 
which several are very extensive; a national 
bank, a savings bank, a high school, 36 public 
schools, four evening schools, five private 
schools, a public library of 5,000 volumes, 
two weekly newspapers, and seven churches, 
Marlborough was incorporated in 1661. 

MARLBOROUGH, a town and parliamentary 
borough of Wiltshire, England, on the Kennet 
river, 75 m. W. by S. of London; pop. in 1871, 
5,034. It consists chiefly of one wide street. 
There is a royal free grammar school, found- 
ed by Edward VI. A castle existed in the 
days of Richard I., and a parliament was held 
there under Henry III., passing laws which 
were known as the statutes of Malbridge or 
Marlberge. The site was subsequently occu- 
pied by a noble mansion, at a later period by 
an inn, and is now part of Marlborough col- 
lege. This institution dates from 1848, and is 
intended for 500 pupils, two thirds of whom 
must be sons of clergymen. A laboratory and 
science lecture room were established in 1875. 
The town has considerable trade in local manu- 
facturing, agricultural, and dairy products, but 
has lost the importance which it had before 
the opening of the Great Western railway, 
when it was one of the principal posting sta- 
tions between London, Bath, and Bristol. 


MARLBOROUGH 


MARLBOROUGH, John Churchill, duke of, a 
British general, born at Ashe, in Devonshire, 
June 24, 1650, died in London, June 16, 1722. 
He was the son of Sir Winston Churchill, a 
royalist of some note, who procured for him 
the place of page to the duke of York, short- 
ly after the restoration. His education was 
slight, but he was a favorite with the duke, 
who made him an ensign in the guards at the 
age of 16. He served at Tangiers against 
the Moors, and in the auxiliary force which 
Charles II. sent to aid the French in their at- 
tack on Holland, where he won the praise of 
Turenne by his courage and capacity. Louis 
XIV. made him a colonel, and on his return 
to England after the peace of Nimeguen the 
duke of York gave him high appointments in 
his household. He owed his advancement as 
much to the influence of his sister Arabella as 
to his own merits, she being the mistress of 
the duke of York. He was engaged in not a 
few intrigues of gallantry, and is said to have 
jumped from the window of the chamber of the 
duchess of Cleveland, one of the most notori- 
ous of the king’s mistresses, to avoid the king. 


The lady rewarded him by the present of, 


£5,000, with which he purchased an annuity 
of £500 a year. In 1678 he married Sarah 
Jennings, a young woman of good family, in 
the service of the duchess of York, who be- 
came famous for her talents and imperious 
temper. He received military promotion, and 
was made Lord Churchill in the peerage of 
Scotland; and soon after, on the marriage of 
the princess Anne with Prince George of Den- 
mark (1683), Lady Churchill was made chief 
lady of her bedchamber. The ladies had been 
friends for some time, though no two persons 
could be more unlike; Anne being as dull, 
heavy, and yielding as Sarah was lively, change- 
able, and imperious. They corresponded, 
when unavoidably separated, under the names 
of Mrs. Morley and Mrs. Freeman. The in- 
fluence thus established lasted for more than 
a quarter of a century, and would have ended 
only with Anne’s life if Lady Churchill had 
known how to govern her temper. On the 
duke of York becoming James II., Churchill 
was made general and baron of Sandridge, 
and was sent as ambassador to France. On 
the rebellion of the duke of Monmouth, he 
performed important military services, and 
the victory of Sedgemoor was due to him. 
He was not conspicuous during the reign of 
James II., and was opposed to the policy of 
that prince; but his opposition was not of a 
demonstrative character, and down to the last 
moment he enjoyed the king’s confidence. The 
influence of his wife over Anne was used with 
effect to keep the princess opposed to her fa- 
ther’s policy, and in 1687 Churchill communi- 
cated that fact to William of Orange. On the 
landing of William, Churchill was made a lieu- 
tenant general, and appointed to an important 
command, _He induced Lord Cornbury, son 
of the earl of Clarendon and brother-in-law of 


177 


James, to join William, and soon followed 
him, accompanied by several military men, 
and by the duke of Grafton, an illegitimate 
son of Charles II. His example was followed 
by Prince George of Denmark, while Lady 
Churchill found no difficulty in persuading 
Anne to leave London, and to join the north- 
ern insurgents. The influence of the Church- 
ills was employed to induce Anne to waive 
her superior claim to the throne over William. 
For this Lord Churchill received valuable ap- 
pointments, and was made earl of Marlbor- 
ough. In the subsequent disputes between 
William and Anne he sided with the latter. 
He was sent in 1689 to command the British 
forces in the Low Countries, and repulsed the 
French at Walcourt. The next year he led an 
army to Ireland, and took Cork and Kinsale. 
He early began a correspondence with the ex- 
iled king, and completely deceived him. His 
object was not to aid James, but to overthrow 
William III., place Anne at the head of the 
nation, and rule her and England through his 
wife. In 1692 he was dismissed from his em- 
ployments, and sent to the tower, where he 
remained for some time. He sent to James 
an account of the expedition against Brest, 
which enabled the French to defeat the Eng- 
lish with great slaughter, one of his objects 
being to ruin Talmash, a military rival, who 
lost his life on the occasion. After the death 
of Queen Mary, Marlborough was restored to 
favor, and made governor to the duke of 
Gloucester, Anne’s son. At the beginning of 
the war of the Spanish succession he was ap- 
pointed commander of the forces in Holland, 
and ambassador to that country. He was very 
successful as a diplomatist, and the king, in 
anticipation of his death, recommended him 
to Anne as one most competent to advise and 
command. When Anne became queen reg- 
nant (1702), Marlborough was made captain 
general and master of the ordnance, and a 
knight of the garter. Lady Marlborough re- 
ceived several valuable appointments in the 
royal household, and two of her daughters 
were made ladies of the bedchamber, Through 
his own influence with Godolphin, the prime 
minister, who was his son-in-law, and that of 
his wife with the queen, Marlborough now 
practically ruled the kingdom. As ambassa- 
dor to Holland, he completed the arrange- 
ments for the declaration of war against 
France, and was appointed generalissimo of 
the armies of the grand alliance, when he 
entered upon a surprising career of victory. 
After various successes, the campaign of Blen- 
heim, in codperation with Prince Eugene, took 
place in the summer of 1704, and on Aug. 13 
the battle of that name was won. He had 
previously been made a duke, and now the 
manor and honor of Woodstock were conferred 
upon him, and the queen ordered that a palace 
should be there built for him, to be called Blen- 
heim. He was successful in the operations of 
1705, when the German emperor conferred 


178 MARLBOROUGH 


upon him the lordship of Mindelheim, with the 
title of prince. The battle of Ramillies was 
won May 23,1706. Other successes marked 
this campaign, and the duke received a pension 
of £5,000, and other rewards. The campaign 
of 1707 was marked by no striking event where 
Marlborough commanded; but on July 11, 
1708, he won the battle of Oudenarde. Lille 
was taken the same year. Efforts to restore 
peace having failed, the war was resumed, 
and on Sept. 11, 1709, Marlborough, aided by 
Eugene, won the battle of Malplaquet, the most 
sanguinary and hardly contested of all his vic- 
tories. His last campaign, in 1711, when he 
captured.the fortress of Bouchain, was the 
most brilliant and effective of all. In the 


mean time great changes had taken place in | 


England. The war had been commenced by 
a tory ministry, though it was to support 
whig views. Gradually everything changed. 
Godolphin became a whig, and the great of- 
fices passed into whig hands. In 1707 the 
change was complete, though the queen’s sym- 
pathies were with the tories. The duchess of 
Marlborough, who was a whig at the time 
her husband was a tory, bent all her energies 
to the support of the ministry, and if her tact 
had equalled her talent that ministry might 
have lasted through the queen’s life. But the 
queen at length became weary of her imperi- 
ous sway, and Mrs. Masham, a cousin of the 
duchess, whom she had placed in the service 
of the queen, was used by Robert Harley as a 
tool to effect her downfall. The ministry of 
Godolphin was overthrown (1710), the duchess 
was dismissed, and Harley, as earl of Oxford, 
became the head of a tory cabinet (1711). This 
was followed by the removal of Marlborough 
from all his offices (Jan. 1, 1712). It was even 
intended to proceed against him legally on a 
charge of embezzling the public money. Gov- 
ernment ceased to pay the cost of building 
Blenheim, and that palace was completed out 
of the funds of the duke. The German gov- 
ernment treated him with equal ingratitude, as 
his principality had been lost through the res- 
toration of the elector of Bavaria. At the 
close of 1712 he left England, and visited Flan- 
ders and Germany, residing principally at Aix- 
la-Chapelle, Frankfort, and Antwerp. The 
ill treatment he had received from the tories 
caused him to become a firm friend of the 
Hanoverian succession. He corresponded with 
the elector, offered him a large loan, and used 
his influence with Holland in behalf of the 
Protestant succession. He returned to Eng- 
land on the very day of the accession of the 
house of Hanover, and was well received by 
the people, the nobility, and. the army. He 
was appointed a privy councillor, and on the 
arrival of George I. was made captain general 
of the army and master of the ordnance. He 
was prompt in his measures during the rebellion 
of 1715; but it is said that he sent money to 
the pretender. His health was now on the de- 
cline, and he experienced more than one par- 


MARLOWE 


alytic shock. Still his mental powers were not 
affected. He attended parliament even in the 
last year of his life, and also performed his 
various military duties. He offered to resign 
his offices, but the king would not. hear of 
it. He was seized with palsy in June, 1722, at 
Windsor lodge, and died eight days before the 
completion of his 72d year. He had a mag- 
nificent funeral, and his body was deposited 
in Westminster abbey, whence it was removed 
to Blenheim, and placed in a noble mauso- 
leum, the work of Rysbrack. The duke left 
no son, and his title passed to his eldest daugh- 
ter, Henrietta, countess of Godolphin, from 
whom it descended to her nephew, Charles 
Spencer, earl of Sunderland. He left enormous 
wealth, his income at the time of his death 
being £70,000, exclusive of what he drew from 
royal gifts. He was doubtless the most adroit 
statesman and most successful commander of 
his time.—The duchess survived him 22 years. 
Though there is much exaggeration in the or- 
dinary accounts of her violence and quarrels, 
it is undeniable that her life was not of that 
dignified character which would have been be- 
coming in one of her station. She could be 
liberal, and aided Child, the banker, whom the 
bank of England was seeking to ruin, by giving 
him an order on that institution for £100,000. 
She gave Hooke £5,000 for assisting to write 
her ‘‘ Account” of her conduct while at court. 
She died Oct. 18, 1744, in her 85th year. Her 
immense wealth was left principally to Charles, 
duke of Marlborough, and to his brother, John 
Spencer. Among her bequests was one of 
£20,000 to Lord Chesterfield, and another of 
£10,000 to the elder Pitt.—In 1845-6 the “‘ Let- 
ters and Despatches of the Duke of Marlbor- 
ough” were published in 5 vols. 8vo, edited 
by Sir George Murray. The best biographies 
of the duke of Marlborough are by Coxe, “‘ Me- 
moirs of John, Duke of Marlborough” (8 vols. 
4to, London, 1817-’19, and 3 vols. 8vo, 1848), 
and Alison, ‘‘ Life of John, Duke of Marlbor- 
ough” (2 vols., London, 1847). The ‘Life of 
the Duchess of Marlborough” has been writ- 
ten by Mrs. A. T. Thomson (2 vols., London, 
1839), and by Miss Costello, in vol. iv. of 
‘Eminent Englishwomen” (1844). 

MARLIANI, Aurelio, count, an Italian com- 


poser, born in Lombardy about 1808, killed in © 


Bologna in June, 1849. He joined the car- 
bonari, lost his fortune in their service, and 
was obliged to take refuge in Paris. There he 
became a teacher of singing, and Julia Grisi 
was his pupil. After the revolution of 1848 
he returned to Italy, and took up arms with the 
revolutionists. He composed many songs and 
romances and several operas, the best known 
of which, Ze bravo, was produced at Paris in 
1834 and at Vienna in 1835. 

MARLITT, E. See Jonn, Evcente. 

MARLOWE, Christopher, or Kit, an English 
dramatic poet, born in Canterbury in 1564, 
killed in Deptford, June 16, 1593. His father, 
a shoemaker, obtained for him admission into 


MARMARA 


King’s school, Canterbury. He was after- 
ward entered as a pensioner of Corpus Christi 
college, Cambridge, where he received the de- 
gree of bachelor of arts in 1583 and of mas- 
ter in 1587. In 1586 he produced the first part 
of his tragedy of ‘‘Tamburlaine,” which ex- 
hibits more action on the stage, a more drama- 
tic dialogue, and a far more varied and skilful 
versification, than any English play which had 
preceded it; but it was ridiculed for its bom- 
bastic style and extravagant scenes. It was 
printed with a second part in 1590. His sec- 
ond play was the ‘ Tragical History of the 
Life and Death of Dr. Faustus,” a powerful 
though irregular drama, its poetical beauties 
being often intermingled with low buffooneries. 
The hero makes a pact with Lucifer, to whom 
he disposes of his soul on condition of having 
a familiar spirit and unlimited power at his 
command for 24 years. The awful melancholy 
of the fiend, as contrasted with the malignant 
mirth of Goethe’s Mephistopheles, the strug- 
gles of awakened conscience in the hero, and 
the splendid horror of the termination, are its 
most striking features. The German puppet 
play constructed from this drama was the foun- 
dation of Goethe’s great tragedy, which con- 
sequently in the opening has a striking resem- 
blance to Marlowe’s. ‘‘The Jew of Malta” 
has more vigorous passages than are to be 
found in any other Elizabethan play except 
those of Shakespeare. His ‘‘ Edward II.” con- 
tains a death scene which Charles Lamb says 
‘‘moves pity and terror beyond any scene, an- 
cient or modern.” Several other plays of 
doubtful authorship have been attributed to 
him, and it is probable that the second and 
third parts of Henry VI. in Shakespeare were 
mostly written by Marlowe. He also made 


translations from Ovid, so licentious that the 


archbishop of Canterbury ordered them to be 
burned, yet they have been often reprinted. 
He is supposed to have been an actor as well 
as playwright, led a dissipated life, is stated to 
have held atheistical opinions, though there is 
no proof of this in his plays, and died from a 
wound received in a disgraceful quarrel. An 
edition of his works by Alexander Dyce was 
published in London in 1850, in 3 vols. 
MARMARA, Sea of. See Marmora. 
MARMAROS, a N. E. county of Hungary, bor- 
dering on Galicia, Bukowina, and Transylvania, 
and the counties of Bereg, Ugocsa, and Szat- 
mar; area, 3,998 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 220,506, 
including about 100,000 Ruthenians, 50,000 
Wallachs, 20,000 Jews, 15,000 Magyars, and 
8,000 Germans. The United Greek church is 
the most numerous, there being only about 
15,000 Roman Catholics and 6,000 Protestants. 
Marmaros is next to Bihar and Pesth the lar- 
gest county of Hungary, but far more thinly 
populated. The Carpathians separate it from 
Galicia, Bukowina, and Transylvania, and tray- 
erse it in many directions, the highest peaks 
rising to an altitude of 7,000 ft. At the foot 
of Mt. Csorna rises the Black Theiss, which 


MARMONT 179 


joins the White Theiss in this county. Iron, 
lead, marble, alabaster, coal, and crystals are 
found, and in a few localities also gold. The 
Marmaros diamonds are celebrated. The salt 
mines are immense. The Suliguli is the most 
important of the mineral springs. The forests 
are rich in wood, especially oak. Horses and 
sheep are raised in great numbers. Excepting 
the limited valley of the Theiss, the country 
does not favor the production of cereals, fruits, 
and wine, and maize is the principal grain raised 
for local consumption. Capital, Sziget. 
MARMIER, Xavier, a French author, born at 
Pontarlier, June 24, 1809. He studied the 
German and other foreign languages, and be- 
came editor of the Revue Germanique. From 
1836 to 1838 he explored northern Europe, on 
board of a national ship of war, and was pro- 
fessor at Rennes from 1839 to 1841, when he 
received the appointment of librarian in the 
ministry of education, which permitted him to 
travel in the East, in North and South Amer- 
ica, and in other countries. In 1846 he was 
placed in charge of the Ste. Genevieve library, 
and in 1870 was elected to the academy. He 
has translated Goethe’s and Schiller’s plays and 
other German works, and published miscel- 
laneous writings, some of which relate to the 
history, language, and literature of Iceland, 
Denmark, and Sweden. His best novels, Les 
Jiancés du Spiteberg (Paris, 1858) and Gazida 
(1860), received academical prizes. Among 
his books of travel are: Lettres sur le Nord, 
Danemark, Suéde, Laponie, Spitzeberg (1840; 
5th ed., 1847); Du Rhin au Nil (2 vols., 1847) ; 
Lettres sur la Russie, la Finlande et la Pologne 
(2 vols., 1848); Lettres sur 1 Amérique (2 vols., 
1852); Lettres sur V Adriatique et le Monté- 
négro (2 vols., 1854); Voyage pittoresque en 
Allemagne (2 vols., 1858-9); Hn Amérique et 
en Europe (1859); and Souvenirs dun voya- 
geur (1867). Among his more recent publica- 
tions is the story book, L’ Arbre de Noél (1871). 
MARMONT, Auguste Frédéric Louis Viesse de, duke 
of Ragusa, a marshal of France, born in Cha- 
tillon-sur-Seine, July 20, 1774, died in Venice, 
Feb. 28, 1852. He was descended from an 
ancient family, and at 15 years of age entered 
a regiment of infantry as sub-lieutenant. Three 
years afterward he was transferred to the ar- 
tillery; and having fallen under the notice of 
Bonaparte, he was in 1796 appointed his first 
aide-de-camp, in which capacity he served with 
distinction in the two Italian.campaigns. He 
accompanied the expedition to Egypt, and ~ 
for his good conduct at the investment of 
Malta was appointed a general of brigade. He 
returned with Bonaparte to France, and for 
his codperation on the 18th Brumaire was ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief of the artillery in 
the army of reserve. The successful trans- 
portation of the French artillery over the Great 
St. Bernard in the spring of 1800 was in a 
great measure due to his exertions; and the 
skill with which he managed his batteries at 
Marengo procured him the rank of general of 


180 MARMONT 


division. He participated with credit in the 
campaign of 1805 in Germany, and in 1806 was 
made commander-in-chief of the forces in Dal- 
matia, where he remained till 1809. For his 
successful defence of Ragusa against a greatly 
superior force of Russians and Montenegrins, 
Sept. 30, 1806, he subsequently received the 
title of duke of Ragusa. After the battle of 
Aspern and Essling (May 21, 22, 1809) he 
brought up his corps in good order to the as- 
sistance of the emperor, defeating on the way 
superior bodies of Austrians in several en- 
counters; and for his conduct at the battle of 
Wagram and in the subsequent pursuit of the 
enemy, he was created a marshal of the em- 
pire. In 1811 he was sent to relieve Masséna 
in Portugal, and he ended a series of unfor- 
tunate movements by losing the battle of Sala- 
manca, which ruined the French cause in the 
Peninsula. Having recovered from a severe 
wound received on this occasion, he joined the 
emperor in Germany in 1813, and fought at 
Liitzen, Bautzen, Dresden, and Leipsic, with a 
valor which in some degree retrieved his mili- 
tary reputation. In the campaign of 1814 he 
vigorously codperated with Napoleon in the 
brilliant but useless series of battles by which 
the advance of the allies was sought to be 
stayed, and on March 29 arrived with the rem- 
nant of his corps before Paris. At the battle 
of Paris, fought on the succeeding day, he 
showed the utmost intrepidity and devotion to 
the imperial cause, and, with the few thousand 
men composing his own corps and that of 
Marshal Mortier, withstood for many hours the 
attacks of an army four times as numerous. 
An armistice was finally agreed upon, and late 
in the day Marmont, availing himself of a let- 
ter from Joseph Bonaparte, who had been ap- 
pointed lieutenant general of the empire, au- 
thorizing him to enter into an arrangement 
with the allied sovereigns, agreed to evacuate 
the city. On the 81st the allies entered Paris 
in triumph; and four days afterward Mar- 
mont, influenced by a senatus consultum declar- 
ing Napoleon’s forfeiture of the throne, and 
abolishing the right of succession of his family, 
gave in his adhesion to the provisional govern- 
ment which had been formed under the pres- 
idency of Talleyrand; stipulating, however, 
that the life and personal freedom of Napoleon 
should be secured, and that the French troops 
should be provided with secure quarters in 
Normandy. On April 5 his corps, numbering 
12,000 men, accordingly entered within the 
allied lines and took the road to Normandy. 
The indignation of Napoleon at this proceed- 
ing was boundless,-and, in an order issued 
from Fontainebleau immediately after the news 
reached him, he expressly disavowed it, ob- 
serving: “The emperor cannot approve the 
condition or which the duke of Ragusa has 
taken this step; he cannot accept life and 
liberty at the mercy of a subject.” During the 
hundred days he expressly excepted him from 
the imperial act of amnesty, and subsequently 


MARMONTEL 


at St. Helena, speaking of his defection, said: 
‘‘T was betrayed by Marmont, whom I might 
call my son, my offspring, my own work.” 
He received numerous distinctions from the 
Bourbons after the first and second restora- 
tions, but about 1825 retired to his country 
seat, whence, in July, 1830, he was suddenly 
summoned to Paris to quell the revolt against 
Charles X. Failing in this, he was obliged to 
share the exile of the Bourbons; and so strong 
was the odium excited against him, that his 
name was struck from the list of the French 
army. He never reéntered France, but wan- 
dered over Europe, fixing his residence finally 
at Venice, where his latter years were passed. 
He published his travels in Hungary, southern 
Russia, Syria, Egypt, &c., and Lsprit des in- 
stitutions militaires, which Marshal Bugeaud 
wished to place in the hands of every officer in 
the service; and left an autobiography, pub- 
lished in Paris under the title of Mémoires du 
duc de Raguse (9 vols., 1856). 
MARMONTEL, Jean Francois, a French author, 
born at Bort, Limousin, July 11, 1723, died at 
Ableville, near Evreux, Dec. 81,1799. Of hum- 
ble birth, he was educated gratuitously under 
the Jesuits of Mauriac, and was intended for the 
priesthood. His love of literature prevented 
this career, and also withdrew him from com- 
merce, in which his father sought his estab- 
lishment, and he became professor of philoso- 
phy at Toulouse, where his verses took the 
prize of the floral games. Voltaire, with whom 
he began a correspondence, induced him to re- 
move to Paris in 1745, where he soon obtained 
the prize of the French academy for a poem, 
and produced several tragedies which the genius 
of Mlle. Clairon made eminently successful on 
the stage. Protected by Mme. de Pompadour, 
he became in 1753 historiographer of the royal 
buildings, and in 1758 publisher of the Mercure 
de France, and thus had a large income. To 
the Mercure he contributed the Contes moraua, 
on which his fame chiefly rests, and which have 
been greatly admired as specimens of light and 
lively writing. His position as manager of the 
Mercure was lost after two years in conse- 
quence of a satire on the duke d’Aumont, and 
he was confined for a few days in the Bastile. 
Admitted into the academy in 1763, he suc- 
ceeded D’Alembert in 1783 as perpetual secre- 
tary. He left Paris during the revolution, was 
one of the moderate deputies in the council of 
the ancients in 1797, and lived again in retire- 
ment after the 18th Fructidor. His best the- 
atrical pieces are the tragedies Les Héraclides 
and Numitor, the operas Didon and Pénélope, 
and the comic operas Sylvain and Zémire et 
Azore. He also wrote the romances Bélisaire 
(1767) and Les Incas (1777), collected his ar- 
ticles in the Encyclopédie under the title of 
Eléments de littérature (6 vols., 1787), pub- 
lished a history of the regency of the duke of 
Orleans, and left treatises, designed for the ed. 
ucation of his children, on the French language, 
logic, metaphysics, and morals, and his own 


MARMORA 


Mémoires (4 vols., 1804). A complete edition 
of his works was published in 18 vols. (1808), 
and a select edition in 10 vols. (1824).—His son, 
Lovis Josrrx, born in Paris in 1789, published 
two poems of his father, Polymnie and the 
Neuvaine de Cythére, and wrote several poems. 
He went to Mexico, and subsequently to the 
United States, leading a vagrant life, and died 
in a hospital in New York in 1830. 

MARMORA, Sea of (anc. Propontis), a body 
of water lying between European and Asiatic 
Turkey; length 172 m., greatest breadth about 
50m. Its N. E. extremity is connected with 
the Black sea by the Bosporus, and its 8. W. 
extremity with the Archipelago by the Darda- 
nelles. It is remarkable for its depth, which 
in some places is more than 350 fathoms. It 
has numerous excellent harbors on its N. shore, 
contains several islands, the principal of which 
is Marmora, and receives the waters of many 
but inconsiderable tributary streams. It has 
no tides, but currents of variable strength and 
velocity run through it. (See Braox Sxa, vol. 
ii., p. 683.) Its shores present a picturesque 
aspect, and are especially bold and precipitous 
on the Asiatic side.—The IsLanp oF Marmora 
(anc. Proconnesus ; Turk. Marmar Adassy), 
which gives name to the sea, is about 12 m. 
long and 6 m. wide, and for the most part 
mountainous and barren. It has been cele- 
brated from a remote age for its marble 
(whence its name, from Lat. marmor), with 
which in ancient times it supplied Cyzicus 
and other Hellenic cities, as in modern times 
it has supplied Constantinople. The capital, 
Marmora, stands on the S. W. coast, and is 
chiefly built of wood. The highest summit of 
the island is in lat. 40° 86’ N., lon. 27° 35! E. 

MARMOSET, the common name of the South 
American monkeys of the family hapalida, in- 
cluding the genera hapale (Illiger) and midas 
(Geoffroy). The number of teeth is the same 
as in the old-world apes and in man, viz.: 
incisors 4, canines 171, and molars $78, with 
acute tubercles. They are all of a size, re- 
sembling squirrels in form and agility; the 
rounded head is frequently furnished with ear- 
like tufts of silky hair on the sides; the feet 
are five-toed, the posterior having an opposable 
thunib with a flat nail, all the other fingers of 
both extremities having sharp claws, with the 
anterior thumb scarcely opposable; the tail is 
long and bushy, but not prehensile, and the 
body is covered with soft woolly fur.—In hapale 
the muzzle is short; the facial angle 50°; the 
upper lateral incisors insulated, the lower the 
longest, narrow, and convex outward; lower 
canines smallest. The striated marmoset or 
ouistiti (7. jacchus, Il.) is about 8 in. long, and 
the tail about a foot; the general color is a 
deep gray, with the lower back and tail banded 
with brown, head chestnut, spot on forehead 
and long hairs on cheeks and behind the ears 
white. It is a handsome and cleanly animal, 
walking on all-fours, and like the rest of its 
family lives in the woods of Brazil, running 


MARMOSET 181 


about in the trees in pursuit of insects, fruits, 
small birds, and eggs; it is easily tamed, and 
makes an interesting and affectionate pet; in 
captivity it will eat almost any vegetable or an- 
imal food; it is not so intelligent as the other 


\ 
= LS 
- SG 


Striated Marmoset (Hapale jacchus). 


monkeys; it breeds occasionally in confinement. 
—In midas the lower incisors are short and 
broad, and the forehead more prominent; the 
species are commonly called tamarins, and in- 
clude some of the smallest and prettiest mon- 
keys. The silky marmoset, or marikiva (1/. 
rosalia, Geoffr.), is of a golden yellow color, 
sometimes with a reddish tinge, the fur be- 
ing very soft and silky and forming a kind of 
mane upon the neck; its disposition is gentle, 
but its constitution is so delicate that it soon 
dies from the exposure of even temperate cli- 


Silky Marmoset (Midas rosalia). 


mates. The leonine marmoset, or leoncito 
(M. leoninus, Geoftr.), is the smallest monkey 
known; the color is brownish with black face 
and brown mane, which it erects when angry, 
whence its name. 


182 MARMOT 


MARMOT, a large rodent of the squirrel family, 
and genus arctomys (Schreber). The body is 
thick and compressed, the head large and flat- 
tened, the legs short and stout, and the tail 
short, bushy, and nearly cylindrical; the inci- 
sors are less compressed than in the squirrels, 
smooth in front and rounded; the molars are 
$-8, enamelled continuously, with transverse 
pointed tubercles, the first upper one the small- 
est; the ears are short and rounded, but dis- 
tinct above the fur; the fore feet with four 
toes armed with sharp claws, and a very rudi- 
mentary thumb with a small flat nail instead 
of a claw; the hind feet five-toed, with strong 
curved claws; the soles are entirely naked; 
there are very shallow cheek pouches. The com- 
mon European marmot (A. marmota, Schreb.) 


is 18 in. long, the tail 24 in.; the color is yel- 


lowish gray, with the top of the head dark 
gray, russet at the base of the tail, and incisors 
yellow. The form is clumsy, the movements 
slow, and the sagacity small; inhabiting the 
mountains of Europe near the snow line, they 


European Marmot (Arctomys marmota), 


live in families in burrows, in which they pass 
the winter in a state of lethargy; the food is 
vegetable, during the search for which one 
animal is stationed as a sentinel near the bur- 
row, into which all retreat at the signal of dan- 
ger; the circular chamber for the family is 
approached by a narrow gallery 5 or 6 ft. 
long ; they hibernate on beds of dried grass, 
and are very fat at the beginning and very lean 
at the end of this season; when fat they are 
sometimes used by the mountaineers as food. 
The Poland marmot (A. bodae, Pall.) is some- 
what larger, with more reddish tints. They 
burrow in the plains of less elevated districts 
in Poland, Russia, and northern Asia; they 
prefer dry and stony soils, into which they dig 
very deeply, living in families of 30 or 40, and 
amassing large quantities of dried grasses, 
Other marmots are described, which occasion- 
ally, as perhaps do all, feed upon birds and 
small quadrupeds. For the American marmot 
(A. monaz, Gmel.) see Wooponvox, its com- 
mon name.—Many animals of the allied genus 
spermophilus (Cuy.) are sometimes called mar- 


MAROCHETTI 


mots, but such come more properly under the 
head of prairie squirrels. The fur is thick and 
not very coarse, and is considerably used for 
common caps, robes, and similar objects. 

MARNE (anc. Afatrona), a river of France, 
which rises in the department of Haute-Marne, 
and, after a N. W. course of about 280 m., 
falls into the Seine near Paris. Its principal 
tributaries are the Ornain, Blaise, Petit-Morin, 
and Grand-Morin. The chief cities on its 
banks are Langres, Chaumont, Joinville, St. 
Dizier, Vitry-le-Francais, Chalons, Epernay, 
and Meaux. It is navigable from its junction 
with the Seine to St. Dizier, 210 m. The 
Marne is connected with the Rhine and Aisne 
by means of canals. 

MARNE, a N. E. department of France, in 
Champagne, bordering on Aisne, Ardennes, 
Meuse, Haute-Marne, Aube, and Seine-et- 
Marne; area, 3,159 sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 
386,157. The surface is an inclined plane, 
sloping from E. to W., and diversified by a 
few hills of moderate elevation. It is divided 
into two nearly equal parts by the river Marne, 
whence it derives its name. The land adjoin- 
ing this river is rich, but the soil elsewhere is 
in general light and barren. The principal riv- 
ers, besides the Marne, are the Aisne, Suippe, 
and Vesle in the north, and the Aube and Seine 
in the south. Great quantities of wine are 
made, mostly champagne. The most important 
manufacture is that of wool, which centres 
chiefly at Rheims. The department is divided 
into the arrondissements of Chélons-sur-Marne, 
Epernay, Rheims, Ste. Menehould, and Vitry- 
le-Francais. Capital, Chalons-sur-Marne. 

MARNE, Hante. See Haute-Marne.. 

MARNIX, Philip van. See ALDEGONDE, SAINTE. 

MAROCHETTI, Carlo, baron, an Italian sculp- 
tor, born in Turin in 1805, died in Paris, Dec. 
28, 1867. He studied in Paris and Rome, and 
after 1848 went to London. Among his prin- 
cipal works are: ‘ The Fallen Angel” (1831) ; 
a bronze statue of Emanuel Philibert, duke of 
Savoy, erected at Turin (1838); equestrian 
statue of the duke of Wellington, at Glasgow 
(1844); “Sappho” (1850); Richard OCceur de 
Lion, at London (1851); ‘‘Cupid and Grey- 
hound” (1854); equestrian statue of the queen, 
at Glasgow (1854); and statue of Wellington, 
at Strathfieldsay (1866). He was employed in 
a large number of monumental works, such as 
‘* The Battle of Jemmapes,” a bass relief on the 
Are de 0 Etoile, and the tomb of Napoleon in 
the Invalides, Paris; monument to the British 
soldiérs buried at Scutari, in London; monu- 
ment to the officers of the Coldstream guards 
who fell at Inkerman, in St. Paul’s cathedral, 
London; and a monument to the princess 


Elizabeth, daughter of Charles I., in Newport 


church, Isle of Wight. He also executed a 
large number of portrait busts, among the best 
of which is one of Prince Albert. He was en- 
nobled by Charles Albert of Sardinia in 1888, 
and was elected a member of the royal academy 
in London in 1866. 


MARONITES 


MARONITES, a body of Syrian Christians who 
acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of the 
Roman pontiff. The name appears to have 
been derived from St. Maron or Maroun, a 
hermit who lived in the mountains near Tyre, 
and whose feast is celebrated on Feb. 9. His 
followers built a monastic stronghold on the 
banks of the Orontes, near Apamea, which 
bore his name and became during the early 
Mohammedan wars the refuge of the Syrian 
Christians. Another Maron, a Monothelite 
bishop of the 7th century, induced the greater 
number of the Syrian Christians to embrace his 
opinions; and from him also they were called 
Maronites. Finally John Maron, a monk of the 
monastery of Apamea, was appointed in 676 
bishop of Botrys and patriarch of the orthodox 
Maronites. This similarity of name has occa- 
sioned no little confusion among the church 
historians of Syria.—The Maronites chiefly in- 
habit the mountain chain of Lebanon between 
Tripoli, Tyre, and the lake of Gennesaret. 
Their chief seat is in the district of Kesrawan. 
Their early history is enveloped in much ob- 
scurity. It is certain, however, that when the 
last Byzantine troops were withdrawn in 685 
from the Syrian fortresses, the Christians held 
the entire range of mountains from Antioch to 
Jerusalem; and there they continued to dwell 
under chiefs of their own, repelling every at- 
tack of the Saracens, and affording an asylum 
to the persecuted Christians of the surrounding 
provinces. With the original Druse population 
and the Mohammedan recusants who joined 
them from time to time, the Maronites appear 
to have lived in peace. (See Druszs.) <A force 
of Maronites in 877 helped to defend Syracuse 
against the Saracens. At the epoch of the 
crusades they rendered valuable service to the 
Christian armies. In 1182 a part of the Mono- 
thelites abjured their errors before Amaury, 
Latin patriarch of Antioch; but their union 
with the Roman church was not formally ef- 
fected till 1445. They were allowed to retain 
their own liturgical forms and peculiar cus- 
toms. This want of uniformity afterward oc- 
casioned much trouble in Italy, where large 
numbers of Maronites had settled. Some of 
them took refuge in Corsica, to be beyond 
the reach of the inquisition, and others found 
an asylum among the Waldenses in Piedmont. 
The French kings always maintained a connec- 
tion with the Maronites, who sometimes called 
themselves the Franks of the East; and after 
Richelieu had contracted a close alliance with 
the Turks, a kind of French protectorate was 
kept up over the Syrian Christians through 
the consuls resident at Beyrout. In 1718 the 
united Druses and Maronites were governed 
by the Mohammedan family of Shehab, under 
whose leadership the mountaineers successfully 
resisted the attempts then made by the Porte 
to reduce them to submission. But in 1756 
the conversion to Christianity of several Shehab 
emirs caused much feeling among the Druses. 
This spirit of religious antagonism was fos- 


MAROONS 183 


tered by the Turkish authorities, who were 
thus enabled, by playing off one sect against 
the other, to reduce the mountaineers to par- 
tial subjection. When the Druses took up 
arms to resist Ibrahim Pasha’s attempts to re- 
duce them and the Maronites to the adminis- 
trative conditions imposed on the rest of the 
population, the Maronites held back till it was 
too late; their tardy revolt alienated their 
Egyptian governors without appeasing the re- 
sentment of the Druses. The same vacilla- 
ting policy was manifested when Syria was 
restored to the Turkish government in 1841. 
The appointment of Kassim, the son of the 
deposed Emir Beshir, a Christian, as gover- 
nor of the Lebanon created dissatisfaction 
among the Druses and the Turkish inhab- 
itants of Syria. In September and October 
of that year the Druses rose in arms against 
the Maronites, and much bloodshed occurred; 
but the Christian villages were saved from de- 
struction by the timely interference of the 
English and Turkish authorities. The latter, 
nevertheless, were notoriously favorable to the 
Druses. A personal quarrel in August, 1859, 
between a Druse and a Maronite became the 
occasion of a war of extermination. (See 
Drusss.) In October, 1860, an international 
commission met in Beyrout, which on June 9, 
1861, agreed to a formal treaty concerning the 
administration of the Lebanon. Since then a 
special governor, appointed by the Porte, re- 
sides at Deir el-Kamr.—The Maronites now 
(1874) number about 140,000. They subsist by 
agriculture, are generally poor, live frugally, 
and their sheiks are but little richer than the 
mass of the people. They hold property to be 
sacred, and are strictly honest and hospitable. 
In religious matters they are governed by a 
patriarch residing at Kanobin, assisted by bish- 
ops. They elect the patriarch, subject to con- 
firmation by the pope. The Maronite priests 
are married, and number 1,200, with 400 
churches. Of the 200 convents scattered 
through the Lebanon district, one half belong 
to the Maronites. Their monks, variously es- 
timated between 20,000 and 25,000, follow the — 
rule of St. Anthony. Their dress is a black 
cassock, with ahood and leathern girdle. They 
are forbidden the use of tobacco and flesh 
meat. The nunneries are built at a distance 
from the convents, no intercourse being al- 
lowed between them save for the administra- 
tion of the sacraments. The liturgy, which is 
called St. Ephraem’s, is the Syriac liturgy of 
St. James, modified by Ephraem Syrus. Com- 
munion is administered in both kinds, the con- 
secrated bread being cut into small pieces, 
thrown into the wine, and placed with aspoon 
in the mouth of the communicant. The Gos- 
pels and other portions of the Scriptures are 
read and expounded to the people in Arabic, 
which is their vernacular.—See Churchill, 
‘“‘Druse and Maronite ” (London, 1864). 
MAROONS, fugitive slaves in the European 
colonies in the West Indies and in Guiana, who 


184 


banded together in the forests and mountains 
and for a long time maintained their freedom. 
The origin of the word is uncertain, it being 
derived, according to one etymology, from the 
Spanish marrano, ‘‘ wild hog,” these fugitives 
subsisting at first chiefly by hunting that animal; 
according to another, from simaran or cimar- 
ron, which signifies both an ape and a wild man; 
and by still a third derivation, from Maroni, a 
river which separates French from Dutch Gui- 
ana, Where large numbers of them resided. 
They are especially celebrated in the history of 
Jamaica. On the conquest of that island from 
the Spaniards by the English in 1655, most of 
the Spanish slaves, about 1,500 in number, fled 
to the mountains, whence they kept up a gue- 
rilla warfare against the whites. Their ranks 
were continually recruited by runaways; and 
they became so troublesome that in 1663 the 
governor, Sir Charles Lyttleton, issued a pro- 
clamation offering pardon, freedom, and 20 
acres of land to such as should surrender; but 
it does not appear that any of them accepted 
the terms offered. The colonial assembly in 
the course of 40 years passed 44 acts against 
them, and expended £240,000 in vain efforts 
for their subjugation. In 1730 they had be- 
come so formidable, under a very able general 
named Cudjoe, that all the militia of the colony 
and two regiments of regular troops were sent 
against them. But after seven years’ war they 
were still unsubdued, and in 1737 the colonial 
assembly imported Indians and bloodhounds 
from Spanish America to aid in their suppres- 
sion. Even these failed, however, and at length 
Gen. Trelawny, the British governor, made 
overtures of peace to the black chiefs; and on 
March 1, 1738, the Maroons agreed to a treaty 
which provided: ‘ First, that all hostilities 
shall cease on both sides for ever; secondly, 
that the said Captain Cudjoe, the rest of his 
captains, adherents, and men, shall be for ever 
hereafter in a perfect state of freedom and lib- 
erty; thirdly, that they shall enjoy and pos- 
sess, for themselves and posterity for ever, all 
the land situated and lying between Trelawny- 
town and the Cockpits, to the amount of 1,500 
acres.” Besides the arable land thus given 
them for cultivation, the Maroons had for their 
hunting grounds the whole mountainous inte- 
rior of the island. Their game was the wild 
boar, which abounds in the mountains. They 
had a method of curing the flesh without salt- 
ing it, and they sold large quantities of it to 
the whites, and by this traffic kept themselves 
well supplied with firearms and ammunition. 
There were no further hostilities until July, 
1795, when a portion of them known as the 
Trelawnytown Maroons rose in insurrection in 
consequence of two of their young men hav- 
ing been publicly whipped by the authorities 
for stealing. The island was put under mar- 
tial law, although the government had a force 
of 1,500 regular troops and several thousand 
militia. After numerous unsuccessful attempts 
to subdue them, Gen. Walpole by great efforts 


MAROONS 


brought them to be willing to listen to over- 
tures of peace, and suppressed the rebellion in 
March, 1796. About 600 of them surrendered 
on assurances of liberty and good treatment, 
but were perfidiously placed in confinement, 
and in June following shipped to Nova Scotia, 
whence in 1800 they were transported to Sierra 
Leone. Those who remained in Jamaica main- 
tained their independence; but since the aboli- 
tion of slavery in the island they have to a great 
extent intermingled with the mass of the col- 
ored population. In 1835 it was officially re- 
ported that in four of their settlements in Ja- 
maica there were 270 families, or about 1,500 
persons. (See Jamatoa.)—lIn the Dutch colony 
of Surinam, in South America, a band of Ma- 
roons was formed at a very early period of the 
colony in the forests of the interior, but they 
did not become formidable till about 1726, 
when they had acquired by pillage lances and 
firearms. They settled on the upper part of 
the river Saramaca, and were consequently soon 
known as Saramaca negroes. Several detach- 
ments of soldiers and militia having been sent 
against them without much success, the au- 
thorities in 1730 undertook to terrify them into 
submission by executing eleven of them who 
had been taken prisoners. One man was hanged 
alive by an iron hook stuck through his ribs, 
two others were burned alive, six women were 
broken upon the wheel, and two girls were be- 
headed. These cruelties, however, only en- 
raged the Maroons, and their incursions be- 
came so troublesome to the colonists that the 
government at length resorted to negotiation, 
and a treaty of peace was formally concluded 
in 1749, between the governor of Surinam and 
the Maroon chief, Captain Adoe. From some 
misunderstanding between the parties, this 
truce was not of long continuance, and fresh 
revolts broke out among the slaves on the 
Ouca river, so that in a few years the colony 
was reduced to the greatest distress by their 
incursions; and in 1757, after being defeated 
by the negroes in several encounters, the Dutch 
again sued for peace. After a long negotia- 
tion and four different embassies from the Eu- 
ropeans, a treaty was concluded in 1761, by 
which the Ouca and Saramaca Maroons were 
admitted to be free and independent, and the 
colony agreed to pay them an annual allow- 
ance to secure their friendship. After some 
years a revolt occurred among the negroes on 
the Cotica river, which gained such force in 
1772 that the colonists were forced to abandon 
their plantations and take refuge in Paramaribo 
until assistance arrived from Holland. A force 
of 1,200 Dutch troops, assisted by several hun- 
dred negroes liberated and armed for the pur- 
pose, at length drove the Maroons back to the 
woods. With additional troops from Holland 
a systematic attempt was now made to subdue 
the Maroons, but without success; and at the 
end of a war which lasted several years the 
colonial government withdrew from the con- 
test. The Maroons at that time were about 


MAROS 


15,000 in number. In 1831 they had increased 
to 70,000, and at present they are still more 
numerous. They form an independent repub- 
lic, with laws and customs of their own. Chris- 
tianity has made little progress among them, 
and their language is a jargon of African and 
European tongues intermingled.—For an ac- 
count of the Maroons of Jamaica, see Bryan 
Edwards, ‘‘ History of the West Indies,” and 
Dallas, ‘‘ History of the Maroons;” and for the 
Maroons of Surinam, see Stedman’s ‘‘ Surinam.” 

MAROS, a river of Hungary, which rises in 
Transylvania, near its E. frontier, flows N. W., 
S. W., and finally W., enters Hungary proper, 
and after a course of about 400 m. falls into 
the Theiss near Szegedin. Its principal afflu- 
ents are the two Kokels in Transylvania, in 
which country its banks offer much pictu- 
resque scenery. The chief towns on its banks 
are, in Transylvania, Saxon Regen, Maros- 
Vasarhely, the principal town of the Szeklers, 
and the fortress Carlsburg; and in Hungary, 
Ménes, Arad, and Maké. 

MAROS-VASARHELY, a town of Transylvania, 
capital of the district of Maros, on the river 
Maros, 50 m. N. E. of Hermannstadt; pop. in 
1870, 12,678. It has a fortified castle, with 
barracks, five churches, among them a Gothic 
Evangelical church, a Franciscan convent, a 
gymnasium, a seminary, a library of 60,000 
volumes, and a valuable cabinet of minerals. 
Here the Austrians, on Nov. 15, 1848, obtained 
a victory over the Szeklers. The town was 
shortly after occupied by Gen. Bem. 

MAROT, Clément, a French poet, born in Ca- 
hors in 1495, died in Turin in September, 1544. 
He succeeded his father Jean Marot, who was 
also a poet, as valet-de-chambre to Francis L, 
whom he accompanied to Italy, and was wound- 
ed and made prisoner at the battle of Pavia in 
1525. On recovering his liberty and return- 
ing to Paris, he was imprisoned for a time on 
the charge of heresy, at the instigation, as has 
been stated, of Diana of Poitiers. In 1535, 
the charge being revived, he retired to the 
court of Margaret, titular queen of Navarre, 
and went thence to Ferrara and Venice. In 
1536 he returned to Paris, having abjured the 
heretical doctrines at Lyons. His metrical 
translations of the Psalms, which were very 
popular, and were sung by the king and the 
whole court, being condemned as heretical by 
the Sorbonne, he again fled in 1548 to Geneva, 
where he added 20 psalms to the 30 previously 
published. He then went to Turin, where he 
died in great poverty. His poems consist of 
epistles, rondeaux, ballads, epigrams, &c. His 
most important longer productions, besides the 
translations of the Psalms, were L’Enfer, a 
satire upon the lawyers, and a new version of 
the Roman de la rose. His son Michel was 
also a poet, though much inferior to him; 
and a complete edition of the works of the 
three Marots was published at the Hague in 
1731, in 4 vols. 4to. The works of Clément 
Marot have been frequently reprinted. 


MARQUESAS ISLANDS 185 


MARQUE, Letter of. See Privateer. 

MARQUESAS ISLANDS, or Mendafia Archipelago, 
a cluster of 13 small islands in the South Pa- 
cific ocean, between lat. 7° 45! and 11° S, and 
Jon. 188° and 141° W.; aggregate area, 480 sq. 
m. ; pop. in 1864, about 10,000, They are gen- 
erally divided into a southern and a northern 
group. The former (Hiwaoa, Tahuata, Motane, 
and Fatuhiva) was discovered in 1595 by the 
Spaniard Mendafia de Neyra, and by him named 
Las Marquesas de Mendoza in honor of the 
viceroy of Peru, the marquis de Mendoza. Of 
the northern group, discovered by Captains 
Marchand and Ingraham in 1791, the largest 
islands are Nukahiva, Uahuga or Washington, 
Uapoa or Adams, Shotomiti or Franklin, and 
Fatuuhu. They are of volcanic origin, a fact 
which is attested by long rows of bleak basal- 
tic rocks. Each island is formed by a moun- 
tain ridge, which rises to an elevation of 2,000 
or 8,000 ft., sending forth numerous lesser 
chains, between which fertile valleys open to- 
ward the ocean. The coast is for the most 
part rugged and precipitous, and the roadsteads 
being unprotected furnish no safe anchorage. 
The climate and productions resemble those of 
the other volcanic islands of subtropical Poly- 
nesia. The rainy season lasts from November 
to April. Droughts are not unfrequent during 
the hot season; Krusenstern mentions one 
which lasted for ten months. The valleys, the 
soil of which is formed by hundreds of layers 
of decayed vegetation, are extremely fertile, 
and produce all tropical fruits in abundance. 
The yam, sugar cane, banana, plantain, taro, 
sweet potato, cotton plant, &., grow almost 
without culture. The hillsides are covered 
with forests of cocoanut, breadfruit, and pa- 
paw trees, the fan palm, and numerous other 
trees; but the vigorous growth of underbrush 
renders them almost inaccessible. The fauna 
of the islands is as poor as their flora is rich, 
There are no indigenous mammalia, but swine, 
rats, and cats have been introduced from Eu- 
rope. Of birds there are only four or five dis- 
tinct species; among them the kurukuru and 
the gupil, a parrot of the size of the robin, are 
the most beautiful. Water fowl abound on 
the coast, and valuable mussels are found 
near the shore.—The inhabitants belong to the 
Malay race, and are distinguished by grace and 
symmetry of person. Their complexion is of 
a light copper color; the women appear almost 
white, but this complexion is produced by the 
application of the root of the papaw tree. 
Tattooing is practised by both sexes. Their 
social organization is similar to that which 
prevailed in the Hawaiian islands before the 
introduction ofsChristianity. They are divided 
into many tribes or clans, among whom bloody 
wars are of frequent occurrence. The tabu 
serves them instead of religion. The tabooed 
or privileged classes consist of atnas, who are 
venerated as superior beings; tanas, soothsay- 
ers and ‘“‘medicine men ;” tatawnas, priests and 
surgeons; whus, the lowest rank of the hier- 


186 MARQUETRY 


archy ; Xataikis, secular rulers; and foas, war 
chiefs. The non-tabooed classes are the peio 
pekeios, servants of the chiefs; averias, fisher- 
men; Aokis, singers and dancers; and nohuas, 
common laborers. The last named class hold 
a similar position to that of the pariahs in 
India. Among the peculiar social institutions 
of the islanders is polyandry, the woman choos- 
ing her husband or husbands, and retaining 
them or not according to her pleasure. Oan- 
nibalism is also practised sometimes, but sim- 
ply as an act of vengeance; it is only the bodies 
of slain enemies of which now and then a slice 
is eaten. Their ordinary food consists prin- 
cipally of vegetables. A highly intoxicating 
beverage is prepared by chewing the root of 
the kanoa plant (piper metisticum), mixing it 
well with saliva, and then spitting it into a 
vessel, in which it is perfected by fermentation. 
The extensive use of this beverage produces 
leprosy or consumption. Besides these dis- 
eases, elephantiasis, scrofula, liver complaints, 
inflammation of the lungs, and diseases of the 
eyes, often resulting in blindness, are common 
among the islanders. Their scanty clothing is 
obtained from the mulberry tree, the bark of 
which they render thin and soft by beating, 
thus forming a kind of coarse cloth. Their 
habitations, small log huts thatched with leaves 
of the cocoanut tree, are erected on stone plat- 
forms from 3 to 5 ft. above the ground. In 
similar houses they bury their dead.—These 
islanders have no history. Even the first dis- 
covery of the islands by Europeans has been 
entirely forgotten, though the Spaniards, who 
introduced swine, and also Cook (who in 1774 
visited Fetuhugu or Hood island) and Mar- 
chand, are still venerated as gods. The Mar- 
quesas were taken possession of in 1842 by 
Admiral Du Petit-Thouars, by authority of the 
French government. The inhabitants after- 
ward made some unsuccessful attempts at re- 
conquering their liberty. In 1850 the island 
of Nukahiva was made a penal colony for po- 
litical convicts. Only one conyict was sent 
there, and the project was abandoned, but the 
protectorate of France is still maintained. 
MARQUETRY. See Bunt Work. 
MARQUETTE. I. A central county of the 
upper peninsula of Michigan, bounded N. E. 
by Lake Superior and 8. W. by Wisconsin, and 
drained by the Escanaba, Michigamig, and Me- 
quacumecum rivers and other streams; area, 
about 3,425 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 15,033. The 
surface is diversified and covered by extensive 
pine forests. It contains granite and lime- 
stone, and immense deposits of iron ore, the 
mining of which is the chief business. It is 
traversed by the Marquette, Faoughton, and 
Ontonagon railroad, and by the Peninsular di- 
vision of the Chicago and Northwestern. Ac- 
_cording to the census of 1870, there were 11 
iron mines (the entire number in the Lake Su- 
perior region), employing 2,005 hands, and 
yielding 690,393 tons of ore, valued at $2,677,- 
965. There were 8 blast furnaces, 3 founder- 


a ee ee ee eee ee Se a oe ee EE ee eee 


MARQUETTE 


ies, 8 machine shops, 4 breweries, 3 charcoal 
factories, and 7 saw mills. The shipments in 
1872 were 896,877 tons of ore, and 38,072 of 
pigiron. Capital, Marquette. If. AS. central 
county of Wisconsin, intersected by the Nee- 
nah or Fox river; area, about 550 sq. m.; pop. 
in 1870, 8,056. The surface is diversified and 
the soil good; it contains several lakes. The 
chief productions in 1870 were 144,562 bush- 
els of wheat, 77,488 of rye, 116,049 of Indian 
corn, 77,881 of oats, 68,950 of potatoes, 49,508 
lbs. of wool, 240,408 of butter, 22,391 of hops, 
and 20,192 tons of hay. There were 2,220 
horses, 3,429 milch cows, 1,163 working oxen, 
4,265 other cattle, 16,488 sheep, and 4,312 
swine. Capital, Montello. 

MARQUETTE, a city, port of entry, and the 


‘county seat of Marquette co., Michigan, situa- 


ted on Lake Superior, at the terminus of the 
Marquette, Houghton, and Ontonagon railroad, 
360 m. N. W. of Detroit, and 320 m, N. of 
Chicago; pop. in 1874, 5,242. It is the chief 
depot of supplies for the iron mines of the 
upper peninsula, and the principal point of 
shipment for the ore. There are three blast 
furnaces and a rolling mill within the city 
limits, and several furnaces in the vicinity. 
Marquette is supplied with water on the Holly 
plan, is lighted with gas, and has an efficient 
fire department. It has three banks, with a 
joint capital of $700,000; graded public schools, 
with four school buildingg costing $60,000; 
a weekly newspaper, a public library, and six 
churches, viz.: Baptist, Episcopal, Methodist, 
Presbyterian, and Roman Catholic (two). 
MARQUETTE, Jacques, a French explorer, 
born in Laon, France, in 1637, died May 18, 
1675. At the age of 17 he entered the society 
of Jesus, and in 1666 sailed for Canada asa 
missionary. He spent about 18 months in the 
vicinity of Three Rivers, where he acquired 
the Montagnais and other dialects of the Al- 
gonquin spoken in Canada and New York, as 
well as the Huron and Iroquois. He was first 
selected for the Mohawk mission, but in 
April, 1668, went to Lake Superior and there 
founded the mission of Sault Ste. Marie. In 
the following year he was sent to take the 
place of Allouez among the Ottawas and Hu- 
rons at Lapointe; but his stay here was short, 
these tribes being soon dispersed by the Sioux. 
Marquette then followed the Hurons to Mack- 
inaw, and there in 1671 built a chapel at the 
mission of St. Ignatius. In the following year 
he wrote of his success at Mackinaw to Father 
Dablon, the superior of the Jesuit missions in 
Canada. ‘‘I am ready, however,” he contin- 
ued, ‘‘to leave it in the hands of another mis- 
sionary, to go on your order to seek new na- 
tions toward the South sea who are still un- 
known to us, and to teach them of our great 
God whom they have hitherto not known.” 
As early as 1669 he had resolved upon explo- 
ring the Mississippi, of which he had heard 
from the Indians, and had made preparations 
at Lapointe, his topographical skill being an 


“7 


MARQUETTE 


important aid. His desire was not gratified till 
1673, when Frontenac and Talon, the governor 
and intendant of Canada, having resolved to 
send Louis Joliet to explore the whole course 
of the Mississippi, Marquette was instructed to 
accompany him. With five other Frenchmen 
they left Mackinaw in two canoes on May 17, 
and reaching Wisconsin river by way of Green 
bay, Fox river, and a portage, floated down to 
the Mississippi, on whose waters they found 
themselves by the 17th of June. Somewhere 
near the mouth of the Ohio (which they called 
the Ouaboukigou, from which was formed the 
subsequent name of the Wabash) they met 
savages who assured them that it was not more 
than ten days’ journey to the sea, and that they 
bought stuffs and other articles of Europeans 
on the E. side. Continuing their voyage, they 
artived at a village called Akamsea, probably 
about the mouth of the Arkansas. Having 
satisfied themselves that they were not more 
than two or three days’ journey from the 
mouth of the river, which undoubtedly emp- 
tied into the gulf of Mexico or off the Florida 
coast, and not, as had been conjectured, in 
California or Virginia, they resolved to re- 
turn, especially as their further progress would 
expose them to the danger of a captivity 
among the Spaniards. They began their home- 
ward voyage on July 17, and, passing up the 
Illinois instead of the Wisconsin, arrived in 
September at Green bay. They had accom- 
plished the object of their mission, and tray- 
elled in their open canoes a distance of over 
2,500 miles. On the banks of the Illinois Mar- 
quette had promised the Kaskaskia Indians to 
return and preach to them. He was detained 
by sickness at the mission of St. Francis Xa- 
vier on Green bay a full year; but in October, 
1674, having previously sent to his superiors an 
account of his journey down the Mississippi, 
he set out with two white men and a number 
of savages for the village of Kaskaskia. On 
Dec. 14 he was stopped at the portage on the 
Chicago by infirmities and severe cold, and 
dismissing the Indians resolved to winter there 
with his two companions. Resuming his jour- 
ney, March 30, 1675, he reached Kaskaskia 
April 8, and at once began a mission by erect- 
ing an altar and celebrating the festival of 
Easter; but conscious that his end was ap- 
proaching, he soon attempted to return to 
Mackinaw. He reached no further than a 
small river whose mouth is on the E. shore of 
Lake Michigan, and which still bears his name, 
and there he died in the presence of the two 
Frenchmen who had attended him from Green 
bay. He was buried on the spot, but in 1677 
his remains were carried to Mackinaw. The 


_ narrative of his voyage on the Mississippi was 


not published till 1681, when it appeared in an 
incorrect form at Paris in Thévenot’s Recueil 
de voyages, accompanied by a map. This nar- 
rative, as well as a journal of the missionary’s 
last expedition, and his autograph map, may 
be found in Shea’s ‘‘ Discovery and Explora- 


MARQUIS 3 187 


tion of the Mississippi Valley”? (New York, 
1852). His narrative, for some years after its 
first publication, was regarded as a fable; but, ; 
although Margry and others have set up the- 
ories as to an earlier exploration of the Missis- 
sippi by Lasalle, they rest on insufficient data 
and conjectures, and the claim of Marquette 
and Joliet as the first explorers of the great 
river of the west, and the first Europeans who 
saw it after De Soto, remains unshaken. 

MARQUEZ, Leonardo, a Mexican general, born 
in the city of Mexico about 1818. Entering 
the army at an early age, he was engaged in 
several battles in the valley of Mexico against 
the American army in 1847. He headed a 
pronunciamiento in the state of Guanajuato, 
Feb. 10, 1849, declaring the election of Presi- 
dent Herrera illegal, and recalling Santa Anna 
to the government. The movement was sup- 
pressed, and Marquez was made prisoner, but 
he was soon set at liberty. After the accession 
of Santa Anna in 1858, Marquez was intrusted 
with important commands in the war against 
Alvarez and Comonfort; and after the flight 
of Santa Anna, in August, 1855, he continued 
for two years to maintain a guerilla warfare in 
his behalf. During the war of reform he be- 
came one of the chief military leaders under 
Presidents Zuloaga and Comonfort. He de- 
feated at Tacubaya, April 11, 1859, the liberal 
forces, which laid siege to the capital under 
Degollado, thus saving Miramon from immi- 
nent danger, but stained his victory by the 
execution of his prisoners, including several 
medical students and other non-combatants. 
This deed, of which he divides the responsibil- 
ity with Miramon, is known as the massacre 
of Tacubaya, and brought upon Marquez an 
odium from which he has never recovered. 
After the triumph of Juarez, Marquez con- 
tinued an irregular warfare in 1861, during 
which he again stained his reputation by the 
execution of his prisoners, Generals Degolla- 
do and Valle, and of the prime minister Ocam- 
po. For these deeds he was declared an out- 
law by congress, and a price was set on his 
head. He united his forces with the French 
invaders in 1862, and favored the elevation of 
Maximilian to the throne; but that prince wag 
unwilling to accept his military services, and 
gave him an honorable exile as minister to 
Turkey. In October, 1866, he returned to 
Mexico without permission, and was appointed 
to the command of a division. When Maxi- 
milian set out for Querétaro in 1867, Marquez 
was left in command of the city of Mexico, 
which he defended for three months against 
Gen. Porfirio Diaz, not capitulating till June 
21, two days after the execution of Maximilian. 
He secreted himself for several weeks, and at 
last escaped to Havana. He is one of three 
persons expressly excluded from the amnesty 
of 1870. He has published two pamphlets in 
defence of his military record. 

MARQUIS, or Marquess, a title of dignity in 
England, France, and Italy, ranking next be- 


188 MARRACCI 


low that of duke. In Germany, whence it 
derives its origin, the corresponding title is 
Markgraf, in English margrave or lord of the 
marches; and the persons so called or created 
were originally military chieftains to whom 
was committed the guardianship of the marches 
or frontiers of a country. Hence the medi- 
eval Latin word marchio. _ In continental Eu- 
rope the marchiones, from being mere life oc- 
cupants of their office, became at a compara- 
tively early period territorial potentates, trans- 
mitting their titles and possessions, until they 
were established as a powerful hereditary order 
of nobility. In England the lords or wardens 
of the marches were originally barons or earls, 
whose office it was to preserve the frontier 
(as on the borders of Wales or Scotland) free 
from the inroads of the enemy. The office 
was regarded for many centuries as a special 
or temporary one, and the term marquis, as 
distinguished from other titles of honor, was 
unknown till 1385, when Richard II. created 
his favorite Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, 
marquis of Dublin for life, and gave him pre- 
cedence between the degrees of earl and duke. 
The next creation was that of John de Beau- 
fort, earl of Somerset, who was in 1397 made 
marquis of Dorset, and who, after being de- 
graded in parliament, where he was only con- 
sidered as earl of*Somerset, declined to have 
the new honor restored to him, on the ground 
that ‘the name of marquis was a strange one 
in the kingdom.” It was not again conferred 
until 40 years afterward, in the reign of Henry 
VI. Thenceforth it continued to be occasion- 
ally bestowed, but was scarcely ever borne by 
more than three or four persons at a time until 
the latter half of the reign of George III., 
when the number of marquises was made equal 
to that of the dukes. In 1874 the number of 
marquises who sat under that title in the Brit- 
ish house of peers was 21. Of the 20 British 
gdukes, 11 had also the secondary title of mar- 
quis in the English, Scottish, or Irish peerage. 
MARRACCI, Ludovico, an Italian orientalist, 
born in Lucca in 1612, died in Rome, Feb. 5, 
1700. He devoted himself from his youth to 
the study of languages, became a proficient in 
Greek, Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, and Arabic, 
and was appointed professor of Arabic in the 
Sapienza college, and afterward in the Propa- 
ganda, at Rome. Pope Innocent XI. chose 
him as his confessor, and would have advanced 
him to ecclesiastical dignities had not Marracci 
declined. He edited the Koran in the original 
Arabic, with a Latin translation (Padua, 1698). 
MARRIAGE, in law, the conjugal union of one 
man with one woman. In all Christian com- 
munities the marriage relation exists, and is 
considered as the most solemn of contracts ; 
and excepting in Protestant countries, it is 
regarded as asacrament. In England, although 
not a sacrament of the church, it is not only 
celebrated as a religious ceremony, but until 
very recently it fell almost exclusively under 
the cognizance of the ecclesiastical courts. 


MARRIAGE 


Since the statute 20 and 21 Victoria, c. 85, 
however, the new court of probate and divorce 
has exercised some of the functions heretofore 
belonging to the ecclesiastical courts, together 
with some others, especially in the matter of 
divorce, which are quite new in English law. 
In the United States marriage is, by law, only 
a civil contract; magistrates, equally with 
clergymen, have a right to solemnize it; but it 
is the prevailing practice of the country to have 
it performed by aclergyman, and attended with 
religious ceremonies. One very grave question 
remains in a state of singular uncertainty; it 
is: What is necessary to constitute a complete 
and valid marriage? or rather, are the cere- 
monies and forms, or any of them, which are 
indicated by law or are customarily used for 
the solemnization of marriage, indispensable, or 
is the mere consent of the parties sufficient? 
That such a question as this should be unset- 
tled both in England and in this country may 
well occasion surprise. But the true explana- 
tion of the mystery is, we apprehend, that very 
few persons have trusted to their own mere 
consent for the validity of their marriage, and 
the question has therefore very seldom come 
directly before the courts. Recently, however, 
this precise question has passed through the 
English courts. It came first before the court 
of queen’s bench in Ireland, upon a trial for 
bigamy. The defendant was found guilty, and 
then, the first of the marriages not having been 
solemnized according to the direction if not 
requirement of law, the question arose whether 
it was so complete and perfect as to make the 
crime of bigamy possible. There were four 
judges, and they were equally divided. The 
chief justice then (against his opinion) joined 
pro forma with the two who thought the mar- 
riage valid, and the crime of bigamy commit- 
ted, for the purpose of having a decision by a 
majority, from which an appeal could be made 
to the house of lords in England. On appeal 
the question of the validity of the marriage by 
mere consent was fully argued by the ablest 
counsel in England before the lords, and the 
six law peers gave their opinions severally, 
each at great length; and they were equally 
divided, Lords Brougham, Denman, and Camp- 
bell being in favor of the validity of the mar- 
riage at common law, and Lords Lyndhurst, 
Cottenham, and Abinger against it. This equal 
division affirmed the judgment, and the defen- 
dant was sentenced. Almost at the same time, 
by an odd coincidence, the same question came 
before the supreme court of the United States, 
and Chief Justice Taney, in deciding the case 
(on other grounds), said: ‘‘Upon this point 
the court is equally divided, and no opinion can 
be given.” Nevertheless, the steady tendency 
of American decisions is in the direction of the 
conclusion reached by Chancellor Walworth 
(Rose. Clark, 8 Paige, 574), ‘that any mutual 
agreement between the parties to be husband 
and wife in presenti, especially where it is fol- 
lowed by cohabitation, constitutes a valid and 


MARRIAGE 


binding marriage, if there is no legal disability 
on the part of either to contract matrimony ;” 
and such we believe to be the law. (For mar- 
viages void or voidable for fraud, duress, or 
other cause, see Divorce.)—Contracts to marry 
at a future time are recognized by law, and 
the rules of law in relation to them are in 
some respects peculiar. The promises must be 
reciprocal, and a woman is bound by such a 
contract as much asaman. Nor is there any- 
thing in the law to prevent an action by the 
man for a breach of this contract; but such 
actions are not common, and would not. be 
favored by court or jury. The action may 
be brought by an infant, but not against one. 
The very words, time, and manner of the prom- 
ise are not often provable, and are never in- 
dispensable; for precise and direct testimony 
to the promise is not demanded. Indeed, courts 
have, in some instances at least, gone quite far 
enough in instructing or permitting a jury to 
infer a promise of marriage from rather slight 
indications. In general, however, language 
used to third persons expressive of a purpose, 
or even a promise, to marry the plaintiff, does 
not prove this promise, unless it was addressed 
to a parent or to one who stood in the place of 
aparent. Thiscontract, like every other, may 
be on condition ; and if the condition be reason- 
able, the law will respect it, and will not sus- 
tain an action on the promise unless the condi- 
tion be performed. The defences to such an 
action are, generally, either a denial of the 
promise, or if that be proved, anything which 
would make the marriage unlawful. But a 
previous and existing marriage of the defen- 
dant, although it would have made his marriage 
with the plaintiff illegal and void, would not 
be a defence against this action, if it were un- 
known to the plaintiff when the agreement to 
marry was made by her. The defence most 
usually relied upon is a denial of the promise; 
and after that, the bad character of the plaintiff. 
If this be made out, it is a sufficient defence ; 
. butif it be attempted and fails, the attempt may 
be regarded by the jury as a ground for in- 
creasing the damages against the defendant. If 
- the defence be a specific criminal act, it must 
be proved specifically. If it be general bad 
character, evidence of bad reputation is receiv- 
able. Neither specific bad conduct nor gen- 
eral bad character constitutes a defence, if it 
was known to the defendant when he made 
his promise; although, even then, it might be 
considered in mitigation of damages. There 
are decisions for and against permitting the 
fact of seduction to be received in evidence in 
an action for breach of contract to marry, for 
the purpose of swelling the damages. But it 
generally finds its way into the case; and the 
question of damages is in this case, more than 
in most others, entirely within the discretion 
of the jury. The action does not survive to 
the representative of a deceased promisee, nor 
can it be maintained against the representative 
of adeceased promisor.—Contracts in restraint 


MARRIAGE SETTLEMENTS 189 


of marriage are wholly void, by the policy of 
the law. Thus no action can be maintained 
on any promise or obligation not to marry; 
as not to marry any woman but the promisee; 
or by a widow not to marry again; or a promise 
not to marry within six years. There is also 
a class of contracts which, from the frequency 
with which they appear in English law books, 
would seem to be not uncommon in that 
country, and which are called “ marriage bro- 
kerage (sometimes brocage) contracts.” They 
are, in general, contracts for the payment of 
money or transfer of property to some per- 
son, by way of compensation for his or her 
procuring a marriage for the party paying. 
Such a contract is void on grounds of morality 
and the public good, without any reference to 
the expediency or propriety of the marriage 
itself—The matrimonial connection various- 
ly designated in the laws of the first Chris- 
tian emperors and the decrees of some early 
councils as concubinatus and licita consue- 
tudo, was considered by the Roman Catholic 
church to be a real marriage, though not 
celebrated with the same solemnity nor attend- 
ed with the same civil consequences as a con- 
tract recognized by both the civil] and ecclesi- 
astical. courts. It is what in modern times is 
called ‘‘a marriage of conscience,” and what 
ancient jurists termed semiematrimonium, It 
is still called in Germany Halbehe, where the 
name of half-wife, Halbweib, is bestowed on 
a woman to whom, though a real wife, the 
husband does not convey his rank. This con- 
dition responds to that of the semi-uzor of the 
canonists, who also described such women as 
uxores sine dote minus solemniter ducte. This 
sort of union, though discountenanced by the 
Roman Catholic church, was held, when con- 
tracted seriously, to be indissoluble. Hence 
she would not tolerate temporary unions of 
this kind. Thus, the 17th canon of the first 
council of Toledo (400) excommunicates all 
who, having a lawful and acknowledged wife 
(uzor), presume to have also a concubine; 
while it admits to communion the man who 
is contented to live for ever with a wife of 
inferior rank. The canon merely enforced 
monogamy. (See CoNCUBINAGE.) 

MARRIAGE SETTLEMENTS. A promise to 
give or advance to a woman, or settle upon 
her, money or an estate, on her marriage, is 
valid; because the marriage is regarded by the 
law as a sufficient consideration for it. But 
it must be made in writing and signed, under 
the English statute of frauds, and wherever that 
clause is reénacted in this country. A mere 
representation concerning the pecuniary con- 
dition of a party, if made in good faith, will 
not bind one to make his representations good. 
Letters from parents or relatives, when sufli- 
ciently specitic, are held to bind them.—Con- 
tracts in fraud of marriage settlements, and in- 
tended to defeat them, are void; as a private 
bargain with the husband, or the husband and 
wife, that he shall pay back part of her for- 


190 MARROW 


tune; or a promise to restore money lent to 
give the appearance of wealth, and so procure 
the marriage; and a note given only to be ex- 
hibited and used for the same purpose has been 
held valid against the promissor. A creditor 
who conceals or denies his claims, so that the 
debtor may obtain the consent of the woman 
or her guardians, is bound by his denial or 
concealment as effectually as by a release.—As 
to the power of an infant, especially a female 
infant, to make a valid settlement of property 
in view of marriage, the law is not quite set- 
tled. An infant of either sex may certainly 
receive property in such a way; but in an 
important case in England (18 Vesey, 259), 
Lord Chancellor Eldon held that a female in- 
fant was not bound by her settlement of her 
estate, but, when she camé of age, might annul 
the settlement and return into possession of all 
her rights and interests. The opposite doc- 
trine is now established by statute in Eng- 
land, and also by statute or decision in some 
of the United States. 

MARROW, also called Meputtra, a soft, trans- 
lucent, yellowish or reddish vascular sub- 
stance, found in the central cavities and in the 
spongy texture of the bones of man and the 
higher animals. There are two varieties of 
marrow, the yellow and the red. The yellow 
marrow is found principally in the central cav- 
ities of the long bones, such as the femur, hu- 
merus, and tibia. It consists of a very fine 
fibrous network, in which are imbedded an 
abundance of fat: vesicles and capillary blood 
vessels, together with the ramifications of 
nerves. It is, however, but little or not at all 
sensitive in its ordinary condition, although 
when diseased it may, like other parts of the 
bone, become exceedingly painful. The red- 
dish variety of marrow is found in the inter- 
stices of the spongy texture in the extremities 
of the long bones, in the short and flat bones, 
and especially in the sternum and the bodies 
of the vertebra. It is softer in consistency 
than the preceding, and contains only slight 
traces of fat. Besides a delicate fibrous tissue, 
blood vessels, nerves, and an amorphous albu- 
minous matter, it contains, in the bodies of the 
vertebra, the sternum, ribs, and cranial bones, 
small rounded, nucleated cells, the ‘marrow 
cells.” Marrow does not exist in cartilage, 
nor in the compact tissue of bone, but is 
formed in proportion as the medullary cavities 
are produced by absorption of the original bone. 

MARRYAT. I. Frederick, a British author, 
born in London, July 10, 1792, died at Lang- 
ham, Norfolk, Aug. 2, 1848. He entered the 
naval service at 14 years of age as a midship- 
man on board the frigate Impérieuse, and par- 
ticipated in 50 engagements, in one of which 
he was severely injured. He distinguished 
himself on several occasions by leaping over- 
board and rescuing drowning shipmates, for 
which he subsequently received a medal from 
the humane society. In 1812—15 he served on 
the North American coast; and he participated 


MARS 


in an action with gunboats on Lake Pontchar- 
train shortly previous to the battle of New 
Orleans. In 1829, while commanding the Ari- 
adne in the channel service, he commenced his 
literary career by the publication of ‘‘ Frank 
Mildmay, or the Naval Officer,” a novel of sea 
life, in which many of his early adventures are 
related. Among his other novels are: ‘The 
King’s Own” (1830); ‘The Pacha of Many 
Tales” (1835); ‘*The Pirate and the Three 
Cutters ” (1835); ‘‘ Midshipman Easy ” (1836) ; 
‘¢ Japhet in search of a Father” (1836); ‘ Pe- 
ter Simple” (1887); ‘‘ Percival Keene ” (1837) ; 
‘““Snarleyyow” (1837); ‘Jacob Faithful” 
(1838); ‘The Phantom Ship ” (1839); ‘‘ Poor 
Jack” (1840); ‘‘Joseph Ruskbrook” (1841); 
‘* Masterman Ready” (1841); ‘The Settlers 


‘in Canada” (1844); ‘The Mission” (1845); 


“Children of the New Forest” (1846); ‘The 
Privateersman” (1846); ‘‘The Little Savage” 
(1848); and “Valerie” (1849). In 1837 he 
published a ‘‘ Code of Signals for Vessels em- 
ployed in the Merchant Service,” which has 
been adopted in England and other countries, 
and for which he received the cross of the le- 
gion of honor from Louis Philippe. In 1838 
he made a tour in the United States, and in 
1839 published his “‘ Diary in America,” in 
two series, each of three volumes. During the 
last two years of his life he was compelled by 
the rupture of several blood vessels to desist 
from all professional and literary labor. His 
‘“‘Life and Correspondence” (2 vols., 1872) 
was published by his daughter Florence (Mrs. 
Ross Church), who is also the author of several 
novels. II, Samuel Francis, son of the prece- 
ding, born in 1826, died in London, July 12, 
1855. He served several years in the British 
navy, but resigned his commission, and in 
1850 established himself in California. In 
1853 he returned to England, and published an 
account of his adventures under the title of 
‘‘ Mountains and Mole Hills” (London, 1855). 
MARS (a contraction of Mavers or Mavors), 
the Roman god of war, whose name in the Sa- 
bine and Oscan tongues was Mamers, and who 
was early identified with the Greek Ares. Be- 
fore this identification he seems to have been: 
an agricultural rather than a warlike divinity. 
He was one of the three tutelary gods, to each . 
of whom Numa was said to have appointed 
a flamen, and he enjoyed the highest honors 
after Jupiter. He was called Father Mars 
(Marspiter), being regarded as the parent of 
the Romans from having begotten the founders 
of Rome by Rhea Silvia, a priestess of Vesta. 
He was distinguished as Gradivus, Silvanus, or 
Quirinus, in his relations respectively to war, 
agriculture, and the state. The rites of his 
worship, as the dances of the Salii in armor, 
had reference to war and victory. The princi- 
pal temples dedicated to him at Rome were 
that on the Appian way outside of the Porta 
Capena, and that of Mars Ultor in the forum. 
—Ares ("Apyc), son of Zeus (Jupiter) and He- 
ra (Juno), was regarded by the Greeks not 


MARS 


191 


so much as the god of war, as of the tumult, | amount of magnifying due to proximity and 


horror, and carnage of battle. He is the im- 
personation of physical strength, delighting in 
the slaughter of men and the sack of towns. 
Though worshipped in all parts of Greece, no 
Greek city regarded him as its tutelary deity. 
According to the ancients, he was worshipped 
among the warlike tribes of Thrace and the 
barbarians of Scythia. He had a temple at 
Athens containing a statue of him by Alca- 
menes, and at Sparta there was a statue of 
him in chains, signifying that the martial spirit 
would never leave the city. Women were not 
allowed to participate in his worship. 

MARS, the fourth planet in order of distance 
from the sun, and the nearest to us of the su- 
perior planets, that is, of the planets whose or- 
bits lie outside that of the earth. Mars travels 
around the sun in a mean sidereal period of 
6869797 days, on an orbit inclined 1° 51’ to 
the plane of the ecliptic, at a mean distance of 
139,311,000 m. from the sun; but this orbit is 
considerably eccentric, insomuch that his great- 
est distance, 152,304,000 m., exceeds his least, 
126,318,000 m., by more than 26,000,000 m. He 
returns to opposition at intervals separated by 
a mean period of 779°936 days, which is there- 
fore the planet’s mean synodical period. The 
earth’s mean distance being 91,430,000 m., the 
mean distance of Mars from the earth at the 
time when the two planets are in conjunction 
is about 48,000,000 m. But at a conjunction 
when Mars is near his perihelion, the distance 
is much reduced, more indeed than by the 
13,000,000 m. by which the perihelion distance 
of Mars is less than his mean distance. For 
the perihelion of the orbit of Mars lies in lon. 
3334°, while the aphelion of the earth’s orbit 
lies in lon. 2804°, so that the earth is about 
53° from aphelion when in the same longitude 
as the perihelion of Mars, and is therefore at a 
distance from the sun considerably exceeding 
her mean distance. Without entering at any 
length, however, into niceties of the sort (which 
would be idle, since conjunctions do not hap- 
pen exactly when Mars is in perihelion), we 
may say that at a conjunction near the peri- 
helion of Mars the distance between the two 
planets amounts to about 35,000,000 m., while 
at a conjunction near the aphelion of Mars the 
two planets are separated by about 61,000,000 
m. Accordingly, Mars is studied under very 
different conditions when he is in opposition 
(to the sun—that is, in conjunction with the 
earth) near perihelion and near aphelion. For 
not only is his apparent disk larger in the for- 
mer than in the latter case in the proportion 
of about (61)? to (85)?, or more than 3 to 1, 
but furthermore the planet is more brilliantly 
illuminated (and will therefore better bear tel- 
escopic magnifying) in the former case in the 
proportion of about (152)? to (126)’, or nearly 
as 3 to 2. On the whole, therefore, the planet 
can be more favorably studied in the former 
case than in the latter in the proportion of 
about 9 to 2, measuring the conditions by the 

534 VOL. XI.—13 


to the telescopic powers practically available. 
To ordinary observation, the effect of the con- 
siderations just pointed out is that Mars when 
in opposition near perihelion looks about 44 
times brighter than when in opposition near 
aphelion. The opposition of the year 1877 
will illustrate this; for during the oppositions 
which have recently occurred Mars has been 
far from perihelion, the opposition of 1869 oc- 
curring when Mars was nearly in aphelion, and 
those of 1871 and 1878 being little more fa- 
vorable. In the opposition of 1875 he will be 
nearer, but still some 65° from his perihelion. 
But in 1877 the place of opposition will have 
been carried more nearly to the perihelion 
(somewhat past that point) than previously for 
more than 80 years. He will therefore pre- 
sent a very distinguished appearance in the 
heavens, being little inferior in brightness to 
the planet Jupiter. It is indeed a noteworthy 
circumstance that theoretically Mars should 
then be brighter than Jupiter. That is, com- 
paring the size of his disk with that of Jupiter, 
and the amount of light received by the two 
planets from the sun, Mars should be brighter 
when he is in opposition near perihelion than 
Jupiter ever is; but owing either to the infe- 
rior reflective quality of the surface of Mars, 
or more probably to the fact that most of the 
light of Jupiter is reflected from cloud mass- 
es, and that a portion of that light is inherent, 
Jupiter in opposition is always brighter than 
Mars ever is.—The diameter of Mars is vari- 
ously estimated by different observers, but is 
probably about 4,400 m. The volume of his 
globe is therefore less than the earth, in the 
proportion of about 168 to 1,000, or the earth 
is nearly six times as large as Mars. ‘The 
mass of the planet is however even smaller 
in proportion; for his density is estimated 
at seven tenths of the earth’s, and his mass, 
though less than hers in the proportion of 
about 118 to 1,000, is nearer one ninth than 
one eighth of the earth’s mass. This small 
planet rotates on an axis inclined about 28° to 
the orbit, so that the seasons have a greater 
range than those of the earth, whose inclina- 
tion to her orbit is but 234°. The rotation has 
been determined with a near approach to ac- 
curacy. Cassini, who was one of the first to 
study the telescopic aspect of Mars, assigned to 
the planet a rotation period of 24h. 40m. Sir 
W. Herschel in 1777 attacked the problem with 
less success than usually attended his work as 
an observer. He unfortunately missed count of 
one rotation in a synodical revolution of Mars, 
and this error, distributed among all the rota- 
tions of the revolution (corresponding to about 
24h. divided into 750 parts), amounted to nearly 
two minutes, so that his estimate of the ro- 
tation period, 24h. 89m. 25s., was about two 
minutes too fast. Mdadler, from observations 
extending over the years 1830-’37, deduced a 
period of 24h. 87m. 28°8s. Kaiser of Leyden, 
combining his own observations with those by 


192 


Madler, Sir W. Herschel, and Huygens in 1672, 
deduced a rotation period of 24h. 37m. 22°62s. 
Lastly, the present writer, by combining ob- 
servations made in 1873 with Hooke’s obser- 
vations in 1666, deduced the period 24h. 37m. 
22°73s. As this differed more from Kaiser 
than could be explained if neither Huygens’s 
observations nor Hooke’s had been misunder- 
stood, Kaiser went afresh over his work, and 
obtaining his former result expressed the opin- 
ion that Hooke’s observation was untrustwor- 
thy. But the present writer, having carefully 
examined Kaiser’s work, found that Kaiser had 
apparently counted the years 1700 and 1800 as 
leap years; at any rate, he had somehow count- 
ed two days too many in the interval of about 
200 years. This excess of one day per century 
really corresponded to a defect of 37m. 23s., 
since a Martial rotation too many had been 
of course introduced along with the extra day, 
_ and a Martial rotation requires 24h. 37m. 23s. 
instead of 24h., so that the additional terres- 
trial day fell short by 387m. 23s. of what was 
really required to provide (so to speak) for the 
added Martial day. Now if we divide 37m. 
23s. by the number representing all the Mar- 
tial rotations in a century, or roughly if we 
divide 2,250 seconds by 35,000, we obtain about 
0:065 of a second; and adding this to Kaiser’s 
value of the rotation period, we obtain 24h. 
37m. 22°685s. This is near enough to the wri- 
ter’s value (24h. 87m. 22°735s.) to show that 
both Huygens’s picture and Hooke’s can be re- 
lied upon, the difference resulting merely from 
such errors in drawing as might be expected. 
We may therefore assign a part of the differ- 
ence to error in Hooke’s picture, and the rest 
to error in Huygens’s. After a critical exam- 
ination of the two pictures for this purpose, 
the present writer finds that the most proba- 
ble value of the rotation period is 24h. 87m. 
22°715s., the true value almost certainly lying 
between 24h. 37m. 22°7s, and 24h. 87m. 22°73s. 
This is the only case in which the rotation of a 
planet has been determined, or probably can be 
determined, with so great an approach to ex- 
actness. The marks on Mercury and Venus 
are too uncertain to be trusted, and the planets 
Jupiter and Saturn do not in all probability 
show their real surface to us. The determina- 
tion of a planet’s rotation period is not a mere 
matter of curiosity; for when the period has 
been determined with considerable accuracy, a 
planet may be regarded thenceforth as a sort 
of celestial chronometer, by which changes in 
the rate of other motions may be inferred if 
not gauged.—The surface of Mars has been 
carefully studied by many skilful observers. 
Hooke, Cassini, Huygens, and Fontana were the 
first to recognize any of those markings which 
are now known to belong to the real surface. 
They noticed that the polar parts of the planet 
appeared to be occupied by white matter; the 
idea does not seem to have presented itself 
that this matter might be like the snow and ice 
which are found in the polar regions of our 


MARS 


earth, On the contrary, when Maraldi in 1720 
studied these white regions, and found that one 
of them had diminished in size, he predicted 
its entire disappearance. It was not until Her- 
schel had carefully examined them for a con- 
siderable time, and found their variations to 
correspond to the progress of summer and win- 
ter in the northern and southern hemispheres 
of the planet, that the resemblance between 
the white spots and our arctic and antarctic 
snows was recognized, and that Herschel, ever 
on the watch for analogies of the kind, express- 
ed the opinion that these spots are the snows 
of Mars. The other parts of the planet present 
two chief colors, a faint ruddy tint, apparently 
representing the continents of the planet, and a 
still fainter indigo-green tint, which from an 
early period has been regarded as indicating 
the presence of seas and oceans upon that dis- 
tant world. It was for a long time impossible, 
however, as Dr. Whewell pointed out, to be 
certain that this interpretation of the white 
spots and of the greenish markings was cor- 
rect, or that water existed in any form on the 
surface of Mars. But recently the spectrosco- 
pic analysis of the light of Mars has shown be- 
yond question that at times the vapor of water 
exists in the planet’s atmosphere, since the 
same bands are seen which appear in the solar 
spectrum when the sun is low down and shining 
through the denser and more moisture-laden 
parts of our atmosphere. Nevertheless, it is 
not easy to understand how the condition of 
Mars as to temperature can so nearly resemble 
the earth’s, as we should have to believe if we 
considered only the relative extent of the snowy 
polar regions in the two planets. Mars is so 
much further from the sun that the solar radi- 
ation is reduced, as compared to that to which 
our earth is exposed, in the ratio of about 1 
to 2 when Mars is in perihelion, and of about 
1 to 8 when he is in aphelion. Moreover, be- 
ing a much smaller planet, we should expect his 
atmospheric envelope to be much less dense, 
since if reduced as his volume it would be re- 
duced as the cube of his linear dimensions; 
whereas it would extend over a surface reduced 
only as the square of those dimensions. On this 
assumption there would be less air per square 
mile of the planet in the proportion of about 11 
to 20; and as gravity at the surface of Mars is 
less than gravity on the earth in the ratio 887 
to 1,000, the atmospheric pressure would be 
less as about 4,257 to 20,000, or would be little 
more than one fifth that of the earth’s sea level. 
Of course, we have no certain assurance that 
the assumption here made is even approxi- 
mately correct. But since, to make the climate 
of Mars as warm as our earth’s, the atmosphere 
should be much denser than ours, whereas the 
assumption which must be regarded as the 
most probable would make the atmospheric 
density barely one fifth of ours, it seems diffi- 
cult to regard the climate of Mars as probably 
like that of our earth. There are reasons, 
therefore, for viewing as at least worthy of 


MARS 


consideration the theory of Mattieu Williams, 
that the climate of Mars is really unlike that of 
our earth, notwithstanding the similarity of the 
snow regions in extent.. Without entering into 
the details of his theory, or accepting the rela- 
tions which he somewhat speculatively exhibits, 
we may thus far provisionally adopt his views 
as not improbable.—Owing to the much small- 
er amount of solar radiation at the distance of 
Mars, and also to the much more limited ex- 
tent of his oceans, the quantity of aqueous va- 
por raised into his atmosphere must be very 
much less in proportion to the extent of his 
surface; and it is not unlikely that most of 
the precipitation of such vapor takes place in 
the form of snow, which would not fall thick- 
ly, and would be soon melted during the Mar- 
tial day in the tropical and subtropical regions. 
Thus we may explain the appearances which 
have hitherto been regarded as due to the dis- 
sipation of Martial rain clouds, and also the 
observed fact that the disk of Mars is whitish 
near the edge, and the markings invisible there. 
Thus whatever aqueous vapor, or cloud, was 
carried to the temperate regions, and whatever 
ice or snow accumulated in the polar regions, 
would be much smaller in amount than we 
should otherwise have inferred from the appa- 
rent extent of the polar snow caps, and these 
would therefore diminish in extent as summer 
advanced, much more quickly than they would 
if formed as in the earth’s case. The general 
conclusion to which we should be led if we 
adopted this view would be that the planet pre- 
sents conditions unfavorable for the existence 
of such forms of life as we are familiar with. 
These questions derive their chief scientific in- 
terest, however, as suggesting the careful study 
of those Martial phenomena which presumably 
depend on the density of the planet’s atmos- 
phere, and its general conditions as respects 
humidity and so on. 

MARS, Anne Fran¢oise Hippolyte Boutet, a French 
actress, born in Paris, Feb. 9, 1779, died March 
20, 1847. She was the natural daughter of 
Jacques Monvel, one of the first actors of the 
day, and a provincial actress named Mars- 
Boutet, and made her appearance upon the 
stage in her childhood. At 14 years of age 
she filled what the French call réles d’ingénues, 
and when somewhat older attempted with suc- 
cess jeunes amoureuses ; but she made no de- 
cided impression upon the public until her 
personation in 1803 of a deaf and dumb girl 
in the Abdé de l’Hpée. The grace and feeling 
which she evinced on this occasion created an 
enthusiasm in her favor, and soon after the re- 
tirement of Mlle. Contat in 1809, she assumed 
the position of the first comic actress of the 
day. For the last 80 years of her professional 
life she was without a rival on the French 
stage in genteel comedy, every new part at- 
tempted by her being a success down to that 
of Mlle. de Belle-Isle in Dumas’s drama of that 
name, produced in 1839, in which, although 
60 years of age, she appeared like a young wo- 


MARSALA 193 


man of 20. She took her leave of the stage in 
March, 1841. Although some of her greatest 
triumphs were achieved in the plays of Victor 
Hugo, Dumas, and other modern writers, she 
greatly preferred the dramas of the old school, 
especially the comedies of Moliére and the 
preces Mintrigue of Marivaux. Her persona- 
tions of the fashionable lady or coquette of the 
old régime in these works are among the most 
cherished traditions of the French stage. Her 
figure, voice, action, and toilette were alike 
admirable, and in the expression of her coun- 
tenance she invariably conformed to the spirit 
of the scene. She amassed a considerable for- 
tune, and the latter years of her life were 
passed in a sumptuous retreat, where she daily 
received visits from persons eminent in litera- 
ture or the arts. She left an estate valued at 
800,000 francs to a son 50 years old at her 
death, whom during the greater part of her 
life she had persistently refused to see. 
MARSALA (anc. Lilybeum), a fortified sea- 
port town at the W. extremity of Sicily, adja- 
cent to Cape Boeo (anc. Promontorium Lily- 
beum), in the province and 16m. 8.58. W. of 
the town of Trapani; pop. about 18,000. It 
contains a cathedral, several churches, and va- 
rious monastic, educational, and charitable es- 
tablishments. It exports corn, cattle, 9il, salt, 
and soda, but- chiefly wine.—The ancient city 
of Lilybeum, of which Marsala occupies only 
the southern half, was founded by a colony of 
Carthaginians who escaped from the destruc- 
tion of Motya by the elder Dionysius in 397 
B. ©. It soon prospered, and became the 
chief bulwark of the Carthaginian power in 
Sicily. In 276 Pyrrhus of Epirus made an 
unsuccessful attempt to capture it; and in 250 
it was attacked by the Romans in the first Pu- 
nic war with two consular armies and a for- 
midable fleet. After several efforts to carry 
it by assault, the consuls converted the siege 
into a blockade, which was maintained for 
nearly ten years without accomplishing its 
object; nor did the Romans obtain possession 
of it until it was surrendered by the Cartha- 
ginians at the conclusion of the war, in part 
purchase of peace. From this period the har- 
bor of Lilybeeum became a principal station of 
the Roman fleet, and the city one of the great 
points of communication between Rome and 
Africa. The place continued prosperous till 
the 16th century; but from the period when 
the emperor Charles V. caused its harbor to be 
blocked up with a mound in order to protect 
it from the attacks of the Barbary corsairs, it 
ceased to hold the first rank among the mari- 
time towns of W. Sicily, and gave place to 
Trapani. Few vestiges of the ancient city now 
remain. Numerous fragments of sculpture, 
however, vases, coins, &c., have been from 
time to time discovered, and some portions of 
an aqueduct are still standing. Marsala was 
Garibaldi’s landing place in his expedition to 
Sicily in May, 1860, where he disembarked in 
presence of two Neapolitan war steamers. 


194 MARSCHNER 


MARSCHNER, Heinrich, a German composer, 
born in Zittau, Aug. 16, 1795, died in Hanover, 
Dec. 15, 1861. He was almost a self-taught 
musician, his parents being too: poor to afford 
him proper instruction. He acquired a little 
knowledge of the art here and there, and with 
this set about composing in every form. Hav- 
ing composed a ballet for a troup of dancers, 
the orchestra was brought to a sudden stop, 
the horns having notes to play that were not 
on their instruments. In 1816 he wrote a lit- 
tle opera, Der Kyffhduserberg, and in 1819 he 
produced at Dresden Heinrich IV. und Au- 
bigné, an opera in three acts. In 1823 he 
became, jointly with Morlacchi and Von We- 
ber, musical director of the opera in Dresden. 
In 1828 Der Vampyr, his most celebrated 
work, was produced at Leipsic. 
was called to Hanover as chapelmaster to the 
king, and there he composed two other suc- 
cessful works, Das Schloss am Aetna and Hans 
Heiling. He also composed many songs for 
single voices, ten collections of male-voice part 
songs, trios, and quartets for instruments, and 
a variety of sonatas, fantasias, and rondos. 

MARSDEN, William, a British orientalist, born 
in Dublin, Nov. 16, 1754, died near London, 
Oct. 6, 1836. In 1771 his father, who was 
a merchant of Dublin, procured for him an ap- 
pointment in the civil service of the East India 
company at Bencoolen, Sumatra. He there 
attained the office of principal secretary to the 
government, acquired a close acquaintance with 
the country and the Malay language, and in 
1779 returned to England. In 1795 he was 
made chief secretary to the admiralty, with a 
salary of £4,000; and on his resignation in 
1807, the government conferred on him a pen- 
sion of £1,500. In 1834 he bequeathed his 
rich collection of coins and medals to the Brit- 
ish museum, and his valuable library of orien- 
tal books and manuscripts to King’s college, 
London. The most important of his works 
are: ‘History of Sumatra” (London, 1782); 
‘““Grdmmar and Dictionary of the Malay Lan- 
guage’? (1812); a translation of the travels of 
Marco Polo (1817); and Numismata Orienta- 
lia, a treatise on eastern coins, &c, (1823-’5). 

MARSEILLAISE, a national song of France, 
produced in 1792 by Rouget de l’Isle, an offi- 
cer then stationed at Strasburg, and hence 
originally called Chant de guerre de Varmée du 
hin. It soon attained popularity throughout 
the country, and greatly contributed to the vic- 
tories of the French revolutionary armies. In 
Paris it was sung for the first time by the band 
of men who were brought from Marseilles by 
Barbaroux to aid’in the revolution of Aug. 10, 
1792. Hence it was called Le chant des Mar- 
seillais, and afterward La Marseillaise. It 
has since continued to be the favorite song du- 
ring all popular movements in France. The 
researches of musical scholars within the last 
quarter of a century, both in France and Ger- 
many, seem to prove beyond reasonable doubt 
that the melody was not composed by Rouget 


In 1830 he: 


MARSEILLES 


de l’Isle, but was copied by. him from the credo 
of the fourth mass of Holtzmann of Mursberg, 
who composed it in 1776; and it was first 
heard in Strasburg in the hotel of Mme. de 
Montesson, in 1782. 

MARSEILLES (Fr. Marseille ; anc. Massilia), 
a city and the principal seaport of France, cap- 
ital of the department of Bouches-du-Rhéne, 
on the N. E. shore of the gulf of Lyons, at 
the head of a bay the entrance to which is 
sheltered by a group of islets, in lat. 43° 18/ 
N., lon. 5° 22’ E., 400 m. 8. 8. E. of Paris; 
pop. in 1872, 312,864. It is connected by rail- 
way with the principal cities of France, by 
steamers with the chief ports of the Mediter- 
ranean, the Levant, and Algeria, and is the 
centre of the Indian overland mail service. 
On its N. side lies the old town, with filthy 
and tortuous streets and lanes, but containing 
some spacious squares, a remarkable town hall, 
and the remains of Roman ramparts. It is 
separated from the new town by a magnificent 
avenue, which is successively called Rue d’ Aix, 
in its central part Rue du Grand Cours, and 
afterward Rue de Rome, and which extends in 
a straight line from the gate of Aix to that of 
Rome, traversing the entire length of the city 
from N. to §., and leading to the Prado, the 
most popular promenade on the seaside. The 
handsomest of the many fine streets of the new 
city is the Cannebiére, which leads from the 
Grand Cours to the old harbor, and contains the 
most elegant shops, hotels, and coffee houses, 
including the beautiful Café Ture, chiefly fre- 
quented by Greeks and Levantines. The new 
city is built around the port. The quays are 
the most bustling and interesting parts of Mar- 
seilles, being constantly thronged by crowds 
of orientals, Greeks, Italians, English, and 
French, who are engaged in the business of 
the place.. The animation of the city is only 
equalled by the picturesqueness of its locality. 
It rises over its port in the form of a gradually 
sloping amphitheatre; the surrounding hills 
are covered with olive gardens and vineyards, 
and with thousands of country houses or bas- 
tides of the citizens. Opposite the mouth of 
the harbor is the chateau If, in which Mira- 
beau was imprisoned. On summer evenings 
the inhabitants seek relief from the heat on 
the seaside, which is crowded with pleasure 
boats; and many fine residences and places of 
public entertainment are situated along the 
banks. All parts of the city are well supplied 
with water through a canal fed by the Du- 
rance, and opened in 1850, at a cost of $10,- 
000,000. The public buildings possess little 
architectural interest. The cathedral is said to 
have been built upon the site of a temple of 
Diana; the church of St. Victor is the most 
ancient church, and was formerly one of the 
most celebrated abbeys in Christendom. There 
is a French Protestant church, a place of wor- 
ship for the English residents, a Greek church, 
and a synagogue.—Among the public institu- 
tions are an arsenal, a mint, a lyceum, a med- 


MARSEILLES 


ical school, a hydrographic institution, a school 
for instruction in Arabic, an industrial and 
commercial academy, a fine observatory, a mu- 
seum of pictures, antiquities, medals, and nat- 
ural history, a library of about 75,000 vol- 
umes, a botanic garden, an academy of scien- 
ces, letters, and art, medical, agricultural, and 
statistical societies, and a number of newspa- 
pers. The Grand theatre resembles the Odé- 
on of Paris. Besides the Hétel-Dieu, there 
are a lunatic asylum, a lying-in hospital, sev- 
eral public institutions for the relief of the 
poor, a school for deaf mutes, and other pub- 
lic and private charitable establishments, The 
lazaretto, which was so large that it could 
hold the entire French army on its return from 
Egypt, was pulled down in 1850 and removed, 
as well as the sanitary de- 
partment, to the quaran- 


195 


ed, 3,556, tonnage 878,000; foreign vessels en- 
tered, 3,715, tonnage 908,000. The manufac- 
tures consist principally of soap,,morocco and 
other leather, glass, porcelain, caps, straw hats, 
refined sugar, salt, liqueurs, &c.—The ancient 
city was founded about 600 B. C. by Ionian 
colonists from Phocea in Asia Minor. (See 
Puoo#a.) The prosperity and the commerce 
of the new settlement made rapid progress. 
Massilia became the rival of Carthage and the 
ally of Rome. Many new settlements were 
founded by her along the coast of the Mediter- 
ranean, and remained under her subjection, 
and her navigators advanced as far as the Bal- 
tic (about 850). (See Pyturas.) Threatened 
by hostile tribes, the inhabitants of Massilia 
called the Romans to their assistance (153- 


tine roadstead of Frioul, 


which was formed by con- 


necting the fortified islets 


tonneau by means of a 


breakwater.—The old har- 


of If, Pomégue, and Ra- : 


bor is an oblong basin 


1,000 yards long by 380 


broad, occupying an area 


of about. 70 acres, has a 


depth of water varying 


from 18 to 24 ft., and can 


accommodate 1,200 mer- 
chant vessels. It is pro- 


tected on the right by Fort 
St. Nicolas, and on the left 
by Fort St. Jean. N. of it 
is the new harbor, La Jolli- 
ette, which was completed 
in 1855. It is formed by 
a breakwater 1,300 yards 
long, thrown into the sea 
parallel to the shore, and 


at a distance of 1,300 ft. 
from it; two piers stretch 
toward it from the shore, 
at a distance of 600 yards 
from each other, so as to 
leave room for the entrance 
of vessels. It forms an 
inner basin and two outer harbors, and the 
former is connected with the old port by 
a canal, which runs behind the fort of St. 
Jean. The inner basin and this canal cover an 
area of about 70 acres. Other basins of still 
greater extent have been constructed since, so 
that at present they embrace a water area of 
about 200 acres. The imports in 1871, inclu- 
sive of gold and silver, were valued at 964,000,- 
000 francs, the exports at 732,000,000 francs. 
The imports of grain and flour amounted to 
6,509,000 quintals, valued at 151,000,000 francs. 
Marseilles trades with all parts of the world, 
but chiefly with the Levant, Algeria, and other 
coasts of the Mediterranean. The number of 
French vessels entering the port in 1871 was 
5,120, tonnage 1,309,000; French vessels clear- 


The Bourse, in the Cannebiére. 


125). The city was left in possession of its in- 
dependence after the subjugation of Gaul, but 
in 49, having declared for Pompey at the out- 
break of the civil war, it was seized by Cesar 
and annexed to the Roman republic. Massilia 
became then celebrated as a seat of learning, 
and was called the new Athens. Christianity 
was introduced there in the 8d century. After 
various vicissitudes the city came in the latter 
part of the 9th century under the sway of 
Boso, king of Cisjurane Burgundy, and in the 
13th under that of the counts of Provence . 
and in 1481 Marseilles with Provence was unl- 
ted to the crown of France. In 1524 it resist- 
ed the constable de Bourbon. The religious 
wars were carried on with great bitterness in 
Marseilles, and the city submitted to Henry 


196 


IV. only in 1596. It was deprived of its fran- 
chise by Louis XI1V.in 1660. In 1720-21 it was 
desolated by the plague, which destroyed 40,- 
000 or 50,000 persons, on which occasion Bish- 
op Belzunce distinguished himself by his zeal 
for the sick ; a monument perpetuates his mem- 
ory, and the poet Pope has celebrated his he- 
roism. During the French revolution, the city 
declared itself in favor of the Girondists, but 
it was taken by the terrorists. Schlosser says: 
‘*Fréron erected a revolutionary tribunal with- 
out a jury in Marseilles, and selected the ref- 
use of humanity for his judges. It almost 
appeared as if the commissioners of the con- 
vention would annihilate the city itself and 
even the harbor. Executions were of daily 
occurrence, and the destruction of buildings 


continued for months, while Fréron dated his 


reports to the convention, according to the 
savage style of his time, not from: Marseilles, 
but from ‘commune unnamed.’” It was only 
after the restoration of the Bourbons that 
Marseilles fully recovered from these calami- 
ties. The colonization of Algeria gave a pow- 
erful impetus to its commerce. During the 
war of 1870-’71 it was repeatedly the scene of 
violent popular commotions, and an imitation 
of the Paris commune movement took place 
in March, 1871. The government troops re- 
occupied the city, after a struggle, on April 4. 
MARSH, Anne (CALDWELL), an English au- 
thoress, born at Lindley Wood, Staffordshire, 
near the close of the last century, died there 
in October, 1874. About the year 1820 she 
was married to Arthur Cuthbert Marsh, a 
London banker, who died in 1849. In 1858, 
upon the death of her brother, author of a 
‘Treatise on the Law of Limitation,” she suc- 
ceeded to the family estates, and assumed as 
an additional surname that of her own family, 
being styled Anne Marsh-Caldwell of Lind- 
ley Wood. Her first work, “Two Old Men’s 
Tales,” was published in 1834. Others fol- 
lowed in rapid succession, two or three some- 
times appearing in a single year, the last in 1857. 
They are: “Tales of the Woods and Fields,” 
‘‘Triumphs of Time,” “Mount Sorel,” ‘“ Au- 
brey,” “The Admiral’s Daughter,” ‘Emilia 
Wyndham,” “ Father Darcy,” “‘ The Protestant 
Reformation in France,” “ Norman’s Bridge,” 
‘ Angela,” “‘Lady Evelyn,” “ Mordaunt Hall,” 
‘‘ Lettice Arnold,” ‘The Wilmingtons,” “ Time 
the Avenger,” ‘‘ Ravenscliffe,” “ Castle Avon,” 
“The Song of Roland, chanted before the 
Battle of Hastings” (translated from the Nor- 
man French), ‘The Heiress of Haughton,” 
‘Evelyn Marston,” and ‘The Rose of Ash- 
urst.” Most of these works have been repub- 
lished in America. Her elder sister married 
a son of William Roscoe, author of ‘‘ The Life 
of Lorenzo de’ Medici,” and a younger sister 
was the first wife of Sir Henry Holland. . 
MARSH, Dexter, an American paleontologist, 
born in 1806, died in Greenfield, Mass., April 
2, 1853. Without education, and by occupa- 
tion a day laborer, his attention was first at- 


MARSH 


tracted to the subject of fossils by observing 
in 1835 the footprints in slabs designed for 
flagging stones. He was early engaged in the 
search for specimens, sometimes in the em- 
ploy of others, but in later years chiefly on 
his own account, traversing the valley of the 
Connecticut from the northern line of Mas- 
sachusetts to Wethersfield, and visiting also the 
states of New Jersey and New Hampshire. 
At the time of his death, notwithstanding his ~ 
frequent supplies to others, his cabinet con- 
tained, as the result of his own personal ex- 
ertions, perhaps the choicest collection of fos- 
sil footprints and fishes then in existence. One 
slab, 10 ft. in length by 6 in width,. contained 
at least 70 distinct footprints; and another, 7 
ft. by 4, was literally covered with perfect 
impressions. There were in all about 500 
slabs with tracks and raindrops impressed upon 
them, and 200 specimens of fossil fishes. <Af- 
ter his death the whole collection was sold 
for about $2,700. (See Fossrz Foorprrts.) 
MARSH. I. George Perkins, an American 
scholar, born in Woodstock, Vt., March 17, 
1801. He graduated at Dartmouth college in 
1820, and then removed to Burlington, Vt., 
where he studied law and was admitted to the 
bar. In 1835 he was elected a member of the 
supreme executive council of Vermont, and in 
1842 became a representative in congress, re- 
taining his seat in that body by successive re- 
elections till 1849, when he was commissioned 
by President Taylor as minister resident at 
Constantinople, which office he held for four 
years. In 1852 he was sent on a special mis- 
sion to Greece. During his residence abroad 
he travelled extensively in the East and in Eu- 
rope, passing some time in Denmark, Sweden, 
and Norway, where he has long been recog- 
nized as a leading Scandinavian scholar. On 
his return from Europe in 1853 he was ap- 
pointed one of the commissioners to rebuild 
the state house at Montpelier, which was 
burned in January, 1857, and served as rail- 
road commissioner for Vermont for two years 
(1857-"9). In 1857 he was appointed by the 
governor of Vermont to make a report to the 
legislature in regard to the artificial propaga- 
tion of fishes. In 1860 he received the degree 
of LL. D. from Dartmouth college. In 1861 
he was appointed minister to Italy, a post 
which he still holds (1875). Besides numerous 
addresses and speeches, and contributions to 
periodicals, he has published a ‘‘ Compendious 
Grammar of the Old Northern or Icelandic 
Language, compiled and translated from the 
Grammar of Rask” (Burlington, 1838); ‘“ The 
Camel, his Organization, Habits, and Uses, 
considered with reference to his Introduction 
into the United States”? (Boston, 1856) ; ‘‘ Lec- 
tures on the English Language” (New York, 
1861; originally delivered in 1859 in the post- 
graduate course of Columbia college, New 
York), in which he “aimed to excite a more 
general interest among educated men and 
women in the history and essential character 


MARSH 


of their native tongue, and to recommend the 
study of the English language in its earlier lit- 
erary monuments rather than through the me- 
dium of grammars and linguistic treatises ;” 
‘“‘ Origin and History of the English Language ” 
(New York, 1862); and ‘‘Man and Nature” 
(New York, 1864). This, with numerous cor- 
rections by the author, was translated into 
Italian (Florence, 1870), and afterward almost 
entirely rewritten and republished under the 
title, ‘‘ The Earth, as modified by Human Ac- 
tion” (New York, 1874). IL. Caroline (Cranz), 
wife of the preceding, born in Berkley, Mass., 
Dec. 1, 1816. -She was married in 1838. Her 
published productions are: ‘The Hallig, or 
the Sheepfold in the Waters,” translated from 
the German of Biernatzki, with a biographical 
sketch of the author (Boston, 1857); and 
‘“‘ Wolfe of the Knoll and other Poems” (New 
York, 1860). 

MARSH, Herbert, an English author, born in 
London in 1757, died in Peterborough in 1839. 
He was educated at St. John’s college, Cam- 
bridge. In 1783 he went to Germany, and re- 
sided in Géttingen, where he published in Ger- 
man a series of pamphlets in defence of the 
war policy of Great Britain, for which Mr. 
_ Pitt rewarded him with a pension. On the 
French invasion of Germany he returned to 
England, and in 1807 was appointed Lady 
Margaret’s professor of divinity at Cambridge, 
and substituted English for Latin in the de- 
livery of his lectures. In 1816 he was made 
bishop of Llandaff, and three years subsequent- 
ly was translated to Peterborough. He was a 
distinguished opponent of both Calvinists and 
Roman Catholics. His principal works are: a 
translation of Michaelis’s ‘ Introduction to the 
New Testament” (London, 1792-1801); ‘The 
Authenticity of the Five Books of Moses con- 
sidered” (4to, Cambridge, 1792); ‘“‘The Na- 
tional Religion the Foundation of National 
Education” (1811); ‘‘ Lectures on the Criti- 
cism and Interpretation of the Bible” (1838) ; 
and “ Lectures-on the Authenticity and Credi- 
bility of the New Testament, and on the Au- 
thority of the Old Testament” (new ed., 1840). 

MARSH, James, an American scholar, born 
in Hartford, Vt., July 19, 1794, died in Col- 
chester, Vt., July 3, 1842. His early life was 
passed on his father’s farm. He graduated at 
Dartmouth college in 1817, and at Andover 
theological seminary in 1822. Soon after he 
became a tutor in Hampden Sidney college, 
Virginia. In 1824 he was appointed professor 
of modern languages there, and ordained to the 
ministry. He was called in 1826 to the presi- 
dency of the university of Vermont, which of- 
fice he resigned in 1833, in order to devote all 
his time to the duties of the chair of moral and 
intellectual philosophy, which he occupied un- 
til his decease. In 1829 he published an edi- 
tion of Coleridge’s ‘‘ Aids to Reflection,” with 
notes and a preliminary essay, and a series of 
papers on popular education; and in 1830 a 
volume of ‘Selections from Old English Wri- 


MARSHAL 197 


ters on Practical Theology.” He published 
also a translation of Herder’s “Spirit of He- 
brew Poetry” (2 vols., Burlington, 1833). Dr. 
Marsh received the degree of D. D. from both 
Amherst and Columbia colleges. Prof. Tor- 
rey, who succeeded him in his professorship, 
published a volume of ‘‘ Remains,” consisting 
chiefly of his philosophical lectures, with a 
memoir (Boston, 1843). 

MARSH, Othniel Charles, an American natu- 
ralist, born in Lockport, N. Y., Oct. 29, 1831. 
He studied at Phillips academy, Andover, 
Mass., and at Yale college, where he graduated 
in 1860, and spent the next two years in the 
Yale scientific school. From 1862 to 1865 he 
studied at the universities of Berlin, Heidel- 
berg, and Breslau, and on his return to America 
in 1866 was elected professor of paleontology 
in Yale college. His scientific publications, 
which began while he was a student, have been 
very numerous. Among his earlier papers, 
most of which appeared first in the ‘‘ American 
Journal of Science,” are: ‘ The Gold of Nova 
Scotia” (1861); ‘‘ Description of a New Ena- 
liosaurian, Hosaurus Acadianus”’ (1862); “ De- 
scription of an Ancient Sepulchral Mound” 
(1867); ‘‘ Contributions to the Mineralogy of 
Nova Scotia” (1867); ‘‘ Origin of Lignilites or 
Epsomites ” (1867); ‘‘ Metamorphosis of Sire- 
don into Amblystoma ” (1868); ‘‘ Notice of 
New Mosasauroid Reptiles from New Jersey” 
(1869); and ‘‘ Notice of New Fossil Birds from 
the Cretaceous and Tertiary of the United 
States” (1870). For several years he has de- 
voted himself to investigating the extinct ver- 
tebrate animals of the Rocky mountain region, 
especially those of the cretaceous and tertiary 
formations. Since 1868 he has nearly every 
year led an expedition to regions never before 
visited by white men. These expeditions have 
been remarkably successful, more than 300 
species of new fossil vertebrates having been 
discovered, about 200 of which he has already 
described. Many of these extinct animals are 
of great scientific interest, and represent seve- 
ral new orders, as well as a number of others 
not before found in America. Among these 
are the ichthyornithes, a new order of creta- 
ceous birds, having teeth and biconcave verte- 
bre; the first American pterodactyls, or flying 
lizards, some having a spread of wings of 25 
ft.; the dinocerata, gigantic eocene mammals 
with six horns; the brontotheride, huge mio- 
cene mammals with a single pair of horns; 
and likewise the first fossil monkeys, bats, and 
marsupials from this country. These and many 
other discoveries have been described by him 
in a series of papers published in 1871-8. He 
was in 1874 preparing an extensive report, in 
which full descriptions, with illustrations, of 
all his western discoveries will be published 
under government auspices. 

MARSHAL (Fr. maréchal; old Ger. Marah, 
horse, and Seale or Schalk, servant), a term ori- 
ginally applied to the person who had charge of 
the horses of the king or other high dignitary, 


198 


In the middle ages he was the chief officer of 
arms, and at tournaments regulated combats in 
the lists; but ultimately the title was borne by 
both civil and military officers. In England, 
until 1849, the marshal of the king’s household 
presided over the knight marshal’s court crea- 
ted by Charles I., which had jurisdiction of 
personal actions within a circuit of 12 miles 
around Whitehall. The marshal of the king’s 
bench has the custody of the Marshalsea or 
king’s bench prison in Southwark. The earl 
marshal is an officer of state, who directs im- 
portant ceremonies, takes cognizance of mat- 
ters relating to pedigree and rank, and pro- 
claims the declaration of war or of peace. In 
the United States, a marshal is an officer of one 
of the federal judicial districts, having duties 
similar to those of a sheriff. In ancient Po- 
land the president of the diet was called mar- 
shal—The rank of field marshal (called in 
German Feldmarschall, in French maréchal 
de France) is the highest military dignity in 
several countries of Europe. The title ap- 
pears to have been introduced into France in 
the time of Philip Augustus, about 1200. It 
was introduced into England in 1776 by George 
III., who created the duke of Argyll field 
marshal. The English field marshal, when un- 
employed, has the same daily pay as any oth- 
er general; but when actually commanding 
he receives £16 8s. 9d. a day for staff duty, 
while a general receives £9 9s. 6d. In 1874 
there were in Great Britain three field mar- 
shals, the duke of Cambridge (created in 1862), 
Sir W. M. Gomm (1868), and Sir George Pol- 
lock (1870). In Austria there were two field 
marshals, the archduke Albert and Prince Ed- 
mund von Schwarzenberg, and in Germany 
eight, of whom the prince of Saxony and Gen- 
erals Moltke, Bittenfeld, and Steinmetz were 
appointed in 1871. 

MARSHALL, the name of nine counties in the 
United States. I. A N. county of West Vir- 
ginia, forming the base of the ‘ Panhandle” 
between Ohio and Pennsylvania, and bordered 
on the W. by the Ohio river; area, 230 sq. m. ; 
pop. in 1870, 14,941, of whom 120 were col- 
ored. It has a hilly surface and fertile soil. 
The Baltimore and Ohio railroad passes through 
it. The chief productions in 1870 were 181,- 
638 bushels of wheat, 364,748 of Indian corn, 
211,662 of oats, 54,781 of potatoes, 119,579 
Ibs. of wool, 204,480 of butter, and 5,750 tons 
of hay. There were 3,109 horses, 3,076 milch 
cows, 3,881 other cattle, 37,508 sheep, and 10,- 
968 swine. Capital, Moundsville. I. A N. E. 
county of Alabama, intersected by the Ten- 
nessee river, and drained by its branches and 
the head waters of the Black Warrior ;. area, 
about 450 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 9,871, of whom 
1,367 were colored. The surface is moun- 
tainous, being traversed by ridges of the Ap- 
palachian system, and the soil is generally fer- 
tile. The chief productions in 1870 were 17,- 
228 bushels of wheat, 187,491 of Indian corn, 
67,116 of sweet potatoes, 5,477 lbs. of tobacco, 


MARSHALL 


47,995 of butter, and 2,340 bales of cotton. 
There were 1,669 horses, 2,614 milch cows, 
1,215 working oxen, 3,366 other cattle, 5,343 
sheep, and 12,597 swine. Capital, Warren- 
ton. Ti. A N. county of Mississippi, border- 
ing on Tennessee, drained by the Tallahatchie, 
Tippah, and Coldwater rivers ; area, 750 sq. m. ; 
pop. in 1870, 29,416, of whom 16,499 were 
colored. It has an undulating surface and 
fertile soil. The Mississippi Central railroad 
intersects it. The chief productions in 1870 
were 19,121 bushels of wheat, 765,466 of In. 
dian corn, 29,111 of sweet potatoes, 81,350 Ibs. 
of butter, and 18,379 bales of cotton. There 
were 2,809 horses, 4,058 mules and asses, 5,885 — 
milch cows, 8,991 other cattle, 4,719 sheep, 
and 87,157 swine. Capital, Holly Springs. IV. 
A central county of Tennessee, intersected by 
Duck river; area, about 350 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 16,207, of whom 4,385 were colored. It 
has a diversified surface and a generally fertile 
soil. The chief productions in 1870 were 126,- 
633 bushels of wheat, 591,358 of Indian corn, 
83,691 of oats, 16,182 of Irish and 16,556 of 
sweet potatoes, 12,788 Ibs. of tobacco, 34,553 
of wool, 170,658 of butter, and 2,063 bales of 
cotton. There were 6,202 horses, 2,598 mules 
and asses, 3,881 milch cows, 5,274 other cattle, 
16,218 sheep, and 32,088 swine. Capital, Lew- 
isburg. V. A W. county of Kentucky, bound- 
ed N. and E. by the Tennessee river and inter- 
sected by Clarke’s river; area, about 350 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 9,455, of whom 385 were 
colored. It has an undulating surface and fer- 
tile soil. The Elizabeth and Paducah railroad 
passes through it. The chief productions in 
1870 were 40,708 bushels of wheat, 478,241 
of Indian corn, 38,346 of oats, 16,891 of Irish . 
and 19,598 of sweet potatoes, 1,416,282 Ibs. 
of tobacco, 16,786, of wool, 138,881 of butter, 
and 90 bales of cotton. There were 1,381 
horses, 1,019 mules and asses, 2,187 milch cows, 
2,716 other cattle, 10,552 sheep, and 23,927 
swine. Capital, Benton. VI. A N. county of 
Indiana, drained by the Yellow and Tippecanoe 
rivers; area, 440 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 20,211. 
It has a level surface and fertile soil. Iron ore 
abounds. The Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and 
Chicago, and the Indianapolis, Peru, and Chi- 
cago railroads intersect it. The chief produc- 
tions in 1870 were 319,798 bushels of wheat, 
193,005 of Indian corn, 50,534 of oats, 84,- 
994 of potatoes, 39,526 lbs. of wool, 248,583 
of butter, and 13,689 tons of hay. There were 
5,166 horses, 4,987 milch cows, 5,493 other 
cattle, 15,216 sheep, and 14,416 swine; 5 man- 
ufactories of hubs and wagon material, 2 of 
carriages, 2 of wooden goods, 1 brewery, 7 
flour mills, 3 planing mills, and 42 saw mills. 
Capital, Plymouth. VIE. A N. central county 
of Illinois, intersected by the Illinois river ; 
area, 445 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 16,956. It has 
an almost level surface and a fertile soil. The 
Peoria branch of the Chicago, Rock Island, 
and Pacific railroad intersects it, and the IIli- 
nois Central skirts the E. border. The chief 


MARSHALL 


productions in 1870 were 107,029 bushels of 
wheat, 36,135 of rye, 1,122,908 of Indian corn, 
862,604 of oats, 98,236 of potatoes, 20,819 Ibs. 
of wool, 290,077 of butter, and 21,445 tons of 
hay. There were 9,798 horses, 5,533 milch 
cows, 6,904 other cattle, 5,517 sheep, and 20,- 
098 swine; 2 manufactories of agricultural im- 
plements, 18 of carriages, 4 of cooperage, 11 
of saddlery and harness, 9 of tin, copper, and 
sheet-iron ware, 1 of woollen goods, 1 pork- 
packing establishment, 2 distilleries, and 4 flour 
mills, Capital, Lacon. VIII. A central coun- 
ty of Iowa, intersected by Iowa river; area, 
576 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 17,576. The surface 
is undulating and the soil fertile. It is inter- 
sected by the Chicago and Northwestern and 
the Central railroad of Iowa. The chief pro- 
ductions in 1870 were 922,560 bushels of wheat, 
1,239,631 of Indian corn, 308,671 of oats, 99,- 
881 of potatoes, 20,934 Ibs. of wool, 405,972 of 
butter, and 25,439 tons of hay. There were 
7,494 horses, 5,219 milch cows, 7,892 other 
cattle; 8,952 sheep, and 21,537 swine; 3 man- 
ufactories of carriages and wagons, 1 of lime, 
2 of machinery, 8 of saddlery and harness, 2 
breweries, 4 saw mills, and 6 flour mills. Capi- 
tal, Marshalltown. IX. A N. E. county of Kan- 
sas, bordering on Nebraska, and drained by 
the Big Blue river; area, 908 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 6,901. It is intersected by the St. Jo- 
seph and Denver City railroad, and by the 
Central branch of the Union Pacific. The sur- 
face is somewhat diversified and the soil fer- 
tile. Coal and gypsum abound. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 160,750 bushels of 
wheat, 333,505 of Indian corn, 45,476 of oats, 
42,488 of potatoes, 125,303 Ibs. of butter, and 
12,885 tons of hay. There were 2,534 horses, 
3,025 milch cows, 4,383 other cattle, 2,379 
sheep, and 2,909 swine; 3 flour mills, 2 saw 
mills, and 4 manufactories of saddlery and 
harness. Capital, Marysville. 

MARSHALL, a city and the county seat of Cal- 
houn co., Michigan, situated on the Kalamazoo 
river and the Michigan Central railroad, 40 m. 
S. W. of Lansing, and 100 m. W. of Detroit; 
pop. in 1870, 4,925. It is surrounded by a fer- 
tile country, and has an important trade in agri- 
cultural products. Thereare several flour mills, 
saw mills, planing mills, manufactories, and 
machine shops. Marshall has three national 
banks, with a capital of $450,000; graded pub- 
lic schools, including a high school; two weekly 
newspapers, and 10 churches. It was laid out 
in 1831, and incorporated as a city in 1859. 

MARSHALL, Humphrey, an American politi- 
cian, born in Frankfort, Ky., Jan. 13, 1812, 
died in Louisville, March 28,1872. He gradu- 
ated at the military academy, West Point, in 
1832, and entered the army as brevet third 
lieutenant of mounted rangers. After serving 
in the Black Hawk expedition, he resigned in 
1833, and became a lawyer at Frankfort, and 
afterward at Louisville. He served in the 
Mexican war in 1846-7, as colonel of the first 
Kentucky cavalry. In 1849 he was elected to 


199 


congress, and in 1852 appointed commissioner 
to China. In 1855 he was again elected to 
congress. In the civil war he was a major 
general in the confederate army. 

MARSHALL, John, an American jurist, born 
in Fauquier co., Va., Sept. 24, 1755, died in 
Philadelphia, July 6, 1835. He was the eldest 
of 15 children of Col. Thomas Marshall, who 
signalized himself during the revolution, espe- 
cially at the battle of Brandywine. The maid- 
en name of his mother was Mary Keith. Col. 
Marshall was a gentleman of culture, and de- 
voted himself personally to the training of his 
children. John thus obtained a strong love of 
English literature, especially for poetry and his- 
tory. At the age of 12 he knew by heart a 
large portion of Pope’s writings, and was fa- 
miliar with Milton, Shakespeare, and Dryden. 
At the age of 14 he was sent to school at West- 
moreland, where James Monroe was one of his 
fellow students. Returning home at the end of 
a year, he resumed his studies under the direc- 
tion of aclergyman. His hours were still large- 
ly devoted to his favorite poets, and for many 
years he was full of dreamy romance and po- 
etical enthusiasm. Field sports and athletic 
exercises In the open air were also habitual 
with him. He commenced the study of law 
at the age of 18; but the impending struggle 
with Great Britain drew him away from his 
books before he had obtained alicense to prac- 
tise. In 1775 he joined a military company, 
and when news came of the battle of Lexing- 
ton, and the march of Patrick Henry upon © 
Williamsburg, he addressed the company in 
eloquent terms, urging them to prepare for 
every emergency. After the flight of Dun- 
more he took part with his regiment, of which 
his father was major, in the battle of Great 
Bridge. Marshall was lieutenant of the flank- 
ing party which advanced in face of a mur- 
derous discharge from the enemy posted on 
the causeway, and terminated the engage- 
ment. His company was the ‘‘ Culpeper min- 
utemen,’” who wore green hunting shirts with 
‘Liberty or Death” in white letters on the 
bosom, and whose banner displayed a coiled 
rattlesnake, with the motto, ‘Don’t tread on 
me.” In July, 1776, he was made lieutenant 
in the 11th Virginia regiment, on continental 
service, and marched to the north. In May, 
1777, he was promoted to a captaincy. From 
the time of his entrance into the army to the 
close of 1779, Marshall was in active service. 
He took part in the engagement at Iron Hill, 
and in the battles of Brandywine, German- 
town, and Monmouth. He shared the hard- 
ships and sufferings of the troops at Valley 
Forge with unvarying good humor and san- 
guine hopefulness. At this period he acted 
frequently as deputy judge advocate, and se- 
cured the warm regard of Washington. In the 
winter of 1779 he was sent to Virginia to take 
command of a new corps to be raised by the 
legislature. While this subject was under dis- 
cussion, he attended a course of law lectures 


200 


delivered by Mr. Wythe at William and Mary 
college, and Bishop Madison’s lectures on nat- 
ural philosophy. In the ensuing summer he 
was licensed to practise law, but his military 
duties drew him back to the army. The pro- 


ject to raise additional forces in Virginia seems 


to have failed, and he set out alone and on 
foot to make the long journey to headquarters. 
On his arrival in Philadelphia his appearance 
was so shabby that the landlord of the hotel at 
which he stopped refused him admittance. He 
continued in the army until after the invasion 
of Virginia by Arnold in 1781, when, finding 
a redundancy of officers in the Virginia line, 
he resigned. At the close of the war he began 
practice as an attorney, and his success was 
marked from the commencement. The be- 
nevolence, placidity, and sweetness of his tem- 


per gained him a host of friends; and “that. 


extraordinary comprehension and grasp of 
mind, by which difficulties were seized and 
overcome without difficulty or parade, com- 
manded the attention and respect of the courts 
of justice.” In 1782 he was a member of the 
house of delegates from Fauquier, and in the 
autumn of the same year was appointed one of 
the council of state. After his marriage in 
1783 with Mary Willis Ambler, daughter of 
Treasurer Ambler, he resigned his seat in the 
executive council, and fixed his residence in 
Richmond. In spite of his removal from the 
county, his old neighbors reélected him a mem- 
ber of the house, and in 1787 he sat in the 
same body as representative from the county 
of Henrico. In June, 1788, the Virginia con- 
vention to act upon the constitution drawn up 
by the Philadelphia convention assembled, and 
Marshall was a member. He took a conspicu- 
ous stand by the side of James Madison, Ed- 
mund Pendleton, and other distinguished ad- 
vocates of its acceptance. His defence of the 
constitution against its assailants was masterly. 
On three occasions, the debates on taxation, 
on the judiciary, and on the power over the 
militia, he gave full scope to his powerful lo- 
gic and massive faculty of reasoning. The in- 
strument was finally accepted by a vote of 89 
to 79. Marshall and Madison were justly re- 
garded as having done more for the adoption 
of the federal plan of government than any 
other members of the convention. The legis- 
lature having in 1788 directed that hereafter 
the city of Richmond should be entitled to a 
representative in the house, Marshall was elect- 
ed, and continued to sit in the assembly during 
the sessions of 1789, 1790, and 1791. Virginia 
was the headquarters of the state rights party, 
whose views were represented in the national 
cabinet by Thomas Jefferson; and a majority 
of the people of the commonwealth were op- 
posed to the measures of the administration. 
The great question whether the United States 
constitution should be strictly or liberally con- 
strued was the point at issue. Marshall sup- 
ported the federal view with the calmness and 
moderation of tone which characterized him, 


MARSHALL 


but with all the vigor which his friends had 
expected. When in 1792 he retired from the 
body, he left not an enemy behind him. From 
1792 to 1795 he devoted himself exclusively to 
his practice, which had greatly increased. In 
1793 he appeared prominently in public meet- 
ings on the side of the administration of Wash- 
ington, and defended the proclamation of neu- 
trality occasioned by the insolent conduct of 
Genest, the French minister. He also advocated 
Washington’s policy with his pen, and secured 
the passage by a meeting of the citizens of a set 
of resolutions approving it, which he had draft- 
ed. In 1795 he sat again in the house of dele- 
gates. In the violent discussions on Jay’s treaty, 
Marshall appeared as its champion; and before 
an assembly of citizens who had denounced the 
proposed measure he defended it so powerful- 
ly that they reversed their former action, and 
adopted resolutions in favor of the federal pol- 
icy. In the legislature he opposed the resolutions 
condemnatory of the treaty in a speech which 
is represented to have been one of the greatest 
and noblest of his performances. The result 
was that the constitutional ground of objec- 
tion was abandoned, and the assembly confined 
itself simply to an expression of its disapproba- 
tion of the treaty on the ground of its inex- 
pediency atthe time. Washington offered Mar- 
shall the place of attorney general, which he 
declined, as interfering with a practice at the 
bar which had now become very lucrative. In 
1796 he was offered the appointment of min- 
ister to France, but declined it for the same 
reason. Gen. Pinckney was appointed in his 
place, but the French directory refused to re- 
ceive him; and in 1797 President Adams sent 
a new commission to, Marshall, who yielded his 
objections, and with Pinckney and Gerry pro- 
ceeded as envoy extraordinary to Paris, to ne- 
gotiate with the directory in relation to the 
obstructions thrown in the way of the com- 
merce of the United States. These negotia- 
tions failed; but the envoys, returning in June, 
1798, were received with approval and ap- 
plause. In New York Marshall was honored 
with amilitary escort, and crowds thronged his 
lodgings, to testify their gratitude and respect. 
Public addresses were offered him, and a public 
dinner by members of both houses of congress. 
Marshall had faithfully reflected the views of 
the administration and the federal party of the 
country generally, in his official acts; and he 
approved of the series of measures directed 
against France, which were so violently op- 
posed by the republicans. He returned to the 
practice of the law, but was soon again urged 
to appear in defence of his party. Washing- 
ton sent for him to visit him at Mount Vernon, 
and he finally consented to run for congress, 
and was elected in 1799 by a small majority. 
During the canvass, Adams offered him a seat 
on the bench of the United States supreme 
court, which he declined. In congress he be- 
came the main stay and reliance of the admin- 
istration, though he seems not to have approved 


MARSHALL 


of the alien and sedition laws, voting for the 
repeal of the most obnoxious sections of the lat- 
ter. Virginia had recorded her solemn protest, 
in the resolutions passed by her assembly in the 
winter of 1798, against these laws, and had es- 
tablished arsenals and armories to defend her 
rights by force if necessary. Washington, the 
great bulwark of the federal party, was no 
longer at the head of government, and the re- 
publicans were flushed with the daily increas- 
ing revulsion against the federal administration. 
At this crisis Marshall appeared in congress as 
the federal leader. In the debates upon great 
constitutional questions he was confessedly the 
first man in the house. The great event of his 
career in congress was his speech in defence of 
the administration in the affair of Jonathan 
Robbins. This person had committed a mur- 
der on board a British frigate, and fled to the 
United States. On the requisition of the Brit- 
ish minister, who alleged that Robbins was a 
subject of Great Britain, he was surrendered 
by President Adams, in compliance with a 
clause in Jay’s treaty. For this the opposition 
in congress furiously assailed the president. 
Mr. Livingston introduced a resolution of cen- 
sure on him for the surrender of Robbins at the 
dictation of the British minister, and upon this 
resolution took place an animated debate. The 
speech which he made on this occasion is the 
only one that Marshall ever revised, and is 
that by which he is best known to the world. 
It demonstrated that the surrender was an act 
of political power which belonged to the ex- 
ecutive. Judge Story says the speech silenced 
opposition, and settled then and for ever the 
points of national law upon which the contro- 
versy hinged. In May, 1800, Marshall was ap- 
pointed secretary of war, but before his entry 
on the duties of the office was offered the place 
of secretary of state, which he accepted. In 
this capacity he conducted several important 
discussions with the British minister, and drew 
up the instructions to Mr. King, the American 
minister to London, which hold a prominent 
place among the great state papers of the coun- 
try.—On Jan. 31, 1801, he was appointed by 
President Adams chief justice of the United 
States supreme court, and the senate unani- 
mously confirmed the appointment. In this 
great tribunal of ultimate resort his influence is 
known to have been paramount. In 1804—7 
Judge Marshall published a “ Life of Washing- 
ton” (5 vols.), largely based upon unpublished 
official documents, in which he defended the 
course of Washington’s administration against 
the assaults of the republican party. The first 
volume was published separately in 1824, as 
‘“A History of the American Colonies;” and 
in 1832 the whole work was revised and com- 
pressed into two volumes. In 1828 Judge 
Marshall was a delegate from Richmond to a 
convention held in Charlottesville for devising 
a system of internal improvements, to be rec- 
ommended to the legislature. In 1829 he 
represented Richmond in the reform conven- 


201 


tion to revise the old constitution of the com- 
monwealth. For many years he had been 
suffering greatly from a disease of the bladder. 
A surgical operation procured him relief, but a 
hurt received in travelling brought on an attack 
of liver complaint. He went to Philadelphia 
for medical assistance, but the disease over- 
powered him.—In person Marshall was un- 
graceful, and in dress and bearing presented 
the appearance of a plain countryman. Mr. 
Wirt describes him as ‘‘ tall, meagre, emaciated ; 
his muscles relaxed, and his joints so loosely 
connected as not only to disqualify him appa- 
rently for any vigorous exertion of body, but to 
destroy everything like harmony in his air or 
movements.” In spite, however, of this un- 
gainliness and simplicity, no one was a greater 
social favorite. His great passion was the game 
of quoits; and he was a member of the club 
which met at Buchanan’s Spring, near Rich- 
mond, to play at it. He was the centre of a 
brilliant circle of wits; but he was an unaffected 
Christian, and in a time of skepticism he never 
uttered a word to throw doubt upon Chris- 
tianity.—A_ selection from his decisions has 
been published, entitled ‘‘ The Writings of John 
Marshall, late Chief Justice of the United States, 
upon the Federal Constitution ” (Boston, 1839). 

MARSHALL, Thomas Francis, an American poli- 
tician, nephew of Chief Justice Marshall, born 
in Frankfort, Ky., June 7, 1801, died near 
Versailles, Ky., Sept. 22, 1864. In 1831 he 
removed to Louisville, where he soon gained 
an extensive legal practice, was a member of 
the legislature successively from Jefferson and 
Woodford counties, and for several years was 
judge of the Louisville circuit court. From 
1841 to 1843 he was a member of congress. In 
January, 1842, when John Quincy Adams, un- 
der protest and in deference only to the right 
of petition, presented a memorial of certain 
citizens of Haverhill, Mass., asking congress to 
dissolve the Union, Marshall moved a vote of 
censure, and Mr. Adams’s reply subjected him 
to much ridicule. Though he had entered con- 
gress as a whig, he opposed Mr. Clay’s United 
States bank bill, and subsequently favored the 
annexation of Texas and the election of Polk 
to the presidency. As a public speaker he was 
remarkable for his ready repartee and satire, 


and at different times was involved in four 


duels, one of them with James Watson Webb, 
then editor of the New York “‘ Courier and En- 
quirer.” During the latter years of his life he 
lectured successfully on history and other sub- 
jects through the northern and eastern states, 
and at intervals on temperance, though during 
the greater part of his life his own habits were 
intemperate. <A collection of his writings and 
speeches has been edited by W. L. Barre (8vo, 
Cincinnati, 1858). 

MARSHALL, William Calder, a Scottish sculp- 
tor, born in Edinburgh in 1813. He studied 
in London under Chantrey and Baily, visited 
Rome in 1836, and passed some years in Italy. 
In 1835 he first exhibited at the royal academy, 


202 MARSH HAWK 


MARSTON 


and in 1839 took up his residence in London. | joyed a great reputation for bravery among 


He was elected an associate of the Scottish 
academy in 1844, and a royal academician in 
1852; and he was employed as one of the three 
sculptors for the new houses of parliament. 
In 1857 he obtained the first prize of £700 for 
a design for a national monument to the duke 
of Wellington, and he is now (1874) executing 
in marble part of a series of bass reliefs for the 
chapel in St. Paul’s cathedral, in which that 
monument is to be placed. His more impor- 
tant works are: “The Broken Pitcher,” ex- 
hibited in 1842; “First Whisper of Love,” 
1845; “The Dancing Girl Reposing,” which 
obtained the art union premium of £500; ‘Sa- 
brina,” 1847; the statues of Clarendon and 
Somers for the houses of parliament, of Sir 
Robert Peel at Manchester, of Jenner in Trafal- 


gar square (1859), of Campbell, of Crompton, 


the inventor of the mule spinning machine, 
of James, seventh earl of Derby, at Bolton, and 
of Sir George Grey in Cape Town, Africa. 

MARSH HAWK. See Harrier. 

MARSH HEN. See Ratt. 

MARSH MALLOW. See Arto. 

MARSHMAN, Joshua, an English missionary, 
born at Westbury-Leigh, Wiltshire, in 1767, 
died in Serampore, India, Dec. 5, 1837. In 
1799 he was sent out to Serampore by the Bap- 
tist missionary society. He applied himself to 
the study of Bengalee, Sanskrit, and Chinese, 
in 1826 visited England, and returned to India 
in 1829. His principal works are: a Chinese 
translation of the book of Genesis, the four 
Gospels, and the Epistles of Paul to the Ro- 
mans and Corinthians; a “‘ Dissertation on the 
Characters and Sounds of the Chinese Lan- 
guage ” (1809); ‘*The Works of Confucius, 
containing the Original Text with a Transla- 
tion ” (1811); ‘‘Clavis Sinica: Elements of 
Chinese Grammar,” &. (Serampore, 1814); 
and ‘ A Defence of the Deity and Atonement 
of Jesus Christ”? (London, 1822), in reply to 
a work of Rammohun Roy, discrediting the 
miracles of Christ. He assisted Dr. Carey 
in preparing a Sanskrit grammar and a Ben- 
_galee and English dictionary, and published 
an abridgment of the latter in 1827. 

MARSH RABBIT. See Hare. 

MARSI. I. An ancient people of Italy, of 
Sabine race. They dwelt in the central Apen- 
nines, their territory surrounding Lake Fuci- 
nus (now Lago di Celano), where they bor- 
dered upon the Sabines and Vestini to the 
north, the Peligni toward the east, the Sam- 
nites and Volscians to the south and southwest, 
and the Aiqui and Hernici to the west. Their 
principal town was Marruvium or Maruvium 
(San Benedetto), on the E. bank of the lake. 
Their origin is ascribed by some legends to 
Marsyas of Phrygia, and by others to a son 
of the sorceress Oirce, probably from their 
acquaintance with the medicinal qualities of 
some plants growing among the mountains of 
their territory, which were used as remedies 
against the bites of snakes. The Marsi en- 


the Romans, against whom they fought in al- 
liance with their neighbors, the Peligni, Mar- 
rucini, and other Sabellian tribes, in the latter 
part of the 4th century B. C., finally conclu- 
ding a peace in 304. Having been for about 
200 years the stanch allies of the republic, they 
became the prime movers of the great war 
known as the social or Marsic, waged for 
the right of the Roman franchise, which, 
though often defeated, they finally secured. It 
was proverbial among the Romans that “no 
triumph can be obtained over the Marsi or 
without them.” IE An ancient people of 
Germany, on the banks of the Ems, prob- 
ably a tribe of the Cherusci, with whom they 
fought under Arminius. 

MARSIGLI, Luigi Ferdinando, count, an Italian 
naturalist, born in Bologna, July 10, 1658, died 
there, Nov. 1, 17380. He studied mathematics 
and natural history under Borelli and Malpighi, 
travelled in Turkey, afterward served in the 
imperial army, was wounded and captured by 
the Turks in the battle of Raab (1683), was 
ransomed by his family, and after the con- 
clusion of peace was employed as boundary 
commissioner between Turkey and Austria. In 
the war of the Spanish succession, being second 
in command of the garrison at Breisach (1703) 
when that place surrendered to the French 


without offering any resistance, he was tried - 


by an Austrian court martial’ and deprived of 
his rank in the army. Devoting himself hence- 
forward to scientific pursuits, he travelled in 
the west of Europe, finally settling in his na- 
tive city. He published Saggio jisico intorno 
alla storia del mare (1711), De Generatione 


Fungorum (1717), Danubius Pannonico-Mysi- 


cus (1726), and Stato militare dell’ imperio 
Ottomano (1732). In England he became a 
friend of Newton and Halley, and a member 
of the royal society. He presented his scien- 
tific collection to Bologna, and his printing 
press, with types for Latin, Greek, Hebrew, 
and Arabic, to the Dominicans of that city. 
MARS-LA-TOUR, a village of France, in the 
department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, 13 m. W. of 
Metz, on the road to Verdun and Paris. It 
is celebrated for a battle fought here and at 
Vionville, Aug. 16, 1870, in which Prince 
Frederick Charles achieved a great strategical 
victory over Bazaine, who by this defeat was 
prevented from leaving Metz. The fighting 
was obstinate, and during a part of the day 
the Germans were opposed to vastly superior 
forces. Their losses were estimated at 640 
officers and 15,170 men; the French lost 879 
officers and 16,128 men. The greater part of 
the battle field is in the territory ceded to 
Germany, the new boundary line being in 
the immediate vicinity of the French village. 
MARSTON, John, an English poet, born about 
1570, died about 1634. He was educated at 
Corpus Christi college, Oxford, and entered 
the Middle Temple, London, where he was 
chosen lecturer in 1593. He was intimate with 


—_- 


MARSTON 


Ben Jonson, to whom he dedicated in 1605 
his tragi-comedy, ‘‘The Malcontent.” Associ- 
ated with Jonson and Chapman in writing 
‘Eastward Ho!” he was with them impris- 
oned for a short time by James I. on account 
of its reflections against the Scotch. He also 
wrote ‘The Scourge of Villainy,” ‘‘The Meta- 
morphosis of Pigmalion’s Image,” ‘ Antonio 
and Mellida,”’ ‘‘Antonio’s Revenge,” ‘‘ The 
Dutch Courtesan,” and ‘ Parasitaster.” An 
edition of Marston’s works, containing six 
tragedies and comedies, was published in Lon- 
don in 1633; a new edition, with notes and 
a memoir, was published by J. O. Halliwell 
(3 vols., London, 1856). 

MARSTON, Westland, an English author, born 
in Boston, Lincolnshire, Jan. 30, 1820. He 
received a legal education in the office of his 
uncle, a solicitor in London, but relinquished 
the law for dramatic authorship. Among his 
best plays are the tragedies of ‘‘ The Patrician’s 
Daughter” (1841), “The Heart and the 
World” (1847), ‘‘ Strathmore ” (1849), ‘‘ Philip 
of France” (1849), and ‘‘ Anne Blake ” (1852), 
several of which possess poetic merits of a high 
order. He has also produced some comic 
dramas. His more conspicuous later works 
are: ‘Pure Gold,” ‘Donna Diana,” ‘‘ The 
Favorite of Fortune” (1866), ‘‘A Hero of 
Romance” (1867), and ‘‘ Life for Life” (1868). 
He has also published some lyrics in periodicals, 
avolume of poems (1842), ‘‘ A Lady in herown 
Right,” a novel (1860), and a collection of his 
contributions to periodicals under the title of 
‘‘ Family Credit, and other Tales” (1861). 

MARSTON MOOR, a large open plain of York- 
shire, England, 8 m. N. W. of York, where a 
decisive victory was gained by the parliamen- 
tary forces and the Scots, under Lord Fairfax 
and the earl of Leven, over the royalists com- 
manded by Prince Rupert, July 2, 1644. The 
advance of the royalists toward York, which 
was invested by Fairfax, having compelled the 
latter to raise the siege, he retired to Marston 
Moor, where Rupert encountered him on the 
afternoon of July 2 with 25,000 men. The 
parliamentary army was of about equal strength, 
The battle commenced with an ineffectual can- 
nonade on both sides, after which a pause of 
two hours ensued, each army watching the 
other across a brook. At 7 o’clock in the 
evening the signal for close combat was given, 
and Rupert, who commanded the right wing 
of the royalists, falling impetuously upon the 
parliamentary left wing, routed it, and pursued 
the fugitives several miles. The parliamen- 
tary centre was in like manner driven back 
by the royalist infantry with great loss, and 
the fortune of the day seemed so desperate 
that the three parliamentary generals, Lord 
Fairfax and the earls of Manchester and Leven, 
fled in different directions. But the im- 
prudence of Rupert ruined his cause. That 
part of the parliamentary left consisting of 
Cromwell’s brigade of ironsides and David 
Leslie’s Scottish regiments, with some fugitives 


MARSUPIALS 208 


rallied by Sir Thomas Fairfax, taking advan- 
tage of the disordered condition of the cava- 
liers, who were scattered in pursuit or engaged 
in plundering the baggage of their enemies, 
charged them in a compact body with such 
vigor that after a few brief shocks the royal 
army was driven from the field, and its ar- 
tillery, consisting of 25 pieces, with more 
than 100 colors and 1,500 prisoners, captured. 
The royalist loss in killed and wounded ex- 
ceeded 2,000, and that of the parliamentary 
army was nearly as great. A few days after- 
ward York surrendered to Fairfax, and the 
power of the parliament was permanently es- 
tablished in the north of England. 
MARSTRAND, Wilhelm, a Danish painter, born 
in Copenhagen, Dec. 24, 1810, died there, 
March 25, 1878. He studied at the academies 


| of Copenhagen and Munich and in Rome. His 


‘Return of a Society from a Popular Festi- 
val’? made him famous as a genre painter; and 
his reputation was increased by his ‘ Parlor,” 
‘Political Gossipper,” ‘‘ Erasmus Montanus,” 
and other pictures after the manner of Hol- 
bein. He was a professor at the academy of 
Copenhagen for more than 20 years, and its 
director for six years. 

MARSUPIALS, an order of implacental mam- 
mals, all, with the exception of the American 
opossums, now confined to Australia and its 
archipelago. The name is derived from the 
presence of a marsupium or abdominal pouch 
in the females for the protection of their im- 
mature young, supported by two supplemen- 
tary bones attached to the anterior margin of 
the pelvis. The cerebral characters have been 
described under Mamata, and the peculiari- 
ties of the marsupial lactation under Kanea- 
roo. They have been divided into two sec- 
tions, according to the character of their food, 
the phytophagous or plant-eating and the 
rapacious or carnivorous and insectivorous 
groups. The former are characterized by the 
small size or absence of canine teeth, the large 
incisors (never more than two in the lower 
jaw), and broad tubercular molars; they in- 
clude the three families of phascolomyde or 
wombats, macropodide or kangaroos, and pha~ 
langistide or phalangers and koala. The sec’ 
ond group have small and numerous incisors, 
eight to ten in the upper and six to eight in’ 
the lower jaw, canines large and in both jaws, 
and pointed molars; they include the four 
families of peramelide or bandicoots, didel- 
phide or opossums, myrmecobtide or Austra- 
lian ant-eaters, and dasyuwrid@ or dasyures, the 
last the most carnivorous of all in habits and 
form. This order presents animals showing 
types of many of the placental orders; for in- 
stance, the phalangers call to mind the guadru- 
mana, the dasyures the carnivora, the phasco- 
gales the insectivora, and the kangaroos the 
edentata. Though Australia is the great head- 
quarters of the marsupials, they are found in 
America from the middle United States to 
Buenos Ayres, as well as on the W. coast of 


204 MARSUPIALS 


South America; those species in Australia 
nearly allied and with similar habits do not 
appear to be associated in the same limited 
district.—The skull in marsupials presents the 
reptilian character of permanent separation of 
the bones, even in old animals; the palate is 
very imperfect, and the angle of the jaw bent 
inward; the number of teeth is greater than 
in placental mammals, and that of the incisors 
is never the same in each jaw; clavicles are 
present in most of the species; the marsupial 
bones, existing in both sexes, are considered 
by Owen as trochlear or sesamoid bones, de- 
veloped in the tendon of the external oblique 
muscle of the abdomen as the knee-pan is in 
the tendon of the rectus of the thigh, the 
cremaster muscle winding around them in the 
male and the compressors of the mammary 
gland in the female; in many genera, like the 
opossums, the tibia and fibula are so loosely 
connected with each other and with the tarsus 
that the foot has a movement of rotation upon 
the leg, the inner toe acting as an opposable 
thumb. The brain, relatively to the body, is 
smaller in marsupials than in any other mam- 
mals, varying between 1 to 520 and 1 to 800; 
its structure is more simple, and its surface 
without convolutions or corpus callosum, and 
the intelligence corresponds to this inferiority 
of cerebral development. The organs of smell, 
hearing, and other senses are well developed; 
the eyes are generally large and prominent, as 
most of them are nocturnal in their habits. 
There are three modifications of the stomach, 
it being simple in the opossums and phalangers, 
with a glandular apparatus in the koala and 
wombat, or sacculated in the kangaroos (in the 
latter resembling in structure the human co- 
lon); these modifications do not appear to be 
related to the character of the food; in the 
genera with a simple stomach the cecum is 
much developed, being sometimes three or four 
times as long as the animal, while it is very 
small in those with sacculated complex stom- 
achs, showing the vicarious functions of these 
two portions of the alimentary canal; in the 
flesh-eating marsupials the intestine is sus- 
pended on a simple and continuous mesentery, 
as in carnivorous reptiles. The liver is divided 
into many lobes, and is always provided with 
a gall bladder; the pancreas and spleen are 
triangular or T-shaped; in the heart there is 
not the usual trace of the foetal communication 
between the auricles, on account of the early 
period at which the incompletely developed 
young begin to respire air. The lungs are 
constructed on the usual mammalian type, the 
only tendency to the oviparous structure being 
the entireness of the rings of the trachea in 
some of the phalangers; the kidneys present 
nothing unusual; the membranous portion of 
the urethra is longer and wider than in other 
mammals; the vesicule seminales are absent, 
and the glans sometimes double, with a cor- 
responding duplication in the female organs; 
in these ovo-viviparous or implacental mam- 


MARSYAS 


mals the vascular layer of the allantois is not 
developed so as to organize the villi of the 
chorion or to form cotyledons or a placenta. 
For details on the anatomy, mode of develop- 
ment, and natural history of marsupials, the 
reader is referred to the article ‘‘ Marsupialia,” 
by Owen, in vol. iii. of the ‘‘ Cyclopedia of 
Anatomy and Physiology,” and to vol. i. of 
the ‘‘ Natural History of Mammalia,” by G. R. 
Waterhouse (London, 1846). Prof. Owen re- 
gards the koala as the most typical of the 
marsupials, having the greatest number of the 
modifications peculiar to the order, and the 
smallest number of those common to other 
groups of mammals, His classification of the 
order is into: 1, sarcophaga (flesh eaters), like 
dasyurus ; 2, entomophaga (insect eaters), like 
the opossums; 38, carpophaga (fruit eaters), 
like the phalangers; 4, poéphaga (plant eaters), 
like the kangaroos; and 5, rhizophaga (root 
eaters), like the wombat.—The first traces of 
mammals on the globe are the fossil remains 
of marsupials in the Stonesfield odlite and the 
gypsum (eocene) of Paris, so that at those 
epochs Europe was inhabited by animals of a 
type now confined to Australia and America; 
similar fossils have been found in the caverns 
of Wellington valley, New South Wales, and in 
the calcareous caverns of Brazil by Dr. Lund, 
very nearly allied to species now living in 
those countries. 

MARSUS, Domitius, a Roman poet of the Au- 
gustan age, of whose life there are no particu- 
lars; but he survived Tibullus, who died in 18 
B.C. He is frequently mentioned by Martial, 
who praises his epigrams, which are remark- 
able for their licentiousness; and he also wrote 
epic poetry, erotic elegies, and a collection of 
fables. His fragments are inserted in Weichert’s 
Poetarum Latinorum Reliquie (Leipsic, 1880). 

MARSYAS, in Greek mythology, according 
to different traditions, a satyr or a peasant of 
Phrygia, son of Hyagnis, Hagrus, or Olympus. 
A flute, which Minerva had thrown away in 
disgust at seeing the distortion of her features, 
as she played it, reflected in the water, was 
picked up by Marsyas. The breath of the 
goddess, having once filled it, caused it still to 
emit the most beautiful strains whenever he 
blew through it. He challenged Apollo to a 
musical contest, and played the flute while 
Apollo played the lyre. The latter triumphed 
only by adding his voice to the music of his in- 
strument. The condition was that the victor 
should do what he pleased with the vanquished, 
and Marsyas was bound to a tree and flayed 
alive. His blood was the source of the river 
Marsyas in Phrygia, an affluent of the Mean- 
der; and his flute or flutes (for, according tc 
some, he played on the double flute), being 
borne down this river, were thrown on shore 
near Sicyon, and there dedicated to Apollo in 
his temple. The legend is supposed to have 
reference to the contest between the citha- 
roedic and aulcedic styles of music. Marsyas is 
made by some the inventor of the flute. 


MARTEL 


MARTEL, Charles) See Cuarites Marte. 

MARTEN, a carnivorous animal of the weasel 
family, and genus mustela (Linn.), which in- 
cludes also the fisher and the sable of Europe. 
The pine marten or American sable (M. Ame- 
vicana, Turton) is smaller than the fisher, be- 
ing about 17 in. from the tip of the nose to the 
base of the tail, the latter being 10 in. to the 
end of the hairs; it is also less common and 
considerably more valuable. The general color 
is a rusty yellow, with a lighter head, almost 
whitish throat, and dark tints on the back, 
varying according to season, latitude, and lo- 
cality ; the tail is cylindrical, bushy, and com- 
paratively short; the inner fur is ash-colored 
at the base, yellowish brown near the end, and 
in the best specimens tipped with dark brown 
or black; it is coarse and light-colored in sum- 
mer and in low latitudes, but in the Hudson 


bay and Lake Superior districts the winter fur. 


is fine, long, lustrous, and darker, the tail gen- 
erally the darkest. It is shy, cunning, and 
very active, rarely approaching the haunts of 
man, preferring the dense pine woods of north- 
ern latitudes; it is carnivorous and pursues its 


Pine Marten (Mustela Americana). 


prey into trees. It is generally taken in win- 
ter in dead-falls, set about a quarter of a mile 
apart and baited with a piece of meat or fish; 
the winter traveller in the mining region of 
Lake Superior, in following the Indian trails, 
sees many of these traps containing the dead 
and frozen victims. This marten is properly 
called the American sable, though the mink, of 
inferior value (of the genus putorius, Cuyv.), is 
by furriers erroneously called by this name; 
the fur is sometimes dyed and sold as Rus- 
sian sable, when of very fine quality. (See 
Four.) Ithas been questioned whether the pine 
marten of Europe (Jf. martes, Linn.) is the 
same as the American; it is probably a distinct 
species, and is so regarded by Prof. Baird. 
The northern limit in America, according to 
Richardson, is 65° N., where trees cease; the 
absence of trees, and consequently of the mar- 
ten, according to Pennant, for 25 degrees of 
longitude on the Asiatic side of Behring’s 
straits, is in favor of the non-identity of the 
two species; the same facts would add to the 
improbability of the true sable (IZ. zibellina, 
Linn.) being found in this country; the south- 


MARTHA’S VINEYARD 205 


ern limit, according to Audubon and Bachman, 
is about 40°, and its range extends from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific. The European pine 
marten is grayish brown, with a yellow spot 
under the neck. The beech marten (I. foina, 
Linn.) has a white spot on the throat, the body 
more reddish and yellowish brown, the tail 
brownish black, and the downy fur of all parts’ 
of a lighter hue. The sable is described under 
its proper title. The martens have one more 
carnivorous tooth than the polecats, and are 
less sanguinary in their habits, eating when 
pressed more vegetable food; they are gen- 
erally wild, inhabitants of woods, climbing 
trees in pursuit of birds, squirrels, and other 
small animals; they are all nocturnal, prefer- 
ring cold and uninhabited regions; all are val- 
uable for their fur, that of the sable being most 
prized, next that of the pine marten of Ame- 
rica, then of the common and beech martens 
of Europe, and last of the American fisher. 
MARTENS. I. Georg Friedrich von, a German 
publicist, born in Hamburg, Feb. 22, 1756, died 
in Frankfort, Feb. 21, 1821. He studied at 
Gottingen, where he became in 1784 profes- 
sor of jurisprudence, was ennobled in 1789, 
and was employed in various public capacities, 
serving during the five years previous to his 
death as Hanoverian minister at the German 
diet. His reputation rests on his Précis du 
droit des gens moderne de lV Europe (8d ed., 
Gottingen, 1821), and his Recueil de traités 
(7 vols., 1791-1801, and a supplement in 4 
vols., 1802-8), the latter of which, with con- 
tinuations by other writers, includes treaties 
of 93 years, from 1761 to 1854. He also wrote 
Cours diplomatique, ou tableau des relations 
extérieures des puissances de l Kurope (8 vols., 
Berlin, 1801), and several other kindred works. 
II. Karl von, a German diplomatist, nephew of 
the preceding, born in Frankfort about 1790, 
died in Dresden, March 28, 1868. In the latter 
part of his life he represented the grand duke 
of Saxe-Weimar at the court of Saxony. His 
principal works are: Guide diplomatique (5th 
ed., 2 vols., Leipsic, 1866), originally entitled 
Manuel diplomatique (1821); Causes célébres 
du droit des gens (2d ed., 5 vols., 1858-’61) ; 
and, jointly with Cussy, Recueil manuel et 
pratique de traités (7 vols., 1846-57). 
MARTHA’S VINEYARD, an island lying off the 
S. coast of Massachusetts, and forming the 
principal portion of Dukes co. With Chap- 


_paquiddick island, which lies immediately ad- 


jacent at its E. extremity and may be considered 
a portion of it, it is divided into four towns, 
Chilmark, Edgartown, Gay Head, and Tisbury; 
ageregate population in 1870, 3,688. At Gay 
Head there is a remnant of the former Indian 
possessors of the island, now mostly mixed 
with negro blood. Edgartown is 14 m. 8. by 
E. of Wood’s Hole on Cape Cod, 25 m. W. by 
N. of Nantucket, 30 m. 8. E. of New Bedford, 
and 75 m. S. S. E. of Boston. Martha’s Vine- 
yard, which is separated from the mainland 
by Vineyard sound, is 21 m. long and 6 m. in, 


206 MARTIAL 


average breadth. The surface is generally level, 
though there are elevations rising to the height 
of 150 ft. above the sea. The promontory of 
Gay Head, at the S. W. extremity, is 134 ft. 
above high water, and is much visited. On it 
there is a lighthouse (lat. 41° 20’ 52” N., lon. 
70° 49' 47" W.), showing a white flashing light, 
170 ft. above the sea. The soil is generally 
light, and a great part of the surface is covered 
with low forests. The inhabitants are chiefly 
engaged in navigation and fishing.—Martha’s 
Vineyard was discovered by Bartholomew 
Gosnold in 1602, though he gave the name, 
not to the island which now bears it, but to a 
neighboring islet which is now called No Man’s 
Land. In 1642 Martha’s Vineyard was settled 
by Thomas Mayhew, who had been a merchant 
at Southampton, England. In 1644 it was 
placed under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, 
and in 1664 it was transferred to New York, 
but was restored to Massachusetts in 1692. It 
suffered much during the revolutionary war 
from the British, who plundered it of 2,000 
head of cattle. It has of late years become 
noted for its annual camp meetings and as a 
summer resort. (See EpGARTown.) 
MARTIAL (Marovus Vaterrus MartTIAtts), a 
Latin epigrammatic poet, born in Bilbilis, Spain, 
March 1, A. D. 43, died near the same place in 
or after 104. Little is known of his history 
except from his works, the younger Pliny be- 
ing the only contemporary author who men- 
tions him. He went to Rome in 66, resided 
there 35 years, and then returned to Bilbilis, 
where he lived at least three years. While in 
Rome the fame of his epigrams caused them 
to be sought not only in the capital, but also 
in Gaul, Germany, and Britain; he enjoyed 
the patronage and favor of the emperors Titus 
and Domitian; was raised to the rank of trib- 
une and of knight; and had a mansion in the 
city, and a villa near Nomentum. His extant 
works consist of more than 1,500 short poems, 
in 14 books, bearing the general title of Zpi- 
grammata. The last two books, consisting of 
350 distichs, are named respectively Xenia 
and Apophoreta. Still another book, contain- 
ing 33 epigrams on the public shows, and bear- 
ing only in late MSS. the title of De Specta- 
culis, is attributed to him. The term epigram 
had previously been applied to any brief metri- 
cal effusion of whatever character, on what- 
ever subject, and thus to the whole mass of 
the Greek anthology. Martial was the first to 
limit its meaning to a short poem, abounding 
in ingenious and pointed thoughts, all of which 
converge to a pithy and striking conclusion. 
He displays a singularly fertile fancy, a pungent 
wit, and refinement and delicacy of diction. 
No author has furnished a more full and minute 
delineation of Roman customs and social habits 
during the first century of the empire. But 
he lavishes adulation upon Domitian, and de- 
lights in obscenity. Among the best editions 
are those of Lemaire (8 vols., Paris, 1825) and 
Schneidewin (Grimma, 1842). Selections from 


MARTIAL LAW 


his epigrams have been translated by several 
English poets, but the only complete version is 
that by various authors in Bohn’s ‘‘ Classical 
Library ” (London, 1860). There is a German 
translation by Ramler. Martial, with a French 
translation, is contained in Nisard’s edition of 
the Latin authors (Paris, 1842); and a trans- 
lation by several hands, with a memoir by 
Jules Janin, was edited by Lemaistre and Du- 
bois (2 vols., 1864). 

MARTIAL LAW, a term often confounded with 
military law, but in fact quite distinct from it. 
Military law, besides some customary law, con- 
sists chiefly of the articles of war; that is to 
say, of the code enacted by the supreme legis- 
lative authority for the government of the army 
and navy. It embraces, also, the body of rules 
and regulations which are prescribed from time 
to time by competent military authority, for 
the preservation of the general discipline and 
order. Military law does not supersede the 
general municipal law; it is rather a branch 
of it, more limited in the range of its applica- 
tion than the admiralty or the chancery law, 
for example, yet having a like authority with 
them. In this country, unlike some of the 
states of continental Europe, the application 
of military law to the soldier is not exclusive 
of, but coérdinate with, the general civil law. 
Every soldier, as a citizen, is subject to the 
common law of the land; but as a soldier he 
is amenable to the military law. The special 
tribunals which administer this law are named 
courts martial, and hence perhaps has arisen 
in part the confusion of the military law with 
the law martial. (See Court Martiat.) Mar- 
tial law, says Blackstone, is in fact no law at 
all. Smith, in his ‘ English Republic,” says: 
‘* Martial law is the law of war, that depends 
on the just but arbitrary power and pleasure 
of the king. For, though he doth not make 
any laws but by common consent in parlia- 
ment, yet in time of war, by reason of the 
necessity of it, to guard against dangers that 
often arise, he useth absolute power; so that 
his word is a law.” However opposed to 
other authorities, this expresses what is dis- 
tinctively meant both in England and in this 
country by martial law. When in time of ex- 
treme peril to the state, either from without 
or from within, the general safety cannot be 
trusted to the ordinary administration, or the 
public welfare demands the adoption and exe- 
cution of extraordinary measures, it may be- 
come necessary to declare the existence of 
martial law. This is, indeed, no law at all in 
its ordinary sense; it is in fact the abrogation 
of it. That which is done under martial law 
has not an immediate constitutional or legisla- 
tive sanction, as the military or the statute 
law has. It proceeds directly from the mili- 
tary power, which has now become supreme. 
The supreme court of the United States has 
held that a state legislature may proclaim its 
existence whenever the public safety demands 
it; and the constitution, by implication at 


; 
| 
F 


MARTIN 207 


least, also permits its proclamation by that 
clause which provides that the privileges of 
the writ of haheas corpus shall not be sus- 
pended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or 
invasion, it is essential to the general welfare. 


: The right to judge whether the exigency has 
‘ arisen belongs, it seems, exclusively to con- 
‘ gress. So in England martial law and its in- 


cident, the suspension of the writ of habeas 


corpus, require the authority of parliamentary 


acts to give them a constitutional existence. 
The supreme court of the United States also 
held in Milligan’s case (4 Wallace, 2), that 
martial law could not be permitted, even du- 
ring the existence of a civil war, to displace 
the ordinary administration of law in a state 
not invaded and not engaged in rebellion, and 
where the courts were open and in the proper 
and unobstructed exercise of their functions; 
and that the guaranty of jury trial in the con- 
stitution would make void all trials and sen- 
tences by military tribunals in such states of 
citizens not in military or naval service. And 
neither the president, nor congress, nor the 
judiciary, it was held, could take from the 
citizen the benefit of such guaranty under the 
circumstances stated. 

MARTIN, an American bird, the largest of 
the swallow family, belonging to the genus 
progne (Boie). The bill is strong and short, 
with a very wide gape and curved culmen; 
the wings lengthened, the first quill the longest; 
the tail moderate, but considerably forked; 
tarsi shorter than the middle toe and robust; 
the toes long and strong, the lateral ones equal, 
with curved claws. The best known is the 
purple martin (P. purpurea, Boie), generally 


Martin (Progne purpurea). 1. Female. 2. Male. 


distributed over North America; the length is 


‘74 in., the extent of wings 16 in., and the bill 


along the gape 1 in.; the general color is glossy 

steel blue, with purple and violet reflections; 

the female and young are less brilliant, and 

pale brownish below with darker and bluish 
535 VOL. x1.—14 


blotches; the bill brownish black; the closed 
wings are rather longer than the tail, and the 
tarsi and toes are naked. Martins appear in 
Louisiana early in February in large flocks, in 
the middle states from the middle of March 
to the 10th of April, in New England about 
the 25th of April, and further north at a later: 
period, departing for the south again about 
the 20th of August in immense flocks and all 
at once at the dawn of some calm morning. 
The flight is graceful, easy, and swift; they 
are expert in catching their insect prey, in 
bathing and drinking while on the wing, and 
in performing aérial evolutions to the annoy- 
ance of their bird enemies; they are very bold, 
and do not hesitate to. attack crows and hawks, 
which from their superior powers of flight 
they drive away; even the fierce little king 
bird (sometimes called field martin), with simi- 
lar fighting propensities, has to yield to the 
strong and swift martin; they perch easily 
upon trees, and, notwithstanding the short- 
ness of their legs, walk well upon the ground. 
From their attacking cats, dogs, and all flying 
marauders of the farm yard, they are great 
favorites, and are provided with elevated boxes 
for rearing their young in most towns of the 
United States; these harbingers of spring are 
much attached to their breeding places, and 
return to the same year after year; in the ab- 
sence of a box, they build in any crevice or 
hole in a tree. The nest is made of leaves, 
twigs, grasses, feathers, and other soft mate- 
rials, and generally contains four to six pure 
white eggs; many pairs breed in the same box 
in perfect harmony; two broods are generally 
reared in a season; the males assist in incuba- 
tion. The food consists of wasps, bees, beetles, 
and other insects, though they seldom seize 
the honey bee. In England some of the swal- 
lows are called martins; these, as the house 
martin (chelidon urbica, Boie), and the sand 
or bank martin (cotyle riparia, Boie), are no- 
ticed under SwaLtow. | 

MARTIN. I. An E. county of North Caroli- 
na, bounded N. by the Roanoke river; area, 
420 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 9,647, of whom 4,583 
were colored. The surface is level and the soil 
generally sandy. The chief productions in 
1870 were 206,884 bushels of Indian corn, 
47,799 of sweet potatoes, and 3,607 balés of 
cotton. There were 696 horses, 566 mules and 
asses, 1,232 milch cows, 2,738 other cattle, 
2,258 sheep, and 11,630 swine. Capital, Wil- 
liamston. II An E. county of Kentucky, 
formed since the census of 1870, separated 
from West Virginia by the Tug fork of Sandy 
river; area, about 250 sq.m. The surface is 
mountainous and well timbered. Capital, 
Warfield. II. A S. W. county of Indiana, 
drained by the E. fork of White river and by 
Lick creek; area, 840 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
11,108. The surface is hilly and the soil mod- 
erately fertile. The Ohio and Mississippi rail- 
road intersects it. The chief productions in 
1870 were 102,288 bushels of wheat, 360,680 


208 


of Indian corn, 72,894 of oats, 21,588 of pota- 
toes, 50,079 Ibs. of tobacco, 39,501 of wool, 
120,481 of butter, and 3,241 tons of hay. 
There were 3,267 horses, 2,357 milch cows, 
3,674 other cattle, 17,071 sheep, and 14,976 
swine; 2 distilleries, 6 flour mills, and 7 saw 
mills. Capital, Dover Hill. Iv. A S. county 
of Minnesota, bordering on Iowa, drained by 
the head waters of Blue Earth river and of the 
E. fork of the Des Moines, and containing nu- 
merous small lakes; area, 720 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 3,867. It has a rolling surface and a fer- 
tile soil. The chief productions in 1870 were 
99,565 bushels of wheat, 39,149 of Indian corn, 
107,042 of oats, 25,094 of potatoes, 114,478 
lbs. of butter, and 11,689 tons of hay. There 
were 1,114 horses, 8,223 cattle, 749 sheep, and 
1,039 swine; 2 flour mills, and 2 saw mills. 
Capital, Fairmount. 

MARTIN, the name of five popes, of whom 
the following are the more important. I. Mar- 
tin I., Saint, born at Todi in Tuscany about 600, 
died in the Tauric Chersonese (Crimea), Sept. 
16,655. He was elected July 5, 649, and ener- 
getically opposed the spread of Monothelitism. 
He opened the first council of the Lateran, 
Oct. 5, 649, and had 20 decrees enacted con- 
demnatory of the new heresy, as well as of a 
doctrinal edict called ‘‘ Type,” published by 
the reigning emperor Constans II., which for- 
bade all controversy on the subject of one or 
two wills in Christ. He was consequently, by 
order of the emperor, held captive on the isl- 
and of Naxos for 15 months (653-74), and 
afterward carried to Constantinople, where he 
was publicly stripped of his clerical robes, led 
in chains through the city, and confined in a 
dungeon till March, 655, when he was sent to 
the Chersonese and left destitute of all means 
of subsistence. He is honored as a martyr in 
the Greek and Latin churches, and his feast is 
celebrated on Nov. 12. There are 18 encycli- 
cal letters of this pope in the Bibliotheca Pa- 
trum and Labbe’s Concilia. 1. Martin IV. (St- 
MON DE Brion), born’ in Touraine about 1220, 
died in Perugia, March 28, 1285. By some 
he is designated as Martin II., but as the gen- 
erality of writers consider the name Marinus 
identical with Martinus, the two popes bear- 
ing the former name are reckoned as Martin 
II. (Marinus I., died 884) and Martin III. 
(Marinus II., died 946). Simon was a regu- 
lar canon and treasurer of the church of St. 
Martin at Tours. Louis IX. appointed him 
chancellor in 1260; in 1262 he was created 
by Urban IV. cardinal priest of Santa Ce- 
cilia; and under Gregory X. he was apostolic 
legate in France. He was unanimously elected 
pope at Viterbo, Feb. 22, 1281, after a long 
and stormy conclave. The two powerful ri- 
val families of Orsini and Annibaldeschi be- 
stowed on him the title of senator of Rome, 
which Martin transferred to Charles of Anjou, 
king of Naples and Sicily, by whose influence he 
had been elected, and whom he encouraged to 
aspire to the throne of Constantinople. The 


MARTIN 


Greek emperor, Michael Paleologus, who had 
been unable or unwilling to effect a reunion of 
the eastern with the western church, was ex- 
communicated. Paleologus joined the party 
of Pedro II. of Aragon, who also, having come 
with a fleet and army to take possession of 
Sicily, was excommunicated, and was deprived 
of the crown of Aragon, which was given by 
the pope to Charles of Valois, son of the king 
of France. A crusade was then preached 
against Pedro in France and Italy. All these 
measures turned out disastrously for the pope’s 
policy, while his own persecution of the Ital- 
ian Ghibellines caused wide dissatisfaction and 
revolts. During a popular rising in Orvieto 
in 1285, the violence of the governor obliged 
Martin to take refuge in Perugia, where he 
died. He was canonized by the people of Peru- 
gia, but not by the universal church. TI, Mar- 
tin VY. (Orronr Cotonna), born in Rome about 
1365, died there, Feb. 20, 1481. He graduated in 
arts at the university of Perugia, and was sent 
by Boniface [X. as nuncio to the Italian courts. 
Innocent VII. created him cardinal and vicar of 
Rome. Under John XXIII. he was governor 
of the States of the Church. He was elected 
pope during the 41st session of the council of 
Constance (Nov. 11, 1417), and the next day 
published a bull on the Roman chancery, con- 
firming the rules established by his predeces- 
sors, and apparently confirming the abuses com- 
plained of. A plan of reformation was sub- 
mitted by the nations represented in the coun- 
cil. The pope presented a counter plan for 
debate, and meanwhile negotiated a separate 
concordat with each of the Transalpine powers. 
This broke up the council, which was solemnly 
closed on April 22, 1418. On Feb. 22 he pub- 
lished a bull condemning the Hussite doctrines, 
and proclaiming, at the prayer of King John I. 
of Portugal, a crusade against the Moors. On 
April 12 he issued a constitution forbidding all 
appeals from the pope to a general council, 
except in times of open schism. He departed 
from Constance May 16, and on his arrival in 
Milan he published a bull forbidding disturb- 
ance of Jews under any pretext, so long as 
they were guilty of no open offence against 
faith or morality. He remained at Florence . 
from February, 1419, till Sept. 15, 1420, en- 
tered Rome Sept. 22, and devoted himself to 
the restoration of industry and commerce and 
the pacification of Italy. In January, 1431, he 
sent Cardinal Cesarini to preside at the open- 
ing of the council of Basel; but he was him- 
self stricken with apoplexy before the day ap- 
pointed for that purpose. He was a great 
patron of learning; his own palace and those 
of his cardinals were free schools of science 
and art for the youth of Italy. 

MARTIN, Aimé. See Aimfi-Marrin. 

MARTIN, Alexander, an American soldier, 
born in New Jersey about 1740, died in Dan- 
bury, N. C., in November, 1807. He gradu- 
ated at the college of New Jersey in 1756, and 
removed in 1772 to Guilford co., N. O., became 


MARTIN 


a member of the colonial assembly, and in 
1776 was appointed colonel of a regiment of 
the continental line, with which he fought at 
Brandywine and Germantown. He was state 
senator from 1779 to 1782, and in 1785, 1787, 
and 1788, and was speaker of the senate, and 
as such acting governor, in 1781-2. In 1782 
he was elected governor, and ‘again in 1789, 
having in the interval been a member of the 
convention which framed the federal constitu- 
tion; and from 1793 to 1799 he was United 
States senator from North Carolina. 

MARTIN. I. Arthur, a French archeologist, 
born at Auray, Morbihan, in 1801, died in Ra- 
venna in March, 1856. He became a Jesuit, 
and devoted himself exclusively to archeology. 
Besides several other remarkable illustrated 
works, he published with Pére Cahier Vitraua 
peints de Saint Etienne de Bourges (imp. fol., 
Paris, 1842-'44), and Mélanges d’archéologie (4 
vols. 4to, Paris, 1848-’56). In 1856, in a com- 
petition of European architects, he was cho- 
sen to design and construct the proposed ca- 
thedral at Lille; and having gone to Ravenna 
to make some preliminary studies, he died 
there of pneumonia. II. Félix, a French ec- 
clesiastic, brother of the preceding, born at 
Auray, Oct. 4, 1804. He became a Jesuit, and 
in 1842 went to Canada to revive the mission 
there. He founded St. Mary’s college, Mon- 
treal, over which he presided for many years; 
his architectural ability was displayed not only 
in that institution, but also in two adjacent 
churches. He collected material relating to 
the history of Canada, and contributed largely 
to the recent publications on that subject. He 
was next stationed at Quebec, but his eyesight 
becoming impaired, he returned to France, and 
has since been connected with a house of his 
order near Paris. His chief works are: Ma- 
nuel du pélerin de Notre Dame de Bon Secours 
(Montreal, 1848); Relation des Jésuites, an en- 
larged translation of O’Oallaghan’s bibliogra- 
phy of that series (1850); a French translation 
with notes of Bressani’s Breve relazione (Mon- 
treal, 1852); Mission du Canada, relations iné- 
dites (Paris, 1861); De Montcalm en Canada 
(1867); and Le R. P. Isaac Jogues (1873). 
He explored the Huron country and prepared 
a report upon it, and has assisted Carayon in 
his series of volumes on the Jesuit missions. 

MARTIN, Bon Louis Henri, a French historian, 
born in St. Quentin, Feb. 20, 1810. He was 
educated at the college of St. Quentin. Wolf- 
thurm, a romance, written in conjunction with 
Félix Davin, appeared in 1830, and was fol- 
lowed by a series of historical novels illustra- 
ting the period of the Fronde. In 1833 he be- 
gan the publication of Histoire de France par 
les principaux historiens, a work intended 
to embrace extracts, chronologically arranged, 
from the principal chroniclers and historians. 
One by one the contributors dropped off, un- 
til Martin was left to conduct the publica- 
tion alone. Tiring of this occupation, he de- 
termined to substitute an original history, of 


269 


which the first edition, under the title of His- 
toire de Hrance, appeared in 1833-6 (15 vols. 
8vo). Scarcely was the last volume issued 
from the press when he commenced a revision 
of the whole work on a more comprehensive 
plan, which occupied him 17 years, during 
which a second edition of the original work 
was also published. Of the 19 volumes of the 
second work, which appeared at irregular in- 
tervals, the 10th and 11th, devoted to ‘“ Reli- 
gious Wars,” received the first Gobert prize 
of the academy of inscriptions, and the 14th, 
15th, and 16th, relating to the reign of Louis 
XIV., the second Gobert prize from the French . 
academy, and after the death of Augustin 
Thierry, the first. After the completion of 
the second revision Martin published a third 
and more elaborate one, embracing the most re- 
cent discoveries in Celtic antiquities, and in an- 
cient and medizval history, religion, language, 
and literature (17 vols., 1855-60), a portion of 
which was translated into English by Mary L. 
Booth (‘History of France: Age of Louis 
XIV.,” 2 vols., Boston, 1865). In 1867 Martin 
issued an illustrated edition (4to) of his history. 
In 1869 the institute awarded it the biennial 
prize of 20,000 francs. He has also published 
Daniel Manin (Paris, 1859), L’ Unité italienne 
et la France (1861), Jean Reynaud (1868), 
Pologne et Moscovie (1863), Vercingetoriz, a 
historical drama (1865), and La Russie d’ Hu- 
rope (1866). In 1848 M. Martin occupied the 
chair of modern history at the Sorbonne. 
MARTIN, David, a French clergyman, born in 
Revel, Sept. 7, 1639, died in Utrecht, Holland, 
Sept. 9, 1721. He was admitted to the minis- 
try in 1668, emigrated to Holland after the 
revocation of the edict of Nantes, and about 
1686 became pastor and professor of theology 
and philosophy in Utrecht. He was an emi- 
nent Biblical scholar, and published Histoire 
du Vieux et du Nouveau Testament (Amster- 
dam, 1700), which has been often reprinted, 
was translated into Dutch, was embellished 
with 420 fine engravings, and is known as 
“‘Mortier’s Bible;” editions of the Bible with 
notes, and a treatise on revealed religion. 
MARTIN, Francois Xavier, an American jurist, 
born in Marseilles, France, March 17, 1764, 
died in New Orleans, Dec. 11, 1846. At the 
age of 18 he emigrated to Martinique, where 
he was unsuccessful in business. In 1786 he 
took up his residence in New Berne, N. C., 
and taught French. He also learned printing 
and established a newspaper, which he peddled 
through the adjoining counties; and subse- 
quently he published school books, almanacs, 
translations of French works, &c. He was 
admitted to the bar, but continued to work as 
a printer, and published brief treatises on the 
duties of sheriffs, justices of the peace, execu- 
tors, and administrators. He compiled the 
British statutes in force in North Carolina at 
the period of the revolution, with a digest of 
the statutes of the state, and a translation of 
“‘ Pothier on Obligations,” which, published in 


210 


1802, was rendered directly from the French 
into English type in the composing stick. 
He collected materials for a history of North 
Carolina, which was published chiefly in the 
form of annals (2 vols. 8vo, New Orleans, 
1829). He also prepared a series of reports 
of the decisions of the higher courts of the 
state, now the oldest volumes of that charac- 
ter received as authority in the courts of North 
Carolina. After 20 years’ practice in North 
Carolina he was appointed one of the judges 
of the territory of Mississippi, which post he 
filled for a year, when he was transferred to 
the bench of the territory of Orleans. Here 
he acquired the title of father of the jurispru- 
dence of Louisiana, by his incessant and well 
directed labors in reconciling the discordant 


elements of law introduced by preceding juris-. 


dictions. In February, 1813, soon after the 
formation of the state of Louisiana, he was 
appointed its attorney general; and in Janu- 
ary, 1815, he was advanced to the bench of 
the supreme court, of which he remained a 
justice 82 years. He was partially and for ten 
years almost entirely blind, but discharged his 
duties regularly. He published reports of the 
superior court of Orleans from 1809 to 1813 
(2 vols.), and of the supreme court of Louisi- 
ana from 1813 to 1830 (18 vols.), besides a di- 
gest of the territorial and state laws in French 
and English (2 vols.), prepared under a reso- 
lution of the legislature. He also published a 
history of Louisiana, from its settlement to 
the treaty of Ghent in 1814 (2 vols., 1827). 
He received the degree of LL. D. from Har- 
vard college and Nashville university. 

MARTIN, John, an English painter, born at 
Haydon Bridge, Northumberland, July 19, 
1789, died in Douglas, Isle of Man, Feb. 9, 
1854. He was apprenticed to a coach maker 
to learn heraldic painting, and subsequently to 
an Italian artist named Musso, whom he ac- 
companied in 1806 to London. He supported 
himself for several years by painting on china 
and glass, and teaching. In 1812 he produced, 
after a month’s labor, ‘Sadak in Search of 
the Waters of Oblivion,” which was exhibited 
in the royal academy and sold for 50 guineas. 
It was followed by the ‘ Expulsion from Para- 
dise” (1813), ‘‘ Clitie” (1814), and ‘ Joshua 
commanding the Sun to stand still” (1815). 
The last received the prize of the year at the 
British institution. In the following years 
he produced the “Fall of Babylon” (1819), 
‘*Macbeth” (1820), ‘“Belshazzar’s Feast” 
(1821), which obtained the premium of £200 
from the British institution, ‘‘The Destruc- 
tion of Herculaneum” (1822), “‘The Seventh 
Plague” (1823), ‘‘The Creation” (1824), ‘‘The 
Deluge” (1826), and ‘‘The Fall of Nineveh” 
(1828). Mezzotint engravings of these works, 
executed by the artist and disseminated by 
many thousands, added to their reputation, 
and have still a considerable degree of popu- 
larity. Martin subsequently for several years 
devoted himself to designing and engraving a 


MARTIN 


set of illustrations for Milton, for which he 
received 2,000 guineas, and to projects for 
improving the city of London. About 1838 
he resumed his pencil, and worked industri- 
ously until a few weeks before his death. His 
last productions, three large pictures, intended 
to be his masterpieces, and entitled ‘‘ The Last 
Judgment,” ‘“*The Day of Wrath,” and ‘“‘ The 
Plains of Heaven,” were, though left unfin- 
ished, exhibited in the United States in 1856. 
MARTIN, Louis Aimé. See Armf-Marrtin. 
MARTIN, Luther, an American lawyer, born 
in New Brunswick, N. J., in 1744, died in 
New York, July 10, 1826. He graduated at 
the college of New Jersey in 1762, and till 
1770 taught school at Queenstown, Md. In 
1771 he was admitted to the bar in Accomac 
county, Va., and soon afterward removed to 
Baltimore. In 1774 he was a member of the 
convention at Annapolis to oppose the claims 
of Great Britain, and he published an ‘ Ad- 
dress to the Inhabitants of the Peninsula be- 
tween the Delaware River and the Chesapeake,” 
urging resistance to British usurpation. In 
1778 he was appointed attorney general of 
Maryland; in 17845 was a delegate to the 
continental congress; and in 1787 a member 
of the convention which framed the federal 
constitution, the adoption of which he op- 
posed, mainly on the ground that it did not 
sufficiently recognize the equality of the states 
by giving to each the same number of repre- 
sentatives. On his return he delivered before 
the Maryland assembly an elaborate address, 
afterward published under the title, ‘‘ Genuine 
Information delivered to the Legislature of 
the State of Maryland relative to the Proceed- 
ings of the General Convention lately held in 
Philadelphia” (Philadelphia, 1788). In 1805 
he defended Samuel Chase, an associate justice 
of the United States supreme’court, who was 
impeached by the house of representatives for 
malfeasance, and was fully acquitted. In 1807 
he was engaged with John Wickham, William 
Wirt, and John Randolph in the successful de- 
fence of Aaron Burr. In 1813 he was ap- 
pointed chief judge of the court of oyer and 
terminer for Baltimore, and in 1818 he again 
became attorney general of Maryland and dis- 
trict attorney of Baltimore. In 1820 he was 
struck with paralysis, and two years afterward, 
with broken health and ruined fortune, he re- 
moved to New York to find refuge with Aaron 
Burr. He was a violent politician, and pub- 
lished essays against Jefferson and his party. 
MARTIN, Saint, bishop of Tours, born at Sa- 
baria in Pannonia about 316, died at Cande 
in Touraine about 400. He was educated for 
the military profession, and entered the army 
of Constantine the Great at 15. At 18 he was 
sent into Gaul and stationed at Amiens. He 
left the army in 338, and became the disciple of 
St. Hilary of Poitiers, who instructed him and 
ordained him priest. After living as a monk 
at Milan and in the little island of Gallinaria 
near Genoa, he rejoined St. Hilary at Poitiers 


MARTIN 


on his return from exile in 360. He built at 
Ligugé near that city the first monastery, ac- 
cording to some, established in Gaul. In 3871 
he was elected bishop of Tours, and built the 
monastery of Marmoutier, in which he chiefly 
resided, and which became so renowned for 
learning and piety that the neighboring churches 
chose their bishops there. The unwearied la- 
bors of Martin and his followers caused him 
to be looked upon as the second apostle of 
Gaul. He visited the imperial court repeat- 
edly to denounce the tyranny of the provin- 
cial officers. In 883 he obtained from the 
usurper Maximus at Treves the pardon of sev- 
eral bishops and high magistrates sentenced 
to exile or death as adherents of the emperor 
Gratian. At the same time both he and St. 
Ambrose opposed Ithacius and other Spanish 
bishops, who urged Maximus to put to death 
the Manichzan Priscillian and his adherents. 
The Spaniards having succeeded in their pur- 
pose after Martin’s departure, he renounced all 
fellowship with them. About 385 the histo- 
rian Sulpitius Severus became his disciple, and 
thenceforward accompanied him in his contin- 
ual missionary excursions. St. Martin is the 
first in the Latin church to whom was given 
the title of ‘‘confessor’’ as distinguished from 
that of martyr. His feast is celebrated on 
Nov. 11, hence called ‘‘ Martinmas” in Great 
Britain, and distinguished by an equivalent ap- 
pellation in France and Germany. His life, 
written by Sulpitius Severus, was printed in 
the second volume of Aldus Manutius’s Poete 
Christiani (Venice, 1501), and reprinted sepa- 
rately at Paris in 1511. See also Dupuy, His- 
toire de Saint Martin (Paris, 1852); and Mon- 
talembert, Les moines d’ Occident. 

MARTIN, Theodore, a British author, born in 
Edinburgh in 1816. He practised law for sev- 
eral years in Edinburgh, and in 1846 removed 
to London, where he became a parliamentary 
solicitor. He contributed to various periodi- 
cals under the signature of ‘‘ Bon Gaultier,” 
and published ‘‘ The Book of Ballads, by Bon 
Gaultier,” a series of burlesque pieces and 
parodies, written in conjunction with Profes- 
sor W. E. Aytoun, with whom he was associa- 
ted in a translation of the ‘‘ Poems and Bal- 
lads of Goethe” (1858). He has translated the 
Correggio and Aladdin of Oehlenschlager ; 
‘King René’s Daughter,” a lyrical drama by 
the Danish poet Henrik Hertz; ‘“‘ The Odes of 
Horace,” in English verse (1860); ‘‘ The Poems 
of Catullus,” in English verse, with an intro- 
duction and notes (1861); Dante’s Vita nuova 
(1862); and Goethe’s Faust (8d ed., 1870). 
He has also written a biography of W. E. 
Aytoun (Edinburgh, 1868), and ‘‘The Life of 
the Prince Consort,” under the queen’s super- 
vision (London, 1875). 

MARTINEAU. I. Harriet, an English author- 
ess, born in Norwich, June 12, 1802, died June 
27, 1876. Her French ancestors established 
themselves at Norwich on the revocation of 
the edict of Nantes. She received a liberal 


MARTINEAU O11 


education, and at an early age, being afflicted 
with a constantly increasing deafness and a to- 
tal lack of the sense of smell, found her chief 
recreation in literary composition. Pecuniary 
disasters soon compelled her to rely upon her 
pen for support. In 18238 she published “ De- 
votional Exercises for the Use of the Young,” 
and in 1824 a tale entitled ‘‘ Christmas Day,” 
a sequel to which, ‘‘ The Friend,” appeared in 
1825. Encouraged by the success of these 
works, she produced “ Principle and Practice,” 
‘‘The Rioters,” and ‘‘ Original Hymns (1826) ; 
‘The Turn-Out” and “ Mary Campbell” (1827) ; 
“My Servant Rachel,” a ‘‘ Sequel to Principle 
and Practice” (1828); and a series of ‘‘ Tracts” 
on questions relating to the working classes, in 
whose welfare several of her previous writings 
had shown a strong interest. In 1831 she 
published, under the title of ‘Traditions of 
Palestine,” a series of sketches of the Holy 
Land during the period of Christ’s ministry. 
In the same year she obtained prizes from the 
British and foreign Unitarian society for three 
tracts on ‘‘The Faith as Unfolded by many 
Prophets,” ‘‘ Providence as Manifested through 
Israel,” and ‘‘ The Essential Faith of the Chris- 
tian Church.” About this time she conceived 
the plan of issuing a series of monthly stories 
illustrating the leading principles of political 
economy. The society for the diffusion of 
useful knowledge, to which she at first applied, 
refused to enter into the project, and it was 
only after many rebuffs and disappointments 
that she succeeded in finding a publisher. The 
immediate and remarkable success with which 
the first tale was received repaid the authoress 
for her perseverance. The series extended to 
24 stories, which were many times reprinted 
and translated into French and German, and 
which fixed her reputation as an earnest think- 
er and a writer of fiction. The “ Illustrations 
of Taxation” and ‘‘ Poor Laws and Paupers,” 
which next appeared, were written with the 
same plan, and also published serially. In 
1834-’6 she travelled extensively in the United 
States, and on her return recorded her impres- 
sions of American life and institutions in a 
work entitled “Society in America” (1837). 
She also published in 1838 her “ Retrospect of 
Western Travel,” which gave more of her per- 
sonal experiences. In the following year ap- 
peared ‘“ Deerbrook,” her first and most pop- 
ular novel; in 1840, ‘‘ The Hour and the Man,” 
a work of fiction founded on the career of 
Toussaint ’Ouverture; and about the same 
time a series of tales for children entitled 
“The Playfellow,” among which were ‘The 
Settlers at Home,” “ Feats on the Fiord,” and 
“The Crofton Boys.” Her health, which had 
been delicate from childhood, became so seri- 
ously affected in 1839 that she was long obliged 
to desist from all literary occupation. In 1843 
she published ‘Life in the Sick Room.” On 
recovering through the agency, as she believed, 
of animal magnetism, she published in 1844 
an account of the treatment in a letter which 


919 MARTINEAU 


excited much attention. Her next works 
were ‘‘Forest and Game Law Tales” (1845), 
and ‘The Billow and the Rock” (1846). In 
1846, in company with her friends Mr. and 
Mrs. Richard V. Yates, she undertook an ori- 
ental tour, of which an account appeared in 
her ‘‘EKastern Life, Past and Present’? (1848). 
Her next important publication was a continu- 
ation of the ‘‘ History of England during the 
Thirty Years’ Peace, 1816-1846,” begun by 
Mr. Charles Knight, but of which only the 
first book had appeared (2 vols. 4to, 1849-’50 ; 
‘‘ Introduction,” 1 vol., 1851). In the same 
year she published her correspondence with 
Mr. H. G. Atkinson on ‘The Laws of Man’s 
Nature and Development,” which abounds in 
curious revelations of her own psychological 
experiences, and manifests a decided leaning 
toward the principles of Comte. 
sophical views were still more plainly set forth 
in a condensed version of Comte’s “ Positive 
Philosophy ” (1854; 2d ed., 2 vols., 1871-2). 
Among Miss Martineau’s other writings are: 
‘‘ Five Years of Youth;” ‘‘ How to Observe,” a 
work for travellers, published in ‘‘ Knight’s Se- 
ries;” ‘The Maid-of-all-work;” ‘‘The House- 
maid;” ‘The Lady’s Maid;” ‘‘The Dressma- 
ker;” ‘‘ Household Education ;” a ‘‘ Complete 
Guide to the Lakes” (1854); “The Factory 
Controversy” (1855); ‘‘ Local Dues on Ship- 
ping” (1857); ‘ British Rule in India” (1857) ; 
‘““Hngland and her Soldiers” (1859); ‘En- 
dowed Schools for Ireland” (1859); ‘‘ Health, 
Husbandry, and Handicraft” (1861); ‘ Steps in 
the Dark” (1864); and ‘‘ Biographical Sketch- 
es” (1869). She was a frequent contributor 
to periodicals and to the editorial columns of 
the London “ Daily News,” and wrote an au- 
tobiography, which was published shortly after 
her death. Hf. James, an English Unitarian 
clergyman, brother of the preceding, born in 
Norwich about 1805. He studied at the Uni- 
tarian college in York, and was settled succes- 
sively over chapels in Dublin and Liverpool. 
In 1853 he was called to the chair of moral and 
mental philosophy in Manchester New college. 
In 1857 he went with the college to London, 
and in 1869 became its principal, but retired in 
1874. In 1859 he became joint pastor with 
the Rey. John James Tayler of the principal 
Unitarian chapel in Little Portland street, of 
which he was sole minister from 1861 to 1874. 
He was engaged in a controversy with 13 
clergymen of the church of England, in a series 
of lectures afterward collected and published 
in two volumes, entitled ‘“‘ Unitarianism Con- 
futed ” and ‘‘ Unitarianism Defended.” He is 
the author of “The Rationale of Religious 
Inquiry ” (1836); ‘‘ Endeavors after the Chris- 
tian Life” (2 vols., 1843 ; 5th ed., 1878) ; ‘‘ Mis- 
cellanies,” edited by the Rev. Thomas Starr 
King (Boston, 1852); ‘Studies of Christian- 
ity,” edited by the Rev. William R. Alger 
(Boston, 1858); ‘Essays, Philosophical and 
Theological”? (2 vols., 1866-9); “Studies of 
Christianity ” (1873); and many articles in the 


Her philo-: 


MARTINIQUE 


‘“‘ Westminster,” ‘‘ National,” and other Eng- 
lish reviews and journals. 

MARTINET, Achille Louis, a French engraver, 
born in Paris in 1806. He studied under emi- 
nent artists, and in 1826 won the second, and 
in 1830 the first grand prize of Rome, where 
he spent five years. In 1835 he exhibited in 
Paris his engraving of Rembrandt’s famous 
portrait of himself. He was so felicitous in 
his subsequent engravings from the works of 
the great Italian masters, that almost all prom- 
inent contemporary painters engaged him to 
engrave their pictures. One of his finest pieces 
is the engraving of Ary Scheffer’s portrait of 
M. Viardot. Among his latest works are en- 
gravings of ‘“‘ The Nativity,” by Murillo (1869) ; 
“The Virgin with the Pink,” by Raphael 
(1872); and ‘The Martyrdom of St. Juliette - 
and her Sons,” by Heim (1878). 

MARTINEZ DE LA ROSA, Francisco, a Span- 
ish statesman, born in Granada, March 19, 
1789, died Feb. 7, 1862. He became professor 
of moral philosophy at Granada when only 19 
years old. He took an active part in the Span- 
ish war of independence, was sent to ask arms 
and munitions of war from the governor of 
Gibraltar, and went on a similar mission to 
England, where he studied the institutions of 
constitutional government. He was imprison- 
ed on account of his liberal opinions from 1814 
till 1820, when the revolution set him at liberty, 
and he was for a time at the head of the cabi- 
net. After the subversion of the constitution 
by French interference (1823), he spent several 
years in Paris, engaged in literary pursuits. 
He was made prime minister by Maria Chris- 
tina in 1834, and promulgated the estatuto real, 
or new constitution; but the revolt of the 
Basque provinces led him to resign. During 
Espartero’s regency he was ambassador in Paris 
and Rome, subsequently a member of Nar- 
vaez’s cabinet, and from 1847 to 1851 again 
ambassador in Paris. After his return to Ma- 
drid he was twice chosen president of the sen- 
ate, and in 1858 appointed president of the 
council of state. He was the author of many 
dramas, of which the best known is La conju- 
racion de Venecia; Isabel de Solis, a novel; 
a collection of Poestas ; and a review of the 
French revolution, entitled Espiritu del siglo 
(10 vols., 1835-51). 

MARTINI, Giambattista, an Italian composer, 
born in Bologna, April 25, 1706, died there, 
Aug. 4, 1784. He entered the order of Fran- 
ciscans, visited Asia, and on his return was ap- 
pointed chapelmaster to a Franciscan convent 
in Bologna. He was an industrious composer 
of church music, and published two musical 
treatises, an ‘‘ Essay on Counterpoint” and a 
‘‘ History of Music” (8 vols. 4to, 1757-’81). 

MARTINIQUE, or Martinico, one of the West 
India islands belonging to France, in the Wind- 
ward group, lying between lat. 14° 23’ and 
14° 53’ N., and lon. 60° 50’ and 61° 19’ W., 
30 m. S. E. of Dominica and 20 m. N. of 
St. Lucia; length 45 m., greatest breadth 15 


MARTINIQUE 


m.; area, 881 sq. m.; pop. in 1868, 153,334, 
including 16,618 coolies and about 20,000 
whites. The island is irregular in form, high, 
rocky, and volcanic, containing five or six ex- 
tinct craters. It is subject to earthquakes, of 
which several have been disastrous. In the 
interior are three mountains, the highest of 
which, Mont Pelée, in the north, 4,438 ft. 
above the sea, after a long period of inaction, 
burst forth in a violent volcanic eruption in 
August, 1851. From these mountains several 
ranges of low volcanic hills extend to the sea, 
and between them lie broad, fertile valleys. 
The rivers are numerous, but all small; most 
of them in the rainy season become fierce tor- 
rents. The coasts are indented by many bays, 
which are difficult of access. The E. side of 
the island, called Cabes-Terre, is more broken 
and sterile than the W., called Basse-Terre. 
About one third of the surface is under culti- 
vation, the principal productions being sugar, 
coffee, cotton, cassia, manioc, bananas, indigo, 
maize, cacao, and ginger. The climate is hu- 
mid, and the average annual fall of rain is 84 
inches. The year is divided into two seasons, 
one commencing about Oct. 15 and lasting nine 
months, and the other comprising the rest of 
the year. During the latter season the rains 
are abundant, and yellow fever and similar dis- 
eases prevail. The mean annual temperature 
of the plains is 81° F. The value of the agricul- 
tural produce in 1869 was 12,730,354 francs ; 
the number of cattle is about 150,000. The 
manufactures possess considerable importance ; 
there are several establishments for the prep- 
aration of indigo, about 100 for the various 
processes in the preparation of sugar, coffee, 
cocoa, and cotton, besides potteries, lime kilns, 
and steam mills. There is an active commerce, 
chiefly with France. The exports are sugar, 
coffee, cocoa, cassia, dye and cabinet woods, 
cotton, rum, &c. The value of exports in 1869 
amounted to 32,115,400 francs, and that of im- 
ports to 30,864,177; and the aggregate value 
of the import and export trade of France with 
Martinique was 40,884,549 francs. The num- 
ber of vessels entering the ports in that year 
was 808; cleared, 858.—There is a governor, a 
privy council of seven members, and a colonial 
council of 30 members elected for five years. 
The judiciary consists of a supreme court, and 
two assize and two inferior courts. The cap- 
ital is Fort Royal or Fort de France, but St. 
Pierre is the largest town and the chief seat of 
commerce.—Martinique, called by the Indians 
Madiana, was discovered by Columbus in 1502. 
The French colonized it in 1635, and during 
the war of American independence made it a 
great naval station. The British seized it in 
1762, 1781, 1794, and 1809, finally restoring 
it by the treaty of Paris in 1814. The slaves 
rebelled in 1822, 1833, and 1839; slavery was 
abolished in 1848. Since 1866 the colony has 
legislated for itself on duties and public works. 
A railway is in progress of construction (1875) 
from Fort Royal to St. Pierre. 


MARTYN 213 


MARTINSBURG, a town and the capital of 
Berkeley co., West Virginia, on the Baltimore 
and Ohio railroad, at the terminus of the Cum- - 
berland Valley line, 210 m. E. N. E. of Charles- 
ton, and 65 m. W. N. W. of Washington; 
pop. in 1870, 4,863, of whom 476 were col- 
ored; in 1874, about 6,000. It is lighted with 
gas, supplied with water at a cost of $90,000, 
and has handsome agricultural fair grounds, a 
commodious court house, a town hall, and a 
market house. The Baltimore and Ohio rail- 
road has here extensive shops, and employs 
about 600 persons. The principal manufacto- 
ries are a foundery, a planing mill, three grist 
mills, and a large distillery. There are three 
banks, with an aggregate capital of $200,000, 
six school houses, a female seminary, a daily 
and two weekly newspapers, and 11 churches. 

MARTIUS, Karl Friedrich Philipp von, a Ger- 
man traveller, born in Erlangen in 1794, died 
in Munich, Dec. 18, 1868. He graduated as a 
physician at the university of his native town, 
and from 1817 to 1820 accompanied Spix in 
Brazil as botanist, and published Reise nach. 
Brasilien (8 vols., Munich, 182431). The 
herbarium which he brought back to Germany 
included more than 7,000 species. On his re- 
turn he was ennobled, and appointed professor 
and director of the botanic garden at Munich, 
from which he retired in 1864, and became 
president of the botanical society of Ratisbon. 
The botanical results of his journey he em- 
bodied in Nova Genera et Species Plantarum 
(3 vols., 1824-32) and in Icones Plantarum 
Cryptogamicarum (1828-34). His chief labor, 
however, he devoted to the study and collec- 
tion of palms, and his Genera et Species Pal- 
marum (8 vols., 1823-45) is a magnificent con- 
tribution to botanical literature. His /lora 
Brasiliensis, commenced in Stuttgart in 1829, 
was continued under his direction, with the 
coéperation of several eminent botanists (No. 
54, 1871). His latest works, partly posthu- 
mous, include Beitrage zur Ethnographie und 
Sprachenkunde Amerikas (Leipsic, 1867). 

MARTOS, Ivan Petrovitch, a Russian sculptor, 
born about 1755, died in St. Petersburg, April 
17, 1885. He studied in Rome at the expense 
of the empress Maria Fedorovna, and became 
director of the academy of fine arts in St. 
Petersburg. Among his chief works are the 
colossal bronze statues of Minin and Pozharsky 
at Moscow, the monument to the emperor 
Alexander at Taganrog, and that of Potemkin 
at Kherson. 

MARTYN, Henry, an English missionary, born 
in Truro in 1781, died in Tokat, Asia Minor, 
Oct. 16, 1812. He was educated at St. John’s 
college, Cambridge, where he obtained a fel- 
lowship in 1802. In 1803 he entered the min- 
istry, and in 1805 set sail for India under the 
auspices of the African and eastern missionary 
society. He resided at Bengal as chaplain, and 
travelled for several years in India and Persia, 
preaching and studying the native languages. 
He was chosen to superintend the translation 


914 MARTYNIA 


of the New Testament undertaken by direction 
of the missionary society into Hindostanee and 
Persian. He had also made some progress in 
an Arabic version when his failing health com- 
pelled him to suspend his labors. His life was 
written by the Rev. John Sargent (1819). 
MARTYNIA, a genus of plants, named in hon- 
or of Prof. John Martyn, of Cambridge, Eng., 
and belonging to a suborder of the Bignoni- 
acew, which some botanists regard as entitled 
to rank as an order, the sesamew. They are 
low branching annuals, with thick stems, which, 
as well as the simple rounded leaves, are clam- 
my pubescent, and the whole plant has a rath- 
er heavy unpleasant odor. ‘The flowers are 
in racemes, large, bell-shaped, five-lobed, and 
somewhat two-lipped; fertile stamens two or 
four. The fruit is an oval pod terminated by 
a long, slender, incurved beak, fleshy at first, 
but toward maturity becoming woody, and 
when quite ripe the beak splits into two 
hooked rigid horns, liberating numerous black 
and wrinkled seeds. There are six or eight 


z 


Va 


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if Ue Aad 

4] \ Y WM el 
\ Ta ' 
\ P-3 
Vee, 


POW 4 
MAW / 


Wc AE 
NY EAN Vi Was, Moges 
\ \\ \, J ASE 
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S fe ¢ 
WOH ‘ re 
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sc 
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ig foi mw 
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ig 
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Martynia. 


species, natives of warm countries, except one 
indigenous to the United States and found as 
far north as southern Illinois. Some of the 
species are cultivated as ornamental plants, 
their large, showy, red and yellow flowers 
strongly resembling those of the gloxinias. 
M. fragrans, from Mexico, has violet-purple 
flowers, which give off a pleasant vanilla-like 
odor. The native species, I. proboscidea, is 
sometimes called the unicorn plant, and is cul- 
tivated in gardens for the sake of its young 
fruit; the flowers in this species are dull white 
or purplish and spotted with yellow and purple. 
The young pods, taken when still thoroughly 
succulent, are used for pickling, and are by 
many considered better than any other vege- 
table for the purpose. In the southern states 
the fruit is called martinoes. 

MARTYR (Gr. ydprvp, a witness), a term ap- 
plied to all who suffer for any noble cause, but in 
a more limited sense to those who suffer death 
in order to bear witness to their religious be- 
lief. Some early writers bestowed the name 


MARTYR 


of martyrs on all those who had suffered tor- 
ture for the faith; more generally, however, 
it was reserved to such as died under the hand 
of the executioner, or while enduring imprison- 
ment or exile, all other sufferers being desig- 
nated as ‘“‘confessors.’’? It is impossible to fix 
even approximately the number of the early 
Christian martyrs. Gibbon endeavored to 
prove that it was insignificant, but this opinion 
is not shared by more unprejudiced writers. 
In most cities where persecution raged, nota- 
ries were appointed by the bishops to keep 
lists of the sufferers, and a record of their 
trial, sufferings, and death. Of these records 
many, perhaps most, were destroyed in the 
persecution of Diocletian, when the Christians 
were compelled to give up all the books be- 
longing to the churches. Out of what re- 
mained of them, supplemented by the local 
traditions, were afterward compiled the mar- 
tyrologies of the principal Greek and Latin 
churches. (See Aorta Sanotorum.) These 
must not be confounded with church calen- 
dars, which merely indicate for each day of the 
year the name of the saint whose festival it is. : 
The martyrologies moreover indicate the sort 
of punishment endured, the place and time of 
martyrdom, and the name of the presiding 
magistrate. The ‘Roman Martyrology” aims 
at combining a complete list of martyrs and 
saints, with their ‘‘ acts,” and the days of the 
month on which their feasts occur.—The mem- 
ory of the martyrs was held in special honor. 
The shedding of blood, in the case of unbap- 
tized sufferers, was considered to be equivalent . 
to baptism. Their tombs were guarded with 
jealous care and decorated with garlands; chap- 
els were built over them; their anniversaries, 
called natalitia martyrum, were celebrated 
with enthusiasm; and it became a rule, when 
the persecutions ceased, to have the body of 
some martyr or a portion of his remains be- 
neath the altar of every church. The Roman 
catacombs contain the remains of large num- 
bers of martyrs. Prudentius, after mentioning 
this fact in one of his hymns, asserts that single 
numerals on the slabs point out to the initiated 
the chambers in which a number of martyrs 
were buried together. This fact was verified 
by Boldetti (Osservazioni sopra i cimiteri de’ 
santi martiri, Rome, 1720), who discovered 
150 martyrs entombed in one chamber in the 
cemetery of Sant’ Ermesio, and 500 in a second, 
that of San Callisto; while Visconti (Sposizione 
di aleune antiche iscrizioni cristiane, Rome, 
1824) designates another chamber containing 
118 bodies. From this great storehouse the 
Roman Catholic churches are chiefly supplied, 
the altar stone on which the mass is offered 
always containing a relic of some martyr.— 
For the process followed in the canoniza- 
tion of martyrs, see Benedict XIV., De Ser- 
corum Dei Beatijficatione, et Beatorum Ca- 
nonizatione, abridged in Faber’s “ Essay on 
Beatification and Canonization” (London, 
1848). On the general subject of early Chris- 


MARTYR 


tian martyrs, see Ruinart, Acta Primitiva et 
Sincera Martyrum (fol., Paris, 1689); Nean- 
der’s ‘‘Church History ;” and Bingham’s “ An- 
tiquities of the Christian Church.”—By Prot- 
estants the term martyrs is also applied to 
those who have suffered death as “ heretics” 
at the hands of Roman Catholics in the perse- 
cutions of the Albigenses, the Waldenses, and 
the reformers in England, France, Spain, Ger- 
many, and the Netherlands. In Scotland those 
who suffered death as Covenanters or Cam- 
eronians during the persecutions in the reigns 
of the last Stuart kings are also considered as 
martyrs. Fox’s “ Book of Martyrs,” which 
first appeared in London in 1563, and is still 
a popular work, details with much minuteness 
the persecutions of the Protestant reformers 
by the Roman Catholics in England and Scot- 
land, ‘‘from the year of our Lorde a thousande 
unto the tyme now present.” It gives especial 
prominence to the persecutions in the reign of 
‘bloody Queen Mary,” when Cranmer, Lati- 


mer, Ridley, and several hundred other Protes- | 


tants were burned at the stake for their faith. 

MARTYR, Peter. I. An Italian historian and 
geographer. See AneniERA. I. A Protestant 
reformer. See VERMIGLI. 

MARTYROLOGY. See Aorta Sanctorum, Bor- 
LAND, and Martyr. 

MARVELL, Andrew, an English author, born 
at Kingston-upon-Hull, Nov. 15, 1620, died in 
London, Aug. 16, 1678. He was the son of 
the Rev. Andrew Marvell, master of the gram- 
mar school and lecturer of Trinity church in 


- Hull, and at the age of 15 was sent to Trinity 


college, Cambridge. He is said to have taken 
his degree of B. A. in 1638, and subsequent to 
1641 he passed four years on the continent, 
remaining a considerable time in Italy, where 
he probably contracted his intimacy with Mil- 
ton, which was interrupted only by the death 
of the latter. Subsequently he was a private 
tutor, and in 1657 was associated with Milton 
in the Latin secretaryship. -About 1660 he 
was returned to parliament from Hull, a post 
which he filled by successive elections until 
the close of his life. He is said to have been 
the last member of parliament who received 
‘wages’ from his constituents. Between 1661 
and 1663 he was in Holland, and from July in 
the latter year to 1665 he acted as secretary to 
Lord Carlisle, the ambassador extraordinary 
to Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. He main- 
tained a close correspondence with his consti- 
tuents, sending them during the greater part 
of his legislative career a daily account of the 
proceedings in parliament. These letters, first 
published in 1777, are written in a laconic, 
business-like style, and afford a curious illus- 
tration of the ability and fidelity with which 
Marvell performed his public duties. He never 
spoke in parliament, but his strong views of 
the corrupt practices of the time, his biting 
satires in prose and verse on influential place- 
men, and the conviction that he was not to 


MARVEL OF PERU 915 


a formidable enemy to the court. It is even 
said that he was threatened with assassination. 
His probity and honor earned for him the 
name of the ‘‘ British Aristides.” He died sud- 
denly, supposed by some to have been poisoned, 
for which there seems to be no reasonable 
ground, and was buried in the church of St. 
Giles-in-the-fields at the expense of his con- 
stituents, who also voted a monument to his 
memory, which the rector refused to have 
erected. His chief work in prose is the ‘‘ Re- 
hearsal Transprosed,” a satirical reply to an 
acrimonious attack by Dr. Samuel Parker, af- 
terward bishop of Oxford, upon the noncon- 
formists. In the second part of the ‘‘ Rehear- 
sal,” one of the most remarkable passages is 
the author’s defence of Milton. His last work, 
‘‘An Account of the Growth of Popery and 
Arbitrary Government in England” (1678), 
was so distasteful to the court, that a reward 
was offered for the discovery of the printer, 
and Marvell was compelled frequently to con- 
ceal himself. His poems comprise political 
satires, written in a coarser strain than his 
prose works, and some minor pieces of great 
tenderness and beauty, including the well 
known commendatory lines on Milton’s ‘‘ Par- 
adise Lost.” <A full edition of his works was 
published in 1776 (8 vols. 4to); and there is 
an American edition of his poems, edited by 
James Russell Lowell (Boston, 1857; reprint- 
ed, London, 1870). The first volume of a 
complete edition of his works, with notes and 
a memorial, by A. B. Grossart, to comprise four 
volumes, appeared in London in 1872. 
MARVEL OF PERU, a garden name for plants 
of the genus mirabilis, also called four o’clock. 
The genus belongs to the family nyctaginacea, 
and includes about half a dozen species, natives 
of the warmer parts of America. Though they 
are tuberous-rooted perennials, they bloom 
early from the seed, and are usually treated 
as annuals; the roots may be kept through the 
winter in the cellar and planted out in spring, 
when they will flower much earlier than plants 
from seed. The stems are jointed, and tumid 
at the joints at which are borne the opposite, 
simple, more or less heart-shaped leaves; the 
flowers are one or more from a large cup-shaped 
involucre, without petals, but the funnel-shaped 
calyx is petal-like and forms the showy portion 
of the flower; the stamens are five, and with 
the single style are protruded; in maturing, 
the lower portion of the calyx hardens to form 
a false pericarp around the fruit proper, while 
the upper portion falls away; this wonderful 
manner of forming what appears to be the 
fruit is said to have suggested the name mira- 
bilis for the genus. The common four o’clock 
of the gardens is I. Jalapa, so called because 
at one time it was supposed to be the plant 
which furnished the medicine jalap; the tube 
of the flower is about 2 in. long; the colors 
are white, yellow, and various shades of red, 
often pleasingly variegated in the same flower, 


be silenced by bribes or flattery, made him | in blotches and stripes; in some flowers one 


216 MARWAR 


portion is pure white and the other red, the 
line of demarcation being perfectly distinct; 
in this species there is but.one flower to each 
involucre, which in this case exactly represents 
acalyx. This plant was introduced into culti- 
vation in 1596, and still retains its popularity ; 


7H 
y 


Po ( f 
BW A A 


iw) 
Ys 


Mi 
Wr 


Marvel of Peru (Mirabilis Jalapa). 


the flowers open toward sunset, or earlier in 
cloudy weather, a fact recognized in the name 
four o’clock; it is also known as afternoon 
lady, and the French call it belle de nuit. The 
long-flowered, marvel of Peru (/. longiflora) 
has white sweet-scented flowers, the tube of 
which is 6 in. long, hairy and sticky. This 
species and the preceding have been hybrid- 
ized, and varieties partaking of the peculiarities 
of both produced; the hybrids frequently pro- 
duce fertile seeds. J. Wrightiana, from Texas, 
is in cultivation; the flowers are white, tint- 
ed with rose. As generally seen in gardens, 
the plants of marvel of Peru are crowded too 
much; in order to exhibit their beauty, they 
should be cultivated as isolated specimens, 

MARWAR. See Jooppoor. 

MARX, Adolph Bernhard, a German composer, 
born in Halle, Nov. 27, 1799, died May 17, 
1866. He held a judicial office at Nuremberg, 
but subsequently devoted himself exclusively 
to the study of music. In 1823 he became edi- 
tor of the Berliner allgemeine musikalische 
Zeitung, and in 1830 was appointed professor 
of music in the university of Berlin. His prin- 

_cipal works are: Die Lehre von der musika- 
lischen Composition (Leipsic, 1834—'45; 6th ed., 
1863 et seg.; English translation by Saroni, 
New York, 1852); Allgemeine Musiklehre 
(1839; 7th ed., 1863); and Die Musik des 19. 
Jahrhunderts und ihre Pflege (1855). He 
wrote treatises on the ‘‘ Art of Singing ” (1826), 
‘‘ Painting in Music” (1828), &c., besides many 
articles in Schilling’s Lexikon der Tonkunst. 
He is known as a composer by several musical 
dramas, symphonies, &c., and by his oratorio 
“St. John the Baptist.” He also published 


MARY 


Ludwig von Beethoven: Leben und Schaffen 
(Berlin, 1858; 2d ed., 1863); Gluck und die 
Oper (1862); and Denkwiirdigkeiten aus mei- 
nem Leben (2 vols., 1865). 

MARX, Karl, a German socialist, born in 
Treves in 1818. He completed his studies in 
Bonn and Berlin, and. became in 1842 chief 
editor of the Rheinische Zeitung in Cologne. 
That journal being suppressed in 1843, he as- 
sociated himself in Paris with Arnold Ruge in 
a critical revision of Hegel’s ‘‘ Philosophy of 
Jurisprudence,” and with Friedrich Engels in 
the publication of Die heilige Familie, directed 
against Bruno Bauer and kindred writers. At 
the same time he attacked Prussia in the press, 
and at the request of that power he was ex- 
pelled from France in 1846 and went to Brus- 
sels, where he and Engels published in 1848 a 


| manifesto embodying the views of an interna- 


tional congress of workmen held at London in 
the preceding year; and he was then also ex- 
pelied from Belgium. The revolution of 1848 
enabled him to return to Paris and to Cologne, 
where he speedily founded the Neue Rheinische 
Zeitung, a revolutionary journal advocating 
the refusal of taxes as long as liberty was not 
established. His continued agitation involved 


him in perpetual conflicts with the authori- 


ties, and in 1849 he was expelled on account 
of his connection with the insurgents in the 
grand duchy of Baden. He once more went 
to Paris, and after the insurrection of June 
13 to London, where he has since lived. He 
issued here in 1850-’51 a monthly edition of 
the Rheinische Zeitung, printed at Hamburg. 
In 1864 he was admitted as member of the 
newly established Jnternationale, and drew up 
the manifesto and statutes of this association, 
which were adopted in 1866 at the congress of 
Geneva, and henceforth he was officially rec- 
ognized as the master spirit of that organiza- 
tion. (See InrErnatiIonAL AssocraTion.) His 
principal works are: Misére de la philoso- 
phie: Réponse a la Philosophie de la misére de 
Proudhon (Brussels, 1847); Zur Hritik der 
politischen Ocekonomie (Berlin, 1859); Das 
Kapital: Kritik der politischen Oekonomie 
(1859); and Herr Vogt (London, 1860), in 
which he accused Karl Vogt and his adherents 
of having sold themselves to Napoleon III. 
MARY (Gr. Mapia and Map:du), the mother of 
Jesus. But little is recorded of her history 
in the Scriptures. Some authorities consider 
Luke’s genealogy to be that of Mary, and Heli 
(Luke iii. 23) to have been her father. LEpi- 
phanius says that her parents were Joachim and 
Anna. Joachim or Jehoiakim and Eliakim are 
interchangeable (2 Chron. xxxvi. 4), and Eli 
or Heli is the abbreviation of the latter. The 
Latin as well as the eastern churches hold her 
father to be St. Joachim, whose feast is cele- 


brated on the Sunday next following Aug. 15. . 


The next mention of her is as a young maid- 
en at Nazareth, where she was betrothed to 
a carpenter named Joseph. A heavenly mes- 
senger announced to her that through the over- 


Ta 


MARY 


shadowing of the Holy Spirit she should con- 
ceive a son, who should be called the Son of 
God, and who would be the Messiah expected 
by the Jews. Almost immediately on receiv- 
ing this announcement Mary hastened from 
Nazareth to visit her cousin Elizabeth, who was 
residing in the hilly district in “a city of Ju- 
dah.” While there, she uttered the Magniji- 
eat, a hymn which the Christian church has 


delighted from the earliest times to use as an 


expression of thanksgiving. After a sojourn 
of three months, she returned to Nazareth, 
when Joseph suspected her of infidelity, and 
resolved, in order to avoid a public exposure, 
to dismiss her privately. But an angel (Matt. 
i. 18-25) informed him in a dream of the true 
state of the case, and enjoined him to take 
Mary as his wife. He complied with this or- 
der, and was therefore regarded by the Jews 
as the father of Jesus. Soon after, when Au- 
gustus ordered a census to be taken throughout 
the empire, Mary went with Joseph to be en- 
rolled at Bethlehem, the city of David, and 
there gave birth to Jesus. According to the 
law of Moses, she .offered him in the temple 
(Luke ii. 22 e¢ seq.), and returned with Joseph 
and the child to Nazareth, whence the whole 
family had to flee to Egypt. After the death 
of Herod they again took up their residence at 
Nazareth. When Jesus was 12 years old, Mary 
visited Jerusalem with him and Joseph at the 
time of the passover. On their return Jesus 
was missed from the company, and she dis- 
covered him sitting in the temple disputing 
with the doctors of the law. She was pres- 
ent at the marriage feast in Cana, where she 
drew her son’s attention to the failure of 
the wine. After this event she appears to 
have lived alternately with her kinsfolk at 
Nazareth and Capernaum. She is thought to 
have come to Jesus to remonstrate with him 
on his wasting labors (Matt. xii.), while he was 
surrounded by a great crowd. The Gospel 
is then silent about her till she appears stand- 
ing beneath the cross, and is consigned by Je- 
sus to the care of the beloved disciple John. 
Thenceforward John’s house is herhome. The 
last mention made of her in the New Testament 
is in Acts i. 14, where it is stated that after 
the ascension she remained in the upper cham- 
ber, persevering in prayer with the holy wo- 
men and the disciples and apostles. Some an- 
cient writers, like St. Epiphanius, have thought 
it probable that she passed the rest of her life 
with John at Jerusalem. Another tradition 
says that she lived and died in the upper cham- 
ber, the scene of the last supper, now sup- 
posed to be the site of the mosque of the tomb 
of David. According to others, she accom- 
panied John to Ephesus, and died there in ex- 
treme old age. In the 5th century opinion in 
the East was divided respecting her burial place, 
Ephesus and Gethsemane both claiming to pos- 
sess her tomb.—Some legendary particulars re- 
lating to her early life, derived from the apoc- 
ryphal gospels, have come down from century 


217 


to century. Such is the story of her betrothal 
to Joseph, with all its miraculous circumstances, 
as painted by Perugino, and afterward by his 
pupil Raphael. A tradition relating to the 
place and manner of her death says that she 
was buried at the foot of the mount of Olives. 
Some of the apostles, it is said, having come 
to Jerusalem the third day after her death, 
found it empty and exhaling a sweet fragrance. 
This incident is also the subject of one of Ra- 
phael’s pictures.—Mary is the object of a spe- 
cial veneration in the Roman Catholic church, 
which honors the saints with the worship 
known as, dulia, a religious service rendered 
them on account of the supernatural gifts 
wherewith it holds that God has distinguished 
them, but decrees to the Virgin the ampler 
honors of hyperdulia, placing her high above 
all created objects of religious respect on ac- 
count of her singular prerogative as mother 
of God, and of the virtues with which she 
adorned this dignity. The early fathers of the 
church, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Ireneus, and 
others, cali her the second Eve. From the 
office thus assigned to her some Roman Catho- 
lic theologians deduce the immaculateness of 
her conception. Pope Pius I[X., on Dec. 8, 
1854, declared it to be a revealed doctrine that 
Mary was preserved from the stain of original 
sin by the merits of her Son. Controversies in 
reference to the proper position of Mary arose 
early in the history of the church. Those of 
the innovators who denied the divinity of 
Christ, as the Arians, denied her of course the 
title of mother of God, and so did they who 
denied the humanity of the Word, as the Euty- 
chians; while the Nestorians, asserting a double 
personality in Christ, allowed her only the 
maternity of the human hypostasis. Further 
disputes occurred about the perpetual virginity 
of Mary. The church insisted upon the belief 
that Christ was born of a virgin mother, in ac- 
cordance with the Apostles’ Creed, reaffirmed 
by the Nicene and Athanasian symbols; and 
the council of Ephesus decreed expressly that 
Mary was the mother of God (@eoréxoc), and 
condemned all who denied her that title. The 
Cerinthians taught first that Christ was born 
of Joseph and Mary, and their doctrines were 
repeated by Helvidius in Palestine and Bono- 
sus in Illyria, their later followers adding that 
several children were born to Joseph and Mary 
after the birth of Jesus. Questions existed, 
until silenced by authority, between Catholic 
schools of theology, as the Thomists and Sco- 
tists, and between certain religious orders, as 
the Franciscans (who followed Duns Scotus) 
and the Dominicans (who upheld St. Thomas), 
in reference to Mary’s conception, which the 
former held to have been utterly immaculate of 
all sin, and the latter maintained not to have 
been immaculate, or not at least from the earli- 
est instant of her existence. (See IMMACULATE 
Conorption.)—Many festivals are celebrated in 
the Roman Catholic church in honor of Mary. 
Her conception is commemorated by the feast 


218 


of the Immaculate Conception (Dec. 8); her 
birth by the Nativity (Sept. 8); the message of 
the angel by the Annunciation (March 25); her 
visit to Elizabeth by the Visitation (July 2); 
her visit to the temple by the Purification (Feb. 
2); and her ascent to heaven by the Assump- 
tion (Aug. 15). The Nativity and Assump- 
tion are celebrated by both Greek and Latin 
churches. In the 11th century it became the 
custom in some places to honor her by special 
devotions on Saturdays, and later to devote the 
month of May to similar practices of piety. 
These devotions are nowhere a matter of obli- 
gation. An Officium Beate Marie Virginis 
was added to the breviary, and declared by 
Pope Urban IT. (1095) to be obligatory on the 
clergy of the whole church. Several religious 
orders called themselves after Mary. To her 
intercession so great importance is attributed 
that the Ave Maria (Hail Mary) is generally 
used in connection with the Lord’s prayer. 
Many other devotional exercises in her honor, 
especially the beads or rosary (see Bran), are 
in common use; and the wearing of the scap- 
ular, which she is believed to have given to 
the general of a religious order, Simon Stock, 
with the promise of special favors to all who 
wear it in her honor, was encouraged by sev- 
eral popes, who attached to it many indulgences. 
The house in which Mary dwelt at Nazareth is 
believed in Italy to have been transported by 
angels to Loreto. The miraculous cures as- 
cribed to the intercession of Mary are innumer- 
able; a collection of some belonging to recent 
times may be found in the “ Annals” of the 
‘“* Archconfraternity of the Immaculate Heart 
of Mary,” an association which was established 
in Paris in 1830. Many towns in every Cath- 
olic country possess celebrated images of Mary, 
which attract crowds of pilgrims during the 
year or on stated festivals.—See Canisius, De 
Maria Virgine (ngolstadt, 1577); Home, 
‘* Mariolatry ’? (London, 1841); Tyler, ‘¢ Wor- 
ship of the Blessed Virgin Mary” (London, 
1844); Mrs. Jameson, ‘‘ Legends of the Ma- 
donna” (London, 1852); Genthe, Die Jung- 
Jrau Maria (Halle, 1852); T. 8. Preston, 
‘Ark of the Covenant” (New York, 1860); 
Cardinal Wiseman, ‘“‘ Lectures on the Church” 
(Baltimore, 1862), and ‘‘Sermons” (New York, 
1874); Pusey, ‘‘Eirenicon” (London, 1866) ; 
and Newman’s reply to ‘‘Kirenicon” in “ Dif- 
ficulties felt by Anglicans” (London, 1874). 
MARY L., first queen regnant of England and 
Ireland, fourth sovereign of the Tudor line, 
and daughter of Henry VIII. and of Catharine 
of Aragon, born at Greenwich palace, Feb. 
18, 1516, died at St. James’s palace, Nov. 17, 
1558. She was severely educated, according to 
a code of instructions drawn up by Ludovicus 
Vives. She was the object of various matri- 
monial negotiations in her infancy; it was pro- 
posed by treaty in 1518 that she should marry 
the dauphin, son of Francis I. of France, and 
in 1522 she was betrothed to the emperor 
Charles V. He desired that she should be 


MARY I. 


sent to Spain for education, but her parents 
would not consent to part with her, though 
they gave her a Spanish education. A Scot- 
tish match was proposed in 1524. Her father 
was at that time passionately attached to her, 
declaring her heir to the crown, and, according 
to one authority, creating her princess of Wales. 
She had a magnificent court at Ludlow castle, 
her chamberlain being that Dudley, duke of 
Northumberland, who in after days sought to 
prevent her from ascending the throne, and 
whom she sent to the scaffold. The countess 
of Salisbury, the last of the Plantagenet fami- 
ly, was at the head of her establishment. The 
emperor broke his contract with her on the 
ground that her father, by seeking a divorce 
from her mother, was seeking also his daugh- 
ter’s degradation. Henry then sought to mar- 
ry her to Francis I., but that prince took for 
his second wife the emperor’s sister Eleanor. 
Catharine wished her daughter to marry a son 
of Lady Salisbury, whose brother, Warwick, 
had been murdered by Henry VII. on the de- 
mand of Ferdinand of Aragon, before he 
would consent that his daughter should marry 
a prince of the house of Tudor. This son was 
the famous Reginald Pole, afterward cardinal. 
Her hand was asked for the duke of Orleans, 
second son of Francis I., but vainly. After 
the birth of Elizabeth, Mary was degraded 
from the position she held; and when James 
VY. of Scotland asked her in marriage, his suit 
was refused, from the fear that issue from such 
union would interfere with the title of Anne 
Boleyn’s children to the crown. As she re- 
sisted as far as she could, it was reported that 
her father was indignant, and that her life was 
in danger. The treatment she received justi- 
fied the fears that were entertained, and the 
emperor interfered in her behalf. After Anne 
Boleyn’s death (1536) Mary was better treated ; 
but her father’s object, which was a renuncia- 
tion of her right to the succession, was not ob- 
tained until some time after this change, when 
she signed articles acknowledging that her 
mother’s marriage was incestuous and illegal, 
her own birth illegitimate, and the king’s su- 
premacy over the church absolute. She was 
then restored to some favor. Her hand was 
again asked for the duke of Orleans, and she 
stood sponsor to the young prince who was 
afterward Edward VI. Negotiations for her 
marriage with various princes were fruitlessly 
made, among them being the prince of Portu 

gal, the duke of Cleves, and the duke of Bava- 
ria. As she was regarded as the head of the 
Catholic party, she was an object of suspicion to 
her father and to the Protestants, and her situ- 
ation was made painful by the legal murder of 
most of her friends, including the countess of 
Salisbury; but in 1544 she was restored to her 
place in the line of succession by act of parlia- 
ment. She lived on the best terms with her 
last stepmother, Catharine Parr, and at her in- 
stance translated Erasmus’s Latin paraphrase 
of St. John. During the reign of Edward 


MARY I. 


VI. she took no part in politics, though she 
was denied the free enjoyment of her religion. 
Suitors for her hand continued to present 
themselves: the duke of Brunswick, the mar- 
grave of Brandenburg, and the infante of 
Portugal. The emperor threatened war if she 
were not exempted from the penalties prepared 
for nonconformists, and she was suspected of 
intending to take refuge at his court. On 
the death of Edward VI. (July 6, 1553) Mary 
succeeded him, after a brief but unimportant 
struggle with the partisans of the Dudleys and 
Greys, who had set up Lady Jane Grey as queen. 
She was merciful to the fallen, only three per- 
sons being executed for treason; and she re- 
fused to bring the lady Jane to trial, saying that 
she was merely a tool of Northumberland. <A 
reaction in the government took place, for 
which the queen was less blamable than her 
councillors, the principal of whom was Bishop 
Gardiner, who was made lord chancellor Aug. 
23, 1553. Mary interfered to prevent the per- 
petration of cruelty by the privy council, and 
the early part of her reign was mild. Her 
coronation took place Oct. 1, 1553. Her first 
parliament met four days later, and restored 
the laws relating to life and property to the 
state they were in at the 25th of Edward IIL, 
and annulled all the acts that cast a stain on 
the queen’s legitimacy. The religious laws of 
Edward VI. were repealed, and the church 
of his father was restored, making Mary its 
head, much against her will; but while she 
held the post, the Protestants were not perse- 
cuted. Lady Jane Grey was attainted, but it 
was known that the queen intended to spare 
her life. Mary’s resolution to marry Philip of 
Spain caused great alarm to her subjects. For- 
midable insurrections broke out, which were 
not quelled without much exertion, and in the 
course of the brief rebellion the queen showed 
both courage and capacity. The effect of this 
struggle was to give entire ascendancy to the 
reactionary party in the royal councils. The 
death warrants of Lady Jane Grey and her hus- 
band, and of other persons, were signed; and 
the queen was urged to put to death her sister 


Elizabeth and the earl of Devonshire, who, | 


however, were only sent to the tower. When 
her ministers would have punished the rebels 
with that sweeping slaughter which character- 
ized most of the Tudor reigns, she interfered, 
and saved their lives. The marriage of Mary 
and Philip took place July 25,1554. It proved 
fatal to Mary’s peace, and most injurious to her 
character and reputation. On Nov. 30 Cardi- 
nal Pole declared England and Rome recon- 
ciled, and those persecutions which have made 
of Mary's reign a by-word and a reproach were 
commenced with the burning of John Rogers, 
Feb. 4, 1555. According to many historians, 
they were due to the influence of Gardiner 
and Bonner, the queen being ill most of the 
time. Ranke gives credit to Gardiner’s asser- 
tion that the queen herself, and not he, insist- 
ed on the revival of the old laws against the 


MARY II. 219 


Lollards; and though he admits that many of 
the horrors of their execution may have been 
kept from her, he adds that no apology will 
free her memory from the dark stain that 
clings to it: “for whatever is done in the 
name of a prince, with his will and by his au- 
thority, decides his reputation in history.” 
Mary was neglected by her husband, to whom 
she was warmly attached. For his sake she 
declared war with France, June 7, 1557, and 
English forces took part in the battles of St. 
Quentin and Gravelines. In January, 1558, the 
French captured Calais, which the English had 
held for more than two centuries. War with 
France brought on war with Scotland. The 
loss of Calais was so mortifying to the English, 
that they insisted that Philip should make no 
peace with France without providing for its 
restoration. Mary’s health had never been 
good, and she was indisposed during the great- 
er part of her reign, of which circumstance 
her council took advantage. She suffered from 
dropsy and nervous debility, and her disap- 
pointment from not having children aggra- 
vated her illness. She recognized. Elizabeth 
as her successor. In the summer of 1558 she 
was attacked by intermittent fever, of which 
thousands of her subjects had died, the conse- 
quence of the wet seasons that prevailed 
throughout her reign. When it was evident 
that her last hour was at hand, her court was 
deserted, most of its members hastening to 
Hatfield, the residence of Elizabeth. She was 
buried on Dec. 18, in Henry VII.’s chapel. 
MARY IL, first queen regnant of Great Brit- 
ain and Ireland, daughter of James II. and 
wife of William III., born at St. James’s, April . 
30, 1662, died at Kensington palace, Dec. 28, 
1694, Her father at the time of her birth was 
heir presumptive to the throne and duke of 
York, and her mother was Anne Hyde, daughter 
of the earl of Clarendon. She was educated at 
Richmond palace, with her sister Anne, her 
preceptor being Henry Compton, bishop of 
London, and was a very well informed woman 
for those times. She was married to her cous- 
in, William, prince of Orange, Nov. 4, 1677, 
an alliance which was very popular through- 
out Great Britain. Mary’s father, as heir pre- 
sumptive to the British crown, was an object 
of jealousy to all Protestants except the high 
churchmen, and even they saw with pleasure 
that his heir, the princess of Orange, was 
strongly attached to the church of England. 
William was jealous of his wife’s position, as, 
should she succeed to the throne, she would be 
his superior in rank and power; and should 
she die before him, and childless, the throne 
would pass to her sister Anne. William stood 
next in the order of succession to Anne, and all 
hope of Charles II. having legitimate offspring 
had long been abandoned. The prince was 
not: a faithful husband, but the personal diffi- 
culties between him and his wife were re- 
moved before those of a political character 
were known to her. Burnet, afterward bishop 


220 MARYLAND 


of Salisbury, effected a complete reconcili- 
ation between the prince and princess, the 
latter pledging herself to surrender all power 
to her husband, should circumstances ever 
place her on the British throne. When Wil- 
liam found himself compelled to take the lead- 
ership of that comprehensive opposition party 
which was formed in England against James 
II., in 1687-8, he was strenuously supported 
by Mary against her father.. The latter had 
never since her marriage treated her well, had 
used some of her friends harshly and illegally, 
and had conspired to take from her the crown 
of Ireland; and she shared in the common be- 
lief that the prince of Wales, born in 1688, was 
a supposititious child, who had been introduced 
into the royal family to prevent her from ever 
enjoying her inheritance. She acquiesced in 
the plan for the invasion of England in 1688; 
and when the earl of Danby sought to obtain 
the throne for her on the ground that there had 
been a demise of the crown, and that she was 
the next heir, she wrote him an earnest repri- 
mand, declaring that she was the prince’s wife, 
that she had no other wish than to be his sub- 
ject, that the most cruel injury that could be 
done to her would be to set her up as his com- 
petitor, and that she never could regard any 
person who took such a course as her true friend. 
Could William have had his way, he would have 
reigned alone, and Mary would have been only 
queen consort; but the opposition to this plan 
was so great that it was never pressed. The 
convention parliament declared William and 
Mary king and queen of England, Mary ar- 
rived in England on Feb. 12, 1689, and on the 
13th she and her husband accepted the crown. 
William had requested her to assume a cheerful 
air, in order to set aside the report that she 
thought she was wronged ; and she so far over- 
did her part that her levity gave general of- 
fence and occasioned many lampoons. The 
coronation took place April 11, 1689, when 
Mary was inaugurated like aking. During the 
absence of her husband, when in Ireland or 
on the continent, Mary was placed at the 
head of the government, and in that position 
showed tact and firmness under very trying 
circumstances. In 1692, after the naval vic- 
tory of La Hogue, she declared that Green- 
wich palace, then in course of construction, 
should be converted into a retreat for those 
seamen who should be disabled in their coun- 
try’s service; andthe vow thus made was kept. 
Toward the end of 1694 she was attacked by 
smallpox, of which she soon died, to the great 
grief of her husband, to whom her decease was 
a political as well as personal loss, as her par- 
ticipation in his government gave to it a certain 
show of hereditaryright. The attacks of the 
Jacobites on her unfilial conduct continued even 
after her death. She was buried with great pomp 
in Henry VII.’s chapel in Westminster abbey. 
MARYLAND, one of the original states of the 
American Union, situated between lat. 37° 53’ 
and 89° 44’ N., and lon. 75° 4’ and 79° 88’ 


W., having an extreme length E. and W. of 
196 m., and a breadth varying from less than 
10 m. in the W. part to about 120 m.; area 
(not including Chesapeake bay, which com- 
prises 2,885 sq. m.), 11,124 sq. m. It is 
bounded N. by Pennsylvania, on a parallel 
known as ‘‘Mason and Dixon’s line,” E. by 
Delaware and the Atlantic ocean, and W. by 
West Virginia. The remaining boundary is 
irregular. E. of Chesapeake bay it is bounded 
S. by Virginia, on a line E. from the mouth of 
the Pocomoke river to the Atlantic; W. of 
that bay it borders 8S. W. on Virginia and the 
District of Columbia, and 8. on West Virginia, 
the boundary line (except where interrupted 
by the District of Columbia) following the Po- 
tomac river to the head of its North branch, 


State Seal of Maryland. 


The state is divided into 23 counties, viz.: Al- 
legany, Anne Arundel, Baltimore, Calvert, 
Caroline, Carroll, Cecil, Charles, Dorchester, 
Frederick, Garrett, Harford, Howard, Kent, 
Montgomery, Prince George’s, Queen Anne, 
St. Mary’s, Somerset, Talbot, Washington, 
Wicomico, and Worcester. There are five 
cities, viz.: Baltimore (pop. in 1870, 267,354), 
the chief commercial and manufacturing mart; 
Frederick (8,526); Cumberland (8,056), the de- 
pot of the mining region in the W. part of 
the state; Hagerstown (5,779) ; and Annapolis 
(5,744), the capital. Cambridge, Chesapeake 
City, Chestertown, Easton, Elkton, Ellicott 
City, Havre de Grace, Laurel, Newtown, Port 
Deposit, St. Michael’s, Salisbury, Sharpsburg, 
Westminster, and Williamsport are towns hav- 
ing each more than 1,000 inhabitants.—The 
population of Maryland in 1660, according to 
McSherry (‘‘ History of Maryland,” Baltimore, 
1849), was 12,000; in 1665, 15,000; in 1671, 
20,000; in 1701, 25,000; in 1715, 30,000; in 
1748, 130,000 (86,000 slaves); in 1756, 154,- 
188 (46,225 slaves); in 1761, 164,007 (49,675 
blacks, mostly slaves); in 1775, 200,000; in 
1782, 254,050, of whom 83,362 were slaves. 
According to the federal census returns, it has 
been as follows: 


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MARYLAND 


census yEars.| _ White Fe Slaves! poe 


persons, colored. population. 
190s sicneeioe’ 208,649 5,043 103,036 819,728 
Leer eeleee 246,326 19,587 | 105,685 | 841,548 
LTSLOTA Jee nee 235,117 33,92T 111,502 880,546 
1820" ete. 260,223 39,730 107,397 407,350 
L550) tir ee aeebee 291,108 52,938 102,994 447,040 
LEU ro nceistoteie sero 818,204 62,078 89,737 470,019 
Si) jae Raaee hte 417,943 74,723 90,368 583,034 
1860 a rdlees ens 515,918 83,942 87,189 687,049 
LOT ee nets eters 605,497 CO; 9 ba care saree 780,894. 


Included in the last total are 2 Chinese and 4 
Indians. In 1870 Maryland ranked 20th among 
the states in total population, a gain since 1860 
of 13°66 per cent.; 18th in white population, 
gain 17°36 per cent. ; 11th in colored population, 
gain 2°49 per cent. Of the total population, 
697,482 were native and 83,412 foreign born. 
Of the natives, 629,882 were born in the state, 
22,846 in Pennsylvania, 20,237 in Virginia and 
West Virginia, 6,876 in Delaware, 3,890 in 
New York, 1,853 in New Jersey, 1,212 in Mas- 
sachusetts, and 1,163 in Ohio. There were 
175,666 persons born in the state living in oth- 
er states and territories. Of the foreigners, 
47,045 were born in Germany, 23,630 in Ire- 
land, 4,855 in England, and 2,482 in Scotland. 
There were 384,984 males and 895,910 females. 
Of the colored inhabitants, 151,463 were blacks 
and 23,928 mulattoes. The number of male 
citizens of the United States 21 years old and 
over was 169,845. The number of families 
was 140,078, having an average of 5°57 persons 
to a family; of dwellings, 129,620, with 6:02 
persons to a dwelling. There were 114,100 
persons 10 years old and over who could not 
read; 135,499 could not write, of whom 126,- 
907 were natives and 8,592 foreigners, 46,796 
whites and 88,703 colored, 61,981 males and 
73,518 females; 21,572 were from 10 to 15 
years of age, 21,452 from 15 to 21, and 92,471 
were 21 and over. Of the last number, 13,344 
were white males and 27,123 colored males. 
There were 427 blind persons, 384 deaf and 
dumb, 733 insane, and 362 idiotic; number of 
paupers supported during the year ending June 
1, 1870, 1,857, at a cost of $163,584; receiving 
support June 1, 1,612, of whom 265 were for- 
_ eigners and 566 colored; number of persons 
convicted of crime during the year, 868; num- 
ber in prison June 1, 1,035, of whom 68 were 
foreigners and 663 colored. The number of 
persons 10 years old and over returned as 
engaged in occupations was 258,543 (213,691 
males and 44,852 females), of whom 80,449 
were employed in agriculture, 79,226 in pro- 
fessional and personal services, 35,542 in trade 
and transportation, and 63,326 in manufac- 
tures and mining. Included in these numbers 
were 48,079 agricultural laborers, 31,213 farm- 
ers and planters, 938 clergymen, 34,742 do- 
mestic servants, 28,571 laborers, 772 lawyers, 
1,771 officials and employees of government, 
1,257 physicians and surgeons, 2,190 teachers, 
9,775 traders and dealers, 9,840 in other mer- 
cantile pursuits, 2,859 officials and employees 


221 


of railroad companies, 3,529 carmen, draymen, 
teamsters, &c., 5,968 sailors, steamboatmen, 
watermen, &c., 3,231 blacksmiths, 4,793 boot 
and shoe makers, 2,806 masons and stonecut- 
ters, 1,128 brick and tile makers, 1,566 butch- 
ers, 1,235 cabinetmakers and upholsterers, 7,904 
carpenters and joiners, 1,086 cigar makers and 
tobacco workers, 1,488 coopers, 1,992 cotton 
and woollen mill operatives, 1,569 fishermen 
and oystermen, 1,709 iron and steel workers, 
1,027 machinists, 1,116 millers, 2,041 milliners 
and dressmakers, 2,838 miners, 1,845 painters 
and varnishers, 5,868 tailors, tailoresses, and 
seamstresses, 1,256 tinners, and 1,026 wheel- 
wrights.—The surface of the eastern shore of 
Maryland, which forms a part of the penin- 
sula lying between Chesapeake and Delaware 
bays, is low and level except in the N. part, 
where it is somewhat broken and rocky. The 
soil of this region is generally sandy. That 
part of the western division of the state which 
forms the peninsula between Chesapeake bay 
and the estuary of the Potomac presents the 
same natural features. The northwest is rug- 
ged and mountainous. The Blue Ridge, and 
other main ranges of the Alleghanies, cross it 
from Virginia and West Virginia into Pennsyl- 
vania. None of these chains attains a great 
elevation.—The seacoast has a length of only 
33 m.; but including the whole tide-water 
region of Chesapeake bay, the shore line is 
estimated at 411 m., and if the shores of islands 
be included, at 509 m. The principal rivers 
belonging wholly or in part to Maryland are 
the Potomac, Patuxent, Severn, Patapsco, Sus- 
quehanna, Elk, Choptank, Nanticoke, and Po- 
comoke. The rivers of the eastern shore, with 
the exception of the Choptank and Nanticoke, 
are rather inlets into which flow numerous small 
creeks than rivers, and are navigable only near 
their mouths. On the western shore, however, 
are the Potomac, navigable about 125 m.; the 
Patuxent, 50 m.; the Patapsco, 22 m.; and the 
Susquehanna, navigable beyond the Maryland 
boundary. Above Washington the Potomac 
receives the Monocacy river, Antietam creek, 
the Conecocheague river, and many smaller 
streams. The extreme W. part of the state 
is drained by the Youghiogheny river, which 
through the Monongahela empties into the 
Ohio. Chesapeake bay, which almost bisects 
the state, extending northward within 14 m. 
of the frontier of Pennsylvania, receives near: 
ly all the rivers of Maryland. At its mouth, 
between Cape Charles and Cape Henry, it is 
15 m. wide, its opening facing east; but on 
penetrating the land it almost immediately 
changes its direction, its length lying almost 
due N.and S. A little below the mouth of 
the Potomac it is about 80 m. wide, after which 
it again contracts, and at its head branches 
off into several small estuaries, just above the 
mouth of the Susquehanna, It is nearly 200 
m. long, and navigable throughout: It con- 
tains many small islands, and its shores are in- 
dented with innumerable bays and inlets. The 


- 


222 


Atlantic coast of Maryland has no harbors, and 
is bordered throughout by a sandy beach from 
a few yards to more than a quarter of a mile 
in breadth, enclosing a shallow lagoon.—In the 
variety of its geological formations and mine- 
ral productions, Maryland is one of the most 
remarkable states in the Union. Along the 
seaboard and the shores of Chesapeake bay 
occur alluvial deposits of the present epoch. 
Next older are the beds of the pleistocene rec- 
ognized in St. Mary’s co., whence the forma- 
tion extends southward along the coast of Vir- 
ginia and North Carolina. The eastern shore 
* is overspread almost exclusively with the clays, 
sands, and calcareous marls of the miocene; 
and the same formation is found on the W. 
side of the bay, reaching back to the E. edge 
of the metamorphic rocks, the line of which 
is commonly marked by the lowest falls of 
the rivers, as they descend from this platform 
of ancient rocks. The miocene formation is 
exposed in the banks of the creeks and rivers, 
and its beds of shell marl are there largely 
. excavated for their valuable fertilizing mate- 
rials. Deposits of bog ore are found in this 
formation, as well as in more recent ones. 
Among the tertiary ferruginous sands and 
clays spread over the western shore, from the 
vicinity of Washington to the head of the bay, 
are numerous deposits of argillaceous carbonate 
of iron in flat bands and balls. The cretaceous 
formation enters the N. E. corner of the state 
from New Jersey and Delaware; but it is lost 
S. of the Susquehanna river. Immediately 
back of Baltimore are hills of metamorphic 
rocks, talcose and mica slates, and limestones, 
which extend N. E. and S. W. across the state. 
Among them are serpentine rocks, which con- 
stitute barren hills known as the ‘ Bare Hills.” 
In these, beds of chrome iron have been exten- 
sively worked, and their products have been 
converted into chrome pigments, and also ex- 
ported to Europe. The same formations have 
yielded large quantities of the silicates and 
hydrates of magnesia. Mines of copper ore 
have also been worked in the metamorphic 
rocks, and others of hematite support numer- 
ous blast furnaces; in the same group of rocks 
are also extensive quarries of limestone and 
marble. At Sykesville, on the Patapsco, specu- 
lar iron ore is found, and worked in connection 
with pyritous copper ores. Passing westward 
across the metamorphic belt, and included in 
it, is a narrow strip of the ‘“‘middle secondary 
red sandstone,” which is traced from New 
Jersey through Pennsylvania and Maryland 
into Virginia. It passes through Carroll and 
the eastern part of Frederick co., crossing the 
Potomac just W. of Montgomery co. In this 
region was obtained from this formation the 
brecciated marble of which the pillars in the 
old hall of representatives in the capitol at 
Washington were, made. In Frederick co., 
along the range of this belt, have been work- 
ed several copper mines. The portion of the 
metamorphic group lying W. of this trough 


MARYLAND 


of the middle secondary is but a few miles 
wide; and in the Catoctin and South moun- 
tains, on the W. line of Frederick co., are 
found the Silurian rocks, the Potsdam sand- 
stones, and the Trenton and associated lime- 
stones, the lower members of the Appalachian 
system of rocks. The calcareous strata over- 
spread the E. portion of Washington co., ex- 
tending N. in a broad belt into Pennsylvania 
and §. into Virginia. The finest valleys of the 
middle states lie on their range, and wherever 
met with these rocks give fertility to the soil 
and beauty to the scenery. Newer members 
of the Appalachian series of rocks succeed 
toward the west these lower formations, and 
are repeated with them in successive parallel 


ridges, which are the eastern members of the 


Appalachian chain. At Cumberland in Alle- 
gany co. commences the ascent of the main 
ridges. Up their slope the middle Silurian 
rocks soon give place to the red shales and 
sandstones of the Devonian, and’these are suc- 
ceeded by the carboniferous formation, which 
caps the summits of Dan’s and Savage moun- 
tains, and overspreads the intervening valley 
of George’s creek, as the strata dip in each 
direction into the trough-shaped basin. At 
Frostburg, Lonaconing, Westernport, and other 
points in the valley, is obtained the semi- 
bituminous coal known in the eastern markets 
as Cumberland coal. Extensive works have 
been in operation at Mt. Savage, and also at 
Lonaconing, converting the iron ores of the 
coal formation into pig iron, and this into rails 
and other forms of wrought iron. The supply 
of ores, however, has proved uncertain, and, 
like most other attempts to found large opera- 
tions upon these ores, the enterprises have not 
prospered. From this point to the W. bound- 
ary of the state the country continues moun- 
tainous, consisting of parallel ridges and val- 
leys, the former capped by the coal formation 
or the underlying conglomerate and red and 
gray sandstones, and the valleys occupied by 
the coal measures. According to the census 
of 1870, the number of mining establishments 
in operation was 80, having 32 steam engines 
of 888 horse power, and 2 water wheels of 
32 horse power; number of hands employed, 
3,801 (1,241 above and 2,560 below ground); 
amount of capital invested, $25,369,730; wages 
paid, $1,839,952; value of materials used, 
$205,547; of products, $3,444,183. There 
were 22 mines of bituminous coal, yielding 
1,819,824 tons, valued at $2,409,208; 48 of 
iron ore, yielding 98,354 tons, valued at $600,- 
246; 2 of copper, producing $71,500 worth of 
ore; 2 marble quarries, yielding $275,000; 2 
slate, and 9 stone quarries. Of the coal mines 
20 were in Allegany co. Of the iron 50,487 
tons were produced in Baltimore co., 18,300 
in Carroll, 12,000 in Frederick, 9,300 in Alle- 
gany, and 6,190 in Anne Arundel.—The eli- 
mate of the state is temperate, and in most 
places salubrious, although the lowlands border- 
ing on the bay are subject to miasmata which 


MARYLAND 


produce bilious fevers: and fever and ague. 
The mean annual temperature in the middle 
portion of the state is 56°; in the north, 54°; 
and’ in the highest parts in the west, 50°. 
Rain is abundant, the largest annual fall (50 
inches) occurring on the W. shore of Chesa- 
peake bay. The mean temperature at Balti- 
more for each month of the year ending Sept. 
80, 18738, was as follows: October, 58°3°; 
November, 43°6°; December, 32°2°; January, 


34°; February, 35°5" 5 March, 40°35 April, 
51:9°; May, 62'3°; ; June, 73:9°; July, 79°4°; 
August, 76°3° ; September, 68°; ’ year, 54: 64°. 


The minimum was 2° (in February); the maxi- 
mum, 96°5° (in July). The total rainfall was: 
October, 4°08 inches; November, 3°17; De- 
cember, 2°72; January, 4°27; February, 4°74; 
March, 3°02; April, 2°77; May, 6°31; June, 
0°94; July, 2°90; August, 9°49; September, 
3° 70: year, 48° 11. The number of deaths in 
1870 was 9,740, of which 3,978 were from 
general diseases, 1,161 from diseases of the 
nervous, 339 of the circulatory, 1,342 of the 
respiratory, and 1,499 of the digestive sys- 
tem, and the rest from miscellaneous causes. 
Among deaths from special diseases were: 
consumption, 1,678; pneumonia, 742; cholera 
infantum, 604; enteric fever, 434; scarlet 
fever, 331; whooping cough, 281; croup, 272; 
encephalitis, 249; convulsions, 239; paralysis, 
231; diphtheria, 218; dropsy, 186; measles, 
177; dysentery, 167; diarrhoea, 157; teething, 
143; and hydrocephalus, 112.—The soil of the 
eastern shore is not naturally rich, but by the 
aid of manure it may be made to yield abun- 
dant crops. On the other side of the bay a 
tract closely resembling this lies along the 
shore. It has been much improved by the use 
of marl, bone dust, and guano, and forms the 
chief tobacco-growing region of the state. 
Some of the valleys of the interior and north- 
ern counties are extremely fertile. The com- 
monest forest trees are the oak, hickory, 
chestnut, pine, locust, walnut, cedar, gum, and 
beach. Tobacco, wheat, and Indian corn are 
the staple cultivated crops. In 1870 Mary- 
land was fifth among the states in the produc- 
tion of tobacco. Oats, rye, Irish and sweet 
potatoes, hay, milk, butter, wool, &c., are also 
produced. Peaches, strawberries, &e., are eX- 
tensively cultivated in the E. part, of the state. 
The number of farms in 1870 was 27,000, of 
which 1,314 contained less than 10 acres each, 
1,764 from 10 to 20, 4,825 from 20 to'50, 7, 026 
from 50 to 16021 894 from 100 to 500, 163 
from 500 to 1, 000, and 14 1,000 acres and over. 
The number of acres of improved farm land 
was 2,914,007; cash value of farms, $170,- 
369, 684; of farming implements and machine- 
ry, $5, 268, 676; amount of wages paid during 
the year, "including value of board, $8,560,- 
367; estimated value of all farm productions, 
including betterments and additions to stock, 
$35,848,927; value of orchard products, $1,319,- 
405 ; of produce of market gardens, $1, 039, - 
782; of forest products, $613,209; of home 
536 VOL. x1.—15 


223 
manufactures, $63,608; of animals slaughter- 
ed or sold for slaughter, $4,621,418; of live 
stock, $18,433,698. The pr oductions were 1 095 
bushels of spring and 5,773,408 of winter wheat, 

307,089 of rye, 11,701, 817 of Indian corn, 3,221,- 
643 of oats, 11 B15 of barley, 77,867 of buck- 
wheat, 57, 556 of peas and beans, 1,632,205 of 
Trish potatoes, 218,706 of sweet potatoes, 35,- 
040 of clover seed, 2,609 of grass seed, 1 bl 
of flax seed, 15, 185, 339 Ibs. of tobacco, 435, - 
213 of wool, B, 014 ,729 of butter, 6, 732 of 
cheese, 2,800 ‘of hops, 30,760 of flax, 70, 464 of 
maple sugar, 3,439 of wax, 118, 938 of honey, 
11,583 gallons of wine, 1 520, 101 of milk sold, 

28, 568 of sorghum molasses, 374 of maple mo- 
lasses, and 228,119 tons of hay. The live stock 
consisted of 89, 696 horses, 9,880 mules and 
asses, 94,7794 milch cows, 29) 491 working oxen, 
98, 074 other cattle, 129, 697 sheep, and 257,- 
893 swine. There were also 12,520 horses and 
16,040 cattle not on farms. —The number of 
manufacturing establishments was 5,812, hav- 
ing 531 steam engines of 138,961 horse power, 
and 937 water wheels of 18,461 horse power; 
number of hands employed, 44,860, of whom 
84,061 were males above 16, 8,278 females 
above 15, and 2,521 youth; amount of capital 
invested, $36,438,729; wages paid, $12,682,- 
817; value of materials used, $46,897,082; of 
products, $76,593,618. The following table 
exhibits the number of establishments, with 
the capital and value of products, of the prin- 
cipal branches : 


No. of Vv 
INDUSTRIES. establish- | Capital, | V#lue of 
sais products, 
Agricultural implements....... 84 | $281,300 | $549,085 
Bags, paper and other than pa- 

POL ee he steers eee at aes 8 100,000 | 588,275 
Boots and shoes............-- 812 767,105 |8,111,076 
Bread and bakery products.... 159 874,195 |1,220,899 
Bricks aes seas aeons e oeciree ss 73 {1,068,800 |1,191,545 
Carriages and wagons......... 1383 297,650 | 667,157 
Clothing 5 sissies sisrste etetesl 823 |2,284,825 |5,970,713 
Coaljoil) mectified yonie<10< csieie ci 8 198,000.| 647,889 
Confectionery Rar ealae sie ine avcisuerale 52 249.585 | 733,481 
WOODETAL ER Ae. 210 stats «wate isnietos 88 290,454 78,782 
Copper, milled ane smelted... 1 800,000 |1,016,500 
Cotton’ so0dstetses-cicoon ean. 22 |2,784,250 |4,852,808 
MOTULIZERS Hy NatarcHle tise © epleiatexe she 15 438.800 | 632,852 
Flouring and grist mill products; 518 [2,790,700 |6,786,459 
Fruits and vegetables, canned. 19 603,800 |1,587,280 
AIPMIGTNe Bes ctor cts eiete cere eirie.s 181 845,945 {1,888,698 
Gantt tabieesitclnt. cde snes ss 5 {1,820,000 |1,027,165 
(EG OS cliticr puec ds OBeneeSaan 4 145,700 | 246,400 
Iron, forged, rolled) &C.25.-50-. 18 1,015,500 3,654,212 

DIGSeen eter 14 {2,005,000 |2,143,089 
SM CAB Up RUe ela tales cielo apiece 43 784,185 | 928,094 
Leather, GATINEAS Peete) cle sir wisie.olsin 69 792,430 |1 265, 4888 
CUUrle deen re tise s aici 50 288, 145 "628, 308 
is morocco, tanned and 
CUNTIOM Hares oie ciao. 4 64,000 | 163,000 
Mamie M pede tate sat nee uw, aie iets 24 106,150 | 284,199 
Liquors, Saree Rive toro uneart 8 220,700 | 889,261 
Eh tis. t Spices. ance 82 588,500 | 665,743 
Lumber, piace SAO « itetaionrelals 11 241,800 | 474,857 
BAW EUieaaec o's ier cues 891 |1,055,600 |1,501,471 
Machinery, not specified....... 22 872,700 ‘581, 391 
steam engines and 
boilers........2.2+ ~ | | 485,000 | 878,475 
Molasses and sugar, refined... . 4 958,000 |7,007,€57 
Musical instruments and ma- 

POMONA eee ie esate cane site « 9 | 594,000 | 674,600 
OM vegetable. cs...¥.csseaecres 2 | 145,000 | 478,125 
Oysters and fish, canned....... 13 553,300 |1,418,200 
DP GAN US ehtateieteia ei ciniclole s\sielele «isle! re 5 | 440,000 |1,027,500 


224 MARYLAND 
were 76,053,533 Ibs. of, leaf tobacco, valued at 
No. of Value of | $0,868,405; 6,809,609 bushels of Indian corn, 
piped i establish} Capital. | products. | $5,287,444; 412,743 barrels of flour, $3,240,- 
a ee _|____|________ | 967; 38,665 bales of cotton, $2,669,219; and 
Seniteteme ONG 26 /$1,206,000 | $948,710 | 13,321,567 lbs. of lard, $1,325,636. There were 
Baddlecy and Warnene tae: 135 | 207385 | 539,033 | 1,117 entrances, tonnage 558,599, and 1,026 
Sash, doors, and blinds.....| 17 | 282,425 | 419,506 | clearances, tonnage 524,847. The number of 
i rey citer and’ st | 172.800 | 857404 | entrances in 1873 was 861, with an aggregate 
sce cacy 2 | 2B) BS |e en ee 
; ee LE v.s.{ 188 | 663,500. | 1,634,009 ) ’ 
Tobaceo and cigars... 2s4 | 910.000 | 72237 | 580 tons, foreign; clearances, 853, with an ag- 
Woollen goods............. 28 |) 198,945 390,086 | gregate tonnage of 411,161, of which 321, of 


The value of manufactures in 1810 was $8,- 
879,861; in 1840, $13,509,636; in 1850, $33,- 
048,892; in 1860, $41,735,157. — Maryland 
ranks sixth among the states in the value of 
foreign commerce, which is carried on wholly 
through Baltimore. The imports for the year 
ending June 30, 1874, amounted to $29,302,- 
138; domestic exports, $27,513,111; foreign 
exports, $179,598. The chief items of export 


109,490 tons, were American, and 5382, of 301,- 
671 tons, foreign. Besides Baltimore, Mary- 
land includes the customs district of Annapo- 
lis, the eastern district, and part of the district 
of Cherrystone, Crisfield being the port of en- 
try of the two last. The following table gives 
the details of the coastwise trade, with the 
vessels registered, enrolled, and licensed, for 
the year ending June 30, 1874, and those built 
during the previous year: 


ENTRANCES, CLEARANCES, | REGISTERED, &0. BUILT IN 1873. 
DISTRICTS. rs Aa eeare En 
Veasels. Tons. Vessels, | Tons. | Vessels, Tons. Vessels. Tons. 
IATITIA DONG, sacswsicce cere e tis se 4 188 3 | 176 94 1,904 2 (Ble 
BAGONG 550 25) «<!e xis «fare 1,951 1,316,429 2,211 1,541,151 1,424 121,187 56 4,499 
MRRSUOLM eau iste ctels o aoe 18 1,480 3 404 | 475 19,177 46 1,588 
TH elie ae 1,973 | 1,818,047 2.21% 1,541,731 | 1,993 142,268 104 6,158 


Of. the vessels registered, &c., or belonging in 
the state, 1,296 with an aggregate tonnage of 
67,616 were sailing vessels, 113 of 89,325 tons 
steamers, and 584 of 35,327 tons unrigged ves- 
sels. Those built include 77 sailing vessels of 
3,665 tons, 6 steamers of 950 tons, and 21 canal 
boats of 1,548 tons. The oyster fisheries of 
Chesapeake bay are of great value, and are the 


chief source of supply for the markets of the 
United States. The state maintains several 
police boats to enforce the regulations govern- 
ing the fishery, and derives a revenue from 
licenses to those engaged in it.—The number 
of miles of railroad in operation in 1844 was 
259; in 1854, 327; in 1864, 408. The statistics 
of the various lines for 1874 are as follows: 


Miles in operation 


RAILROADS. TERMINI. in the state 
Annapolis and Elk Ridge............. Annapolis to a junction with the Baltimore and Ohio railroad........ 2034 
Baltimore and Potomac.............. Baltimoreto, Washington -) \ ;...\cs be cede ste tes ee wepeenistwe  vacee ke 40 
AHCI to a -fotete wicleicicfeleleraisiecie wei cienss Bowie to. Pope's Greek... p's pions uc ces sles heen neabens oe veteran 49 
Baltimore’ and Ohio... 0... .n-s oner ee Baltimore to Wheeling, W. Va. (879 M.)......ececsnccsscsscccccses 18734 
Washington branch................ Relay House to Washington.................00+00- A eeleUa sleet so 81 
Metropolitan... \. .3.ci jc 0s0c0sscees Point of Rocks toiWashington.: 9... sams 0 cae cases oc ee 4219 
SPAN tres tales she aca meee ea Frederick Junction to Frederick) ,27'..2 ie. s.0eeres odes te desc ee nian 8 
Columbia and Port Deposit........... Port Deposit to Rolandville Junction..............cecceseececceces 5 
Cumberland and Pennsylvania........ Cumberland to) Piedmont, W. Vac) 4s eee aca tee te 88 
Biarches Cumberland to Astor Mines, ;2 Sy. - steers ee eecntts tcc cc eels, 14 
5 SAN et eee ers ee Kreigbaum’s to Pennsylvania line,..............cceecceeececcecees 8 
Cumberland Valley ...............0<. Harrisburg, Pa., to Williamsport (82 M.).........22ceceeeeeceeceees 14 
Dorchester and Delaware,............ Seaford, Del., on Delaware railroad to Cambridge (83 m.)........... 27 
Rematern SHOre eso. ici Veacrdsssckes Delmar on Delaware line, at terminus of Delaware road, to Crisfield. 38 
Frederick and Pennsylvania.......... Frederick to Woodsboro.<:.3 7) 208, pee seen tee tee idea ek els sale 6 17 
Rent ountyie. sees. 5 ies saa vane bas Townsend, Del., on Delaware road, to Parsons (86 m.)............4. 29 
Maryland and Delaware.............. Clayton es 7 a MEO MAABCON (04 TD.) 5.2 os cee ce 80 
Northern Oontrall ...5 20. scscsecses 6 Baltimore to Sunbury, Pa. (188 m:). 00.002. s. cece eee ceccescesesses 86 
Philadelphia and Baltimore Central... .| West Chester Junction, Pa., to Rowlandville Junction (46.M:) oa 91% 
Philadelphia, Wilmington,and Baltimore| Philadelphia to Baltimore (OG 10.) Seeteic gts tas sitsin eos sievsinc's teen 54 
PENG |. Ae theres tps ec ck esos sabe ss Perryville to Port Deposit, :Asesamuermmriees ieee os cele tenes 83¢ 
Pittsburgh, Washington, and Baltimore| Pittsburgh, Pa., to Cumberland (1494 m.).......... SURO Ons Sorc.0 4 6 
Queen Anne and Kent............... Massey’s Junction, on Kent County railroad, to Centreville......... 36 
Washington County...............06- Hagerstown Junction, on Baltimore and Ohio railroad, to Hagerstown 24 
Western Maryland (3is5 cisniccues oes y Baltimore to. Williamsport. 72s eo meeneee ks oss cs aNd. J, cee 90 
Wicomico and Pocomoke............. Salisbury, on Eastern anes FAUTOAd SCO SOLU, (2's a5 cs  e voles ak Maes 23 
Worcester, S5eRe ns Siete caddie. ck: Berlin. to Bnow -Hill.; ...5 ... pee eok Lele pe one cca kee eee 14 
Worcester and Somerset ............. Newtown Junction, on Eastern Shore railroad, to Newtown........ 9 
Total Gee seta pete et aree stress oa 6S poe o)scoreinia ee binds } SANS bs bun a ole ane Ree EAGEY aie diols bs cb oe 848 


MARYLAND 


The Frederick and Pennsylvania railroad is to 
be extended to the Pennsylvania line, making 
the entire length 28 m. The Washington 
County line is operated by the Baltimore and 
Ohio company, the Worcester by the Wicomico 
and Pocomoke, and the Columbia and Port 
Deposit by the Philadelphia and Baltimore 
Central. The Southern Maryland railroad is 
in progress from Washington to Point Look- 
out, at the entrance of the Potomac into Ches- 
apeake bay, 75m. The Chesapeake and Ohio 
canal follows the valley of the Potomac from 
Cumberland to Georgetown, D. C., 1844 m., 
thence crossing the Potomac by an aqueduct 
to Alexandria, Va. <A portion of the Susque- 
hanna and Tidewater canal, from Wrights- 
ville, Pa., on the Susquehanna river, opposite 
Columbia, to Havre de Grace, 45 m., is within 
this state; and also a portion of the Chesa- 
peake and Delaware ship canal, which connects 
the waters of Chesapeake and Delaware bays. 
—The number of national banks in operation 
in the state in 1873 was 33, having an aggre- 
gate capital of $13,640,203; state banks, 10, 
with $2,913,013 capital; savings banks, 7, with 
deposits to the amount of about $15,000,000. 
There were 17 fire and marine insurance com- 
panies chartered by the state, having an aggre- 
gate capital of $2,651,568; assets, $4,967,378 ; 
liabilities, $1,048,797. There were 71 com- 
panies of other states and 10 foreign companies 
doing business in Maryland. There were 2 
home life insurance companies, with $200,000 
capital, $864,394 assets, and $601,770 liabili- 
ties; and 88 companies of other states doing 
business in Maryland.—The constitution vests 
the executive power in a governor, who is 
assisted by a secretary of state, attorney gen- 
eral, comptroller, treasurer, state librarian, and 
commissioner of the land office. The governor 
and attorney general are elected by the people 
for a term of four years, and the comptroller 
for two years; the treasurer is chosen by joint 
ballot of the two houses of the legislature for 
two years; the other officers are appointed 
by the governor, with the advice and consent 
of the senate, for four years. The governor 
must be 30 years of age, for ten years a citizen 
of the state, and for the last five years a resi- 
dent thereof. He grants reprieves and par- 
dons except in cases of impeachment, remits 
fines and forfeitures for offences against the 
state, and has a veto upon the acts of the legis- 
lature, which may be overcome by a three- 
fifths vote of both houses. He enters upon 
his office on the first Monday of January after 
his election, and has a salary of $4,500. In 
case of his death, resignation, or disqualifica- 
tion, the legislature elects a governor for the 
residue of the term. If that body is not in 
session, the president of the senate, or in de- 
fault of that officer the speaker of the house of 
delegates, acts until a new governor is chosen. 
The governor, comptroller, and treasurer con- 
stitute the board of public works. The legisla- 
tive power is vested in a general assembly, con- 


225 


sisting of a senate and house of delegates. The 
senators, 26 in number (one from each coun- 
ty and one from each of the three legislative 
districts of the city of Baltimore), are elected 
for four years, one half retiring biennially. 
The delegates (present number 85) are elected 
for two years, and are apportioned among the 
counties after each census according to popu- 
lation. Senators must have attained the dge 
of 25 years. The legislature meets biennially 
on the first Wednesday in January of even 
years. Regular sessions are restricted to 90 
days, but the governor may call special ses- 
sions, which shall not exceed 80 days. Mem- 
bers receive $5 a day during the session, and 
the presiding officers $8, besides mileage. The 
house possesses the power of impeachment; 
the senate constitutes the court for the trial, two 
thirds being necessary for a conviction. The 
court of appeals has appellate jurisdiction only, 
and consists of the chief judges of the first 
seven circuits, besides a judge specially elected 
by the electors of Baltimore city. The state 
is divided into eight judicial circuits, the city 
of Baltimore constituting the eighth. In each 
circuit, except the eighth, a chief judge and 
two associate judges are elected, and in each 
county a circuit court is held, having general 
original jurisdiction both civil and criminal, 
and appellate jurisdiction of judgments of jus- 
tices of the peace. In the city of Baltimore 
there are five courts, viz.: the superior court 
of Baltimore city, the court of common pleas, 
and the Baltimore city court, having concurrent 
original jurisdiction in all civil common law 
cases (the city court having in addition exclu- 
sive jurisdiction of appeals from judgments of 
justices of the peace, and the common pleas 
exclusive jurisdiction in matters of insolven- 
cy); the circuit court of Baltimore city, with 
exclusive original jurisdiction in equity; and 
the criminal court of Baltimore, with general 
original jurisdiction of crimes, A chief judge 
and four associate judges constitute the su- 
preme bench of Baltimore, designating one 
or more of their number to hold the above 
described courts, and any three or more to 
hold general terms with certain appellate 
powers. Judges are elected by the voters of 
the respective circuits for a term of 15 years, 
and cannot hold office beyond the age of 70. 
Three judges of the orphans’ court are elected 
in each county and the city of Baltimore for a 
term of four years. Justices of the peace are 
appointed by the governor, with the advice 
and consent of the senate, for the term of two 
years, and have jurisdiction of most civil cases, 
not involving the title to land, in which the 
amount in dispute does not exceed $100. Under 
the constitution every white male citizen of 
the United States, of sound mind and not a 
convict, 21 years of age and upward, who has 
resided for a year in the state and for six 
months in the county or legislative district, 
may vote in the ward or election district in 
which he resides, Under the provisions of the 


226 


15th amendment to the constitution of the 
United States, colored citizens are entitled to 
vote. No one who engages in or aids or abets 
a duel, or sends or acceptsa challenge, nor any 
defaulter in public funds, can hold office; and 
no minister of the gospel or person holding 
any civil office of profit or trust under the 
state or United States, except that of justice of 
the peace, is eligible to the legislature. The 
legislature is prohibited from lending the credit 
of the state to any individual, association, or 
corporation, and restrictions are placed upon 
the power of special legislation, of contracting 
a public debt, and of pledging the faith or 
credit of the state for the construction of in- 
ternal improvements, Amendments to the 
constitution must be proposed by three fifths 
of each house of the legislature and ratified by 
the people. Every 20 years the people are to 
vote on the question of holding a convention 
to revise the constitution. Murder in the first 
degree is punished with death; arson, rape, 
and treason, with death or imprisonment for a 
term of years, in the discretion of the court; 
other crimes are punished by fines and im- 
prisonment. The chief grounds of divorce are 
adultery, abandonment for three years, im- 
potency at the time of marriage, and illicit 
intercourse of the wife before marriage, un- 
known to the husband. A separation from 
bed and board may be had on the ground of 
cruel treatment, excessively vicious conduct, 
or desertion. A married woman may acquire, 
hold, and manage separate property free from 
liability for the debts of her husband; she 
may dispose of it by will as though single, but 
her husband must join with her “in any deed. 
The rate of interest is 6 per cent. Maryland 
has two senators and is entitled to six repre- 
sentatives in congress, and has therefore eight 
votes in the electoral college.—The valuation 
of property, according to the United States 
census, has been as follows: 


ASSESSED VALUE. True value of 


YEARS. real and per- 

Real estate. | Personal estate. Total. sonal estate. 
ASOO RL. ES TED. WES Ge.” RET ee $219,217,364 
1860.. -| $85, 841,488 |$281, 793, 800 |$297,135,288 | 376, ‘919, 944 


1870...) 286, 910, 3382 | 136,924,586 | 428,884, 918 | 643 748, 976 


The taxation not national in 1870 was $6,632, - 
842, of which $1,781,252 was state, $1, 542, 218 
county, and $3,309, 379 town, city, &e. The 
total debt amounted to $29, 082, 577, of which 
$13,317,475 (bonded) was state, $1, 565,779 
($1, '305, 395 bonded) county, and 14. 149, 318 
($14, 097, 856 bonded) town, city, &e. The 
amount given as state debt includes liabilities 
incurred in aid of railroads, canals, &c. The 
sinking fund amounted to $1, 764, 450. Ac- 
cording to the report of the comptroller for 
the year ending Sept. 30, 1873, the receipts 
into the state treasury, including a balance of 
$339,171 10 on hand at the beginning of the 
year, were $2,771,848 58, of which $1,814,- 


MARYLAND 


348 96 was from ordinary sources, viz.: $268,- 
955 61 from dividends and interest paid by 
banks and railroad and canal companies, $715,- 
664 81 from taxes on property, $4,605 27 
from taxes on state and other stocks, $77,- 
868 47 from taxes on incorporated institu- 
tions, $540,263 53 from licenses on trades and 
occupations, marriages, the oyster fishery, &c., 
$15,183 36 from fees, $14,349 13 from fines 
and forfeitures, $7,629 73 from grain inspec- 
tions, $16,403 97 from tobacco inspections 
and warehouses, $8,777 34 from state live- 
stock scales, $2,559 41 from state wharves, 
$2,332 01 from the land office, $65,195 52 from 
taxes on commissions of executors and ad- 
ministrators, $39,817 61 from taxes on col- 


‘lateral inheritances, $4,773 50 from taxes on 


protests, and the rest miscellaneous. The dis- 
bursements were $2,287,038 36, leaving a bal- 
ance at the close of the year of $484,810 22; 
besides which there was $14,220 08 in the 
treasury to the credit of the school fund, and 
$66,579 28 to the credit of the sinking fund. 
Deducting $453,296 02 paid in redemption of 
the debt, and $152,500 to meet the state’s sub- 
scription to stock of railroad companies in 
Charles and St. Mary’s counties, the ordinary 
expenditures amounted to $1,681,242 34, viz.: 
$15,000 for the blind asylum, $16,800 for 
bounty to volunteers, $25,406 67 for salaries 
of civil officers, $77,961 92 for colleges and 
academies, $49, 904 91 for colored schools, 
$30,000 for the deaf and dumb asylum, $10,- 
000 for the colored deaf and dumb and blind 
asylum, $50,050 for various charitable and re- 
formatory institutions, $701,909 29 for in- 
terest on the public debt, $88,802 78 for sala- 
ries of judicial officers, $2,500 for the Maryland 
inebriate asylum, $14,000 for the state peni- 
tentiary, $23,816 72 for the militia, $49,200 
for pensions, $388,566 97 for public schools, 
$9,500 for the state normal school, $2,000 for 
the colored state normal school, and the rest 
miscellaneous. The assessed value of property 
was $424,672,712, and the tax, 17 cents (10 
cents for public schools) on $100, amounted to 
$721,994 17. The assets of the state on Sept. 
30, 1873, were represented by productive 
stock and bonds of railroad and other com- 
panies to the amount of $4,455,464 18; amount 
due from incorporated institutions, tax col- 
lectors and other officers, $1,995,701 96; un- 
productive stock and bonds and accrued in- 
terest, $21,608,694 51; total, $28,059,860 65. 
More than $90, 000, 000 of the unproductive 
assets consist of stock and bonds of and inter est 
due from the Chesapeake and Ohio canal com- 
pany, which it is believed, at a not very distant 
period, will make some return to the state. 
The funded debt at the above date amounted 
to $10,741,215 60. Deducting the sinking 
fund and the productive stock and bonds, the 
net debt was $6,219,172 14. The free school 
fund, including the fund for the indigent blind 
($10, 770 47), amounted to $314,010 16, in- 
vested in stocks and bonds, except $14, 220 08 


MARYLAND 


cashin the treasury. The balance to the credit 
of the oyster fund was $272,014 14; receipts 
during the year, $65,490 55; expenditures, 
$24,770 75; both included in the receipts and 
expenditures given above.—The state institu- 
tions are the penitentiary, the institution for 
the instruction of the blind, and that for the 
colored blind and deaf mutes, in Baltimore; 
the hospital for the insane, at Spring Grove, 
near Catonsville, Baltimore co. ; and the insti- 
tution for the education of the deaf and dumb, 
at Frederick. The penitentiary is under the 
management of a board of six directors, with 
six officers in immediate charge. The number 
of convicts in prison during the year ending 
Nov. 30, 1878, was 824, of whom 226 were re- 
ceived during the year; remaining at its close, 
614, viz.: white males, 211; white females, 6; 
colored males, 361; colored females, 36. The 
convicts are employed in the prison, but the la- 
bor of the greater part is let to contractors, who 
manufacture shoes, harnesses, clothing, coo- 
perage, marble work, &c. The earnings in 1878 
amounted to $71,104 50, producing a surplus 
of more than $5,000 over the expenditures, 
The hospital for the insane was established in 
Baltimore in 1828. In 1852 the legislature pro- 
vided for the erection of the present building, 
which remaining uncompleted and encumbered 
with a heavy debt in 1870, the old hospital was 
sold, and the proceeds, with an appropriation 
of $330,000 from the state treasury, devoted to 
its completion. The patients were removed to 
it in 1872. It is capable of accommodating 300. 
The institution is under the management of a 
president and board of visitors, with four resi- 
dent officers. The number of inmates during 
1873 was 238; remaining at the close of the 
year, 127, of whom 70 were males and 57 fe- 
males, 57 private and 70 public patients; 102 
were chronic cases, 13 acute mania, 9 epileptic, 
and 38 mania a potu. Aside from such appro- 
priations as the legislature may make, the in- 
come is derived from the receipts from the 
counties for pauper patients and from private 
patients. 
of the blind was opened in 1854. The num- 
ber of pupils under instruction during the 
year ending Dec. 1, 1873, was 55; remaining 
at that date, 47, of whom 7 were from the 
District of Columbia and supported by the 
United States; number of officers and instruc- 
tors, 10. Besides reading, &c., the boys receive 
instruction in piano tuning and broom ma- 
king, and the girls in sewing, knitting, &c. The 
age of admission is between 9 and 18 years, and 
pupils may be educated at the expense of the 
state, upon the recommendation of the gov- 
ernor. The institution for the education of 
the deaf and dumb was established in 1868, 
and was accommodated in barracks until the 
completion of the centre and south wing of the 
new building in the beginning of 1873. The 
north wing is not yet erected (1874). The 
number of pupils under instruction in 1873 
‘was 99 (62 males and 37 females); remaining at 


The institution for the instruction: 


227 


the close of the year, 87; number of officers and 
instructors, 16; volumes in the library, 2,000. 
Instruction is given in articulation and lip 
reading, and in shoemaking, as well as in the 
common branches of learning by the ordinary 
methods. The age of admission is from 9 to 
21 years, and pupils may be educated at the pub- 
lic expense upon the certificate of the orphans’ 
court or commissioners of the county in which 
they reside. The institution for the colored 
blind and deaf mutes was established in 1872, 
and in 1874 had 5 officers and instructors and 
23 pupils, of whom 10 were deaf mutes and 18 
blind. The house of refuge for juvenile delin- 
quents, near Baltimore, was opened in 1855. 
The boys receive instruction in the rudiments 
of learning and in various industries. A “‘ house 
of merit” is connected with it, in which the 
younger and less vicious are separately classi- 
fied. The institution is mainly supported by 
state and city appropriations. The number of 
inmates during 1873 was 411; remaining at 
the close of the year, 301. An act of 1874 pro- 
vides for the establishment of a house of cor- 
rection for convicts sentenced for not less than 
three months nor more than three years.—The 
constitution requires the general assembly to 
establish a system of free public schools, and 
to provide for its maintenance by taxation or 
otherwise. The act of 1872 constitutes a state 
board of education, a board of county school 
commissioners for each county, and a board of 
district school trustees for each school district, 
to have general control of the public schools in 
their respective jurisdictions. The state board 
consists of the principal of the state normal 
school ew officio, together with four persons 
appointed for two years by the governor, with 
the consent of the senate, from among the 
presidents and examiners of the county boards, 
one of whom must be a resident of the east- 
ern shore. The county boards consist of three 
or five members, and are appointed for two 
years by the judges of the circuit courts, They 
elect a person, not of their number, to act as 
secretary, treasurer, and examiner, and an as- 
sistant examiner in the larger counties when 
necessary. The schools are free to all white 
youth between the ages of 6 and 21 years, and 
at least one is directed to be kept open in each 
district for ten months in the year. The 
teachers must be graduates of the normal 
school, or have a certificate of competency 
from the county examiner or the state board. 
Teachers’ institutes are required to be held 
once a year for five days in each county, 
under the direction of the county examiner 
and the principal or a professor of the normal 
school. The act empowers the mayor. and 
council of the city of Baltimore to establish 
a system of free public schools, and to appoint 
a board of commissioners of public schools for 
that city. Separate free schools are estab- 
lished in each election district for colored chil- 
dren between the ages of 6 and 20 years, fer 
the support of which are set apart such sums 


228 


as may be appropriated by the state or given 
by individuals for that purpose, together with 
the taxes paid by the colored people for school 
purposes. According to the report of the 
state board for the year ending Sept. 30, 1873, 
the number of public schools in operation was 
1,742, including 225 for colored children; num- 
ber of different pupils, 130,324 (14,171 col- 
ored); highest number enrolled in one term, 
99,258; average daily attendance, 60,817 ; 
number of teachers, 2,555; average length of 
schools, 9 months and 13 days; amount paid 
for teachers’ salaries, $889,476 47; for build- 
ing, repairing, and furnishing school houses, 
$197,387 10; for books and stationery, $69,- 
526 29; for colored schools, $69,577 18; total 
expenditures for school purposes, $1,354,066 
71, defrayed partly by a state tax of 10 cents on 
$100, partly by the income of the school fund, 
and partly by local taxation. The schools of 
the city of Baltimore included one college or 
male high school, two female high schools, and 
40 grammar schools (one colored), A few high 
and grammar schools have been established in 
other parts of the state; but the public schools 
are mostly elementary. The Baltimore city 
college had 10 instructors; number of differ- 
ent pupils during the year, 470; average at- 
tendance, 282. The state normal school for 
the training of teachers was established in 
Baltimore by the school law of 1865, and its 
continued existence has been provided for by 
subsequent acts; 200 pupils are entitled to be 
admitted free on the recommendation of the 
county or city school commissioners, upon de- 
claring their intention to engage in teaching in 


MARYLAND 


the state, and others may be received upon the 
payment of tuition. The number of instruc- 
tors in 1873 was 9; of pupils, 146, of whom 13 
were males and 133 females; volumes in the 
library, 1,200. A model school is connected 
with it. The Howard normal school (colored), 
at Baltimore, was organized in 1865. It re- 
ceives a small appropriation from the state, 
but is supported mainly by donations. The 
number of pupils in 1873 in all departments 
(primary, grammar, and normal) was 234; 
average attendance, 186. The number in the 
normal department was 74; volumes in the 
library, 1,000. The number of academies re- 
ceiving state aid was 22, with 50 teachers and 
1,257 pupils. According to the United States 
census of 1870, the number of schools of all 


kinds was 1,779, having 1,498 male and 1,789 


female teachers, 55,800 male and 51,584 female 
pupils; income from endowment, $21,697; 
from taxation and public funds, $1,134,347; 
from other sources, including tuition, $842,- 
171; total, $1,998,215. Of these, 1,487 (8 
normal, 10 high, 49 grammar, 159 graded com- 
mon, and 1,266 ungraded common) were pub- 
lic, with 2,150 teachers, 83,226 pupils, and an 
income of $1,146,057, of which $1,039,135 was 
derived from taxation and public funds. Of 
those not public, 53 were classical (19 colleges 
and 34 academies), 7 professional (1 law, 2 med- 
ical, 4 theological), 12 technical (1 agricultural, 
3 commercial, 1 for the blind, 1 for the deaf 
and dumb, 6 of art and music), 153 day and 
boarding, and 67 parochial and charity. The 
statistics of the principal colleges for 1873-4 
are exhibited in the following table: 


Date of or-| No. of pro- Volumes in 


COLLEGES. Location. Denomination. ganization. | fessors,&c. ee libraries. 
Washinetontin scene sees Chestertown recat eee te eee INONGT co errs eee 1782 2 31 1,000 
St. Vohn' sis 2. seis. eee Annapollais. Asai 4h. B,C None ‘46 otitis: 1784 11 1380 4,000 
Broderick *:. 8.0 cteectes cs Broderick. pop <c Aone stae ablesie ee None! aac. ese’ 1797 100 8,000 
Mount St. Mary’s........ HmmoettsDUre in see co cates «cmevece eae sine Roman Catholic..| 1830 13 182 8,000 
College of St. James...... College of St. James P. O., Washing- 

tok Coser Lath ees web aerdee yr. sake Episcopal........ 1842 6 41 11,000 
BEAC RATION Se an aeeu en PUD COCL CILy. oh maiscn atta eis aaa sine Roman Catholic.,| 1848 12 180 4,000 
ROVOINTIN Phra e tie teas ee Waltiingre.. ew nites tee tee ee ee omer Roman Catholic..| 1852 15 140 21,500 
Mount St. Clement’s.....| Ichester...............cceee eens :.--| Roman Catholic..| 1853 14 160 9,000 
Rock Hill..... iat n'y Opava IHCOULECILY pe eraee ener Eee ae Roman Catholic..| 188 22 149 6,800 
Maryland Agricultural*...| Agricultural College P. 0., Prince 

COON ESS OOH. ccs Geet ees tee None i. eeaeee 1865 9 18) | vee ak 
Woodstock. fii.fo.ug eae Woodstock?. sxgndenxat st iin 4. tee Roman Catholic..; 1867 14 LOD Farle Sate 
Western Maryland....... Westmillisters cuts. csitls gence Methodist Prot...| 1868 . 13 131 8,500 


These institutions, besides courses of collegiate 
grade, have preparatory departments, which 
embrace a large portion of the students. 
Mount St. Mary’s college has a theological de- 
partment, with 34 students not embraced in 
the number given in the table. St. Charles’s 
college is regarded as a preparatory institution 
to the theological seminary of St. Sulpice and 
St. Mary’s university at Baltimore (which in 
1873-’4 had 6 professors and 60 students), and 
is designed only for those who are intended 
for the church, The Western Maryland college 
has a three years’ course for females, with an at- 


* 1872-3, 


tendance of 61 students included in the number 
given in the table, and gives special instruction 
to young men intended for the ministry. The. 
college of St. James since the civil war has had 
only a high school or preparatory department 
in operation. Woodstock college is devoted 
exclusively to the education of the younger 
members of the society of Jesus, and em- 
braces a three years’ course of philosophy and 
a four years’ course of theology; 42 of the 
students in 1873-’4 were pursuing the former 
course and 60 the latter. Six state scholarships 
have been established in St. John’s college for 
each senatorial district, exempting the holder 
from payment of room rent and tuition fees, and 


MARYLAND 


in 1872 the legislature provided for furnish- 
ing board to two of the incumbents from each 
district, who after receiving the advantages of 
the college for four years are required to teach 
school within the state for not less than two 
years. Several state scholarships have also 
been established in the Frederick, Washington, 
and Western Maryland colleges. The collegi- 
ate department of the agricultural college em- 
braces a four years’ course of arts, including 
agriculture and ordinary scientific and English 
studies, with classics and modern languages, 
and a three years’ course of science, which is 
the same as the preceding, with the omission 
of classics. Provision is also made for such 
as desire to remain but one year in the institu- 
tion. The college received the proceeds ($110,- 
000) of the 210,000 acres of land granted to 
the state by congress for the establishment of 
a college of agriculture and the mechanic arts. 
A farm of 300 acres is connected with it. Tu- 
ition is free; and in accordance with an act of 
the legislature 12 students from each congres- 
sional district receive the use of text books 
free. The medical department of Washington 
university was established in Baltimore in 
1833; a hospital and free dispensary are con- 
nected with it; in 1874 it had 11 professors 
and 313 alumni; the number of students in 
1872-3 was 192. The medical department of 
the university of Maryland in Baltimore was 
established in 1807; in 1873-4 it had 12 pro- 
fessors, 114 students, and a library of 3,500 
volumes. The Maryland college of pharmacy 
in Baltimore was established in 1841, and in 
1873-4 had 4 professors and 54 students; the 
degree of graduate in pharmacy is conferred 
after examination upon persons who have 
attained the age of 21 years, have served an 
apprenticeship of four years with some repu- 
table pharmacist, and have attended two courses 
of lectures in a recognized college of pharmacy, 
the last course in this institution; any gradu- 
ate of good standing, on passing a prescribed 
examination, is entitled to the degree of mas- 
ter in pharmacy. The Baltimore college of 
dental surgery, the oldest dental college in the 
world, was incorporated in 1840; in 1874 it 
had 9 professors and 578 alumni; the number 
graduating that year was 19; the number of 
students in 1872-3 was 50. Candidates for 
graduation are required to prepare a written 
thesis, to pass an examination upon the sub- 
jects taught in the college, and to have attend- 
ed two courses of lectures in the institution; 
but an equivalent for one course is allowed. 
The Maryland dental college was established in 
Baltimore in 1873, with 13 professors. The 
United States naval academy is situated at An- 
napolis. (See Annapo.is.)—According to the 
census of 1870, the number of libraries was 
3,358, containing 1,713,483 volumes, of which 
2,037, with 1,142,538 volumes, were private, 
Of those not private, 2, with 31,462 volumes, 
were state libraries; 1, with 41,500 volumes, 
city; 20, with 14,662 volumes, court and law; 


229 


72, with 98,470 volumes, school, college, &c. ; 
881, with 215,763 volumes, Sabbath school; 
and 310, with 90,989 volumes, church. There 
were 88 newspapers and periodicals, issuing 
83,497,778 copies annually, and having a circu- 
lation of 235,450, viz.: 8 daily, circulation 
$2,921; 1 tri-weekly, 5,015; 2 semi-weekly, 
1,600; 69 weekly, 127,314; and 8 monthly, 
18,600. They were classified as follows: agri- 
cultural and horticultural, 2; commercial and 
financial, 2; illustrated, literary, and miscella- 
neous, 7; political, 70; religious, 6; technical 
and professional, 1. The number of church 
organizations was 1,420, with edifices, sittings, 
and property as shown in the following table: 


DENOMINATIONS. Edifices. | Sittings | Value of 

property. 
Baptists, regular............ 58 12,025 $87,100 
u OCHEM TY. ae ese net 34 8,705 62,500 
Christian these: Besides 3 5 1,850 28,000 
ESDISCOPa lesen aa. o ytd sels 5 155 61,480 1,594,800 
Evangelical Association..... 3 1,000 45,500 
riendsee seat. Has 21 7,440 151,700 
SO WISI at ahaysys sles d cloth tis oceiad 4 2,750 650,000 
MCUtheran pieces cee et as store: 84 40,915 875,100 
Methodiste: fs iaie. eons T5T | 281,580 8,220,650 
IMOPaVIAN. S94. as tai sasee 1 500 4,500 
New Jerusalem......<....-- 3 900 27,000 
Presbyterian sss teoee eee 7 82,415 1,279,550 

Reformed (late Dutch Re- 

PORTING) pro ae Be cranial eas 1 600 15,000 
Reformed (late German Re- 

FOLIC) ate sews oceans s 42 19,980 562,150 
Roman Catholic........ ... 103 62,280 8,001,400 
MUL ATIAT SS aris eines ascthwererg 1 800 150,000 
United Brethren in Christ... 84 12,100 288.500 
Universalistieses. ecco: 2 1,000 82,500 
LOT a ee ae eet eer ee 4 1,500 17,700 

Potala ees. ee 1,389 | 499,770 | $12,088,650 


—The first settlement in Maryland was made 
by Capt. William Clayborne with a party of 
men from Virginia on Kent island, Chesapeake 
bay, in 1631. But the charter under which 
the colony was permanently established was 
granted to Cecilius Calvert, second Lord Balti- 
more, by Charles I., and was dated June 20, 
1632. The province covered by this grant had 
been partially explored by Sir George Calvert, 
father of the grantee, four years before. The 
name first intended for the colony was Cres- 
centia, but in the charter it was styled Terra 
Marie, ‘‘Mary’s Land,” in honor of Queen 
Henrietta Maria. The expedition designed to 
commence the settlement sailed from the Isle 
of Wight Nov. 22, 1633, in two vessels named 
the Ark and the Dove. The emigrants num- 
bered 200, and were nearly all Roman Catho- 
lics and gentlemen of fortune and respectabil- 
ity. On March 27, 1684, they commenced a 
settlement at St. Mary’s, near the entrance of 
the Potomac into Chesapeake bay, within the 
present limits of St. Mary’s co. Leonard Cal- 
vert, brother of the lord proprietary, who had 
conducted the colony from England, became 
its first governor, A year or two after land- 
ing he turned his attention toward Clayborne’s 
settlement; but Clayborne refused to acknowl- 
edge himself subject to the new government, 
and was at length expelled along with his 


230 


most active adherents. Under the charter 
Lord Baltimore had the power of enacting all 
necessary laws, with ‘‘the advice, consent, and 
approbation of the freemen of the province,” 
or their representatives convened in general 
assembly. The first assembly met in the be- 
ginning of 1635, and submitted certain laws to 
the approval of the proprietary. A dispute 
thereupon arose respecting the right of initia- 
tive in legislation, which was settled in 1638 
by Lord Baltimore’s yielding the right to the 
assembly. (See Catvert.) In the following 
year the first statutes of Maryland were enact- 
ed. In 1642 a company of Puritans, who had 
been expelled from Virginia for nonconform- 
ity, settled in Maryland, and soon began to 
manifest a spirit of resistance to the authority 
of the proprietary. Clayborne also had re- 
turned from his exile and regained possession 
of Kent island. The efforts of the governor 
to dispossess him not only failed, but Clayborne 
and his partisans, with the Puritan party, made 
themselves complete masters of the province, 
and compelled the governor in his turn to fly 
into Virginia. This event occurred in 1645. 


In 1647 the governor returned at the head of | 


a military force and recovered possession. In 
1649 the assembly passed an act by which 
Christians of all sects were secured in the pub- 
lic profession of their faith, and allowed to 
worship God according to the dictates of their 
own consciences. The Puritans, whose arrival 
in the colony has already been noticed, settled 
at Providence, which at a later period received 
the name of Annapolis and became the seat of 
government. They still proved turbulent, and 
as a means of conciliating them their settle- 
ment was erected in 1650 into a separate coun- 
ty under the name of Anne Arundel; and 
still additional members of this denomination 
arriving from England, Charles county was or- 
ganized for them a short time afterward. From 
this time they began to exercise a controlling 
influence in public affairs. On the overthrow 
of the royal government and the establishment 
of the commonwealth in England, their party 
insisted upon an immediate recognition of the 
new order of things; but the authorities pro- 
ceeded to proclaim Charles II. In the next 
assembly it was found that the Puritans had a 
majority; and in 1652 commissioners from 
England visited Maryland, with whom were 
associated Clay.borne, the old opponent of the 
proprietary government, and Bennett, the lead- 
er of the Puritans of Anne Arundel county. 
They removed Gov. Stone, who was subse- 
quently reinstated by them, and completely es- 
tablished the authority of the commonwealth. 
Kent island was once more delivered up to Clay- 
borne, and he acquired also Palmer island at 
the mouth of the Susquehanna. In 1654 Lord 
Baltimore made a determined effort to regain 
possession of the province, and directed Gov. 
Stone to require all persons to take the oath 
of fidelity, and to reéstablish the proprietary 
government ; but Bennett and Clayborne, the 


MARYLAND 


former of whom was now governor of Vir- 
ginia, again interfered, and reversed all that 
Lord Baltimore had accomplished. . They es- 
tablished a commission for the government of 
the colony, and placed Capt. Fuller at its head. 
Hereupon a civil contest ensued, and hostilities 
were carried on by land and water. Providence 
was attacked by the proprietary party, but the 
Puritans were victorious, and killed or captured 
the whole invading force. Many of the cap- 
tives, among whom was Gov. Stone, were con- 
demned to death, and at least four of them 
were executed. This decisive action was fought 
March 25, 1655. Three years later the power 
of the proprietary was completely restored. 
In 1662 the Hon. Charles Calvert, son of the 
lord proprietary, was appointed governor, and 
so continued till 1676, when on the death of his 
father he succeeded to his rights, and appointed — 
Thomas Notely his representative. After the 
revolution of 1688 the government was assumed 
by King William, and in 1691 Sir Lionel Copley 
was sent out as governor. Among the first acts 
of importance under the new government was 
the removal of the capital from St. Mary’s to 
Providence, thenceforth known as Annapolis. 
In 1714 Benedict Leonard Calvert succeeded 
on the death of his father to his hereditary 
rights, and dying the following year was suc- 
ceeded by his son Charles, a Protestant. The 
principal obstacle to the recognition of the 
claim of this family being thus removed, the 
authority of the proprietary was restored 
throughout the colony after a suspension of 24 
years. Hart, the last of the royal governors, 
was continued in office. In January, 1730, 
Baltimore was laid out. In 1745 the ‘‘ Mary- 
land Gazette,” the first newspaper printed in 
Maryland, was established at Annapolis, and 
continued to be issued by the descendants of 
Thomas Green, its founder, until 1839. Fred- 
erick City was founded in 1745, and was so 
named after the son and successor of the then 
proprietary. Georgetown, now in the District 
of Columbia, was laid out in 1751, and, being 
at the head of the navigation of the Poto- 
mac, grew rapidly in population and trade. 
The policy of the English government was to 
repress all efforts to establish manufactures ; 
but in 1742 copper works were in operation, 
and in 1749 eight furnaces and nine forges; 
and wine was produced to a considerable ex- 
tent. The great staple export, however, was 
tobacco, of which 30,000 hogsheads were ex- 
ported annually, and for many purposes tobac- 
co was the currency of the province. In 1732 
it was made a legal tender at one penny a 
pound. Almost from the date of the founda- 
tion of the colony disputes with the neighbor- 
ing provinces regarding boundaries had been a 
serious cause of disquiet. The boundary with 
Virginia on the eastern shore was adjusted in 
1668 by the running of the ‘‘ Calvert and Scar- 
brough” line. That on the side of Delaware 
and Pennsylvania was not finally settled till 
1760, when commissioners were appointed to 


MARYLAND 


run the lines. The Pennsylvania boundary is 
known as ‘‘ Mason and Dixon’s line,” from the 
names of the surveyors who located it. (See Ma- 
SON AND Drxon’s Line.) The W. boundary was 
surveyed in 1859 by commissioners appointed 
by Maryland and Virginia. The line along the 
Potomac remains still formally unadjusted, 
Maryland claiming the §S. branch, and West 
Virginia the N. branch, while in the main 
stream Virginia claims the N. bank and Mary- 
land the S. bank as the boundary. This dis- 
pute involves valuable riparian rights, and in 
Chesapeake bay productive oyster fisheries. 
In the long and bloody contest which annihi- 
lated the French dominion in America, Mary- 
land bore an active part. Until the capture of 
Fort Duquesne in 1758, the western parts of 
the colony were kept in constant terror, and 
large numbers sought refuge in Baltimore and 
other coast towns. The stamp act and the tea 
duty act were alike opposed by the people of 
Maryland, and in December, 1774, the proprie- 
tary government was practically superseded by 
a convention of the people. Another conven- 
tion assembled in August, 1776, and in Septem- 
ber presented a bill of rights and a constitu- 
tion, which were adopted in November. The 
first elected legislature assembled at Annapo- 
lis, Feb. 5, 1777, and on the 18th Thomas John- 
son was chosen the first republican governor. 
Throughout the war the Maryland troops were 
remarkably efficient, and under the title of the 
“Maryland line” took a high position in the 
continental army. In 1783 congress met at 
Annapolis, and here on Dec. 238 Washington 
resigned his commission. The federal con- 
stitution was adopted in the Maryland con- 
vention by a vote of 63 to 11, on April 28, 
1788. During the war of 1812, Admiral Cock- 
burn, the British naval officer, committed a 
series of depredations on the shores of Chesa- 
peake bay, and plundered and burned French- 
town, Havre de Grace, Fredericktown, and 
Georgetown. The Maryland militia opposed 
the march of the British to Washington in 1814, 
but without effect. On Sept. 12 of the same 
year was fought the battle of North Point, in 
which the British general Ross was killed, and 
the Americans gained a slight advantage; and 
on the next day the invaders began an attack 
upon Baltimore by the bombardment of Fort 
McHenry. The defence was bravely conduct- 
ed, and on the 16th the British fleet weighed 
anchor and made sail down the bay. The Bal- 
timore and Ohio railroad was commenced in 
1828, and completed to the Point of Rocks on 
the Potomac in 1832, but it was not opened to 
Wheeling till 1853. The Chesapeake and Ohio 
canal was undertaken by a company formed in 
1828, and was completed in 1850. In 1802 and 
1810 the constitution was amended, and in 1836 
it was essentially remodelled. In 1845-’6 it 
was again amended, and in 1851 a new consti- 
tution was adopted. At the beginning of the 
civil war many citizens of Maryland favored 
secession, and many subsequently entered the 


MARY MAGDALENE 231 
confederate army. The first hostile demon- 
stration was the attack on the sixth Massachu- 
setts regiment in Baltimore, April 19, 1861. 
(See Battimorr.) ‘The legislature, which met 
at Frederick on the 26th in pursuance of a 
proclamation of the governor, refused ‘to pass 
an ordinance of secession, but took various 
measures looking to neutrality, and passed res- 
olutions assenting to the independence of the 
confederate states and opposing the war. At 
the election which took place in November the 
Union candidate for governor was elected by a 
majority of 31,412 in a total vote of 83,584, 
and a legislature almost unanimously in favor 
of the Union was chosen. Henceforth the 
state authorities were active in support of the 
war, and 49,730 men were contributed by 
Maryland to the federal armies. In Septem- 
ber, 1862, the battle of Antietam, the principal 
engagement that took place in Maryland, was 
fought, and in June, 1863, the state was in- 
vaded by Lee in his advance into Pennsylva- 
nia. Another invasion, under Gen. Early, took 
place in July, 1864, and a battle was fought 
on the Monocacy river (July 9). In October, 
1864, a new constitution was ratified by the 
people by a vote of 30,174 to 29,799, which 
abolished slavery and disfranchised all who 
had aided or encouraged rebellion against the 
United States. The present constitution was 
adopted Sept. 18, 1867. (See supplement.) 

MARY OF BURGUNDY. See Maxiirian I. 

MARY OF THE INCARNATION (Marie Gouy- 
ARD), an Ursuline nun, called the St. Theresa of 
New France, born in Tours, France, Oct. 18, 
1599, died in Quebec, April 30, 1672. By the 
will of her father she married at 17 M. Mar- 
tin, a silk manufacturer. Having been left a 
widow at 19, she superintended a factory till 
her son was 12 years of age, and then, on Jan. 
25, 1631, entered an Ursuline convent. She 
went to Canada in 1639, and founded the Ur- 
suline convent in Quebec. She acquired the 
Huron and Algonquin languages, taught French 
and Indian pupils, and evinced great judgment 
and ability in directing her community and in 
aiding the rising colony. She was one of the 
first to call the attention of the French goy- 
ernment to the vital importance of securing 
the mouth of the Hudson from the Dutch, if 
France desired to hold Canada. Her letters, 
which form a valuable body of contempora- 
neous information, and are esteemed in a re- 
ligious point of view, were published in 1681. 
Her life has been written by her son, the Ben- 
edictine Dom Claude Martin (Paris, 1677), by 
Father Charlevoix (Paris, 1724), and by the 
abbé Casgrain (Quebec, 1864). 

MARY MAGDALENE (probably so called from 
Magdala, a town of Galilee), a woman men- 
tioned by St. Luke (viii. 2) as ‘‘ Mary called 
Magdalene, out of whom went seven devils,” 
among those who accompanied Jesus and ‘‘ min- 
istered unto him of their substance” (viii. 3). 
She is commonly supposed to be the same as 
the “‘woman, which was a sinner,” of whom 


232 


St. Luke previously relates (vii. 87, 88) that | 


as Jesus sat at meat in the house of Simon the 
Pharisee she washed his feet with tears and 
wiped them with the hairs of her head, and 
anointed them; but there is no evidence of 
their identity. The supposition has also been 
entertained that she is identical with Mary the 
sister of Martha and Lazarus; but beyond the 
similarity of name, the affectionate devotion 
to Jesus Christ which distinguished both, the 
fact that the sister of Martha also anointed 
the feet of Jesus, and the opinion of some of 
the early fathers, among whom is St. Gregory 
the Great, no foundation for it has been as- 
signed. Origen discusses the opinion fully, and 
rejects it. Mary Magdalene stood by Jesus on 
the cross, and was present when Joseph of 
Arimathea laid him in the sepulchre. On the 
first day of the week she came early to the 
tomb, and finding it open ran and told Peter 
and John that they had ‘‘taken away the Lord 
out of the sepulchre”” (John xx. 2). Returning 
to the place with these apostles, she saw ‘‘two 
angels in white sitting, the one at the head, 
and the other at the feet, where the body of 
Jesus had lain” (xx. 12). Immediately after- 
ward Christ himself appeared to her, and an- 
nounced his approaching ascension. Of her 
subsequent life nothing is known, but it is the 
theme of numerous legends. The tradition 
that she passed the latter part of her life in 
penitential exercises in the desert was treated 
by Guido, Correggio, Canova, and many other 
great masters. 

MARY STUART, queen of Scots, born in the 
palace of Linlithgow in December, 1542, be- 
headed at Fotheringay castle, Northampton- 
shire, England, Feb. 8, 1587. The precise 
date of her birth is unknown, for though it is 
commonly stated Dec. 8, there seems reason 
to believe that the event must have occurred 
on the 11th or 12th of that month; and it was 
probably antedated on account of the 8th being 
one of the four great festivals of the Catholic 
church in honor of the Virgin. She was the 
daughter of James V., seventh king of the 
Stuart line, and of Mary of Lorraine, daughter 
of Claude, duke of Guise, the founder of that 
family which had so conspicuous a part in the 
politics of France in the 16th century. Her 
birth took place at one of the dreariest periods 
of Scottish history, her father dying when she 
was but a few days old (Dec. 13), of mortifica- 
tion consequent on the defeats which the Scotch 
had voluntarily met with from the English at 
Fala Muir and Solway Moss, the nobles being 
opposed to his policy. The earl of Arran, head 
of the house of Hamilton, and heir presump- 
tive to the throne, was made regent by the 
parliament. Mary was crowned Sept. 9, 1543. 
The first two years of her life were spent at 
Linlithgow, and she was then removed to Stir- 
ling. Henry VIII. of England demanded her 
hand for his son, the prince of Wales, after- 
ward Edward VI. At first he was success- 
ful, and a treaty was made, July 1, 1543, pro- 


MARY STUART 


viding that Mary should be sent to England 
when she should have attained the age of 10 
years, and that she should marry Edward as 
soon thereafter as possible. In five months 
this treaty was broken, the French and Catho- 
lic party triumphing over the English and 
Protestant party. An alliance was made with 
France, Dec. 15, and Henry declared war 
against Scotland, which his troops invaded. 
After his death, the protector Somerset con- 
tinued his policy, and defeated the Scotch in 
the battle of Pinkie, Sept. 10, 1547. Mean- 
time the queen had lived at Stirling castle, 
with her governors, Lords Erskine and Living- 
ston; but after the battle of Pinkie she was 
taken to the monastery of Inchmahome, on an 
island in Lake Menteith. Her mother and the 
regent Arran betrothed her to the dauphin 
of France, son of Henry II., and she sailed to 
that country from Dumbarton in July, 1548, 
and arrived at Brest Aug. 14. She was ac- 
companied by four young ladies, Mary Living- 
ston, Mary Fleming, Mary Beaton, and Mary | 
Seaton, who were called ‘the four Marys.” 
She was warmly received by Henry II., who 
treated her as a daughter. The French court 
was brilliant, learned, and licentious. Mary’s 
Latin master was George Buchanan, one of the 
first scholars of the 16th century; and Ron- 
sard taught her poetry. At 13 she pronounced 
a Latin oration which was much applauded. 
In 1551 her hand was formally demanded of 
Henry IJ. for Edward VI., but she herself re- 
fused to listen to the demand. The wide- 
spread dominion and power of the Spanish 
branch of the house of Austria having in- 
creased the fear of the house of Valois, Henry 
II. determined to complete his alliance with 
Scotland, and the dauphin Francis and Mary 
were married, April 24, 1558. The open con- 
ditions of the marriage were honorable to 
Scotland; but there were two secret acts of 
grave moment. By the first Mary gave Scot- 
land to the sovereigns of France, in reward for 
the services which Henry II. and his predeces- . 
sors had rendered that country against the 
English; and by the second she provided 
against the non-execution of the first. She 
also conveyed to Henry any claims that might 
accrue to her upon England and Ireland. Henry 
was to have the usufruct of Scotland until he 
should have repaid himself for what he had 
expended in her defence. These debts had 
never been accepted by Scotland. Mary had 
secretly protested in advance against the en- 
gagements she had entered into with her own 
subjects, and declared her wish to annex Scot- 
land to France. The Scotch bestowed the 
crown matrimonial on Francis, and it was pro- 
vided that all acts should be published in the 
name of Francis and Mary, king and queen of 
Scotland, dauphin and dauphiness of Vienne. 
When Mary I. of England died, November, 
1558, Henry II. caused the dauphin to quarter 
the arms of England with those of Scotland, 
as he affected to believe that Mary Stuart was 


MARY STUART 


legitimate heir to the English crown, as de- 
scended from Margaret Tudor, eldest daughter 
of Henry VII., Elizabeth, daughter of Henry 
VII. by Anne Boleyn, having been declared 
illegitimate. This act was the cause of most 
of the trouble that afterward befell the Scot- 
tish queen. Henry II. dying July 10, 1559, 
Mary was queen of France trom that date till 
the death of her husband, Francis II., Dee. 5, 
1560. During his short reign the Guises, who 
led the Catholic party, ruled the king through 
their influence over his wife, their kinswoman. 
Suitors for her hand soon appeared—the kings 
of Sweden and Denmark, and Philip II. of 
Spain, who wished her to wed his son and heir 
Don Carlos. She was coldly treated in France, 
where Catharine de’ Medici, never her friend, 
had control of the government ; and she resolv- 
ed to return to Scotland. In that country the 
French Catholic party had been overthrown and 
the English Protestant party had triumphed, 
aided by Elizabeth’s forces. By the treaty of 
Edinburgh, July 5 and 6, 1560, it was provided, 
among other things, that the French should 
leave Scotland, and that the Scotch sovereigns 
should cease to bear the arms and title of 
the sovereigns of England. Mary had eluded 
the ratification of this treaty. When she re- 
solved to return to Scotland, she applied to 
Elizabeth for a safe-conduct through England, 
but it was refused, unless she would ratify the 
treaty of Edinburgh. Mary then embarked at 
Calais, Aug. 14, 1561, and arrived at Leith on 
the 19th, escaping the English cruisers. She 
left France with bitter regrets, and was herself 
much regretted there. Poets expressed the 
common feeling, and her own chanson bidding 
adieu to the country is universally known. On 
her arrival in Scotland, she found the power in 
the hands of the Protestants, and submitted to 
what it was impossible to resist. Her chief min- 
isters were her natural brother, the lord James 
Stuart, and Maitland of Lethington, who were 
among the ablest statesmen of the century. 
She expressed herself favorable to toleration, 
and asked it for herself, but obtained it with 
difficulty. Her position was one of great em- 
barrassment. Sincerely Catholic, she was the 
sovereign of a people who had accepted the 
reformation, and who had displayed the ut- 
most enmity to the old faith. Her joyous 
modes of life were regarded with abhorrence 
by most of her subjects, and prepared them to 
believe the worst that could be alleged against 
her. Still her reign for some time was pros- 
perous. Her brother, who was at that time 
attached to her, counselled her wisely and acted 
vigorously. The rebellious Gordons were con- 
quered. A good understanding with Elizabeth 
was effected, and preparations for a meeting 
of the two queens were partially made. Cir- 
cumstances made it advisable that Mary should 
marry. Elizabeth wished her to marry the 
earl of Arran, but to this Mary would not con- 
sent. She desired to become the wife of Don 
Carlos of Spain, and refused the dukes of Ne- 


233 


mours and Ferrara; but the Spanish marriagy 
met with so much opposition, both at home 
and abroad, that she had to abandon all idea 
of it. ‘She was urged to accept the hand of 
the archduke Charles, third son of Ferdinand 
I, (1563), but the proposition found no favor 
with her. Elizabeth then (1564) suggested Lord 
Robert Dudley, better known as the earl of 
Leicester, which Mary regarded as an insult. 
Mary finally determined to marry the lord 
Henry Darnley, son of the earl of Lennox. 
Darnley was nearly related to both queens, as 
his mother, the countess of Lennox, was the 
lady Margaret Douglas, daughter of the ear] of 
Angus and of Margaret Tudor, widow of James 
IV. of Scotland. He was handsome and ac- 
complished, but was fickle and his talents were 
small. The Catholics favored the match, and 
the Protestants opposed it; and so powerful 
were the latter that, headed by the queen’s 
brother, who had been created earl of Murray, 
and Lethington, they would have triumphed 
and Mary would have married Leicester, could 
Elizabeth have been prevailed upon to recog- 
nize her as her heir. The Scotch statesmen, 
who were supported by some of the English 
statesmen, exerted themselves to have this 
recognition made; but Elizabeth desired that 
Mary should first accept Leicester. This caused 
Mary to persevere in her design, which, how- 
ever, met with much opposition from Murray 
and others. Murray retired from the court, 
nor could Mary induce him to return to her 
service, or to consent to her marriage with 
Darnley. Elizabeth continued her opposition 
to the marriage, and sent to propose to Mary 
to choose either Leicester, the duke of Nor- 
folk, or the earl of Arundel. But neither her 
opposition, nor the extreme measures of the 
church of Scotland, nor the lawless proceed- 
ings of Murray and others, could now avail to 
stop the marriage. Darnley had been created 
lord of Ardmanach and earl of Ross, and on 
July 20, 1565, he was made duke of Albany; 
and nine days later the marriage took place. 
On the previous day Mary had conferred on 
him the title of king. The alliance must have 
been popular in Scotland, or Mary could not have 
triumphed in opposition to so many powerful 
influences; but it caused dismay in England. 
Murray headed a rebellion, relying on English 
assistance; but Mary’s energetic proceedings 
led to his prompt defeat, and the assertion of 
the royal authority. Unfortunately, her suc- 
cess led Mary to entertain the idea of over- 
throwing Protestantism, whereas she had suc- 
ceeded only because her subjects had believed 
her to be upholding the existing system against 
the designs of a few ambitious and selfish no- 
bles. She put herself in communication with 
the courts of France and Spain, and with the 
pope. From Spain and Rome she received 
some money, but Philip II. could afford her no 
military assistance, though he intimated that 
he might furnish it at a future period. Mary 
now assumed a high tone toward Elizabeth ; 


234 


and as she was supported by the French and 
Spanish ambassadors, the English queen had 
to abate her pretensions. Murray was desirous 
of pardon, and appears to have been sincerely 
anxious to return to his allegiance; but Mary 
was resolved on his destruction, and on that 
of most of his associates. She was now much 
under the influence of David Rizzio, one of 
those clever Italian adventurers who then 
swarmed over Europe, and who filled every 
kind of employment in all countries, from that 
of the statesman to that of the spy. The 
queen’s love for Darnley was of brief endu- 
rance, his worthlessness having soon become 
apparent. They quarrelled, and Darnley af- 
fected to believe he had been dishonored by 
Rizzio. Darnley wished for the crown mat- 
rimonial, meaning an equal share in the royal 
authority, which Mary had promised him in 
the days of their attachment. This promise 
she now refused to keep, and Darnley attrib- 
uted her decision to Rizzio. She had also 
joined the league of the Catholic sovereigns 
of the continent to exterminate Protestant- 
ism. Darnley entered into a vast conspiracy, of 
which the murder of Rizzio was a mere item, 
but the only one that was successfully executed. 
His chief abettors were Lord Ruthven, the earl 
of Morton, chancellor of Scotland, the earl of 
Lennox, Darnley’s father, Lethington, Lord 
Lindesay, and John Knox. The conspiracy 
was known to Elizabeth and her ministers. 
On the evening of March 9, 1566, several of 
the conspirators entered the room where Mary 
was supping, with Rizzio and others, in Holy- 
rood palace, and dragged the Italian to the 
entrance of the presence chamber, on the stairs 
of which he was slain, receiving 56 wounds. 
Darnley was one of the most active of those 
who entered the queen’s cabinet; he tore Riz- 
zio from the hold he had on the queen’s gar- 
ments, and held her while his associates de- 
spatched the Italian. Mary was for a time the 
prisoner of the conspirators, but by deceiving 
Darnley she effected her escape. Murray re- 
turned, and while she was reconciled to him 
and his immediate friends, she pursued the 
murderers of Rizzio with implacable resent- 
ment. Seventy of them, headed by Morton, 
fled to England; Lennox was banished from the 
court, and Lethington deprived of his office. 
She no longer disguised her hatred of Darnley. 
On June 19 she gave birth to her only child, 
afterward James VI. of Scotland and James I. 
of England. At this time her connection with 
the earl of Bothwell commenced. He was 
powerful, bold, unscrupulous, and accomplish- 
ed, and it was natural that Mary should wish 
to secure his services; but her enemies charge 
that she entertained a criminal passion for him. 
Be that as it may, she showed him high favor, 
while she treated her husband more contemptu- 
ously than ever. A plan for the destruction of 
Darnley was formed by Lethington, who wished 
to gratify the queen by ridding her of her hus- 
band, either by divorce or by murder, and to 


MARY STUART 


effect the restoration of Morton and his asso- 
ciates. Bothwell joined the conspiracy, as did 
other great nobles. Murray did not oppose it. 
It is charged that it was communicated to the 
queen, and that she offered no serious oppo- 
sition to it. A bond to cut off the king, and 
to protect each other, was drawn up and signed 
by the conspirators. Morton, on his return, 
was ready to join them if he could have 
the queen’s written warrant, which Bothwell 
sought to obtain, but unsuccessfully.- Darn- 
ley was then ill of the smallpox at Glasgow. 
There he was visited by Mary, and a recon- 
ciliation was apparently effected. On his re. 
covering sufficiently to travel he was removed 
to the provost’s house at Kirk of Field, near 
Edinburgh, where Mary attended him with 
much apparent kindness, passing several nights 
under his roof. This house was blown up by 
gunpowder on the night of Feb. 9, 1567, while . 
the queen was attending a masquerade at Holy- 
rood palace. Of Bothwell’s guilt of this mur- 
der there is no doubt whatever, but Mary’s 
part in it is not so clear; and the main point 
in that “ Marian controversy” which has con- 
tinued to the present time turns upon the ques- 
tion of her participation in Bothwell’s con- 
spiracy. The impression at Edinburgh was 
unfavorable to her, and did not lack expres- 
sion; and her indifference, and her refraining 
from any exertion to punish those who were 
loudly accused by the general voice, deepened 
the belief in her guilt. Instead of complying 
with Lennox’s demand for the arrest of Both- 
well, she heaped favors upon the murderer. 
Public opinion, as pronounced both at home 
and abroad, compelled her to order that Both- 
well should be tried; but his trial was a 
mockery, the government acting scandalously 
in his behalf, and he was acquitted. New and 
signal marks of favor were bestowed upon 
him, and the whole power of the government 
was in his hands. He sought to marry the 
queen, and was divorced from his wife. At a 
tavern supper, to which he invited many of 
the nobles and others, he procured, partly by 
intimidation and partly by falsehood, their 
signatures to a bond declaring him innocent, 
and recommending the queen to marry him. 
On April 24, while returning from Stirling to 
Edinburgh, she was seized by Bothwell, and 
conducted to his castle of Dunbar. She was 
allowed to return to Edinburgh on May 3, 
when Bothwell’s divorce was completed. Her 
intention to marry him was then announced. 
He was made duke of Orkney, and on May 15 
they were married. This marriage created 
universal disgust. A conspiracy which had 
been formed against Bothwell, composed of 
the chief nobles, now assumed a serious mag- 
nitude, and hostilities broke out early in June. 
The confederates seized Edinburgh, and when 
the two armies met on Carberry hill, June 15, 
Mary was deserted by most of her troops, and 
was compelled to surrender. Bothwell fled, 
and never returned. The queen was com- 


MARY STUART 


mitted to Lochleven castle, where on July 24 
she signed an act of abdication in favor of her 
son, and other acts arranging the government, 
of which Murray was to be the head as re- 
gent. These acts were extorted from her, and 
depended for their validity entirely upon the 
power of the confederates to maintain their 
position. On Murray’s return from France, he 
visited Mary, and by working on her fears he 
had the art to make’her request him to accept 
the regency. Parliament passed an act vir- 
tually dethroning the queen, and charging her 
with being privy to Darnley’s murder. On 
May 2, 1568, she made her escape from Loch- 
leven, and rallied a powerful force to her sup- 
port, which was defeated at Langside, May 13, 
by Murray. Mary fled to England, which she 
entered May 16. There was no occasion for 
this course, which was the most unwise she 
could have adopted. At first she was treated 
with some consideration by Elizabeth, but the 
latter assumed the part of judge between Mary 
and her opponents, and affected to decide on 
her guilt or innocence of the charges preferred 
against her. The examinations were unfairly 
conducted, and injured Mary’s reputation. Du- 
ring the early years of her residence in Eng- 
land she was variously treated, and it was not 
till 1573, when her party in Scotland was finally 
overthrown, that she lost all hope of deliver- 
ance from that quarter. She was concerned 
in various attempts against Elizabeth’s govern- 
ment, and sought to marry the duke of Nor- 
folk. She intrigued with the king of Spain, 
and with other foreigners of eminence, for her 
liberation. The northern rebellion, headed by 
the dukes of Northumberland and Westmore- 
land, which was the last open effort made by 
the Catholics to restore the old faith, she dis- 
couraged. At one time, in 1571, Elizabeth 
was on the point of restoring her; but in 1572 
she engaged in a treaty with the Scotch gov- 
ernment for the surrender of Mary, who was 
to have been tried, condemned, and put to 
death. This plan failed through the death of 
the regent Mar, as it had previously failed 
through the deaths of the regents Murray and 
Lennox. Her hand was sought by Leicester, 
by Sir George Carey, a near relative of Eliza- 
beth, and by Don John of Austria. She was 
confined in various places, her chief custodian 
being the earl of Shrewsbury. In most cases 
her treatment was outrageous, and shows the 
extent of Elizabeth’s personal hatred of the 
woman she had wronged, and that she desired 
to effect her destruction. Mary was both 
feared and hated by the reformers, who de- 
manded her death through the ministers of 
Elizabeth and through parliament. She was 
believed to be the principal person in all the 
numerous conspiracies against Elizabeth, though 
with most of them she could have had no con- 
nection. An “association” was formed, di- 
rected not only against those who should do 
violence to Elizabeth, but also against those 
for whose benefit the crime should be com- 


235 


mitted. Parliament sanctioned this association 
in 1585. Babington’s conspiracy was formed 
in 1586, one of the objects of which was to 
liberate Mary, who had some correspondence 
with Babington, in which no encouragement, 
however, was given to his designs against Eliz- 
abeth. This conspiracy early became known 
to Elizabeth’s ministers, who nursed ‘it, until 
even the queen became alarmed, and compelled 
the arrest of the assassins. It was then re- 
solved to proceed against Mary, who had been 
removed to Fotheringay castle, Sept. 25, 1586. 
A commission, composed of 46 persons, was 
appointed to try her. At its head was the 
chancellor, Bromley, and the treasurer, Bur- 
leigh, was one of its members. The other 
members were all persons of eminence, either 
state officers, or peers, or lawyers. This com- 
mission, of which 11 members refused to act, 
met at Fotheringay castle on Oct. 11, 1586, 
and, after overcoming Mary’s original deter- 
mination not to acknowledge its jurisdiction, 
proceeded with the trial on the 14th. She 
defended herself with skill and success against 
the great array of talent on the other side, and 
the commissioners durst not come to a decision 
in her presence. They adjourned to West- 
minster, after sitting two days, and on Oct. 
25 they unanimously declared her guilty. It 
was not until Nov. 19 that Mary was informed 
of their decision, and she heard it with calm- 
ness. Efforts to save her life were made by 
the governments of France and Scotland. The 
publication of the sentence of death, Dec. 4, 
in London, was received with extravagant de- 
monstrations of joy. Parliament urged execu- 
tion. Elizabeth, however, seemed reluctant to 
proceed to extremities, and for six weeks the 
warrant for her execution remained unsigned 
in the hands of Davison; nor is it certain that 
she ever signed it. A warrant purporting to 
bear her signature was given by Burleigh and ~ 
his associates to Beale, Feb. 3, 1587, but there 
is evidence that it may have borne that signa- 
ture in consequence of a forgery effected by 
one Harrison, a clerk in the service of Secre- 
tary Walsingham, the most implacable and dis- 
honest of Mary’s enemies. An attempt to 
induce her jailers to poison her, in which 
Walsingham and Davison were the principal 
instruments, had failed. On Feb. 7 the earls 
of Kent and Shrewsbury proceeded to Fother- 
ingay castle, and informed Mary that she must 
prepare to die the next morning, at 8 o’clock. 
She was taken by surprise, but bore herself 
with characteristic firmness. She made all 
her preparations for death with deliberation, 
and at the appointed time proceeded to the 
scaffold, which had been erected in the ban- 
queting hall. She was denied the presence of 
her almoner, and was rudely importuned to 
change her faith by the bigoted dean of Peter- 
borough, and by the brutal earl of Kent, whose 
efforts she quietly but firmly repulsed. She 
died with heroic bravery; and even when the 
executioner at first struck her on the skull, in- 


236 MARY STUART 


flicting a horrible wound, she did not shrink 
or groan. Two more blows were necessary 
to despatch her. After being contemptuously 
neglected for six months, her remains were 
buried in Peterborough cathedral, Elizabeth 
acting as chief mourner through Lady Bed- 
ford; and 25 years afterward they were re- 
moved to Henry VII.’s chapel, in Westminster 
abbey, by order of her son James I. When 
Elizabeth was informed of Mary’s death, she 
expressed great indignation, forbade Burleigh 
and Walsingham her presence as the sole au- 
thors of the crime, and sent their principal 
tool, Secretary Davison, to the tower, and had 
him fined £10,000. Davison’s word is all the 
evidence that exists of Elizabeth having signed 
the warrant, and he was not only a witness in 
his own cause, but had been concerned in an 


attempt to induce Mary’s jailers secretly to 


poison her.—The question of Mary’s guilt or 
innocence of the crimes charged against her 
has been vehemently debated for three cen- 
turies, and hundreds of works have been writ- 
ten on it, while she has been a favorite charac- 
ter with poets and novelists. The question 
seems no nearer to a solution now than it was 
in the early days of her residence in England, 
when it was debated by George Buchanan on 
the one side, and by Lesley, bishop of Ross, 
her champion, on the other. Among the nu- 
merous works in relation to Mary, we cite 
those of Lesley, ‘‘Defence of the Honor of 
Marie, Quene of Scotland and Dowager of 
France” (London, 1569); George Buchanan, 
De Maria Scotorum Regina, &c. (London, 
1571; translated into English by Robert Leck- 
previk, and also into French); William Udall, 
‘‘ Historie of the Life and Death of Mary, 
Queen of Scotland” (London, 1624); William 
Sanderson, ‘‘Compleat History of the Lives 
and Reigns of Mary, Queen of Scotland, and 
of her son James VI.” (London, 1656); ‘“ The 
Genuine Letters of Mary, Queen of Scots, to 
James, Earl of Bothwell,” translated from the 
French originals by Edward Simmonds (West- 
minster, 1721); Jebb, ‘History of the Life 
and Reign of Mary, Queen of Scots and Dow- 
ager of France, extracted from original Rec- 
ords,” &c. (London, 1725); James Anderson, 
“Collections relating to the History of Mary, 
Queen of Scotland” (Edinburgh, 1727-’8) ; 
De Marsy, Histoire de Marie Stuart (London 
and Paris, 1742-3); Goodall, ‘“‘ Examination 
of the Letters said to be written by Marie, 
Queen of Scots, to James, Earl of Bothwell; 
also an Enquiry into the Murder of King Hen- 
ry? (Edinburgh, 1754); Robertson, “ History 
of Scotland during the Reigns of Queen Mary 
and of James VI.” (London, 1759); Tytler, 
“An Enquiry, Historical and Critical, into 
the Evidence of Mary, Queen of Scots” (Edin- 
burgh, 1759); Whitaker, ‘‘ Mary, Queen of 
Scots, Vindicated” (London, 1788); Thomas 
Robertson, ‘‘ History of Mary, Queen of Scot- 
land” (Edinburgh, 1793); George Chalmers, 
‘Life of Mary, Queen of Scots,’”’ &c. (Lon- 


MARYVILLE 


don, 1818); Miss Benger, ‘‘Memoirs of Mary 
Stuart’ (London, 1822); Hugh Campbell, ‘‘ The 
Case of Mary, Queen of Scots, and of Eliza- 
beth, Queen of England,” and ‘‘ Love Letters 
of Mary, Queen of Scots, and the Earl of Both- 
well” (London, 1825); Miss Strickland, ‘‘ Let- 
ters of Mary, Queen of Scots” (Lendon, 1842), 
and “ Lives of the Queens of Scotland” (Edin- 
burgh, 1850-56); Prince Labanoff de Rostov, 
Lettres, instructions et mémoires de Marie Stu- 
art (7 vols., London, 1844; English translation, 
1845); Dargaud, Histoire de Marie Stuart 
(Paris, 1850); Chéruel, Marie Stuart et Cathe- 
rine de Médicis (Paris, 1858); Teulet, Lettres de 
Marie Stuart (Paris, 1859); Joseph Robertson, 
‘‘ Catalogues of the Jewels, Dresses, Furniture, 
Books, and Paintings of Mary, Queen of Scots” 
(Edinburgh, 1863); Flandre, ‘‘ History of Mary 
Stuart, Queen of Scots,” translated from the 
manuscript of Prof. Petit (2 vols., London, 
1874); Hosack, ‘‘ Mary, Queen of Scots, and 
her Accuser”’ (2d ed., London, 1874); and ‘‘The 
Letter Books of Sir Amias Poulet, Keeper of 
Mary, Queen of Scots,” edited by John Morris 
(London, 1874). See also,Froude’s ‘ History 
of England,” vols. vii.—xii. (London, 1870), and 
Meline, ‘‘ Mary, Queen of Scots, and her latest 
English Historian”? (New York, 1871). 
MARYSVILLE, a city and the capital of Yuba 
co., California, situated at the junction of the 
Feather and Yuba rivers, on the Oregon divi- 
sion of the Central Pacific railroad at the inter- 
section of the California Northern line, 50 m. 
N. of Sacramento, and 110 m. N. N. E. of San 
Francisco; pop. in 1870, 4,738, of whom 1,417 
were Chinese. It stands onalevel plain. The 
streets are broad and regular, and the houses 
are generally built of brick. The Central Pa- 
cific railroad crosses the Yuba on a fine bridge. 
The Feather river is navigable at all seasons to 
this point by steamers of light draught. The 
city is the centre of a large trade with the mi- 
ning districts of the Sierra Nevada. There are 
several flouring mills, breweries, carriage fac- 
tories, a foundery and machine shop, a woollen 
factory, &c., a savings bank, and three private 
banks. The public schools are graded, inclu- 
ding a high school department, and have an 
average attendance of about 500 pupils. There 
are eight or ten private schools and academies, 
with an average attendance of about 250. The 
city has a newspaper, issuing daily and weekly 
editions, and eight churches. It was laid out 
in 1849, and incorporated in 1851. 
MARYVILLE, a town and the capital of 
Blount co., Tennessee, on the Knoxville and 
Charleston railroad, 16 m. S. by W. of Knox- 
ville; pop. in 1870, 811, of whom 108 were 
colored. It. is the seat of Maryville college 
(Presbyterian), founded in 1819 and chartered 
in 1842. The college embraces the ordinary 
collegiate course of four years, a ladies’ course 
of four years, preparatory courses, and an 
English course of three years. In 1878-4 it 
had 3 professors, 6 instructors, 131 students 
(collegiate, 25; preparatory, 24; ladies’ course, 


MASACCIO 


22; English course, 60), and a library of 2,000 
volumes. The grounds embrace 65 acres, and 
contain three buildings, recently erected at a 
cost of $50,000. The situation is noted for its 
healthfulness and beauty. 

MASACCIO, a Florentine painter, whose real 
name was Tommaso GuipI, born at San Gio- 
vanni, near Florence, early in the 15th cen- 
tury, died in 1448. He is said to have been a 
pupil of Masolino da Panicale, and from his 
personal habits was called Tommasaccio (short- 
ened to Masaccio), ‘‘slovenly Thomas.” While 
a young man he visited Rome, and painted 
there in the chapel of Santa Caterina in the 
church of San Clemente a series of frescoes 
from the life of St. Catharine, and other sub- 
jects, which are the earliest works ascribed to 
him with any certainty. In 1484 he returned 
to Florence. His frescoes illustrating the life 
of St. Peter, in the Brancacci chapel of the 
Carmelite church, introduced a marked im- 
provement in painting. The subjects were 
the ‘‘ Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Para- 
dise,” the “Tribute Money,” ‘Peter raising 
a Youth to Life,” ‘Peter and John healing 
the Cripple,” ‘Peter and John distributing 
Alms,” and ‘Peter baptizing Converts,” in 
which the figure of a young man who has 
thrown off his garment and is shivering with 
sudden cold is celebrated in the history of art. 

MAS A FUERA. See Cui, and Juan Frr- 
NANDEZ. 

MASANIELLO (a contraction of Tommaso Ant- 
ELLO), an Italian popular leader, born in Amalfi 
in 1620, assassinated in Naples, July 16, 1647. 
He was a fisherman, but headed a successful re- 
volt against the duke of Arcos, who as viceroy 
of Philip IV. of Spain, in order to defray the 
expenses of a war against France, had levied 
a tax on fruit and vegetables, the food of the 
common people. On July 7, 1647, a dispute 
in the market place as to which of two parties 
should pay the odious tax collected a crowd, 
into which Masaniello, who was a great favor- 
ite with the populace, ran shouting, ‘‘ No taxes, 
no taxes! long live the king of Spain! down 
with the bad government!” After speak- 
ing a few eloquent words, he was made by ac- 
clamation chief of the angry populace, which 
poured through the streets, demolishing the tax 
gatherers’ houses, burning palaces, opening 
prisons, and driving the viceroy into the castle. 
An impromptu commonwealth was organized, 
and Masaniello was proclaimed ‘“‘captain gen- 
eral of the Neapolitan people.” After an un- 
successful attempt by some nobles to make away 
with him, which resulted in the slaughter of the 
would-be assassins, the viceroy accepted articles 
drawn up by the insurgents, which abolished 
the imposts upon eatables, restored the privi- 
leges bestowed by Charles V., and granted a 
general amnesty, the Neapolitans to remain in 
arms until the articles should have been rati- 
fied by the king of Spain. This negotiation 
completed, Masaniello threw off the rich robes 
he had assumed, declared himself again a fish- 


MASCAGNI 237 


erman, and knelt at the feet of the cardinal arch- 
bishop of Naples. But the people would not 
suffer him to resign. The next day, after a 
feast with the duke of Arcos, he became delir- 
ious, whether from the effects of over-good 
fortune or of poison, and his whole nature 
changed. The reign of freedom now rapidly 
became a reign of terror. For four days long- 
er the people obeyed him; but on July 16, 
nine days after he became chief, he was assas- 
sinated in a convent, where he had taken ref- 
uge from their jeers. His body was dragged 
through the streets and subjected to all kinds 
of outrage, and his head was sent to the vice- 
roy. The next day head and body were put 
together by the fickle populace, who, to the 
number of 80,000, followed the remains to 
the tomb, where military honors were paid 
by order of the viceroy. He was killed as a 
tyrant, but was subsequently revered by the 
people as a liberator. Auber’s opera of La 
muette de Portici, also known as Masaniello, 
is founded upon his nine days’ career. Ca- 
rafa de Colobrano also wrote an opera, Masa- 
niello, which is now obsolete. 

MAS A TIERRA. See Juan Fernanvez. 

MASAYA, an inland city of Nicaragua, in the 
department of Granada, 15 m. §S. E. of Mana- 
gua; pop. about 12,000, nearly all Indians. It 
has not a single public edifice worthy of no- 
tice; but the suburbs, consisting of immense 
flower and fruit gardens dotted with Indian 
huts, are remarkably picturesque. The water 
supply is raised by a steam pump to the town, 
from a lagoon of the same name, with an area 
of 10 sq. m., a short distance 8. of and 368 ft. 
lower than Masaya. The chief industries are 
agriculture, and the manufacture of earthen- 
ware, hats, mats, hammocks, and some cotton 
and pita tissues. The feast of San Gerénimo, 
the patron of one of the four cantons into 
which the town is divided, is annually attended 
by about 50,000 persons. In the vicinity is a 
voleano of the same name, 2,972 ft. high, the 
last great eruption of which occurred March 
16, 1772, when a torrent of lava was poured 
out, which covers a portion of land 2 m. wide, 
forming a gloomy barren waste in the midst 
of the luxuriant vegetation by which it is sur- 
rounded. Not far from the city are rocks and 
ruins covered with antique red paintings and 
rude hieroglyphics. : 

MASCAGNI, Paolo, an Italian anatomist, born 
at Castelleto, near Siena, in 1752, died in Flor- 
ence, Oct. 19, 1815. He became professor of 
anatomy at the university of Siena in 1774, 
and in 1784 obtained a prize from the French 
academy of sciences. In 1787 appeared his 
most important work, Vasorum Lymphatico- 
rum COorporis Humani Historia et Iconogra- 
phia. From 1801 till his death he was pro- 
fessor of anatomy, physiology, and chemistry 
in the hospital of Santa Maria at Florence. He 
left Anatomia per uso degli studiosi di scultura 
e pittura (Florence, 1816), and Anatomia uni- 
versa, with illustrations (Pisa, 1823-31). 


238 MASCARA 


MASCARA, a town of Algeria, in the province 
and 45 m. 8. E. of the city of Oran; pop. in 
1866, 9,442. It has two public squares, two 
market places, a mosque, and carpet factories. 
It was the residence of Abd-el-Kader, and in 
1885 was burned down by the French. Sub- 
sequently it was rebuilt, and it is now an im- 
portant emporium of inland trade. 

MASCARENE ISLES, the name of a group of 
islands in the Indian ocean including Mauritius 
(formerly Isle of France) and Rodriguez, which 
belong to Great Britain, and the French island 
of Réunion (formerly Bourbon). The name is 
derived from that of Mascarenhas, the Portu- 
guese discoverer of the group. 

MASCOUTINS, an Algonquin tribe, near Lake 
Michigan, who figure largely in early French 
accounts. They were closely united with the 
Foxes and Kickapoos, and when first known 
to the French, about 1620, were at war with 
the Ottawas and even with the Neutral Nation 
on Niagarariver. Allouez in 1669 found them 
on the Wisconsin, and later they were on the 
Fox. Some at a still later day removed to the 
Ohio. In 1712 they joined the Foxes and 
Kickapoos against the French, and maintained 
a hostile attitude till the close of the French 
rule. They showed similar hostility to the Eng- 
lish, attacking Col. Croghan near the Wabash 
in 1765; and to the Americans, attempting to 
cut off Clarke by treachery in 1777. In all 
these operations they appear acting with one 
of their kindred tribes, and in this century are 
never treated as a distinct body. The Hurons 
called them Asistaeronon, or Fire Nation, but 
some writers at an early date declared the 
translation erroneous, and maintained that the 
name Mascoutin meant prairie. 

MASERES, Francis, commonly called Baron 
Maséres, an English mathematician, born in 
London, Dec. 15, 1731, died at Reigate, May 
19, 1824, He was educated at Cambridge, 
studied law, and after a few years’ practice 
was appointed attorney general for Canada, and 
resided in Quebec till 1773. After his return 
to England he recommended conciliatory mea- 
sures with the American colonies, and was ap- 
pointed to the sinecure office of cursitor baron 
of the exchequer. He wrote “The Elements 
of Plane Trigonometry” (1750); a treatise 
against the abuse of the negative sign in alge- 
bra (1758); a learned treatise on ‘ Life An- 
nuities” (1783); and numerous papers in the 
‘Philosophical Transactions.” He also pub- 
lished Seriptores Logarithmici (6 vols., 1791- 
1807), and Scriptores Optici (1823). 

MASHAM, Abigail, lady, the favorite of Queen 
Anne of England, born about 1670, died Dec. 
6, 1734. The place of her birth was probably 
London, where her father, Francis Hill, was a 
merchant, and married the aunt of the duchess 
of Marlborough, a Miss Jennings. He ruined 
himself by becoming a speculatcr, and Abigail, 
his eldest daughter, became a waiting woman 
to the wife of Sir John Rivers. When the 
duchess of Marlborough learned of the poy- 


MASINISSA 


erty of her relatives, the Hills, she afforded 
them great assistance. By her influence Abi- 
gail was appointed bedchamber woman to the 
princess; but the arrogance of the duchess 
offended all the recipients of her bounty. 
Availing herself of her confidential position in 
the service of Anne, who had become queen, 
Abigail Hill was steadily undermining the 
duchess of Marlborough at court. Samuel 
Masham, a gentleman of the bedchamber to 
the prince of Denmark, became attached to 
Abigail, and the queen was the confidante of 
their courtship, of which the Marlboroughs 
knew nothing. Anne was present at their 
marriage, which took place in 1707. After a 
long and bitter struggle, the Marlborough in- 
fluence was overthrown, the whig ministry 
was dismissed, and the tories came into. power, 
and made the treaty of Utrecht with Louis 
XIV. At the close of 1711 her husband was 
made Baron Masham of Otes, being one of the 
twelve peers created to enable the tory minis- 
ters to force their measures through the house 
of lords. In the quarrel between Oxford and 
Bolingbroke, Lady Masham sided with the 
latter. On the death of Queen Anne in 1714, 
her court favor came to an end, and she and 
her husband retired to their seat at Otes. 
MASINISSA, or Massinissa, a king of Numidia, 
born about 240 B. C., died in 148. He was 
the son of Gala, king of the Massylians, the 
most powerful tribe in E. Numidia, and re- 
ceived a superior education at Carthage, which 
when he reached the age of manhood com- 
menced its second great struggle against Rome, 
under the lead of Hannibal. The Carthagin- 
ians prevailed on the Massylians to declare war 
against Syphax, king of the Massesylians, a 
rival Numidian tribe, who had espoused the 
cause of the Romans. Masinissa commanded 
his father’s army, routed Syphax (213), and 
crossed over to Spain, where the Numidian 
horse greatly contributed to the defeat of the 
brothers Oneius and Publius Scipio. Scipio 
Africanus the elder, by the return of Massiva, 
the captive nephew of the Numidian, to his 
uncle with presents and a courteous message, 
paved the way for a secret understanding with 
the latter, which proved disastrous to Carthage 
when Scipio finally carried the war into Af- 
rica. Masinissa is said to have been influenced 
by resentment against Hasdrubal, who had be- 
trothed to him his daughter Sophonisba, but 
in order to gain over Syphax broke his prom- 
ise and gave her to the latter. Returning to 
Africa, where his father had in the mean while 
died, Masinissa reconquered his kingdom from 
a usurper, but was soon attacked by the Car- 
thaginians and their new ally, was repeatedly 
routed, and saved his life by flight. At this 
juncture Scipio landed in Africa (204), and 
Masinissa was enabled not only to regain his 
possessions, but while assisting his victorious 
allies, jointly with Lelius, one of their com- 
manders, took Cirta, the capital of Syphax. 
Sophonisba became his captive, and soon his 


MASK 


wife. Being afraid of the influence of Has- 
drubal’s daughter over her new consort, Scipio 
severely reprimanded Masinissa, and asked the 
surrender of the Carthaginian woman as a cap- 
tive of Rome. Unable or unwilling, at the 
risk of his power, to defend the freedom of his 
wife, Masinissa saved her from the ignominy 
of Roman captivity by sending her a cup of 
poison, which she drank without hesitation. 
Syphax was sent to Italy, where shortly after 
he died. In spite of his tragic loss, Masinissa 
from ambition persisted in his fidelity to Rome, 
and his aid contributed not a little to the issue 
of the battle of Zama (202), in which he com- 
manded the cavalry on the right wing of Sci- 
pio’s army, and which terminated with the 
rout of Hannibal. Peace was concluded soon 
after (201), and Masinissa was rewarded by the 
victors with a part of the territories of Syphax. 
He reigned in peace for 50 years, developing 
the resources of his kingdom by the promotion 
of agriculture, and extending its limits by an- 
nexations from the possessions of Carthage, 
whieh were approved of by the senate of Rome, 
and in consequence of which a few years be- 
fore his death he once more entered the field 
of battle, when over 90 years old. His defeat 
of the Carthaginians made it easier for the 
Romans subsequently to conquer them; and 
‘the last Punic war commenced soon after, in 
the second year of which Masinissa died, leay- 
ing his possessions to be divided by Scipio 
among his three legitimate sons Micipsa, Gu- 
lussa, and Mastanabal, with rich donations to 
their very numerous illegitimate brothers. 

MASK, Iron. See IRon Mask. 

MASKELL, William, an English clergyman, 
born in Bath in 1814, He graduated at Uni- 
versity college, Oxford, in 1836, took orders in 
1837, and became rector of Corscombe, Dor- 
set, in 1842, chaplain to the bishop of Exeter 
in 1846, and vicar of St. Mary’s, Devon, in 
1847. In 1849, the ‘‘Gorham case” having 
been decided against Mr. Maskell’s views, he 
resigned his preferments, and, after an anima- 
ted correspondence with the archbishop of 
Canterbury, became a Roman Catholic. His 
principal works are: ‘‘ Ancient Liturgy of the 
Church of England” (1844); Monumenta Ri- 
tualia Ecclesie Anglicane (3 vols., 1846-7) ; 
‘‘Pissertation on Holy Baptism” (1848) ; 
‘Letter on the Temporal Power of the Pope 
and his Personal Infallibility” (1869); and 
‘Odds and Ends” (stories, &c., 1872). 

MASKELYNE, Nevil, an English astronomer, 
born in London, Oct. 6, 1732, died at Green- 
wich, Feb. 9, 1811. He graduated at Cam- 
bridge in 1754, took orders, officiated for some 
time as curate, and obtained a fellowship in 
1756. In 1758 he became a fellow of the royal 
society, and in 1761 was sent to St. Helena to 
observe the transit of Venus. Soon after re- 
turning he was sent out to Barbadoes on board 
the Princess Louisa, to test the merits of Har- 
rison’s new chronometers and Irvine’s marine 
chair. In 1765 he became astronomer royal at 

537 VOL. x1.—16 


- MASON 239 


Greenwich. . In 1772 he went to Scotland to 
determine the mean density of the earth by 
observing the effect of the mountain Schehal- 
lien upon the plumb line. He superintended 
the ‘‘ Nautical Almanac,” established at his 
suggestion, from 1767 till his death. He was 
the first to publish what is termed “a stand- 
ard catalogue of stars.” 

MASKINONGE, a S. W. county of Quebec, 
Canada, bounded 8. E. by Lake St. Peter, an 
expansion of the St. Lawrence river; area, 
3,221 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 15,079, of whom 
14,782 were of French origin or descent. It 
is drained in the N. W. by the Gatineau and 
Du Liévre rivers, and in the S. E. by the Mas- 
kinongé and Du Loup rivers and other streams. 
Capital, Riviére du Loup. 

MASON, the name of ‘six counties in the Uni- 
ted States. I. A W. county of West Virginia, 
bounded N. and W. by the Ohio river, and 
drained by the Great Kanawha and its tribu- 
taries; area, 300 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 15,978, 
of whom 534 were colored. It has a diversi- 
fied surface and fertile soil, and contains iron 
ore, coal, and valuable salt springs. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 115,350 bushels of 
wheat, 456,990 of Indian corn, 43,464 of oats, 
84,534 of potatoes, 58,600 lbs. of tobacco, 22,- 
853 of wool, and 4,853 tons of hay. There 
were 2,563 horses, 2,332 milch cows, 5,183 
other cattle, 9,880 sheep, and 9,879 swine. 
Capital, Point Pleasant. II. A W. central 
county of Texas, intersected by the Rio Llano, 
a branch of the Colorado, and watered by afflu- 
ents of the Llano and the San Saba; area, 910 
sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 678, of whom 26 were 
colored. About one tenth of the surface is 
prairie, and the rest timbered. Two thirds 
is suitable for farming. Stock raising is the 
principal business. The chief productions in 
1870 were 7,740 bushels of Indian corn, 593 
of sweet potatoes, 5,510 Ibs. of wool, 6,945 of 
butter, and 141 tons of hay. There were 183 
horses, 19,703 cattle, 1,943 sheep, and 2,829 
swine. Capital, Mason. IIE. A N. E. county 
of Kentucky, bordering on the Ohio river, in- 
tersected by the N. fork of Licking river, and 
drained by Limestone and Lee’s creeks; area, 
236 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 18,126, of whom 
8,582 were colored. The surface is diversified, 
hilly toward the north, and the soil fertile. 
The chief productions in 1870 were 72,850 
bushels of wheat, 54,450 of rye, 765,000 of 
Indian corn, 45,076 of oats, 42,140 of barley, 
41,731 of potatoes, 1,593,156 lbs. of tobacco, 
19,178 of wool, 106,829 of butter, and 4,744 
tons of hay. There were 4,132 horses, 1,361 
mules and asses, 2,598 milch cows, 5,221 oth- 
er cattle, 5,659 sheep, and 18,202 swine; 2 
manufactories of agricultural implements, 9 of 
carriages and wagons, 1 of cotton goods, 2 of 
woollen goods, 2 breweries, and 2 saw mills, 
Capital, Maysville. IV. A central county of 
Illinois, bounded N. W. by the Illinois and S. 
by the Sangamon rivers; area, 580 sq. m. ; 
pop. in 1870, 16,184, The surface is low, and 


240 


the soil, which is mostly prairie, very fertile. 
The Peoria, Pekin, and Jacksonville, the Spring- 
field and Northwestern, and the Jacksonville 
division of the Chicago and Alton railroad pass 
through it. The chief productions in 1870 were 
198,889 bushels of wheat, 49,182 of rye, 2,648,- 
726 of Indian corn, 272,660 of oats, 71,3845 of 
potatoes, 231,960 lbs. of butter, and 8,948 tons 
of hay. There were 6,541 horses, 1,988 mules 
and asses, 4,217 milch cows, 6,097 other cat- 
tle, 1,968 sheep, and 16,654 swine; 7 manu- 
factories of carriages, 4 of brick, 9 of saddlery 
and harness, and 5 flour mills. Capital, Ha- 
vana. V. A W. county of Michigan, border- 
ing on Lake Michigan, and drained by the 
Notipeskago, Marquette, and Great and Little 
Sable rivers; area, 460 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
3,263. The surface is generally level and the 
soil fertile. The chief productions in 1870 
were 4,768 bushels of wheat, 12,261 of Indian 


corn, 9,457 of oats, 37,515 of potatoes, and. 


636 tons of hay. There were 168 horses, 273 
milch cows, 520 other cattle, and 745 swine. 
Capital, Pére Marquette. VI. A W. county of 
Washington territory, having Puget sound on 
the E.; area, 1,600 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 289. 
The Olympus and Coast mountains extend 
through it, and between and among them are 
several broad and fertile valleys. Some lum- 
bering is carried on. The many inlets of the 
sound afford good harbors. The chief produc- 
tions in 1870 were 1,000 bushels of oats, 2,350 
of potatoes, and 412 tons of hay. The value 
‘of live stock was $14,250. Oapital, Oakland. 
MASON, the name of a family of Virginia. 
‘The first of the family who came to North 
America was Col. Georaz Mason, a member 
‘of the English parliament in the reign of 
Charles I. He opposed the arbitrary policy of 
the king, but resisted extreme measures against 
him. He was an officer in the army of Charles 
II., and after his defeat in Worcester in 1651 
escaped to Virginia, losing all his possessions 
in England. His great-grandson, of the same 
name, about 1726 married Anne Thomson, a 
favorite niece of Sir William Temple, and had 
by her two sons and a daughter. I. George, 
eldest son of George Mason and Anne Thom- 
son, born at Doeg’s Neck, in Stafford, now in 
Fairfax co., Va., in 1726, died in the autumn 
of 1792. In 1769 he drew up the non-impor- 
tation resolutions which were presented by 
Washington and adopted by the assembly of 
Virginia. In 1775 the convention of Virginia 
made him a member of the committee of safe- 
ty charged with the executive government of 
the colony. In 1776 he drafted the declara- 
tion of rights and the constitution of Virginia, 
which were adopted by a unanimous vote. He 
brought forward and carried through, in con- 
junction with Jefferson, a measure for the re- 
peal of the old disabling acts, and for legal- 
izing all modes of worship, releasing dissenters 
from parish rates. In 1777 he was elected a 
member of the continental congress; and ten 
years later he was a leading member of the 


MASON 


federal convention to frame the constitution of 
the United States, in which he took decided 
ground against all measures tending to the per- 
petuation of slavery. He was dissatisfied with 
the instrument when completed, and declined 
to sign it, declaring his apprehensions that it 
would result in a monarchy or a tyrannical 
aristocracy. Returning to Virginia, he was 
chosen a member of the convention called to 
ratify or reject the federal constitution, and in 
conjunction with Patrick Henry he led the 
opposition to the constitution in that body, in- 
sisting upon about 20 alterations, several of 
which were afterward adopted by congress 
and the states. He was elected the first Uni- 
ted States senator from Virginia under the 


constitution, but declined to accept the office. 


His statue stands with those of Jefferson, 
Henry, and other illustrious Virginians, at the 
base of Crawford’s colossal statue of Wash- 
ington in front of the capitol at Richmond. II. 
Thomson, younger brother of the preceding, 
born in 1730, died in 1785. He studied law 
in the Temple at London. He took strong 
ground against the aggressions of the British 
government, and as early as 1774 published a 
series of papers in which he maintained the 
duty of open resistance. The first numbers of 
these papers appeared under the signature of 
‘A British American,” but in the concluding 
one he made known his real name. In 1778 
he was appointed a member of the first su- 
preme court of Virginia, and was soon after- 
ward with his brother nominated by the sen- 
ate one of the revisers of the laws of Virginia. 
In 1779 he was elected a member of the house 
of delegates for Elizabeth City county. He 
was again a member in 1783, and served as 
chairman of the committee on courts of jus- 
tice. ILI, Stevens Thomson, eldest son of the 
preceding, born in Stafford, Va., in 1760, died 
in Philadelphia in 1803. At the age of 20 he 
reached the rank of colonel in the revolution- 
ary army. He was a member of the Virginia 
convention in 1788, and of the United States 
senate from 1794 until his death. He was dis- 
tinguished for wit and eloquence. IV. Armis- 
tead Thomson, son of the preceding, born in 
Loudon co., Va., in 1787, killed Feb. 5, 
1819. He served during the war of 1812 as 
colonel of a regiment of horse, and was sub- 
sequently a brigadier general of the Virginia 
militia. He was a member of the Virginia 
legislature, and in 1815-°17 of the United States 
senate. As it was supposed that he alone, on 
account of his great. personal popularity, could 
break down the federal champion Charles 
Fenton Mercer, he resigned from the senate 
to become a candidate for the house of repre- 
sentatives in the district of Loudon; but he 
was defeated by a small majority. The con- 
test was bitter, and resulted in several duels; 
among them was the famous conflict in which 
he himself was involved with his cousin Col. 
John Mason McCarty, in which he was killed. 
He left an only child, Stevens Thomson, who 


MASON 


volunteered in the Mexican war, and as a cap- 
tain of the mounted rifles was mortally wound- 
ed at Cerro Gordo. V. Richard B., grandson of 
George Mason, an officer of the United States 
army, died at Jefferson barracks, Mo., in 1850. 
He served in the Mexican war as colonel of 
dragoons, and was brevetted brigadier general 
in 1848 for ‘meritorious and distinguished ” 
services, He was the first civil and military 
governor of California. WI. James Murray, also 
a grandson of George Mason, born on An- 
alostan island, opposite Washington, Noy. 3, 
1798, died near Alexandria, Va., April 28, 
1871. He studied law, and in 1820 commenced 
practice in Winchester, Va. In 1826 he was 
elected to the Virginia house of delegates, and 
was twice reélected. In 1837 he was chosen 
a member of the lower house of congress. He 
declined a reélection and returned to the prac- 
tice of his profession. In 1847 he was appoint- 
_ ed to the United States senate to fill a vacancy, 
and in 1849 and again in 1855 was reélected. 
He took a prominent part in the senate, was 
for several years chairman of the committee on 
foreign relations, and drafted the fugitive slave 
law of 1850. He early took part in the seces- 
sion movement, and in July, 1861, was expelled 
from the senate. He was appointed confeder- 
ate commissioner to England and France, and 
on Nov. 8, 1861, with his colleague John Sli- 
dell, was captured in the Bahama channel on 
board the British mail steamer Trent, by Capt. 
Wilkes. He was confined in Fort Warren, 
Boston harbor, till Jan. 2, 1862, when he was 
given up to the British government. During 
the remainder of the war he resided mainly in 
Paris, as representative of the confederacy. 
After its close he went to Canada, where he 
remained three years, and then returned to 
Virginia. VII. Stevens Thomson, grandson of 
Stevens Thomson Mason, already mentioned, 
born in Loudon co., Va., in 1811, died in New 
York in January, 1848. His father, John T. 
Mason, removed to Kentucky, where the son 
was educated. In 1831 he was appointed sec- 
retary of the territory of Michigan, and on the 
translation of Gov. Cass to the war depart- 
ment at Washington, he became the acting 
governor. He held this office during the Ohio 
and Michigan boundary controversy, which ex- 
cited intense interest and bitter feeling; thou- 
sands of troops were marched to the line with 
the prospect of a sanguinary conflict. When 
Michigan organized itself as a state in 1835, he 
was unanimously elected her first governor, and 
was reélected for a second term. On retiring 
from office in 1839, he withdrew from political 
life, and removed to New York, where he prac- 
tised Jaw. VIII. John Y., descended more re- 
motely from the same stock as the above, born 
in Greensville, Va., April 18, 1799, died in Paris, 
Oct. 4, 1859. He graduated at the university 
of North Carolina, studied law, was for ten 
years a delegate in the Virginia general assem- 
bly, and filled several other offices in the state. 
He was a representative in congress from 1831 


241 


to 1887, when he was appointed judge of the 
United States court for Virginia, He was sec- 
retary of the navy under President Tyler, and 
successively attorney general and secretary of 
the navy under President Polk. By President 
Pierce he was appointed minister to France, 
where he continued until his death. 

MASON, Francis, an American missionary, born 
in York, England, April 2, 1799, died in Ran- 
goon, Burmah, March 3, 1874. His father was 
a shoemaker, but seems to have been also a 
Baptist preacher. Young Mason was with- 
drawn from the parish school to work at his 
father’s trade. While engaged in this employ- 
ment at Hull, whither his father had removed, 
he obtained a work on geography containing 
also an outline of astronomy, and was thus 
led to attend an evening school, where he ac- 
quired a knowledge of algebra, geometry, and 
trigonometry. In 1818 he came to the United 
States, went at once to the west, and worked 
as a shoemaker in various places. He went to 
Boston in 1824, and worked at his trade in 
Randolph and in Canton, Mass. At Canton 
he married, united with the Baptist church, 
and studied languages with his minister. He 
entered Newton theological institution in 1827, 
and in 1830 was sent by the American Baptist 
missionary union to Burmah. He labored 
among the Karens, a wild tribe, of whom 
thousands have since been converted, transla- 
ting the Bible into two dialects of their lan- 
guage, conducting a seminary for the educa- 
tion of preachers and teachers, and preparing 
books for their use. In the intervals of his 
regular labors he gathered specimens of plants, 
made numerous notes, and published in 1852 a 
work on the natural productions of Burmah, 
begun with a view to translating the names of 
natural objects into the vernacular, which Dr. 
Hooker pronounced ‘‘the most valuable addi- 
tion to the history of the fauna.and flora of 
British Burmah, of any man of modern times.” 
A second edition was published under the ti- 
tle, “‘Burmah: its People and Natural Pro- 
ductions”’ (8vo, Rangoon, 1860). -He was on 
his way to Calcutta to superintend a revised 
edition, when he was arrested by his last sick- 
ness. He had also published:a grammar, chres- 
tomathy, and vocabulary.of.the Pali language, 
besides translations from the Burman, Pali, 
and Sanskrit, and a ‘Life. of Ko-Thah-Byu,” 
republished in Boston as ‘‘The Karen Apos- 
tle;” a ‘Memoir of Mrs. Helen M. Mason” 
(New York, 1847); a ‘‘ Memoir of San Quala” 
(Boston, 1850); and an autobiography, ‘‘The 
Story of a Working Man’s Life, with Sketches 
of Travel” (New York, 1870). He received 
the degree of D. D. from Brown university. 

MASON, George Hemming. See supplement. 

MASON, Jeremiah, an American lawyer, born 
in Lebanon, Conn., April 27, 1768, died in Bos- 
ton, Oct. 14, 1848. His father, Col. Jeremiah 
Mason, commanded a company of minute-men 
at the siege of Boston. He graduated at 
Yale college in 1788, was admitted to the 


242 


bar in June, 1791, and opened an office at West- 
moreland, N. H. In 1794 he removed to Wal- 
pole, and in 1797 to Portsmouth. In 1802 he 
was appointed attorney general of New Hamp- 
shire, and soon became the acknowledged head 
of his profession in the state. In 1813 he 
was chosen to the United States senate, and 
he took a leading part in the debates of that 
body on the subjects connected with the war 
of 1812, delivering important speeches on the 
embargo in February, 1814, and on the con- 
scription bill in December, 1815. In 1817 he 
resigned his seat in the senate, and resumed 
practice. He was afterward for several ses- 
sions a member of the legislature of New 
Hampshire, in which he took a leading share 
in the revision of the state code of legislation. 
He drafted the resolutions and report of the 
legislature on the Virginia resolutions touching 
the Missouri compromise. In the summer of 
1832 he removed to Boston, and continued to 
practise in the courts till he entered his 70th 
year. As a lawyer he contended on equal 
terms with such men as Chief Justice Parsons, 
Judge Story, and Daniel Webster. 

MASON, John, major of the forces of Connec- 
ticut colony, born in England in 1600, died in 
Norwich, Conn., in 1672. He served in the 
Netherlands as a volunteer under Sir Thomas 
Fairfax, and about 1630 emigrated to Dorches- 
ter, Mass., whence in 1635 he removed to Con- 
necticut, and aided in founding the town of 
Windsor. The settlers were in constant dread 
of the Pequot Indians, who inhabited a tract 
of country lying between the Pequot river, 
now called the Thames, and the territories of 
the Narragansetts in Rhode Island. The slaugh- 
ter of a party of whites at Wethersfield in 
April, 1687, at length called for retaliatory 
measures; and at a general court convened in 
Hartford, Mason was commissioned, with a 
force of 90 men, to descend the Connecticut 
and attack the Pequots at the mouth of the 
Pequot river. Accompanied by 70 friendly 
Indians of the Mohegan tribe, he reached the 
English fort at Saybrook, at the mouth of the 
Connecticut, in the middle of May, and thence 
put off into Long Island sound, intending to 
follow the coast to the country of the Nar- 
ragansetts, and thence by a retrograde march 
along the shore fall upon his enemies unawares. 
On the 23d he landed in Narragansett bay, near 


Point Judith, secured the codperation of 200. 


Narragansetts, and having sent back his boats to 
meet him at the-:mouth of the Pequot, proceeded 
by quick marches to the Mystic river, in the 
neighborhood of which were the two principal 
forts of the Pequots. Although his Indian al- 
lies were now swelled in numbers to about 
500, such was their terror of the Pequots that 
Mason was compelled to commence the attack 
almost unaided. Before daybreak on the 26th 
he surprised the nearest fort, and, gaining an 
entrance within the palisades, fell sword in 
hand upon the enemy. But finding it difficult 
to dislodge the Indians, he set fire to their wig- 


MASON 


wams, the whites and their allies forming a 
circle around the fort to prevent escape. Be- 
tween 600 and 700 Pequots perished, 7 were 
captured, and 7 escaped. Of the English 2 
were killed and 20 wounded. He then marched 
to the mouth of the Pequot river, into which 
his vessels sailed soon after. They were at- 
tacked on the way by 300 Indians from the 
other fort, who however soon retired. Ma- 
son, putting his wounded aboard the vessels, 
marched with a small party by land to Saybrook. 
Aided by a party from Massachusetts, he then 
pursued the remnant of the Pequots toward 
New York, killed and captured many more, 
and divided the few who remained in Connec- 
ticut between the Mohegans and Narragansetts, 
stipulating that the very name of Pequot should 
become extinct. He thus secured a general 
peace with the Indians, which remained un- 
broken for 40 years. After the Pequot war he 
removed to Saybrook, at the request of its set- 
tlers, for the defence of the colony, whence in 
1659 he removed to Norwich. He was major 
of the colonial forces more than 30 years, and 
between 1660 and 1670 he was deputy gover- 
nor of Connecticut. He was also a magistrate 
from 1642 to 1668. At the request of the 
general court of Connecticut, he prepared an 
account of the Pequot war, published by In- 
crease Mather in 1677, and republished, with 
an introduction and notes by the Rev. Thomas 
Prince (Boston, 1736).—See Sparks’s ‘‘ Amer- 
ican Biography,” 2d series, vol. iii. 

MASON. I. John Mitchell, an American clergy- 
man, born in New York, March 19, 1770, died 
there, Dec. 26, 1829. His father was of Scotch 
birth, and pastor of an Associate Reformed 
church in New York. He graduated at Co- 
lumbia college in 1789, and entered in 1791 the 
university of Edinburgh, but was recalled in 
1792 by intelligence of his father’s death, and 
succeeded to his pastoral charge in 1793. He 
published.a pamphlet consisting of ‘ Letters” 
on frequent communion, which induced the 
Associate Reformed churches to relinquish their 
former practice of celebrating the communion 
but once or twice a year. He projected the 
plan of a theological seminary which was estab- 
lished in New York in 1804, and was appoint- 
ed its first professor of theology. In 1806 he 
projected the ‘‘Christian’s Magazine,” which 
he conducted for several years. In 1810 he re- 
signed his pastoral charge with the purpose of 
forming a new congregation. Dr. Mason hav- 
ing established more intimate relations with a 
Presbyterian church than were believed to be 
authorized by the constitution of his own de- 
nomination, the matter was brought before the 
synod in Philadelphia in 1811, and was the 
occasion of his ‘‘ Plea for Sacramental Com- 
munion on Catholic Principles” (1816). He 
accepted in 1811 the office of provost of Co- 
lumbia college, which he resigned in 1816. In 
1817 he resumed his pastoral charge. In 1821 
he became president of Dickinson college, 
which office he relinquished in 1824 and return- 


MASON 


ed to New York. In 1822 he had transferred 
his connection from the Associate Reformed to 
the Presbyterian church. A collection of his 
works was edited by his son, the Rev. Ebenezer 
Mason (4 vols., New York, 1832). II. Erskine, 
an American clergyman, son of the preceding, 
born in New York, April 16, 1805, died there, 
May 14,1851. He graduated at Dickinson col- 
lege in 18238, and became pastor of a Presby- 
terian church at Schenectady in 1827, and of 
the Bleecker street church in New York in 
1830. From 1836 to 1842 he was professor of 
ecclesiastical history in the Union theological 
seminary, New York. He published several 
occasional sermons, and a collection of his dis- 
courses appeared after his death, under the 
title of ‘‘A Pastor’s Legacy,” with a sketch 
of his life by the Rev. William Adams, D. D. 
(New York, 18538). 

MASON, Lowell, an American composer, born 
in Medfield, Mass., Jan. 8, 1792, died in Orange, 
N.J., Aug. 11, 1872. From childhood he man- 
ifested great fondness for music, and at a very 
early age he began teaching it. In 1812 he re- 
moved to Savannah, Ga., where he gave in- 
struction and led choirs and musical associa- 
tions. In 1821 his ‘‘ Boston Handel and Haydn 
Collection of Church Music” was published; 
and its success led him to remove to Boston, 
where in 1827 he commenced the instruction 
of classes in vocal music. About 1828 he be- 
came a champion of the Pestalozzian method 
of teaching music. Juvenile classes were now 
established and taught gratuitously by Mr. Ma- 
son, who was soon compelled by the extent of 
his labors to associate Mr. G. J. Webb with 
him. He published 15 or 16 juvenile collec- 
tions of music, 7 or 8 glee books, mostly in 
connection with Mr. Webb, and more than 20 
sacred and church music books. His latest 
work, ‘“‘ The Song Garden,” appeared in 1866. 
In all these books are many pieces of his own 
composition, and many more adapted by him 
from the compositions of other authors. In 
conjunction with Professors Park and Phelps, 
he compiled a “Collection of Psalms and 
Hymns for Public Worship” (New York, 1858). 

MASON, William, an English poet, born in 
Hull in 1725, died in York in April, 1797. He 
was the son of a clergyman, graduated at the 
university of Cambridge in 1745, and became 
a fellow in 1747. Having taken orders, he 
became rector of Asten in Yorkshire, and 
chaplain to the king. He was opposed to the 
American war and a member of the Yorkshire 
association for obtaining a reform of parlia- 
ment; but the horrors of the French revolu- 
tion are said to have changed his opinions. 
He was for years precentor and resident canon 
of York. His principal works are: ‘‘ Carac- 
tacus” (London, 1759), and “ Elfrida” (1752), 
dramatic poems; ‘‘ The English Garden,”. a 
descriptive poem (1785); and ‘‘ Essays on Eng- 
lish Church Music” (York, 1795). He was an 
intimate associate of Gray, and published an 
edition of his poems with a memoir. A com- 


MASQUE 2438 
plete edition of Mason’s poems was published 
in York in 1771. 

MASON AND DIXON’S LINE, the parallel of 
lat. 39° 43’ 26:3” N., which separates Penn- 
sylvania from Maryland, drawn by Charles 
Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two distinguished 
English mathematicians and astronomers. As 
the northern limit (with the exception of 
small portions of Delaware and Virginia) of 
the original slave states, it was prominently 
mentioned in the controversies concerning 
slavery. It begins at the N. E. corner of 
Maryland, and runs due W. The years from 
1681 to 1768 were marked with constant dis- 
sension and conflict between the rival proprie- 
taries of Pennsylvania and Maryland and their 
partisans, on the subject of their common 
boundary; and the vicinity of this line was 
the theatre of riot, invasion, and bloodshed. 
Mason and Dixon arrived in Philadelphia on 
Nov. 15, 1763, and commenced their work in 
December, which was continued to a point 
244 m. from the Delaware river, and within 
86 m. of the whole distance to be run, where 
they were compelled to suspend operations in 
consequence of opposition by the Indians. 
They returned to Philadelphia, and were dis- 
charged on Dec. 26, 1767. At the end of 
every fifth mile a stone was planted, graven 
with the arms of the Penn family on one side, 
and of Lord Baltimore on the other. The 
intermediate miles were marked with smaller 
stones having a Pon one side and an M on 
the other. The stones were all sent from 
England. In November, 1782, Col. Alexander 
McClean of Pennsylvania and Joseph Neville 
of Virginia ran the remaining part of the line, 
which was tested and corrected by astronomical 
observations, and permanently marked, in 1784. 
In 1849 the former surveys were revised, and 
found correct in all important points. 

MASORA. See Brstz, vol. ii., p. 610. 

MASOVIA, or Mazovia, during the earlier cen- 
turies of independent Poland, a duchy or prin- 
cipality on both sides of the middle Vistula, 
inhabited by the Mazurs, a Polish tribe. In 
the Russian kingdom of Poland as established 
in 1815, it formed a palatinate with Warsaw 
as its capital. It is now mainly embraced in 
the government of Warsaw. 

MASQUE, a species of dramatic entertain- 
ment, comprehending scenic effects and dan- 
cing. It was much cultivated in Europe du- 
ring the 16th and 17th centuries, and reached 
its highest perfection in England in the reign 
of James I. Originating in the pageants, 
shows, and religious processions of the middle 
ages, the actors in which wore masks, and in 
the early miracle and moral plays, it gradu- 
ally became a recognized form of the spoken 
drama, and the only one in which females, 
generally ladies of rank, took part. In the 
reign of James I. Ben Jonson and the leading 
dramatic authors, with the exception of Shake- 
speare, wrote masques for the court. Milton’s 
‘“‘Comus” and ‘‘ Arcades” are exquisite speci- 


244 


mens. The genius of Inigo Jones was for 
several years employed exclusively upon the 
decorations and elaborate machinery of the 
court masques, and Henry Lawes furnished 
the music for several of them. The queens of 
James I. and Charles I., with the chief nobil- 
ity of the court, participated in these enter- 
tainments, the preparation of which frequent- 
ly occupied many months, and cost immense 
sums. With the death of Ben Jonson, who 
may be regarded as the chief writer of 
masques, the taste for them died away. 

MASS (Lat. missa, from mittere, to dismiss), 
in the Roman Catholic church, the form of 
celebrating the Lord’s supper. When first in- 
troduced, the term denoted the dismissal of 
the catechumens and penitents, who were per- 
mitted to be present at the introductory, but 
not at the sacramental service, before the be- 
ginning of which they were called upon to 
leave the church. The two parts of the ser- 
vice were then distinguished as missa cate- 
chumenorum and missa jidelium. The oldest 
writing in which we find the term missa is 
a letter of St. Ambrose, and very soon after 
his time it passed into general use. Accord- 
ing to the definition of Roman Catholic the- 
ologians, the mass is the true sacrifice of the 
new law—an offering instituted by Christ, in 
which, by the consecration and consumption of 
his body and blood under the form of bread 
and wine, Christ himself is mystically slain and 
offered as a victim to God the Father in recog- 
nition of his sovereign dominion. The Catho- 
lic church believes that by the words of con- 
secration, pronounced by the priest over the 
bread and the wine, these elements are changed 
into the body and blood of Christ. The sac- 
rifice of the mass is not considered to be sub- 
stantially different from the sacrifice offered 
by Christ on the cross, but a repetition of it, 
Christ offering himself again through the hands 
of the priest. Through it the merits of Christ 
are believed to be available to men. It is 
called a propitiatory sacrifice, as Christ is be- 
lieved to be really present as a victim, asking 
pardon for sinners as he did on thecross. The 
Roman Catholic church therefore sometimes 
offers masses specially for the dead, whom she 
mentions indeed in every mass. Asshe believes 
that Christians who leave this world without 
having sufficiently expiated their sins are ob- 
liged to suffer a temporary penalty in the other, 
she prays God, through Jesus Christ, for the 
remission of this penalty. The mass is called 
a eucharistic sacrifice, because it is believed 
that by offering Christ the church expresses 
gratitude to God in the best possible manner ; 
and an impetratory sacrifice, because she hopes 
that God, touched by this offering, will grant 
new mercies.—In the first centuries bishops 
when celebrating mass were attended by other 
bishops or by priests, who offered, consecrated, 
and communicated with them. This was termed 
concelebrare and consacrificare. This custom 
prevailed in both the Greek and Latin churches; 


MASS 


and in the latter it is still usual for priests on 
the day of their ordination to celebrate with 
the ordaining bishop. In the Lyonnese rite, 
which has very recently been abolished, a 
number of priests thus officiated with the bish- 
op at solemn pontifical mass. It was also a 
rule in the early church, when bishops visited 
each other, that they should unite in celebra- 
ting as a sign of their being of the same com- 
munion.—In a liturgical point of view, the 
mass is divided into five parts: 1, the prepar- 
atory part, formerly called the mass of the 
catechumens; 2, the offering, which extends 
from the offertory to the canon; 3, the canon, 
including the consecration; 4, the breaking of 
the host and the communion; 5, the thanks- 
giving or post-communion. In these parts the 
liturgies of all the eastern or western churches, 
except in the Protestant communions, substan- 
tially agree (see Lirurey), as well as in pre- 
scribing the breaking of the bread, in confor- 
mity with the words of the Scriptures, which 
say that Christ broke the bread. In the be-~ 
ginning, as Justin Martyr testifies in his second 
apology, the Lord’s supper was only celebrated 
on the Lord’s day; but, according to Pellicia, 
the western Christians began in the 2d cen- 
tury to celebrate it on Fridays and Wednesdays 
as well, and in the East during the 4th century 
it became customary to celebrate on Saturdays. 
St. Augustine says that a great diversity ex- 
isted about this in his time; it was then the 
rule to offer the sacrifice daily in the churches 
of Africa, Spain, and Constantinople, and this 
rule was made universal in the 6th century. 
At this epoch the Latin church allowed bish- 
ops and priests, wherever there existed insuf- 
ficiency of church room, to celebrate twice on 
certain great festivals, as on the feast of the 
Circumcision, Jan. 1. In some places this was 
done thrice and even four times. On Holy 
Thursday, every priest was allowed to celebrate 
thrice, and twice daily during the whole of 
Easter week. In the 8th century at Rome the 
privilege of triple celebration was also attached 
to June 29, the feast of St. Peter and St. Paul. 
At present the privilege of saying three masses 
on the same day is restricted in the Roman 
Catholic church to Christmas. In Spain the 
privilege is enjoyed by priests on All Souls’ 
day, Nov. 2. In missionary countries, where 
there is a scarcity of clergymen, each priest is 
permitted, by a special indult from Rome, to. 
say mass twice on Sundays and holidays of 
obligation. In modern times it has been 
often proposed in the church to celebrate the 
mass more rarely, and only when a large at- 
tendance of the people is to be expected. But 
the council of Trent confirmed the practice 
of saying private masses, and recommended a 
daily celebration. The presence of one who 
recites the responses is required at private 
mass. The liturgy of the mass still indicates 
that in former times all the people who were 
present communed with the priests. This 
usage gradually ceased, and the priest was 


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MASS 


often left to commune alone. Still, in popu- 
lous parishes in most Roman Catholic coun- 
tries, communion is distributed at most private 
masses, and the utility of frequent communion 
is sedulously inculcated.— With respect to the 
language used in the celebration of mass, the 
western churches use the Latin, and the Ro- 
man missal. (See Lirurey, and Maissat.) 
The eastern churches in union with that of 
Rome use the ancient idioms of their respec- 
tive peoples, and are not allowed to celebrate 
in Latin. The wishes sometimes expressed 
by larger or smaller bodies of the Catholic 
church to translate the liturgy of the mass 
into the modern languages, and to let the re- 
sponses at the mass be recited or sung by the 
entire congregation, have never been favored 
by the highest ecclesiastical authorities, though 
in some cases it has been permitted as a privi- 
lege, as for instance to the duke Eugene of 
Wirtemberg, who in 1786 received from Pius 
VI. permission to introduce the German mass 
into his court chapel.— There are different 
kinds of masses. A high or solemn mass is 
celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and 
subdeacon, and is sung by choristers; but the 
principal mass on Sundays and festivals, in 
which part of the service is sung by the priest 
without deacon or subdeacon, is usually called 
in this country high mass. A low mass is one 
of which no part is sung, and at which the 
priest has no assistant but his clerk. The or- 
dinary duration of a low mass is half an hour. 
The mass of the presanctified (missa presancti- 
Jicatorum) is the name given to the service 
celebrated in the Latin church on Good Friday, 
and in the orthodox Greek church on nearly 
all the week days in Lent. It consists in the 
consumption by the priest of the bread con- 
secrated on a previous day; and is, properly 
speaking, not a mass at all, the consecration 
being an essential part of the sacrifice. At all 
masses the priest wears vestments which in- 
dicate by their color the ecclesiastical season 
of the year or the stated festival which is cele- 
brated. Thus red is used for the feast of mar- 
tyrs, white for those of virgins, purple for the 
penitential seasons of Lent, Advent, and vigils. 
At the masses for the dead black vestments 
are used, some psalms and ceremonies omitted, 
and the people are dismissed without the bene- 
diction.—Masses may be said for any special 
purpose (votive masses), as for the recovery of 
health, for the avoiding of danger, for obtain- 
ing a special favor, &c. In the middle ages 
some practices crept in which the church con- 
demned, as the celebration of the mass without 
the assistance of a clerk, the combination of 
several masses in one in order to get a greater 
payment, &c. The ‘Congregation of Rites,” 
instituted by Sixtus V. in 1587, watches over 
the purity of the ritual. The Greek church 
and the other eastern churches hold, in the 
main, the same views with regard to the mass 
as the Roman Catholicchurch. The difference 
is mostly limited to ceremonies.—Every mem- 


MASSACHUSETTS 245 


ber of the Catholic church is bound, under 
pain of mortal sin, by one of the “precepts 
of the church,” unless prevented by sickness 
or other grave impediment, to attend mass 
every Sunday and on certain holidays called 
days of obligation. 

MASSA, a town of Italy, capital of the prov- 
ince of Massa e Carrara, on the Frigido, 85 m. 
N.N. W. of Leghorn; pop. about 5,000. It 
has a lyceum, a gymnasium, a beautiful castle, 
and important silk manufactories. 

MASSA E CARRARA, a central province of 
Italy, in Tuscany, embracing the former duchy 
of Massa-Carrara; area, 680 sq. m.; pop. in 
1871, 161,944, The principal rivers flowing 
through it are the Serchio and the Magra. 
Branches of the Apennines conjointly with 
the Apuan Alps traverse the entire province. 
The most important product is the marble of 
Carrara. Wine and olives are cultivated. It 
is divided into the districts of Massa, Carrara, 
Pontremoli, and Castelnuove. Capital, Massa. 
The former duchy was before 1741 the posses- 
sion of the house of Cibo-Malaspina, and sub- 
sequently, through the marriage of the daugh- 
ter of the last duke, a possession of the Estes 
of Modena, together with which it was oc- 
cupied by the French in 1796. After vari- 
ous changes it was reunited with Modena in 
1829, and annexed to the dominions of Victor 
Emanuel in 1860. 

MASSAC, a S. county of Illinois, bordering 
on the Ohio; area, 240 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
9,581. The surface is diversified and heavily 
timbered, and the soil fertile. It contains 
coal and lead. The chief productions in 1870 
were 72,316 bushels of wheat, 133,126 of In- 
dian corn, 22,097 of oats, 13,125 of potatoes, 
67,560 lbs. of tobacco, 42,505 of butter, and 
2,084 tons of hay. There were 762 horses, 
948 milch cows, 1,268 other cattle, 2,297 sheep, 
and 5,424 swine; 1 manufactory of wagon 
materials, 1 of tobacco and snuff, 4 saw mills, 
and 5 flour mills. Capital, Metropolis. 

MASSACHUSETTS, one of the thirteen original 
states of the American Union, and one of the 
New England states, between lat. 41° 15’ and 
42° 58’ N., and lon. 69° 56’ and 78° 32’ W.; ex- 
treme length N. E. and 8. W., 160m.; breadth 
from 47 to about 90 m.; estimated area, 7,800 
sq.m. It is bounded N. by Vermont and 
New Hampshire, E. by the Atlantic ocean, 
S. by the Atlantic, Rhode Island, and Con- 
necticut, and W. by New York. It is divided 
into 14 counties, viz.: Barnstable, Berkshire, 
Bristol, “Dukes, Essex, Franklin, Hampden, 
Hampshire, Middlesex, Nantucket, Norfolk, 
Plymouth, Suffolk, and Worcester. Boston, 
the commercial centre and the largest city of 
New England; is the capital; in 1870 it con- 
tained 250,526 inhabitants, but by the annexa- 
tion of Charlestown, Brighton, and West Rox- 
bury, in 1878, its population was, according to 
assessors’ returns, increased to about 360,000 in 
1874. The other cities are Cambridge, which in 


| 1870 had 39,634 inhabitants; Chelsea, 18,547 ; 


246 


Fall River, 26,766; Fitchburg, 11,260; Glou- 
cester, 15,359; Haverhill, 13,092; Holyoke, 
10, 733 ; Lawrence, 28,921; Lowell, 40,928; 
Lynn, 28, 233 ; New Bedford, 21 320; New- 
buryport, 12, 595 ; Newton, 12, 825 ; Salem, 24,- 
ie Somerville, 14,685 ; Springfield, 26, 703; 

Taunton, 18,629 ; and Worcester, 41,105. The 
population and rank of the state in the Union, 
according to the national census, have been: 


YEARS White. Colored. Total. Rank, 
BB AETV PRS ey ha 873,324 5,463 873,787 4 
LS00L eae cee 416,393 6,452 422/845 5 
TSLO SR weenie 465,303 6.737 472,040 5 
TO20 Cott Bene 516,419 6,740 528,159 T 
LS80iaa ie e-ohaee se 603,359 7,049 610,408 8 
ESA0 i ecarofemmoeieie 729,030 8,669 737,699 8 
TT SOO We aintela ne ees 985,450 9,064 994,514 6 
TEGOE eS AO: 1.221.482 9,602 1,231,066 T 
18105 cee pice 1,443,156 | 13,947 | 1.457.951. | 7, 


Included in the total population of 1860 were 
32 Indians, and in'that of 1870 87 Chinese, 10 
Japanese, and 151 Indians. Of the whole 
number of inhabitants in 1870, 703,779 were 


State Seal of Massachusetts, 


1,104,032 were 


males and 753,572 females; 
native and 353, 319 foreign born. Of the na- 
tives, 17,313 w ere born in Connecticut, 55,571 
in Maine, 903,297 in Massachusetts, 47, 773 in 
New Hampshire, 24,628 in New York, 14,356 
in Rhode Island, and 22,110 in Ver mont: 243, - 
784 persons born in Massachusetts were living 
in other states. Of the foreign born, 65, 055 
were natives of British America, 13 072 of 
Germany, 34,099 of England, 216, 120 of Ire- 
land, and’9, 003 of Scotland. ‘The average den- 
sity ‘of population was 186°84 persons to a 
square mile, being greater than that of any 
other state. There were 305,534 families, with 
an average of 4°77 persons to each, and 236 473 
dwellings, with an average of 6° 16 persons to 
each. The increase of population from 1860 to 
1870 was 18°15 per cent. The number of male 
citizens 21 years old and upward was 312,770. 
There were 74,935 persons 10 years of age 
-and over unable to read, and 97,742 who could 
“not write, of whom 89, 830 were foreign born; 


MASSACHUSETTS 


81,746 of the male adult population, or 7:97 
per cent., and 53,940, or 12°27 per cent., of 
the female adults, were illiterate. The num- 
ber of paupers supported during the year end- 
ing June 1, 1870, was 8,036, at a cost of 
$1,121,604; of the number (5,777) receiving 
support June 1, 1870, 5,396 were natives and 
381 foreigners. There were 1,598 persons con- 
victed of crime during the year; of the num- 
ber (2,526) in prison June 1, 1870, 1,291 were 
of native and 1,235 of foreign birth. The state 
contained 761 blind, 538 deaf and dumb, 2,662 
insane, and 778 idiotic. Of the total popu- 
lation 10 years of age and over (1,160,666), 
there were engaged in all occupations 579,- 
844 persons; in agriculture 72,810, of whom 
31,019 were laborers and 39,766 farmers and 
planters; in professional and personal services 
131,291, including 2,040 clergymen, 45,770 
domestic servants, 279 journalists, 50,564 la- 
borers not specified, 1,270 lawyers, 2,047 phy- 
sicians and surgeons, 7,220 teachers not speci- 
fied, 847 teachers of music, and 506 professional 
musicians; in trade and transportation, 83,078 ; 
in manufactures, mechanical and mining in- 
dustries, 292,665, of whom 5,774 were black- 
smiths, 1,102 bookbinders, 48,255 boot and 
shoe makers, 28,506 carpenters and joiners, 
39,195 cotton mill operatives, besides 4,629 
mill and factory operatives not specified, 5,311 
fishermen and oystermen, 8,273 machinists, 
7,887 painters and varnishers, 16,787 tailors 
and seamstresses, besides 7,649 milliners and 
dress and mantua makers, and 19,863 woollen 
mill operatives. The total number of deaths 
during the year was 25,859, being 1°77 per 
cent. of the entire population. Chiet among 
the causes of mortality were consumption, from 
which 5, 157 persons died, and pneumonia, 1,696; 
the number of deaths from all causes to 1 from 
consumption being 5, and 15:2 to 1 from pneu- 
monia. There were ft 685 deaths from cholera 
infantum, 1,142 from enteric fever, 911 from 
scarlet fever, 280 from diphtheria, and 1,114 
from diarrhoea, dysentery, and enteritis—From 
the west for about 100 m. Massachusetts has 
the regular form of a parallelogram about 50 
m. wide; thence it spreads out N. E. and S. 
E. on two sides of Massachusetts bay, termina- 
ting S. E. in the long peninsula of Cape Cod, 
which, describing to the north and slightly 
to the west a segment of a circle, encloses 
Cape Cod bay. It also includes several islands, 
of which Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket are 
the largest. Besides the two mentioned, there 
are Buzzard’s bay on the S. coast, 30 m. long, 
with an average width of 7 m., and Plymouth 
bay, a small inlet communicating on the east 
with Cape Cod bay. The Elizabeth islands are 
a group of 16 off Cape Cod. (See ExizaseTra 
Istanps.) The state has many excellent har- 
bors, the best of which are at Boston and 
New Bedford. No large and navigable rivers, 
excepting the Merrimack, find their outlet on 
the coast. The Housatonic river, which rises 
in the W. part of the state, and the Connecti- 


MASSACHUSETTS 


cut, flow S. through Connecticut into Long 
Island sound; the Merrimack, which is navi- 
gable for sloops to Haverhill, 18 m. from its 
mouth, flows through the N. E. corner, and 
supplies immense water power to Lowell, Law- 
rence, and other manufacturing centres. The 
falls in the Connecticut afford valuable water 
power. The other principal streams are the 
Nashua, Taunton, Concord, Blackstone, and 
Charles. It contains several small lakes.— 
The surface of the state is greatly diversified. 
The extreme west is mountainous, having two 
ranges of the Green mountuins, the Taghkan- 
nic or Taconic and Hoosae ridges, which run 
nearly parallel to each other and into Connec- 
ticut. Saddle mountain in the N. W. corner is 
8,600 ft. high, and Mt. Washington in the S. 
W. corner 2,624 ft. Further E. is the beauti- 
ful and fertile valley of the Connecticut. In 
this section are several elevations, detached 
members of the White mountain system, the 
highest peaks of which are Mt. Tom (about 
1,300 ft.) on the W., and Mt. Holyoke (1,120 
ft.) near Northampton, on the E. bank of 
the Connecticut river, and Wachusett moun- 
tain (2,018 ft.) N. of the middle of the state. 
The east and northeast are hilly and broken, 
and the southeast generally low and sandy. 
—Massachusetts is eminently a region of meta- 
morphic rocks. Those in the E. part of the 
state especially are largely overspread with 
the sands, gravel, and bowlders of the drift 
formation; and the long point of land making 
the S. E. extremity of the state (see CarE Cop) 
is so covered with these loose materials, that 
the rocky beds beneath are entirely concealed. 
Syenite and granite prevail along the coast, and 
extensive quarries of these rocks are worked at 
Quincy, Cape Ann, and other points. Around 
Boston is a formation of coarse conglomer- 
ates and argillaceous slates of obscure age on 
account of the metamorphic action to which 
they have been subjected. At Braintree, near 
Quincy, the slates contain trilobites, but gen- 
erally no fossils have been met with in these 
rocks. The fossils would seem to refer the 
slates to the lower Silurian period. These 
obscure formations are traced in an irregular 
belt toward Providence, and near the Rhode 
Island line they are connected with coal-bear- 
ing strata, referable, it is supposed, to the true 
carboniferous epoch. In many localities in 
Bristol and Plymouth .counties these strata 
contain beds of anthracite, some of which, as 
at Mansfield, have been worked for many 
years; but they are of little or no value, the 
coal always being much crushed, and the beds 
very irregular in their production. Gneiss and 
talcose and mica slates in broad belts traverse 
the state from N. to S. from the E. portion to 
the waters of the Housatonic in Berkshire. 
Among these rocks are interspersed a few beds 
of metamorphic limestone, but no minerals or 
ores of value. Along the Connecticut river 
valley, in the triassic or new red sandstone 
formation, known as the Connecticut valley 


247 


area, are found very extensive fossil footprints, 
which from their resemblance to the feet of 
birds are first called ornithichnites ; but they 
have since been fotnd by Prof. Edward Hitch- 
cock, who gave the name, to be not only the 
tracks of birds but of other animals. Some of 
them indicate that they were made by animals 
of gigantic size. (See Fossi Foorprints.) 
Trap rocks are associated with it, and near the 
contact of the sandstone and trap, or of the 
sandstone and the gneiss, are found veins of 
metallic ores, as of lead, copper, and zinc, 
none of which, however, have repaid the 
money spent in their exploration. The prin- 
cipal localities of these ores are at Southamp- 
ton, Leverett, Montague, Whately, and a few 
other towns. The high lands which traverse 
the state from N. to §., dividing the waters 
that flow into the Connecticut from those of 
the Housatonic, and called the Hoosac moun- 
tains, are chiefly of gneiss and mica slate. 
In Middlefield a belt of talcose slate, continued 
further N. in the mica slate region, reaches the 
gneiss; and here are developed in near prox- 
imity beds of limestone, steatite, and serpen- 
tine. The towns along the Housatonic and on 
the same range extending to the N. border of 
the state are in the region of the altered Si- 
lurian sandstones and calcareous formations. 
This is the most important mineral district of 
the state, numerous beds of iron ore having 
been worked for many years, and the quartz 
rocks affording in their disintegrated beds 
bodies of glass sand of unusual purity. In 
1874 deposits specially rich in silver, and con- 
taining also lead and gold, were discovered in 
Essex co., near Newburyport, where mining 
operations have been begun.—In the valleys, 
particularly of the Housatonic and Connecti- 
cut, the soil is rich and productive, but a large 
portion of the more elevated lands and the 
long sandy coast do not repay the husband- 
man. The climate near the coast is very va- 
riable, with prevailing E. winds, especially in 
spring. The mean annual temperature is about 
48°; spring, 48°; summer, 71°; autumn, 51°; 
winter, 21°. The annual rainfall is about 55 
inches. In the interior it is more equable, 
and in the mountainous districts very severe 
in winter.—Of the total area of the state, 
somewhat less than one half is improved. 
According to the census of 1870, there were 
26,500 farms, of which 1,129 contained be- 
tween 3 and 10 acres each, 2,532 between 10 
and 20, 8,881 between 20 and 50, 8,727 be- 
tween 50 and 100, 5,643 between 100 and 500, 
and 40 between 500 and 1,000. The num- 
ber of acres of improved land on farms was 
1,736,221; woodland, 706,714; other unim- 
proved, 287,348. The cash value of farms 
was $116,482,784; of farming implements 
and machinery, $5,000,879; total amount of 
wages paid during the year, including value 
of board, $5,821,032 ; total estimated value 
of all farm productions, including betterments 
and additions to stock, $32,192,378 ; of or- 


248 


chard products, $939,854; of produce of mar- 
ket gardens, $1,980,321; of forest products, 
$1,616,818; of home manufactures, $79,378 ; 
of animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter, 
$4,324,658; of all live stock on farms, $17,- 
049,228. The chief productions were, 17,574 
bushels of spring and 17,074 of winter wheat, 
239,227 of rye, 1,897,807 of Indian corn, 797,- 
664 of oats, 133,071 of barley, 58,049 of buck- 
wheat, 24,690 of peas and beans, 3,026,363 of 
potatoes, 597, 455 tons of hay, 1, 312, 885 Ibs. 
of tobacco, 306, 659 of wool, 6, 559, 161 of but- 
ter, 2,245, 873 of cheese, 61, 910 of. hops, 399,- 
800 of maple sugar, 25,299 ‘of honey, and sie 
284,057 gallons of milk sold. Besides 45,227 
horses and 52,263 neat cattle not on farms, 
there were 41,039 horses, 114,771 milch cows, 
24,430 working oxen, 78,851 other cattle, 78,- 
560 sheep, and 49,178 swine-—As a manu- 
facturing state, Massachusetts ranks with the 
first in the Union. The amount of capital in- 
vested in manufactures, and the value of the 
annual products, are greater in New York and 
Pennsylvania; but in proportion to the popula- 
tion the industries of Massachusetts are more 
extensive than those of either of the states 
named. In 1850 the capital invested in manu- 
factures amounted to $88,940,292, and the an- 
nual products to $157,743,994; in 1860 the 
former had increased to $132,792,327 and the 
latter to $255,545,922. In 1870 the amount 
of capital invested was $231,677,862, and the 
value of annual products $553,912,568; the 
materials used were valued at $334,413,982, 
while the wages paid amounted to $118,051,- 
886. There were 13,212 establishments using 
2,396 steam engines of 78,502 horse power and 
3,157 water wheels of 105,854 horse power, and 
employing 279,380 hands, of whom 179,032 
were males above 16, 86,229 females above 15, 
and 14,119 youth. The aldermen and select- 
men of the various cities and towns are re- 
quired by law to ascertain and return decen- 
nially to the state secretary the industrial sta- 
tistics of the commonwealth. The value of 
the products of all industries as thus returned 
amounted to $124,000,000 in 1845, $295,000,- 
000 in 1855, and $577, 000, 000 in 1865 : show- 
ing an increase during the last named decade in 
the value of industrial products of 72 per cent., 

while the population during the same period i in- 
creased only 3 percent. The leading products 
returned for the year ending May 1, 1865, were: 


PRODUCTS. Value. Capital. Hands, 

Boots and shoes........ $52,915,243 | $10,067,474 55,160 
Calico and delaine ...... 25,258,703 4,222,000 4,208 
Clothing yt. atep. decid 17,743,894 4,634,440 24,722 
COTLON rte soe 54.436,881 | 383,293,986 23,678 
Hay Sees wee eee ek 131 OG 2 (Gaiam en 5. Ree alee’ 
Horses, oxen, andscows.|!) 19,154.790 | t....022. |) heen, 
Mackerel and cod fishery; 4.832,218 3,757,761 11,518 
Paper Coceatee ccppetaireniels 9,008,521 8,785,300 8,554 
Printing and newspapers! 5,358,148 1,919,400 2,409 
Rolled and slit iron and 

AUS cpancee cee ee 8,886,502 2,827,300 8.194 
Tanning and currying.. 15,821.712 4,994,933 8,847 
Whale fishery.......... 6,618,670 5,879,862 8.496 
Woollen goods ......... 48,430,671 14,735,830 18,483 


MASSACHUSETTS 


In the manufacture of boots and shoes, cord- 
age and twine, cotton goods, cutlery, chairs, 
lasts, straw goods, and woollen goods, as well 
as textiles in general, and bleaching and dye- 
ing, Massachusetts ranks above all other states. 
The extent of these industries in this state, as 
compared with the United States, in 1870, is 
indicated in the following statement: 


MASSACHUSETTS. UNITED STATES. 
INDUSTRIES. 
Capital. Products. Capital. Products. 

Bleaching and 

dyeing. aa Ss ees $1,068,650 $22,252,000} $5,006,950 $58,571,498 
Boot and shoe 

findings...... 872.030) 2,161,481 858,560} 3,389,091 
Boots and shoes|19,559,788) 88,399,583] 48,994,866 181,644,090 
Cordage and 

DY BUIEE Gomme as 666,900] 2,886,848} 3,530,470] 8,979,882 
Cotton goods... |42,153,175) 59,493,158) 133,238,797) 177, "489, 139 
Cutleryern era: 1,135,400} 1,617,904} 2,246,830 2,882,808 
Chairs ener: 2,636,650) 3,971,522] 7,643,884) 10,567,104 
TASCA NE ete. Sok 146,000 313,768 830,800 665,703 
Paper ature eee. 7,728,628) 12,696,491) 35,780,514] 50,842,445 
alls eet ccatas 111,400 503,385 583,290) 2,255,446 
Straw goods....| 1 361, 400} 4,869,514) 2,119,850) 7,282,086 
Textiles, inclu- 

ding cotton 

goods, flax and 

linen goods, 

carpets, wool- 

Jen goods, and 

worsted goods| 72,548,475 ' 112,768,211 | 265,084,095) 380,913,815 
Woollen goods .|20, 609" ,400| 39, 489,242) 97,173,432] 151,298,196 


While Massachusetts holds the first rank in re- 
spect to the industries named, the state is spe- 
cially noted for the extent of its manufactures 
of boots and shoes and cotton and woollen 
goods. Here are the great centres of these 
industries in the United States. Of the boot 
and shoe establishments, 1,123 were each pro- 
ducing annually more than $5,000. In these 
were employed 7,042 sewing and 636 pegging 
machines and 51,167 hands. The products 
embraced 10,129,910 pairs of boots and 29,- 
164,594 pairs of shoes. Nearly one third of 
the capital invested in the manufacture of cot- 
ton goods in the United States was employed 
in Massachusetts. The machines in use em- 
braced 55,343 looms and 1,255,552 frame and 
1,363,989 mule spindles. The cotton consumed 
amounted to 130,654,040 lbs. ; the products in- 
cluded 22,123,147 yards of sheetings, shirtings, 
and twilled goods, 12,484,858 of lawns and 
fine muslins, 229,613,105 of print cloths, 2,108,- 
952 lbs. of yarn not woven, 2,595,358 dozens 
of spool thread, 33,712,996 yards of warps, 
3,773,664 lbs. of bats, wicking, and wadding, 
6,864,954 yards of flannel, 13,690,000 of ging- 
hams and checks, and 407,527 lbs. of thread. 
The value of all products increased from $21,- 
394,401 in 1850 to $38,004,255 in 1860, and 
$59, 493,153 in 1870. In the woollen mills 
were 1 367 cards, with a daily capacity for 
159 (484. Ibs. of carded wool, 4,469 broad and 
3.3774 narrow looms, and 470,785 spindles ; 
37,146,190 lbs. of domestic wool were con- 
sumed, besides 2,813,449 of cotton and 5,994,- 
110 of shoddy. The products embraced 403,- 
785 pairs of blankets, 21,819,879 yards of 
cloths, cassimeres, and doeskins, 285,000 of 


MASSACHUSETTS 249 


felted cloth, 22,821,684 of flannels, 7,701,880 | The leading industri 

Ited g industries of the state, as reported 
of satinets, 585,435 shawls, 808,920 yards of | by the census of 1870, are shown in ie fol- 
tweeds and twills, and 1,285,161 lbs. of yarn. | lowing table: 


Sasol Steam ae 
INDUSTRIES. alae en eee irny. Hands Value of | Value of 
siealat mae pe employed, carols Py exes: materials, er in 
. Pp wer, 
Agricultural implements........ ahi da cia. se 8 
Bisckamiuone SO ae opats cle oyeiara, skens oie 661 a 300 1 ane Se eser erate el prot: 
Bleaching and dyeing................+... ‘ 7 3 on 115,667 | 650,058 |__ 565,587 | 1,982,448 
Bete fs WIE U Baars vere si ses Gaisig. he. eie 32 1,753 187 1,387 | 1,068,650 608,848 | 20,623,653 |22,252.429 
Se er eke OTe eee es uns | et een 
“YEO ae eer , 204, 2.16 
fol and shoes... EE asl acaante 2,302 2,266 94 04,831 19,500,738 97,265,283 |61,368,406 |88 399/588 
; roducts ree 08 8,650 | 552,215 | 2,12 "130, 
Bricks... seseeceecasscussseserereeeress 107 | $23 ia | 2901 | 24a5'310 | tooties | “978'508 DDD 0e4 
yaliaD she Sonal Tyee atge Seon eae 901 468 112 5,825 | 1,880,202 | 3,484,104 | 6,308,115 |12,429,739 
yaaa seam NOE aay ayaa) Says a1 6/8 ci agauar ee i. 6 803 100 2.200 | 8,250,000 832,954 | 3,256,628 | 4,487,525 
. ‘a A ards POU State Sead waa es es 826 119 181 2,914 | 1,729,091 | 1,486,959 | 1,826,968 | 4,088,656 
ee reight and passenger............... 6 280 werere 866 | 1,245,000 636,760 | 1,486,929 2.408.827 
0) hing, Liat ae Be iecreserdic sie) bak os siuciaa ae 82 Sacer pare sees 8,815,742 |11,918,817 | 20,212,407 
D'Se. ns ees e cece ene eceevees a Hee i} , 248,268 889,731 
Cordage pnddawin lie ca tas lck ud ocicleh tgs 82 | 1,069 208 988 | 666,900 | 395,978 | 1,961,410 a esate 
Jotton goods, not aot daSia aie oiteate ate 159 | 16,700 | 30,398 41,446 /42,148,175 |12,912,523 |85,462,617 56,257,580 
ane sir roe x Inve ne eee. i ay 120 one 47,228 802,585 884,030 
HOS. sees sees cece eee eeees wee ; 1,500 15,000 28,000 
Genesee twine, and yarn........... a ee Aer ah sorenit Lees cea 8,009,543 
BUULIONY oe ger te Sora oe me, ere eee i) 1, 185, 5247 | 1,001,891 | 6,215,825 
Drugs and chemicals. . nance Sean eae et ee 22 235 deus 8,998 | 4,287,871 | 2,291,870 857,288 | 1,617,904 
Fisheries, exclusive of the whale fisheries. . 287 ara Bees 854 | 1,230,800 190,545 | 1,152,780 | 1 800.399 
Mouring and grist mill products.......... 316 | 1,810 | 9,013 855 | 2171314 | 271.248 | 8.768.926 | 9,720,374 
urniture, net SOL y ie eeceaiseacesteiseetac 243 1,275 675 4.044 | 8,872,225 | 2.248.980 | 3,146,828 7,897,626 
us chatenattotlslacit Beta ks 76 693 | 1,899 | 5.663 | 2,636,650 | 1.291.371 | 1,681,006 | 8,971,522 
ass, cut. a Let eesatets cui viaisis: «trate so stds «oo ahe tare 8 21 sista 104 50,500 51,400 70,000 171,000 
* WATE... eee eect cece eee ee ce eeees 11 164 es 1,570 | 1,203,000 669,520 531,684 | 1,571,000 
she WIDOWER SER ee eae oe oe eles cles eras 3 60 110 404 883,560 257,200 127,300 800,000 
Bea Sits Be 1 -Prlase dais Sa 119 591 73 | 1,757 | 1,908,050 | 929,788 | 891,665 | 2,515,429 
uae and ApS. .-ssacerssceeresseeeeees 50 029 mee 8,200 855, 600 | 985,304 | 1,€46,566 | 3,416,191 
p skirts and corsets....-.........+5++ Salas 6 800 170,561 849,225 710,772 
Tiaacibhas enrelastiogeods.¢s ak. 16 | Gos | 55 | 1405 | tozn'600 | Ben's | Lasd008 | Sisnar8 
sya tees HSB 5 ‘ ,920,6 "798 | 1,554,006 | 8,188,218 
Iron, forged and rolled Frareltratetore a’ sale, s) 3 e's: esos 29 5,463 715 2,590 | 2,760,125 | 1,827,675 | 4,538,866 | 6,699,907 
as nails and spikes, cut and wrought.... 49 1,767 1,459 2,458 | 2,600,850 | 1,059,230 | 4,082,775 | 5,986,144 
a pipe, wrought.. beading) 4 ata sla Saleh b 5 230 25 880 385,000 219,500 976,218 | 1,407,000 
castings not, specified.........2.+... 101 955 650 2,749 | 2,496,900 | 1,640,402 | 2,574,820 | 5,265,154 
stoves and hollow ware.............. 18 815 114 965 940,500 646,401 555,675 | 1,781,548 
ris, not specified 22. ekiacs daskrekiealas 59 186 62 1,642 972.500 786,650 825,523 | 2,842,025 
te s cee eabial grenete sis ed slodet e948 oa aaiahaie a +a ; oy lee ! ria . gts 135,960 68,617 318,768 
ther, OD. eee eee cence eee eeeneers 30 42 130, 756,467 | 8,025,578 | 9,984,497 
- Curried focckesekee fete A cake 196 1,350 85 8,194 | 3,163,076 | 1,812,082 |14,969,920 |19,211,3830 
pea 6 soeatens tanned and curried...... - i te aie ; ie Boe 450,200 | 2,815,800 | 8,158,020 
ber, p! UGS RR ATE Sete MER ANS He SA: . Of 1,686,600 758,881 | 8,788,501 | 3,155,370 
ance sawed.... sete tee e ee ee eee ee eens 638 2,019 | 18,900 2,258 2,031,879 558,055 | 2,028,488 | 3,496,820 
achinery, not specified PAAtinianee eae 200 1,731 1,274 8,626 | 4,105,600 | 2,116,494 | 2,570,666 | 6,723,102 
te cotton and woollen Sse. ale hela spreisie 95 8238 $72 2,816 | 2,940,750 1,575,917 2,258,392 | 4,621,314 
‘ railroad repairing,.... Soc sehr 3 205 ves 1,101 708,500 635,835 812,825 | 1,898,894 . 
peieurrmcerene votes Cf es YRS | | Fae ee | eee | Oe 
Tt Role osilsja Se isle caine ese e 4 Jos ars la | 79,83 2,178,450 
Molasses SM BUPA, LOUNCU. « aic/ecls cis atest zt 900 Boer 460 | 2,200,000 226,848 | 6,944,395 | 7,665,485 
Musical instruments, organs and materials. 17 124 aa 745 698,000 581,556 819,050 | 1,874,614 
: a DISNOB?. Avie agitoshnes 21 3820 23 994 | 2,075,711 949,133 675,759 | 2,581,565 
Oil, Fis 20. ..eeeeee ener ces ce cee ceeeeenes 9 85 aes 152 482,000 57,133 | 1,970,282 | 2,578,176 
We ee tas tac an cree anes 2 215 woes 69 | 200,000 47,500 | 914,000 | 1,003,610 
Paper, not specified ............05. 20.08 17 188 alates 864 558,100 144,908 555,189 | 1,052,784 
& prauee Pee aie Rho oe, nes he dE wee 2 i Ere be 73 eee 549.190 | 8,052,971 | 4,819,924 
TAPPING... ...-seeeeceee se ceeeeees 3 so 16 14,500 | 181,752 | 769,769 | 1,289,178 
ME wring sec diet ra. wes eeeve cece ees 80 170 38,054 2,602 | 4,887,828 979,000 | 8,638,470 | 6,025,595 
Printing, cotton and woollen goods........ 11 1,806 1,165 2,996 | 2,894,653 | 1,110,055 |15,420,580 17,825,150 
Printing and publishing, not specified..... 18 64 aye) 6 435 520,400 268,533 808.611 | 1,702,740 
: ‘ HOOK ee ue ok aa ee 811 268,000 177,456 872,860 | 1,205,000 
prom] ae ame) | ae | ea | ne | ane | Sa 
F a as STeie.* slg * "<2 S10 aja Ta lee 5 4 . 5) ’ 5) 7,811 
Ship building, repairing, and ship materials 98 38T Se 1,166 | 1,192,350 727,473 902,845 | 2,070,201 
— and spades. fy ee es PA ae, me se 390 ee 371,100 anor 1,080,144 | 1,820,526 
MLOw. mle tiiaie eae Mseh ieee Lets bales sisiels ls s tees 1 662,750 90,195 132,444 | 1,204,148 
Straw goods,......... save eecsedcevereces 39 28T 85 | 11,441 | 1,861,400 | 1,411,850 | 2,503,070 | 4,869,514 
Tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware.......... 800 84 acd 1,584 | 1,284,900 766,485 | 1,884,095 | 2,785,674 
Panmatery we 2 hel. £8). Bares. bead 7 +: tees 901 | 978,655 | 461,909 | 1,284,157 | 2,424,457 
Watches......cesseeecsecceescncseeeneece 3 55 vase 758 980,000 610,024 | 175,909 | 1,281,160 
Ree eck Taetarlpa sone ta: Kags m0 = 6 | 1,100 343 910 | 1,418,500 | 555,887 | 1,288,822 | 2,354,672 
Wioollen’ fOOUS 7). |. tet.se sees e's es. mA Ss. 182 0,421 12,230 20,841 |20,622,400 | 7,296,752 24,€66,118 |89,489,242 
Worsted goods eee ee ee 85 130 2,079 5,275 2,839,500 1,678,462 5,663,048 8,280,541 


Not included in the above statement for 1870 | and those of fisheries, with $4,287,871 capital 
are the statistics of mining and quarrying, in | and $6,215,825 annual products. The stone 
which the capital invested amounted to $944,- | quarried, including large quantities of Quincy 
250, and the annual products to $1,498,522; | granite, was valued at $1,294,148.—For com- 


250 


mercial purposes, the state is divided into 11 
customs districts, of which the ports of entry 
are given in the following statements. The 
imports and exports for the year ending June 
30, 1874, were as follows: 


PORTS OF ENTRY. | Imports. poecere Poreige 

exports. exports. 
Boston. 22. asecteielsr $52,212,405 | $28,385,627 | $2,275,023 
Fall River? sine sed OA OTAG reetes. te Subs sed slew Sei ce 
Gloucester.......... 94,007 1,400 109 
Marblehead ........ de DOS presi tae sto cBile see niece tre 
New Bedford....... 95,971 80,369 233 
Newburyport....... 227,353 39,076 8,663 
Plymouth | ern sere 128 BLA steralcye ertecyes 
Salem and Beverly.. 60,717 49,009 1,744 
Total, f.cteccec: + $52,787,280 | $28,455,515 | $2,280,772 


The movement of foreign shipping at the vari- 
ous ports, and the number of vessels registered; 
enrolled, and licensed, were as follows: 


ers OF ENTERED. CLEARED. /REGISTER’D, &O. 
ENTRY. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. 
Barnstable. . 16 1,423 20 1,786 | 483] 50,909 
Boston ..... 2,717 | 780,769 | 2,652 | 659,102} 8831 274,941 
Jou shakonaihs | seeeulll duoode Scie | sie See 16 1,135 
Fall River .. 16 1,956 4 575 | 147} 27,291 
Gloucester..| 121 | 22,710 95) 14,777) 491| 23,663 
Marblehead..| 33 8,011 39 4,284 62 2,636 
Mantueketac teas se i te eeveiee aha Hit acto aae 7 118 
NewBedford| 53 | 12,572 aT 7,818) 233] 47,871 
Newburyp’t. 19 2,530 Bt 7,887 67} 12,865 
Plymouth .. 1 102 1 102 89 8,940 
Salem and 
Beverly... 84 8,468) 100 11,767 85 7,844 
Total...| 3,066 | 783,541 | 2,952 | 708,048 | 2,563 | 458,378 


Those that entered and cleared as well as those 
registered were mostly sailing vessels. The 
number of vessels engaged in the coastwise 
trade was as follows: 


COASTWISE TRADE. 


PORTS OF ENTRY. ENTERED. CLEARED. 
No. Tons. No. Tons. 

Barnstable.2 2... ccs sos. 2 2,9 8 405 
OSTOM ei trenren ee uslece 1,271 | 1,150,169 | 1,741 | 1,286,866 
Bidmartownets.cceees cee 2¢ 2, 11 rary 
TAM TATS Rh bi) Os Sak cee aye 486} 886,647 880] 813,006 
Gilducesterses seen: 70 5,957 86 8,886 
Marbiehead 5 fac ease 10 1,123 X 1718 
IMANCUCKCL. cee oacie cease 392 8 147 
New Bedford .......... 135 47,360 86 8,735 
Newburyport..3.....5.. 523 59,728 491 65,756 
iblyinOuths accreted. 3 516 1 122 
Salem and Beverly ..... 98 10,448 41 5,461 
OCHS: pecerregs oe dst 2,655 | 2,167,886 | 2,700 | 2,191,829 


Besides the above, 105 vessels of 3,677 tons 
engaged in the general fisheries entered at 
Newburyport, and 116 of 3,922 tons cleared. 
For more than a century the fisheries of Mas- 
sachusetts have constituted one of its leading 
industries. (See Fisuertes.) The most im- 
portant centres of this industry are Gloucester, 
which far surpasses any other port of the coun- 
try in the magnitude of its cod and mackerel 
fisheries, and New Bedford, which is the lead- 
ing market in the United States for the pro- 


MASSACHUSETTS 


duce of the whale. The entire products of 
the American whale fisheries for the year end- 
ing June 80, 1874, amounted to $2,291,896, in- 
cluding sperm oil valued at $1,250,987, other 
whale oil $775,919, and whalebone $264,990. 
Nearly all of these were from Massachusetts, 
where were employed in the whale fisheries 
about 170 vessels belonging to Barnstable, Ed- 
gartown, New Bedford, and Salem and Bever- 
ly. Of the 2,099 vessels employed in the cod 
and mackerel fisheries in the United States, 
1,026 of 49,578 tons belonged to Massachusetts. 
According to the census of 1870, more than 
half of the products of fisheries in the United 
States, exclusive of the whale fisheries, were 
the result of Massachusetts industry. The 
capital invested in this business was $4,287,871, 
and the number of persons employed was 
8,993. Among the products, which were val- 
ued at $6,215,325, were ‘451,125 quintals of 
cod, 1,651 tons of halibut, 188,567 barrels of 
mackerel, $486,596 worth of miscellaneous 
fish, and 805,049 gallons of oil, valued at $302,- 
790. Ship building is carried on in most of 
the customs districts; in 1874 there were 77 
vessels built, of 31,499 tons, including 5 steam- 
ers, of 689 tons. About two thirds of these 
were built in Boston, Charlestown, and New- 
buryport.—The first railroad in Massachusetts 
was opened for use in 1885, since which time 
an average of about 50 m. has been annually 
constructed. On Sept. 80, 1874, the entire 
mileage belonging to Massachusetts companies 
was 2,418, exclusive of 657 m. of sidings and 
626 m. of double track; the length of main 
track and branches within the commonwealth 
was 1,782 m., and of double track and sidings 
917m. About 29 per cent. of the main lines 
are laid with steel rails. Nominally there are 
60 corporations, but the railroads of the state 
are controlled by 31 distinct boards of direction. 
The average cost of roads has been $56,883 62 
a mile, in addition to the cost of equipment, 
$7,701 a mile. The entire amount directly in- 
vested in the railroads reporting to the state is 
$165,624,186, including $117,066,798 of stock 
and $48,557,338 of debt. The total earnings 
returned for the year amounted to $34,632,483, 
of which about 49 per cent. were from passen- 
gers and 46 per cent. from freight. The num- 
ber of passengers carried was 42,480,494. The 
whole number of accidents was 279, of which 
127 resulted in death; nearly one third were 
caused by walking on the tracks. The aver- 
age of casualties for a series of years from 
causes not attributable to the carelessness of the 
person injured has been 1 to each 1,400,000 
passengers carried; but in 1874 it was only 1 
to each 5,300,000. The railroads are under the 
general supervision of a board of three commis- 
sioners, who are appointed by the governor, 
and are required to report annually upon the 
condition of the roads and corporations, the 
causes of accidents, &c. The lines completed at 
the beginning of 1875 are represented in the fol- 
lowing table, omitting those less than 5 m. long: 


MASSACHUSETTS 


251 
TERMINI. LENGTH. Capi‘al | Cost of road, 
CORPORATIONS. stock &c., propor- 
From To. Total. |In Mass.| paidin. tion for Mass, 
Berkshirevs, occ anese ts ot gs ela «cls 2'2"s Sheiiieldvne se aes W. Stockbridge...... 22 29 $600,000 $C06,000 
Boston and Atanvereecren cats ass ce. ‘BOStON cee. wastes UDarys Ne ene cle orsee Po 2OL 162 |19,864,100 | 22,254,889 
Hranshes Grand Junction....... Cottage Farm........ East Boston ......... 9 Oecd siasan'|hewee omen 
3 PE MIUGREE Teka Dace cok sy South Framingham...| Milford.............. 12 19: vher ee he ee 
Boston, Barre, and Gardner.......... Wioreester. aan neces Winchendon ........ 86 8 863,001 1,257,688 
Boston, Clinton, and Fitchburg....... Hitehburpss saeco. South Framingham...) 41 41 872,600 | 2,855,564 
Boston, Hartford, and Erie.......... Bostonys. scence seer « Willimantic, Conn....| €5 51 |20,000,000 8,275,861 
Woonsocket division.............. IBtOOkIINGt. 2 ap eae Woonsocket, R.I..... 8 Dobe | Casale on, eee 
Southbridge division .............. EK. Thompson, Conn..| Southbridge ......... 17 LORE reonciset waters eee 
Boston and Lowell...........0.eee0. Bostonwites. ease. PSO Welle, Be Soe ck ots 26 26 | 3,200,000 5,554,765 
Lexington and Arlington.......... Modford ic. 313 24% Lextuctonas. ot casa 9 2 fe Mie kw pe sue 
Boston and Maine................++. BOSON. ap sar cae. Portland, Me......... 116 86 | 6,921,274 | 8,815,604 
Boston and Providence.............. BOSCOMMC. see eee Providence, R.I...... 44 83 | 4,000,000 | 4,534,060 
Wiest ROXDUIy eos des. «is secnie emia Forest Hills Station..| Dedham ............ 5 15th AN ed era SA) bie Lee 5 
India Polntarine oategeaa sy esse ace. Seekonk. 3s. 6 an cack Providence, R.I...... a See likin cated luke tance eee 
Oheshira tar ce: eet tdee tonto iac eset South Ashburnham..| Bellows Falls, Vt..... 53 | ° 11 } 2,153,800 574,432 
Connecticut Riveriics: «tick vc os aids Springfield........... South Vernon, Vt....} 50 £0 | 2,100,000 | 2,684,220 
Dan Vere Mey acute aes aes «hiss 4 heehee Wakefield Junction ..| Danvers....,........ 3 Oras ieee kok ee eee 
Duxbury and Cohasset.............. COMASSCttematee ee ACU SCOUMY ereerersperersinns « 20 20 850,000 452,878 
WUSLOIIS. Gare eee e aisles since casltiele « BOBStODAC fae St brete he, = cate lineesacse are. 41 41 | 4,997,600 | 14,192,658 
PORUPUS een soe a yaa ctaiste ete re aic'e 6 Rever6sss tee eninns LVR g taste ee eee eine 9 OES err rcres ei pete. oe 
WM Ar blgh CR) s. etetsia:</scaera(siere cresin)su0.c's 5 Swampscott .......%. Marblehead. ..5.....¢ 4 Aare es mea ciersrel bela cicia neve 
WGA WreDeGie fe fee watsistvreich.se fetes: Salers Arson sts aes MUAWYENCE Se ee sce ces 19 BE alle (eset Ste | uti Pencarenates 
Gloucester sary asi stesso tas fae sek Beverly ace eee: ar « Gloucester ts. aeectsae its LGMPseacee i aes aie aes 
UBSOX A ceerebinis gaicistnd a a,cieee'% ea oestsalk Wienhamys.cacceeecns FE SSG Nias Scien stots overs 5 Dall a eens 2.24. | GP int oleae ae 
BoutiRerdingawes..caveec. west Peapodya jn cteacare st. Wiaketlel diene ners a 8 SUM Ccere erat sisiern Mill © aeitters ois 34 
Fall River, Warren, and Providence..| Fall River........... Providence, BR. L005.) 6 4 150,000 210,155 
Mitch Dur pine-reecth-ek cies UES eatin open Bostonwye. ede sek: Pitchburpiors sae ene 50 50 | 4,000,000 | 4,559,000 
Woatertowmn! - Dranclisnrer. cc 's.sc, etacceiae North Cambridge....| Waltham............ T shal kara Mersteas vo (Rest ct cts, ote 
Lancaster, Sterling, and Marlboro..! South Acton......... MrIDOLOt «4c 25 cc seas 12 LD eel owslst eeepc ert celts ete 
Peterboro and Shirley............. Ayer Junction....... Mason Village, Vt....| 23 DA Weal Saeco 
Framingham and Lowell............. South Framingham ..}| Lowell............... 26 26 511,796 |; 1,826,921 
PLANOVELEDLANCHectrs + cscs cares cee North Abington...... South Hanover....... 8 8 128,950 251,839 
Holyoke and Westfield.............. l Westfield). i009. Holyokes. oie2 nea. 10 10 260,000 462,28 
IOpkIntOn Etna Ow eo tcet ys eM ford areca A SHAR Poe nies bicleiss 11 Aerie atl a aoe nye 
Lowell and Andover................. OW lee eine. parce: Ballardyale. os... « 9 9 487,280 886,680 
Lowell and Lawrence ............... IZOWICLE GY oo ene. ones Lawrences. seen 12 12 200,000 863,158 
Manchester and Lawrence........... Manchester, N. II.....| Lawrence............ 26 APPT. O00;000; ae aut. 
Mansfield and Framingham.......... South Framingham...| Mansfield ........... 91 21 801,580 850,974 
Martha's, Vineyard.,.2 \ccacnen ¢eece OakoBlitis as sede. UAV see ten at 8 8 40,000 67,27T 
Middlesex: Central. m.ccsnesies couse LexXINEtOnIey ye eee = Concorde caw cece 8 Sa Se tees ee aietotee eace 
IMQHAGNOCKE Marat bis tacts sae ee Winchendony. a. 10s Peterboro, N. H.. 16 2 197,864 49,881 
Nashua, Acton, and Boston.......... North Acton......... Nashua,’ N. H........ 20 15 262,000 531,992 
Nashua and Lowell.................. OW OLUOE o tet tte hate s.< Nashua, N. H 14 |- 9 800,000 764,974 
New Bedford...... Spal eee aoe New Bedford........ Manstield” sre. gee 82 82 | 1,678,500 | 2,250,780 
WaiNavyen’ csc aieenieeisyaetouda vena Wairheven’s.)..eseces Wiarelisinpan ay. me) ccrctete 15 OM ie eines erica isleterot eters 
PLAUNCON SUNCOM set. teee nee cece oes eon sate ee Eee epraeaieste 8 Sct eee eee le wewante te 
radford es. ts.25 eee ewburyport........ 27 VG ah eta Seas iat eee Shy 
Newburyport.......-+.+++++-sseee Georgetown ......... DanVersaes se. Siete areal axe Pee) RRSP Ale eer 
New Haven and Northampton....... New Haven, Conn....| Williamsburg........ 84 82 | 2,460,000 | 1,526,772 
New London Northern.............. New London, Conn...| Miller’s Falls......... 100 44 | 1,500,000 895,692 
New York, New Haven, and Hartford! New York, N. Y..... Springfield........... 123 6 |15.500,000 687,674 
Norwich and Worcester............. iW.orcester!. tn. cthrac Norwich, Conn....... 59 17 | 2,604,400 | 1,142,550 
Provincetown...... 
Old: Colony ey celev is sso else at eae wislols 4 Boston Hysesae + os Piymouthea.cecea. 217 200 | 6,687,300 | 11,100,126 
INGwportee stein st 
Bride Ov ReGr tae ins sadtieeied era este ove South Abington...... Bridgewater......... "¢ fea leisteetiengee 
Middleboro and Taunton........... Middleboro.......... PTislitifont seer. settee tes 8 SR eer oe wre emer cisra 
IW GOdS a THO OS 5 2 lorcisseleteve.y oie 2a 4 crates Cohasset Narrows... | Woods’ Hole......... ag Lan |e ce ete Soller sicuateotersre 
ER VEHTIS Get erete evel. care eects sleds Y¥ armouthiness sein BNINIG Ncomci access 5 Bigall Sais ctasthet iia sels saicte 
Pittsfield and North Adams.......... Pittstield tee aseaceiae North Adams........ 19 19 450,000 450,000 
Providence and Worcester........... Providence, R.I...... Wiorcestera.- eae ses.) | 43 25 | 2,000,000 | 1,558,604 
Palemland owellescte ccna. +s ee. ss Tewksbury Junction.| Peabody.............! 1T 17 243,805 481,468 
SROULA NO SAY) 2h aiden es ie eat RR Braintreeo-e56 see Cohtassete cc. tack cts oe 11 11 259,865 626,592 
Springfield, Athol, and Northeastern..| Springfield........... AUHOL titectites ct ne tee 48 48 809,760 | 1,462,668 
Stockbridge and Pittsfield ........... Stockbridge, ....es: DPittsieldye. conta 22 22 448,700 451,250 
DLONV TOOK aerate te tierce ee aaa cs North Meta sf Piet pire etre Ie 13 800,000 800,093 
Greenfield: yo. ce csicte oosac Tunnel.......! 8 80 Princo tinia boo iiDpo. 
Troyand Greenfield is. sis «0+ | North Adams........ State linea) ssa. 20% T He a eres | eee 
Vermont and Massachusetts......... Biteh tire: ose ne etetes Greenfields ..).5 tec ee 56 56 | 2,860,000 | 3,807,941 
Brathlebono: come ecisckih es cetem vr Miller’s Falls......... Brattleboro, Vt....... 21 VAGRE |eacitess cice Ou wc etose esses 
WAL RIVCEM sneer someones ae. o Palmers.) cc cncstrmac Winchendon.':..2.... 49 49 750,000 | 1,066,407 
Worcester and Nashua.............. Worcester. <7 c.ccemes Nashna, N. H...:.... 46 89 | 1,789,700 | 2,109,629 


The transportation facilities will be greatly 
improved by the completion in 1875 of the 
tunnel through the Hoosac mountain in the N. 
W. part of the state. This tunnel, which will 
have cost the state not less than $14,000,000, 
including interest, is, next to the Mt. Cenis 
tunnel, the longest in the world, being about 
4% m.in length. (See Tunnez.) The 30 street 
railway corporations in the state have 210 m. 


of track, including branches and sidings; their 
capital stock is $5,538,125,-exclusive of debt 
amounting to $2,573,741; the average cost per 
mile of road and equipment was $32,701; and 
the number of passengers carried in 1874 was 
50,058,979.—The number of national banks 
in operation Nov. 1, 1874, was 220; paid-in 
capital, $93,039,350; circulation outstanding, 
$59,051,019; circulation per head, $40 52; 


252 


ratio of circulation to wealth, 2°0 per cent.; 
to capital, 63°05 per cent. Fifty-one of these 
banks, with a capital of $50,400,000, and an 
outstanding circulation of $25,294,272, were 
in Boston. There were 179 savings banks, 
with 702,099 depositors, and deposits amount- 
ing to $217,452,120. The average rate of 
dividends was 64 per cent. There were also 
4 loan and trust companies, with $1,700,000 
capital, and deposits aggregating $6,924,270. 
On Jan. 1, 1874, there were 127 fire and ma- 
rine insurance companies transacting business 
in the state, with a paid-up capital of $52,- 
197,870 and net assets aggregating $86,981,245. 
The premiums received on risks in 1873 aggre- 
gated $84,017,278, while the paid losses amount- 
ed to $61,524,120, showing a ratio of paid loss- 


es to premium receipts of 73°23.—The execu- 


tive department of the government consists of 
a governor, whose annual salary is $5,000; a 
lieutenant governor, who receives $1,500 for 
attendance during the regular session of the 
legislature and $10 a day for extra sessions; a 
secretary of the commonwealth, $3,500; trea- 
surer and receiver general, $5,000; auditor, 
$3,500; attorney general, $5,000; and an ex- 
ecutive council of eight, each of whom receives 
$750 for the regular anpual session of their 
board, $5 a day for any subsequent session, and 
20 cents a mile for travel. These officers are 
elected annually by the people. The legislative 
department consists of 40 senators and 240 
representatives elected annually. Their pay 
is $750 for the regular annual session, and 20 
cents a mile for travel. The president of the 
senate and the speaker of the house of rep- 
resentatives receive each $1,500 for the ses- 
sion. The judiciary comprises a supreme ju- 
dicial court, consisting of a chief justice, salary 
$6,500, and six justices, who receive $6,000 
per annum each. This has exclusive cogni- 
zance of all capital crimes, exclusive chancery 
jurisdiction so far as chancery powers are given 
by statute, and concurrent original jurisdiction 
of all civil cases where the amount in dispute 
exceeds $4,000 in Suffolk, and $1,000 in other 
counties. The superior court has criminal ju- 
risdiction in all except capital cases, exclusive 
original jurisdiction of complaints for the flow- 
ing of land, and original jurisdiction of all civil 
actions except those confided to the supreme 
and police courts. Actions cannot be com- 
menced in this court unless the debt or dam- 
ages exceed $20. The court has a chief jus- 
tice, salary $5,300, and nine justices, $5,000 
each. The legislature in 1858 united the courts 
of probate and the court of insolvency. For 
probate and insolvency purposes, frequent 
courts are held at different places by the judges 
in the several counties. A judge and a regis- 
ter of probate and insolvency are elected by 
the voters of each county. In the large cities 
there are municipal courts for civil and police 
purposes. All the judges are appointed by the 
governor for an unlimited time. The election 
for state officers and members of the legisla- 


MASSACHUSETTS 


ture is held on the first Tuesday after the first 
Monday in November, and the legislature meets 
on the first Wednesday of January. Voters 
are required to be 21 years old, to have resi- 
ded a year in the state and six months in the 
town, to pay a poll tax, and to be able to read. 
Massachusetts has two senators and 11 repre- 
sentatives in congress, and consequently has 
18 votes in the electoral college. For several 
years past the sale of spirituous and intoxica- 
ting liquors to be used as a beverage has been 
prohibited under penalties ranging from $10 
fine and 10 days’ imprisonment to $50 fine and 
six months’ imprisonment. Ale, porter, strong 
beer, lager beer, and all wines, as well as dis- 
tilled spirits, are considered intoxicating. The 
lawful sale of intoxicating liquors to be used 
in the arts, or for medicinal, chemical, or me- 
chanical purposes, is vested in a commissioner 
appointed by the governor. In 1871 permission 
was given to towns to authorize the sale of ale, 
porter, strong beer, or lager beer; but in 1873 
this law was repealed. For executing the liquor 
law and general criminal laws a state police was 
maintained, consisting in 1874 of 100 men, at 
a cost of $145,000. This force was abolished 
by a law which was passed Feb. 13, 1875, and 
went into force March 1, and provision was 
made for the establishment of a state detective 
force of 31 men, to be appointed by the gov- 
ernor and council. The state board of health, 
appointed by the governor, makes regula- 
tions concerning the slaughter of swine, and 
may restrain persons or corporations from 
carrying on noxious or offensive trades.—The 
funded debt of the commonwealth, Jan. 1, 1875, 
amounted to $29,465,204, and was classified 
as follows: railroad loans, $14,971,016; war 
loans, $12,936,188; ordinary loans, $1,558,000. 
Nearly the entire indebtedness of the state 
is provided for by established sinking funds. 
The revenue during the year ending Jan. 1, 
1875, was $7,009,313; the expenditures were 
$7,188,247, of which $6,150,391 were ordinary 


and $1,032,856 special and exceptional. The 
chief sources of revenue were: 

State star se ence eee coe ies res cau cecal ners $2,000,000 
Corporation tax acemisemtecs ewes iisia « sisietoc alent 1,299,050 
Savings DANK (ax cman ara cae cee oe cae ee eee 1,550,501 
National pank. tax coe tea aides ones eee ee 1,182,036 
Massachusetts hospital life insurance company.... 89,129 
Insurance taxes and licenses....:........::se0ces 638,552 
Gas, coal, and mining companies................. 9,893 
Troy and Greenfield railroad, rents and interest... 82,338 
Interest on deposits and taxes................... 116,808 
Conimissiouis Sie7 pee oes cece tse coe Monn tees 7.875 
Hawkers and peddilers;c-m ccc as crosses tee 44.567 
Corporation eens cng sees s+ eric css at ee een es 9,695 
Railrowd teommissioners...... se cee ieee eee 22,683 
State” policer: Mipa.cce ta ste ce ee Cece ote 18,156 
State prison scones e. tus seme ca ea Rete eee 107,209 
Reformischools. races see eats atte eee ce marae 22,798 
Industrial school...#2. Meee. vere. etme tee a ae 7.000 
Confiscated liquors’ vc cre sodden eietecr pees tersce: 19,793 
New York and New England railroad company... 89,038 
A]I’N ESTATERM Lceles shies ses sietcis odiete eiateieiclels’vicic'e's 4 4.065 
Premium on exchange and loans................. 25,843 
Harbor improvemeuts.. sissies gives cess pace ss 16,059 


The entire taxable property of the state on 
May 1, 1874, amounted to $2,164,398,548, of 
which $1,289,308,763 was real estate, $542,- 


MASSACHUSETTS 


292,402 personal estate, $30,569,512 bank stock 
not included in the valuation of cities and 
towns, $217,452,120 deposits in savings banks, 
and $84,775,750 property of corporations above 
real estate and machinery taxed in cities and 
towns. The number of polls was 414,800, on 
whom the tax amounted to $875,486. The total 


Property returned 


YEARS, by local assessors. 


Deposits in 
savinys banks, 


253 


municipal taxation for state, county, city, and 
town purposes, including highway tax, amount- 
ed to $28,700,605. During the decade ending 
with 1874 the taxable property of the common- 
wealth increased to the extent of $1,032,678,- 
594. The yearly valuation and the annual in- 
crease during this period were as follows: 


Corporate excess 
above real estate 
and machinery, 


Total. Increase. 


L800) Siti wetelornseetiess,. +s $991,841,901 00 $59,936,482 52 
ESOG tere roe cielcdsts farther te ete 1,081,316,001 00 67,732,264 31 
BELO GaSe senctansinge oer 1,165,893,413 00 80,431,553 71 
SOS satel Sota Petals t ees cter efoto ties etal« 1,220,498,989 00 94,838,386 54 
ESOOD. cee dewageamees aes 1,841,069,403 00 112,119,016 64 
BE RUr cnn ator n iar aa ane 1,417,127,376 00 185,745,097 54 
RY ONO Rie Asse Sook per aeae 1,496,678,258 00 163,704,077 54 
DBCZ ire ctectere tists tateisters sexe e « 1,696,599,969 00 184,797,313 92 


1,794,216,110 69 


1873, including bank shares. 
1874, N 1,862,170,677 57 


202,195,343 70 
217,452,120 S4 


$66,287,884 77 
105,348,495 93 
94,784,514 51 
75,816,069 41 
140,692,130 75 
96,580,284 65 
116,654,551 00 
224.568,560 41 
101,195,454 51 
77,048,583 45 


$79,941,570 77 
88,015,184 91 
85,522,968 02 
92,326,758 60 
95,167,145 25 
§2.0€3,976 00 

101,208,665 00 

104,757,278 03 
90,038,561 07 
84,775,750 50 


$1,131,719,954 29 
1,237,063,450 22 
1,331,847,964 73 
1,407,664,084 14 
1,548,356,164 89 
1,644,936,449 54 
1,761,591,000 54 
1,986,154,560 95 
2,087,250,015 46 
2.164,398.548 91 


All business corporations are taxed for their 
real estate and machinery in the place where 
situated, and their capital stock is taxed by the 
state at its value over and above the local as- 
sessment, the proceeds being distributed to the 
cities and towns wherein stockholders reside. 
The property exempted from taxation is valued 
at $55,088,592, distributed as follows: reli- 
gious societies, $30,455,075 ; literary, $13.886,- 
791; charitable and benevolent, $7,726,031; 


scientific, $2,064,200; agricultural, $956,495.. 


The amount exempted in Boston is $18,718,- 
100, of which $10,650,700 is for churches.— 
The provisions made by the state for the care 
of the defective and dependent are liberal and 
systematic. The charitable and correctional 
institutions are in charge of separate and inde- 
pendent boards of trustees or inspectors, ap- 
pointed by the governor and council. They 
are, however, under the general supervision of 
the board of state charities, comprising seven 
members, who collect and publish statistical 
information concerning them, and recommend 
to the legislature such action as may seem ex- 
pedient. On Sept. 30, 1874, the wards of the 
commonwealth, or persons entirely at its 
charge, exclusive of prisoners, were 3,626 ; and 
adding the blind, the deaf mutes, idiots, and 
others over whom the state exercises some 
supervision, the total was 4,103. Including 
the cost of maintaining the county and city 
prisons, and of supporting and relieving towns’ 
poor, which is not directly borne by the state, 
more than $2,000,000 was paid in 1874 for 
purposes of charity, reform, or correction; 
and this amount does not include $470,000 of 
state aid to soldiers. The ordinary appropria- 
tions for public charitable and correctional in- 
stitutions amounted to $568,500, besides $2'70,- 
000 for charitable purposes outside of institu- 
tions, half the latter sum being exceptional. 
Included in the former sum was $95,000 for 
the insane, $260,500 for the almshouse, work- 
house, and juvenile reformatories, $120,000 
for the state prison, $30,000 for deaf mutes, 
$8,500 for the eye and ear infirmary, $30,000 


for the blind, and $20,000 for idiots. The 
total income of the state from these insti- 
tutions was about $110,000. The institutions, 
besides the state prison, owned and managed 
by the state, with the most important statistics 
for 1874, were as follows: 


rie rate oie $ 
re fe) of 2 Pa 
INSTITUTIONS. a fo Bey) Se ier eae 
OS at a ae 3 Bf 
= |S oO-n 2a g oo 
a Ie |_< a Nees 
Worcester lunatic hos-) 

ORR PRA: Ae BOS ee 118338, 842 | 476 | $320,006, $107.534 
Taunton lunatic hospit’] 1854, 858 | 480 |. 183,625) 96,218 
Northampton lunatic 

OSPitall rte eer 1858; 621 | 469 $9,906} 89,876 
Tewksbury almshouse. 1654 38,022 §81 96,858) 88,199 
Monson primary school 1854, 715 | 480 47,209} 45,601 
Bridgewater workhouse 1854, 798 | 403 49,3810) 46.482 
Westborough reform) 

SCHOO Meas age 8} 456 | 38238 £9,587) 58,065 
Lancaster industrial 

SCHOOM oe detects tele 1856) 140 93 83,934] 21,085 

Tots. doves He 7,452 | 8,606 $920,485) $547,960 


Of the total receipts, $343,828 was from ap- 
propriations for current expenses, while $282, - 
000 was granted for new buildings. The entire 
expenditures amounted to $885,647. Each of 
the above named institutions has a farm, the 
smallest containing 134 and the largest 375 
acres. In 1874 they reported a valuation of 
$2,400,911 on real estate and $608,949 on per- 
sonal. The institutions at Westborough and 
Lancaster are reformatories, the former for 
boys and the latter for girls ; admission to both 
is by sentence of the courts, and for the term 
of minority. The establishments at Monson 
and Bridgewater were originally almshouses; 
the legislation of 1866 converted the one into 
a primary school and the other into a work- 
house; and the almshouse department of each 
was abolished in 1872. The school at Monson 
is for children of poverty, boys and girls; ad- 
mission is granted by the board of state chari- 
ties. Several hundred children are annually 
released from these institutions on probation 
or indenture, and are regularly visited by the 
state visiting agents. The general duties of 


254 


this agency are to look after offending and 
neglected children, and to promote their wel- 
fare. The number of children in families out- 
side the state institutions and subject to super- 
vision Sept. 30, 1874, was about 1,400. The 
following institutions, not under state control, 
were also aided by the state in 1874, and re- 
ceived state beneficiaries : 


4| 4 22 |24 
INSTITUTIONS. i 5, ae heel 
3 z a. | He 
ave cuae? | 2 
The Massachusetts charitable 

eye and ear infirmary, Boston, 1824 $8,500 | 6,652 
The Massachusetts school for 

idiots, South Boston......... 1848 20,000 148} 92 
Massachusetts asylum for the 

blind, South Boston.. oy (1829 80,000 205| 81 
The American asylum for ‘deat | 

and dumb, Hartford, Conn...'1816)) ...... sees | OO 
The Clarke institution for deaf| | 

mutes, Northampton........ 1867 30,000 57| 49 
The Boston school for deaf 

MMU COS.) DOSLOD. 1. ve oes tsys 5 cise TUSGOIS|iirn stents ee gel aU 
Massachusetts infant asylum, 

IBEOO RMN Gx, Risers. cectere ie Pe S67 4 DO0Ae se ares 51 
Aid of discharged prisoners...../.... 4,500 | ....| 427 
Relief of disabled soldiers, Boston) .. 8,000 age 

Total amount appropriated |....| $100,500 840 


Massachusetts has provided most liberally for 
its insane inhabitants. In addition to the 
asylum in Worcester, which has a capacity for 
400 patients, that in Taunton, 500, and that in 
Northampton, 325, the Tewksbury almshouse 
has accommodations for 300 chronic harm- 
less insane, and a new asylum capable of 
receiving 450 is in process of construction at 
Danvers. Moreover, the McLean asylum in 
Somerville, which is chiefly supported by pri- 
vate benefactions, will accommodate about 200 
patients, the city asylum in Boston about 200, 
and the county asylum in Ipswich about 70; 
making the entire capacity for this class not 
less than 2,450. The number of insane in the 
state in 1874 was reported at 3,843, of whom 
2,625 were under the care of hospitals or 
overseers of the poor, Sept. 30. The whole 
number in the various hospitals of the state 
during the year was 3,380; average number, 
2,167; discharged, recovered, 248 ; improved, 
395 ; not improved, 279; died, 241, Of the 
number (2,217) remaining Sept. 30, 1874, 821 
were supported by the state, 886 by towns, 
and 510 by individuals. The Massachusetts 
general hospital in Boston, founded in 1811, 
affords medical and surgical treatment free to 
those unable to pay for it. It is supported 
by the income of its invested funds, to which 
the state contributed $75,000, and the gifts of 
individuals. It receives from 1,500 to 2,000 
house patients annually, of whom more than 
half are treated free of charge, and its aver- 
age of out patients exceeds 1,000 per month. 
The state prison in Charlestown, in charge of 
a warden appointed by the governor, is con- 
ducted on the congregate plan, the convicts 
being separated at meals and at night, but as- 


MASSACHUSETTS 


sociated at labor during the day. Disciplinary 
punishments are the withdrawal of privileges, 
with solitary confinement in a dark cell. Many 
of the convicts are taught trades, and a portion 
of them are instructed in day schools. All are 
required to attend religious exercises, and have 
the privilege of a library. The labor of the 
convicts is let to contractors, and for some 
years the prison was a source of profit to the 
state. The income of the institution in 1874 
was $81,098, including $77,068 earned by the 
convicts; the total expenses were $128,678. 
The number of convicts ranged from 586 to 
685, the daily average being 647. The site has 
been selected in Concord for a new state 
prison, on the completion of which, according 
to the original plan, the one in Charlestown 
will be discontinued. In the several counties 


| of the state, under the management of officers 


elected by the people, there are 19 jails and 15 
houses of correction, though there are but 21 
different establishments, as in many cases the 
jail and house of correction are under one roof. 
In 18738 the legislature authorized the building 
of areformatory prison for women, to be erect- 
ed within two years, and to it when completed 
most of the female convicts will be sentenced. 
Men and women convicted of certain minor 
offences are sent to the workhouse at Bridge- 
water, while juvenile offenders are confined in 
the reformatories at Westborough and Lancas- 
ter. An agency for aiding discharged convicts is 
provided by the state, which appropriated $3,000 
for this purpose in 1874; and there is a tem- 
porary asylum for discharged female prisoners 
at Dedham, supported by gifts and the income 
of investments, for the benefit of which the 
state has lately made an annual appropriation 
of $1,500. There are also houses of reforma- 
tion in Boston and Lowell, besides the indus- 
trial school at Lawrence, the Plummer farm 
school at Salem, and truant schools in Wor- 
cester, Springfield, and Cambridge; and there 
are many private organizations for charitable 
purposes. The whole number confined in 
state, county, and city prisons in 1874 was 17,- 
856; average number, 3,483. The entire cost 
of these was $581,648, while their earnings 
amounted to $195,212. The county and mu- 
nicipal prisons are to a limited extent under 
the supervision of a board of prison commis- 
sioners appointed by the governor. During 
1874, 4,888 paupers were entirely supported 
by the state, at a cost of $268,096; the aver- 
age number was 2,229. Besides these, there 
was an average of 4,057 paupers supported by 
towns, at a cost of $648,440. Including those 
partially supported by the state and by towns, 
the entire cost of pauperism was $1,412, 780, 
of which $403,000 was borne by the state. 
The almshouse in Tewksbury is now the only, 
state establishment for paupers.—The system 
of public schools in Massachusetts has at- 
tained a very high degree of excellence. Every 
person having under his control a child be- 
tween the ages of 8 and 14 years is required to 


MASSACHUSETTS 


send it to school at least 20 weeks annually, 
under penalty of a fine not exceeding $50. 
Cities and towns must provide truant schools 
and appoint truant officers, who shall cause the 
confinement for instruction of habitual truants 
between the ages of 7 and 15 years. Moreover, 
there are laws prohibiting the employment of 
children in manufactories to the neglect of their 
education. Two agents are employed in visit- 
ing the schools of the state for inspection and 
improvement. In many of the cities and towns 
text books are furnished free to the pupils in 
the public schools. The schools are supported 
by local taxation. The board of education, 
consisting of 10 members, including the gov- 
ernor and lieutenant governor, has no direct 
control over the common schools, but exercises 
an important influence indirectly. It appoints 
a secretary, who acts as state superintendent, 
receiving an annual salary of $3,400, which in- 
cludes expenses. Most of the cities and towns 
elect superintendents. The most important 
information concerning the public schools of 
the commonwealth for 1873-’4 is given in the 
following statement : 


Number of public schools.cs<-05 6. 60s ees ee cscele oes 5,485 
Persons between 5 and 15, May 1, 1878........... 292.481 
Pupils of all ages in public schools................ 297,025 
Pupils under D years Of G20. .i..c).lec:0ei sie sisiscsi sie oye 2,522 
Papils over 6 yearails. sosisyois sere elelere!s.ctd 6,5) ps jourseiois 24,687 


WA VORaSS AGLENCANCE foals oretaists «ose seis seo 4 oy. ciasshal ayes = 
Ratio of average attendance to whcle number be- 
EWCCTID AUG ALO Se am cars cle ale ae es oo Medeiepiataisie's 72 


Number: of male teachers... sccccs.bsccs6 «cars 1,078 
se oitemale: texcherse asec. oes osc emis 7,637 
Number of teachers who have attended normal 
BCHOOLS seine colar ice Talahic satioeu ts cere ese 1.674 
Average length of public schools.......... 8 mos. and 8 days. 


Average monthly wages of male teachers, including 

Nigh school teachers weyveeciiac 2 comeicts wet sras © $94 83 
Average monthly wages of female teachers....... $34 84 
Raised by taxation for public schools............. $4,253,211 
Income of funds appropriated for public schools at 


opion- of OWNS! 42. ses chad cede nate ke neess $47,316 
Voluntary contributions for school purposes...... $11,162 
Income of local school funds.............5.¢-s06 $98,960 
EmOTRCALG/SCHOOL UNC sa ate. tele siete sera ates oto $88,032 
Salaries of school superintendents................ 58,822 


Ordinary expenditures <sc.r.% «Joes asc se oes $4,533,553 
Expended for school houses, building and repair- 


Number attending evening schools............... 
Number attending state charitable and reformatory 


BESO eae te pine Oe (s sae GP cieie sie cle)s ewig 9 siolasa, sree 1,219 
Number of incorporated academies...............+ 69 
AVerSce MUM Der Of PUPS... csj22-- ancien ses 4,668 
PASTIGRNTD PYAIG LOI, LHELOU se eis ale n 2eye is ia's.c'6l ele isloieie $284,149 
Number of private schools and academies........ 402 


Estimated average attendance..............-.. 18,144 
Estimated amount of tuition paid.............. 
Total amount paid to maintain public schools, and 
for instruction of children in reformatory insti- 
tations and almShouses.....2s./....6. 0.52 slo $6,180,848 
For each person in the state between 5 and 15 
MEATS OlidL Olseras) Ae aelsye tials eel ocissise eles tele oe $21 18 


Including the attendance upon academies and 
private schools (17,800), evening schools (10,- 
194), and charitable and reform schools (1,219), 
the entire attendance, exclusive of higher insti- 
tutions of learning, was 326,245; and the entire 
amount paid for popular education is stated at 
$7,080,000. Evening schools were supported 
in 88 cities and towns, at a cost of $52,238. 
According to the census of 1870, Massa- 
chusetts contained 5,726 schools, with 1,428 
538 VOL. x1.—17 


255 


male and 6,133 female teachers, and 169,887 
pupils. The total income of all educational 
institutions was $4,817,939, of which $883,146 
was from endowment, $3,183,794 from taxa- 
tion and public funds, and $1,250,999 from 
tuition and other sources. The income of the 
colleges was $408,126; academies, $285,325 ; 
private schools, $533,690. While the number 
of illiterates over 10 years of age is very large 
in proportion to the entire population, being 
‘067 per cent., exceeding that of any other New 
England state except Rhode Island, and that 
of New York, Pennsylvania, or Ohio, the ratio 
of native illiterates is smaller than in any 
of these states except New Hampshire. The 
statistics of illiteracy previously given show 
that of 97,742 illiterates 89,880 were of for- 
eign birth, and 85,676 were over 21 years of 
age. The greatest percentage of illiteracy is 
found in the manufacturing districts. An im- 
portant feature has been introduced into the 
system of education, in accordance with the 
act of the legislature passed in 1870, which 
makes industrial drawing a part of the instruc- 
tion to be given in all public schools, while 
every city and town of not less than 10,000 
inhabitants (23 in number) is required to sup- 
port free evening drawing schools. The plan 
of the state director of art education com- 
prehends a 13 years’ course of instruction in 
drawing in the public schools, viz.: three in 
the primary, six in the grammar, and four in 
the high schools. Specimens of the drawings 
made by the pupils are shown in annual pub- 
lic exhibitions. For training teachers of draw- 
ing, a state normal art school was opened in 
Boston in 1873, the legislature having appro- 
priated for this purpose $7,500. The pupils, 
Jan. 1, 1875, included 58 males and 130 females, 
and came from 48 cities and towns. Instruc- 
tion is given by lectures and recitations, with 
practice; the course, when fully organized, 
will comprise elementary drawing, painting, 
sculpture, and architectural and engineering 
drawing. This is the first institution of the 
kind established in the United States, and is 
free to those intending to become teachers of 
drawing in the Massachusetts schools. The 
most liberal provision is made by Massachu- 
setts for training teachers. Besides the nor- 
mal school of art there are five state normal 
schools under the direction of the board of 
education. No charge for tuition is made to 
those who become teachers in the public schools 
of the commonwealth; others are required to 
pay $80 a year; and $1,000 is annually appro- 
priated by the state to each school to aid indi- 
gent pupils of the former class. The regular 
course of study occupies two years. One of 
these institutions is the oldest normal school 
in the United States, having been established 
at Lexington in 1889, removed to West New- 
ton in 1844, and to Framingham in 1853. It 
is exclusively for females, as is also the nor- 
mal school in Salem. The schoolin Worcester 
was opened in September, 1874. The follow- 


256 


ing are the statistics of these schools for the 
year ending Dec. 1, 1874: 


WHERE SITUATED. Estab- No. of in- No. of | Cost of sup- 
lished. | structors. |} pupils. port. 

Framingham........ 1839 11 152 $11,033 31 
Westfield........... 1839 o 204 13,500 00 
Bridgewater......... 1840 10 200 12,998 18 
Salem! is,scc0tes 2 1854 12 27T 12,077 10 
Worcester........... 1874 5 69 4,816 23 

Tothinn te ee aT 902 | $54,424 82 


To those above named may be added the girls’ 
high and normal school and the training school 
in Boston. Teachers’ institutes are held under 
the direction of the secretary of the state board 
of education, for which the state appropriates 
$4,000 annually. The sessions are from three 
to five days each, and from six to ten are held 
annually. Nearly 2,000 normal school gradu- 
ates are teaching in the public schools of the 
commonwealth. The state agricultural col- 
lege in Amherst, established with the aid of the 
national endowment, was opened in 1866; it 
has an extensive farm, well supplied with thor- 
oughbred animals, and with the buildings and 


MASSACHUSETTS 


apparatus necessary for imparting a thorough 
industrial education. The course of study oc- 
cupies four years, on the completion of which 
the degree of bachelor of science is conferred. 
There are agricultural, botanical, and veteri- 
nary departments. Applicants for admission 
must be 15 years of age and pass an examina- 
tion. The tuition fee is $50 a year. The or- 
dinary annual expenses of the institution are 
about $30,000, while the regular income is 
about $25,000, including $10,000 from tuition 
and room rent and $15,000 from the permanent 
cash fund of $233,333. In 1874—'5 it had 11 
instructors and 121 students, a library of 1,500 
volumes, and extensive collections in natural 
history.—Of the leading institutions of learn- 
ing not under the patronage of the state, Am- 


herst college, Harvard university, and Williams 


college are described under their respective 
titles, while Boston college and Boston univer- 
sity are mentioned in the article on that city. 
The colleges and professional schools of the 
state are represented in the following state- 
ment for 18745, the number of instructors 
and pupils in the colleges including also those 
in the professional departments: 


TITLE Where situated. Denomination. Hie Peuaaeee A his ee 
ounded. |} instructors. pupils. 
mrnberst collage. cast shee st cele nr tes ie cle cee Ambherst....... Congregational....... 1821 22 331 
IB ostonicolleges: Pays acticc bition sat nae sicee ese meceere Bostonian eens Roman Catholic...... 1863 8 155 
IBOSLONMUMIVETSILY Aman «cert sid doce suet oo eee TN Planet gn dilate Methodists, «1.cat 1869 90 439 
College of the Holy Oross: 22 Ave. .4. fen ee Worcester...... Roman Catholic...... 1843 14 165 
Harvardnuniversityjos.staeas sini ecien alee eee Cambridge..... Non-sectarian........ 1638 114 1,196 
PUES CORGI O05 5 cules abies «hos pun oo sin es a tee Medford....... Universalist.......... 1855 iG 83 
Williams collepe etnies tec. te a tale vis oe sinners Williamstown..| Congregational....... 1793 13 160 
THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 
Andover theological seminary..............2ss00 Andover....... Congregational....... 1807 11 67 
Boston university school of theology.............. IOStONM ere «2 Methodist Episcopal..| 1847 11 89 
Divinity school of Harvard university............ Cambridge ....| Unitarian............ 1816 5 20 
Episcopal theological school..............-s..see- sh HPISCOPAl reset eee eee 1867 4 13 
New Church theological school (1873-4) .......... Waltham ...... New Jerusalem...... 1866 3 a 
Newton theological institution................0000 Newton.......- IBADUBt esse perenne 1826 6 72 
‘Tutts colleze.divinity school’.,ss. 5. cece eee Medford....... Universalist.......... 1867 c 27 
LAW SCHOOLS, 
Boston university school of law..............0e0- IBOStON Rare oe | enccien cote cee oeare 1872 12 121 
Law school of Harvard university................ Cambridge arts [asec ptere noes 181T 4 189 
MEDICAL SCHOOLS, 
Boston dental CONCH on caus vis Ewe Ss) A. tide ese IBGStone ener Dental fate ceaaecect 1868 10 25 
oston university school of medicine............. Bai pete. ates as Homeeopathic........ 1873 382 130 
Dental school of Harvard university.............. “ally este ese Dentalire a. ciets tine nse 1867 15 38 
Massachusetts college of pharmacy (1873-4) ...... Pe hid ae sarcters Pharmaceutic...... ..| 1828 3 83 
Medical school of Harvard university............. ee Aa eee Bepularitea eases. 1782 29 192 


The number of instructors and pupils above 
given for the Boston university do not include 
those in the preparatory departments in East 
Greenwich academy and the New England con- 
servatory of music in Boston. The school of 
medicine of this university receives pupils of 
both sexes. The institute of technology in 
Boston, which is fully described in the articles 
Boston and Epvoarion (vol. vi., p. 481), is one 
of the most complete institutions of the kind 
in the United States. The charge for tuition is 
$200 perannum. In 1874~’5 it had 84 instruc- 
tors and 283 pupils. The Worcester county free 
institute of industrial science was organized in 
Worcester in 1868, for practical education in 
the arts, agriculture, manufactures, mercantile 


business, &c. It was founded in 1865 by John 
Boynton, who gave for the purpose $100,000 ; 
$200,000 was also contributed by Stephen Salis- 
bury, and a large sum was given by Ichabod 
Washburn. No charge is made for tuition to 
residents of Worcester county, and but a small 
charge to others. In 1869 a grant of $50,000 
was made by the state, in consideration of 
which the institution will receive 20 pupils 
annually for the entire course of three years, 
free of charge. In 1874~’5 it had 10 instruc- 
tors, 99 pupils, and productive funds amount- 
ing to $367,000. Besides these institutions and 
the agricultural college, special instruction in 
science is afforded by the Lawrence scientific 
school and the mining school of Harvard uni- 


MASSACHUSETTS 


versity; in agriculture and horticulture by the 
Bussey institute, connected with the same in- 
stitution ; and in natural history by the museum 
of comparative zodlogy in Cambridge and the 
Anderson school of natural history on Peni- 
kese island. (See Harvarp University, and 
Euizasetu Istanps.) The university of mod- 
ern languages at Newburyport has been or- 
ganized for the purpose of affording to students, 
without regard to age, sex, or nationality, in- 
struction in European and Asiatic languages, 
and also modern sciences, by teachers native of 
the respective countries. The English depart- 
ment is intended for foreign students desiring 
to learn that language. The endowment fund 
(1875) exceeds $300,000, which it is intended 
to increase to $1,000,000, and the buildings for 
domestic and school purposes are in process of 
construction. The oriental department is to be 
first opened. The leading institutions for the 
superior instruction of females are Abbott acad- 
emy, Andover; Bradford academy, Bradford ; 
Gannett institute, Boston; Lasell female sem- 
inary, Auburndale; Maplewood institute for 
young ladies, Pittsfield; Mount Holyoke female 
seminary, South Hadley; Notre Dame acad- 
emy, Boston Highlands; the Oread institute for 
young ladies, Worcester; Wheaton female sem- 
inary, Norton; Wellesley college, Needham; 
and Smith college, Northampton.—There are 
not fewer than 150 libraries other than private 
in Massachusetts containing more than 1,000 
volumes each, and about 50 containing 10,000 
or more. The largest are that of Amherst 
college, about 29,000; Andover theological 
seminary, 32,000; Boston Atheneum, 103,000; 
mercantile, 20,000; public, 260,500; state, 34,- 
000; Harvard university, 200,000; free public 
library, New Bedford, 30,000; Essex institute 
and Athenewum, Salem, 438,000; city library 
association, Springfield, 36,000; museum of 
natural history, Springfield, 28,000; American 
antiquarian society, Worcester, 55,000; and 
the public library of Worcester, 35,500. Ac- 
cording to the census of 1870, the whole num- 
ber of libraries was 3,169, with an aggregate 
of 3,017,813 volumes. Of these, 1,625, with 
1,007,204 volumes, were private, and 1,544, 
with 2,010,609 volumes, other than private, 
including the state library of 35,000 volumes ; 
95 town, city, &c., 475,853; 18 court and law, 
27,708; 20 school, college, &c., 253,127; 1,042 
Sabbath school, 539,609; 164 church, 85,956; 
11 of historical, literary, and scientific socie- 
ties, 186,800; 6 of benevolent and secret asso- 
ciations, 63,000; and 186 circulating, 347,556. 
The whole number of newspapers and periodi- 
cals was 259, having an aggregate circulation 
of 1,692,124, and issuing annually 129,691,266 
copies. There were 21 daily, with a circula- 
tion of 231,625; 1 tri-weekly, 800; 16 semi- 
weekly, 41,484; 153 weekly, 899,465 ; 11 semi- 
monthly, 45,200 ; 48 monthly, 462,150; 9 quar- 
terly, 11,400; and 1 annual, 3,000. In 1874 
the total number was reported at 321, including 
26 daily, 1 tri-weekly, 10 semi-weekly, 212 


257 


| weekly, 4 bi-weekly, 2 semi-monthly, 55 month- 
ly, and 1 bi-monthly.—The total number of 
religious organizations was 1,848, having 1,764 
edifices, with 882,317 sittings, and property 
valued at $24,488,285. The denominations 
were represented as follows: 


= 
i=} 
DENOMINATIONS. S| 2 a & 
aie| # 3. 
Saas a & 
Bapiusty nee ulare cea -leseces of 271} 280 182,805 | $3,194,298 
Ser OGHOM phe tee ecis he oe 15; 15) 6,230 186,700 
Christian... .. BITG te ciate e carares 81} 81) 9,675 128,440 
Congregational............... 500) 502 269,314 | 6,298,827 
Episcopal, Protestant......... 107; 99) 46,245 | 2.304.485 
HVICHGS ye Pitot ite ce hae toe 29; 29) 7,950 91,680 
SOWISD GE ns cela sete tele eo otas weds 5} =. 2) s«1,500 88,000 
srbheranlpae ance weve ie crercte o5 P| al 450 20,000 
Methodistuicece.tnece esse ee 297) 290! 117,825 | 2,904,100 
New Jerusalem.............. 15} 12) 38,800 199,800 
Presbyterian, regular ........ 18; 10} 5,700 257,825 
Reformed church in the United 
States (late Ger. Reformed).| 3 950 24,000 
Roman Catholic.............. 196) 162) 180,415 | 8,581,095 
Second AGventse og. .-eeiae ses 15} 12} 8,400 58,540 
Shaker \Soses voces as eae 4, 4) 1,550 18,600 
Spiritualisteane: sae cose oe LO A 400 1,400 
Wnitarianyayec teens ok 180; 179} 98806 | 8,470,575 
United Brethren in Christ.... ye a 100 500 
Winiversalistsrcrene st ce cane 97) 87) 35,627 | 1,618,000 
Unknown (union)............ 42) 44) 10,575 167,470 


—The first settlement in Massachusetts was 
made on the Elizabeth islands in 1602 by Bar- 
tholomew Gosnold and 32 English colonists ; 
but it was soon abandoned. Other expeditions 
visited the coast for the purpose of getting 
possession of the country, but with unimpor- 
tant results. On Sept. 6, 1620 (O. S.), about 
100 English who had sought religious liberty 
in Holland, having embarked from Delft Ha- 
ven, set sail from Plymouth, England, in the 
Mayflower, of 180 tons, for the purpose of set- 
tling in America. They had made terms with 
the Virginia company, which had received 
from the crown important privileges in Ameri- 
ca. They reached Cape Cod Nov. 9, and an- 
chored in the roadstead of the present Prov- 
incetown. Before landing they drew up and 
subscribed a solemn compact or constitution, 
by the terms of which they were to be ruled ; 
and immediately after John Carver was elected 
governor for one year. An exploring party 
spent some days in searching for a favorable 
place to begin the settlement, and they at last 
landed at Plymouth, Dec. 11 (O. 8.). Here 
the severity of the weather, exposure, and bad 
food brought on sickness, which reduced their 
number nearly one half in about four months. 
Three months after landing they made a treaty 
of amity with the Indian chief Massasoit and 
his people, with whom they long remained 
friends. With other chiefs and tribes they had 
occasional disputes and skirmishes, but they 
were soon freed from serious molestation. In 
these matters Capt. Miles Standish achieved 
great reputation. In the spring the Mayflower 
departed, and shortly after Carver died, and 
was succeeded by William Bradford, with Isaac 
Allerton as his assistant. Until 1628, when 


258 


they had a plentiful harvest, the colony en- 
dured many privations, and were often near 
famishing. In that year some changes were 
made in the system of labor, and the plan of 
common property was abandoned. During 
this time the colony received accessions from 
abroad, and other settlements were attempted. 
A new patent was obtained in 1622 by Mr. 
Weston of London, formerly connected with 
the Plymouth colonists, under which he de- 
spatched an expedition to settle for him a plan- 
tation in Massachusetts bay. They were hos- 
pitably received at Plymouth, and commenced 
a plantation at Wessagusset, now Weymouth. 
‘All efforts to obtain a patent from the crown 
were unavailing, and the Plymouth colonists 
-were thus obliged to carry on their government 
without the royal sanction. They quietly as- 
sumed all the necessary powers and discharged 
all the functions of the state. A governor, 
with a council at first of five and afterward of 
seven assistants, and a legislature consisting at 
first of the “‘ whole body of the male inhab- 
itants,” made and administered the laws by 
which the state was ruled. In 1628 an expe- 
dition commanded by John Endicott reached 
Salem, having been organized by an English 
company which had obtained a grant of ter- 
ritory lying between the Atlantic and the Pa- 
cific, and extending 3 m.S&. of the river Charles 
and Massachusetts bay and 3 m. N. of every 
part of the river Merrimack. Endicott’s safe 
arrival excited renewed interest, new associates 
joined, and a royal patent was at last obtained 
for the company of the Massachusetts Bay. 
The charter established a corporation, and the 
associates were constituted a body politic. Its 
officers were a governor, deputy, and 18 assis- 
tants, to be annually elected. A general as- 
sembly of the freemen, to be held four times 
a year or oftener if required, was intrusted 
with legislative powers. The question of re- 
ligious liberty was avoided in the instrument, 
but the making of laws contrary to those of 
England was strictly forbidden. In 1629 a re- 
enforcement was despatched, consisting of 300 
men, 80 women, and 26 children, with victuals, 
arms, tools, cattle, and goats; and in the same 
year it was determined to transfer the govern- 
ment and patent of the company from London 
to New England. The old officers resigned, 
and new officers were appointed from among 
those who intended to emigrate, John Win- 
throp being made governor. A new emigra- 
tion was thus promoted, and soon the colony 
received an accession of about 1,000 persons, 
who had been conveyed in 17 vessels. Sites 
for settlements were promptly selected; and 
the names of Charlestown, Boston, Watertown, 
Dorchester, Roxbury, Salem, Mystic, Saugus 
(Lynn), and others, occur in the history of this 
period. This colony suffered great hardships. 
Many. died, and others returned disheartened 
to England. The Massachusetts company con- 
tinued to receive additions from England, and 
in the exercise of their political and religious 


MASSACHUSETTS 


privileges manifested a jealous and vigilant in- 
terest. Intolerance led to the banishment of 
Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson in the 
early years of the settlement, as it did later to 
the persecution of the Quakers. Issues were 
made between the magistrates and people on 
the construction of the charter in reference 
to legislation and representation, the mode of 
voting was changed from the show of hands 
to the ballot, and a law against arbitrary tax- 
ation was passed; while from 1634 to 1644 
a dispute continued concerning the relative 
powers of the assistants and deputies. The 
Massachusetts colonists for four years after 
their settlement had been left to bear their 
burdens and work out their own way with- 
out the interference of England. But the in- 
creasing emigration from the latter country, 
and a suspicion on the part of the crown that 
the colony desired to be independent, led to 
an attempt to annul the charter, and the ap- 
pointment of a special commission for its goy- 
ernment, at the head of which was Archbishop 
Laud. The colony received an order, which 
they evaded, to deliver up their charter, and at 
a meeting of the general court measures were 
taken for the fortification of Boston harbor, 
Charlestown, and Dorchester, and arrange- 
ments made for drilling troops. The political 
agitations of the mother country preserved the 
colony from the dangers which threatened her 
from that quarter. A disturbance with the 
Pequots led to the Pequot war (1637), the 
brunt of which was borne by the settlers in 
Connecticut. On the restoration of the Stuarts 
new troubles threatened Massachusetts. Its 
protest against the injustice of being subject to 
the laws of parliament, acquiesced in by the 
long parliament, was disregarded by the judges 
under the restoration, and it was declared to 
be under the legislative supremacy of parlia- 
ment without restriction. The colony had ad- 
dressed the king on his return, praying for the 
continuance of civil and religious liberties; and 
Leverett, the agent in London, was urged to 
support their application. Much controversy 
ensued, and at length in 1662 a commission 
sent to England obtained a confirmation of the 
charter from the king, and a conditional prom- 
ise of an amnesty for all offences during the 
late troubles; but the king maintained his right 
to interfere in the domestic concerns of the 
colony, demanded the repeal of all laws de- 
rogatory to his authority, the taking of the 
oath of allegiance, the administration of justice 
in his name, the complete toleration of the 
church of England, and a concession of the 
elective franchise to every inhabitant possess- 
ing a competent estate. These demands were 
strongly opposed by one portion of the com- 
munity, while the other was willing to yield 
for the sake of quiet. Commissioners charged 
to investigate the affairs of the colony arrived 
in 1664. Massachusetts published an order 
prohibiting complaints to them, and a remon- 
strance was addressed to the king. After an 


MASSACHUSETTS 


unsuccessful attempt to carry out the purposes 
of their mission, the commissioners went into 
Maine, and were subsequently recalled. Mas- 
sachusetts was reproved by the king, while 
Bellingham, the governor, Hawthorne, and two 
or three others were commanded to appear in 
England, but refused. The prosperity of the 
colonies received a severe check in the war 
with the Indians, called King Philip’s war, 
which commenced in 1675, and on the part of 
the savages was one of desperation. During 
this war, which lasted till the latter part of 
1676, and was terminated by the death of 
Philip, 12 or 13 towns were destroyed, more 
than 600 of the colonists perished in the field, 
and about 600 houses were burned. Of the 
men 1 in 20 had fallen, and of the families 1 in 
20 was houseless, while the expenses reached 
the enormous sum for that day of $500,000. 
Though the war had been conducted without 
assistance from England, it had hardly ceased 
when an emissary from that country, Edward 
Randolph, arrived. His pretensions were dis- 
allowed, and he returned to excite further hos- 
tility against Massachusetts. A committee of 
the privy council, at the suit of Mason and 
Gorges, subsequently denied her right of juris- 
diction over Maine and New Hampshire, which 
thus became separated; but the title to Maine 
was purchased and retained by Massachusetts 
until 1820. Notwithstanding many conces- 
sions, the colony failed to effect a reconcilia- 
tion with the king. In 1684 the high court 
of chancery in England gave judgment for 
- the crown against the governor and company 
of Massachusetts, and their charter was de- 
clared forfeited. Joseph Dudley was appoint- 
ed president of Massachusetts, the general court 
was dissolved, and the new commission su- 
perseded the government under the charter. 
On Dec. 20, 1686, Dudley was superseded by 
Sir Edmund Andros. The new governor and 
his council, in the most arbitrary and illegal 
manner, proceeded to make laws and levy tax- 
es; and this tyrannous rule was submitted to, 
not without protest and opposition, for more 
than two years. In April, 1689, reports hay- 
ing been received of the flight of James and 
the accession of William and Mary, on a rumor 
of an intended massacre by the governor’s 
guards, the men of Boston, aided by others 
from the country, rose in arms, imprisoned 
Andros and others who were obnoxious, and 
reinstated the old magistrates. Next day 
crowds from the country came pouring in; the 
people took the castle and the frigate Rose, 
and occupied the fortifications; town meetings 
were held, representatives chosen, and the 
general court was restored. The same spirit 
prevailed at Plymouth; Clark, the agent of 
Andros, was imprisoned, and Hinckley, the 
former governor, reinstated. Massachusetts 
took part in 1690 in the intercolonial war be- 
tween the possessions of France and England. 
A fleet under Sir William Phips captured and 
plundered Port Royal. An expedition to Can- 


259 


ada failed, and the colony, being unable to pay 
the troops, issued treasury notes, the first pa- 
per money seen in the colonies. A new char- 
ter was given in 1692, by which Plymouth was 
united to Massachusetts. At this period Mas- 
sachusetts contained a population of about 40,- 
000. It was divided into the counties of Suf- 
folk, Essex, Middiesex, and Hampshire, and 
comprised 55 towns. Plymouth, with a popu- 
lation of about 7,000, was divided into the 
counties of Plymouth, Bristol, and Barnstable, 
and comprised 17 towns. Under the new char- 
ter, the governor, lieutenant governor, and sec- 
retary were appointed by the king. No act of 
the legislature was to be valid without the con- 
sent of the governor, and he had other impor- 
tant negative as well as positive powers. Sir 
William Phips was appointed first governor. 
At about this period occurred the witchcraft 
delusion. (See Sarem.) In 1703-4 the prov- 
ince suffered from the French and Indians, 
who attacked and burned Deerfield, which had 
been rebuilt since King Philip’s war. In 1722 
war was resumed with the Indians, and con- 
tinued until the latter part of 1725, when the 
troubles with them were terminated. War 
having been declared between England and 
France in 1744, the colonial possessions were 
at once involved. Massachusetts contributed 
largely to the expedition which captured Lou- 
isburg in 1745, and exerted her best energies 
in the plans for the conquest of Canada and 
other military operations until the conclusion 
of peace in 1748. In a few years war again 
commenced, and the province once more gave 
her sons and her wealth to the cause of the 
parent country. The passage of the stamp 
act aroused the wildest excitement, and its re- 
peal the following year was welcomed with 
the most extravagant demonstrations of joy. 
Further plans for revenue were then proposed 
by the home government, which also refused 
to withdraw its troops. The arrival of the 
Romney man-of-war renewed the excitement, 
and Massachusetts issued another circular letter 
to the colonies which the ministry in vain com- 
manded them to rescind. The Boston massa- 
cre in 1770, the destruction of the tea in 1778, 
the port bill in 1774, are notable incidents pre- 
ceding the revolution. The province was well 
represented in the general congress, and the 
men of Massachusetts were alive to every act 
of aggression. They took possession of the 
arsenal at Charlestown, and prepared for the 
approaching struggle. The assembly adjourn- 
ed to Concord, and organized as a provincial 
congress. At Lexington and Concord Mas- 
sachusetts made the final appeal to arms.. 
Throughout the revolutionary war Massachu-- 
setts sustained her former reputation for patri- 
otism and public spirit, and the details of her 
history at this period will be found in the ac- 
counts of those places within her borders which 
are of historical interest. The population of 
Massachusetts has been estimated at 200,000 
in 1750; 220,000, exclusive of. slaves, in 1755; 


960 MASSACHUSETTS INDIANS 


241,000, including 5,200 slaves, in 1763; and 
352,000 in 1775. In 1780 a constitution was 
framed for the state, which was submitted to the 
vote of the people and adopted. It is still the 
supreme law of the state, though several times 
amended. Bya clause in the bill of rights pre- 
fixed to it, slavery was soon decided to have 
been abolished. John Hancock was elected 
first governor. Six years later, in 1786, civil 
disturbances commenced in the centre and 
west of the state, caused by the poverty and 
distress of a great portion of the people, and 
the heavy taxes necessary to pay the state debt. 
An insurrection known as Shays’s rebellion 
from the name of its principal leader, Dan- 
iel Shays, broke out, and was not suppressed 
without bloodshed. The federal constitution 


was ratified by a state convention, which met. 


in Boston, Jan. 9, 1788, and gave its assent 
by a vote of 187 to 168. After the formation 
of the government Massachusetts adhered gen- 
erally to the federal party, and was foremost 
among the states opposed to the war with 
England in 1812, though she furnished great 
numbers of seamen to the navy. In 1814 she 
sent delegates to the convention of the New 
England states which met at Hartford to 
confer upon the subject of grievances, and to 
take such measures for relief as were ‘not 
repugnant to their obligations as members of 
the Union.” Of that convention George Cabot 
of Massachusetts was president. In 1820 a 
convention to revise the constitution proposed 
various amendments, nine of which were rati- 
fied by the popular vote. In the same year 
the district of Maine was separated from Mas- 
sachusetts, with the consent of the latter, and 
erected into a state. In 1857 amendments of 
the constitution were made, by which the dis- 
trict system of choosing representatives and 
senators to the state legislature was adopted, 
in place of the apportionment by towns and 
counties. During the civil war Massachusetts 
furnished to the army and navy 159,165 troops, 
or 131,116 reduced to the three years’ stand- 
ard, the latter being a surplus of 13,492 over 
all calls by the general government. The loss- 
es included 3,749 killed in action, 9,086 who 
died from wounds or disease, 15,645 discharged 
for disability contracted in service, and 5,866 
not accounted for. The total expenditures by 
the state on account of the war were $30,162,- 
200. Since the close of the war a militia force 
of about 6,000 men has been maintained, at an 
average annual expense of $175,000. (See sup- 
plement.) 
MASSACHUSETTS INDIANS. At the time of 
the English settlement of Massachusetts the 
territory was occupied by five Algonquin 
tribes. The Pennacooks were in the north- 
east, partly in what is now New Hampshire; 
the Massachusetts on the bay of that name; 
the Nausets on Cape Cod; and west of them 
the Pokanokets or Wampanoags in the south- 
east. Oentral Massachusetts was occupied by 
the Nipmucks or Nipnets ; the western part was 


MASSAGET 


uninhabited. All of these tribes were friend- 
ly except the Nausets, who had had frequent 
collisions with the crews of French and Eng- 
lish ships. The Plymouth settlers effected a 
peace with the Nausets, and made a treaty 
with Massasoit, chief of the Pokanokets. (See 
Massasoit.) The Massachusetts colony en- 
tered into similar relations with the Massachu- 
setts and Pennacooks. In 1644 the Mayhews 
on Martha’s Vineyard, and in 1646 John Eliot, 
began missions to the Indians; and in 1651 
Eliot’s converts were formed into a commu- 
nity at Natick. For their use he translated 
the Bible into their language (New Testament, 
Cambridge, Mass., 1661; whole Bible, 1668). 
By 1674 the praying Indians or converts num- 
bered 3,200, of whom 1,100 were in Massachu- 
setts, 600 in Plymouth, and 1,500 in Martha’s 
Vineyard. A growing discontent among the 
Indians culminated in 1675 in what is known 
as King Philip’s Indian war. It began with 
the rising of the Pokanokets under Philip 
Metacomet or Pometacom, son of Massasoit ; 
the Nipmucks followed, then the Narragan- 
setts, and finally the Pennacooks. Though not 
apparently a concerted plot, the rising was al- 
most simultaneous, and all the Massachusetts 
frontier settlements were ravaged. Even the 
praying Indians caught the contagion, and 
numbers joined the enemy. The colonists 
finally conquered the savages, and the war 
ended with the death of Philip, Aug. 12, 1676. 
The ‘Pennacooks after this withdrew in a great 
measure, joining tribes to the east or in Can- 
ada. The other tribes quieted down, having 
lost heavily, and many having been sent off to 
the West Indies as slaves. From time to time 
lands were assigned to the declining commu- 
nities, and the Indians have gradually mingled 
with negroes and whites. <A careful census 
in 1861 showed an aggregate of 1,610 Indians 
or half-breeds in the state: 3806 on Martha’s 
Vineyard, at Christiantown, and Gayhead; 
438 at Marshpee and Herring Pond, Cape Cod; 
12 at Natick; the rest being the Punkapog, 
Fall River, Hassanamisco, Dudley, Yarmouth, 
Dartmouth, Mamattakeeset, Tumpum, Deep 
Bottom, and Middleborough bands, with some 
stray parties. Since then the tendency has 
been to assimilate them with the rest of the 
population. In the United States census of 
1870 only 151 Indians are returned from Mas- 
sachusetts, the rest being counted as white or 
negro.—For the study of the Massachusetts 
dialect of the Algonquin, materials are sup- 
plied by Eliot’s “Indian Grammar Begun” 
(Cambridge, 1664; Boston, 1832), and ‘“ In- 
dian Primer” (Boston, 1720); Cotton’s ‘‘ Vo- 
cabulary of the Massachusetts Language” 
(Cambridge, 1830); and the studies of Eliot’s 
Bible made by J. Hammond Trumbull. 

MASSAGE. See supplement. 

MASSAGETH, an ancient nomad people of 
Asia, who dwelt on the steppes adjoining the 
Jaxartes or Sir Darya and the sea of Aral, 
and according to some extended further S. E. 


MASSARUNI 


They were regarded as Scyths, and were re- 
puted warlike. They worshipped the sun, to 
which they sacrificed horses. Their very old 
people were also sacrificed, according to Greek 
accounts, and the flesh eaten. They raised 
no grain, but kept cattle and lived largely on 
fish. Cyrus, the Persian conqueror, is said to 
have fallen in an expedition against them, 
when they were commanded by their queen 
Tomyris. Some critics identify them with the 
Meshech of the Scriptures. 

MASSARONI, a river of British Guiana, rising 
about lat. 4° 30’ N., lon. 59° 30’ W., and holding 
an extremely circuitous course, first westward, 
then N. about 70 m., and finally N. and N. N. 
E., to the extreme southerly point of the estu- 
ary of the Essequibo, in which it merges. In 
lat. 5° 50’ N. it receives the waters of the 
Rupununi and becomes a wide and majestic 
stream. It hasnumerous islands. It has been 
explored by Hillhouse to a distance of 400 m. 
from its junction with the Essequibo. The 
navigation of the upper portion is difficult, 
owing to the frequent rapids and cascades. 
The river is celebrated as having long been 
supposed by geographers to form a part of the 
fabulous lake of Parime. 

MASSASOIT, a sachem of the Wampanoags, 
died in the autumn of 1661, about 80 years of 
age. His dominions extended over nearly all 
the southern part of Massachusetts, from Cape 
Cod to Narragansett bay; but his tribe, once 
estimated at 30,000 in number, had shortly 
before the landing of the pilgrims at Plymouth 
been reduced by a disease supposed to have 
been yellow fever to about 800. On March 
22, 1621, three months after the founding of 
Plymouth, he appeared there with 60 war- 
riors, armed and painted, for the purpose of 
forming a friendly league with the white men. 
Although the tribe were reputed cruel and 
treacherous, the very open and friendly greet- 
ing of Massasoit so favorably impressed Gov. 
Carver, that after the necessary and imposing 
formalities were concluded, he formed in be- 
half of the colony a treaty of peace and mu- 
tual protection with the Wampanoags, which 
for 50 years was sacredly kept. The friendly 
disposition of Massasoit toward the colonists 
never relaxed. His residence was within the 
limits of what is now the town of Warren, R. 
I., near an abundant spring of water, which 
still bears his name. Roger Williams, when 
banished from the Massachusetts colony, on 
his way to Providence, was entertained by 
him for several weeks at this place. Massasoit 
was humane and honest, never violated his 
word, and constantly endeavored to imbue his 
people with a love of peace. He kept the pil- 
grims advised of any warlike designs toward 
them by other tribes. In person, says Morton 
in his ‘*‘ Memorial,” he was ‘‘a very lusty man 
in his best years, an able body, grave of coun- 
tenance, and spare of speech.” His family 
consisted of his wife, two brothers, three sons, 
a daughter, two sons’ wives, and a grandson. 


MASSENA 261 


His two eldest sons were named Mooanum and 
Pometacom. Soon after the death of Mas- 
sasoit these sons went to Plymouth and re- 
quested the pilgrims to give them English 
names. The court named them Alexander and 
Philip. The former became chief sachem, died 
within a year, and was succeeded by Philip. 

MASSE, Gabriel, a French jurist, born in Poi- 
tiers in 1807. He was called to the bar in 
Paris in 1833, and in 1868 became councillor 
of the court of cassation, and also one of the 
chief editors of the Recueil des Arréts. In 
1874 he succeeded Odilon Barrot in the acad- 
emy of moral and political sciences. With De 
Villeneuve he has published Dictionnaire du 
contentieux commercial (2 vols., Paris, 1839- 
"45; 2d ed., 1851), and is the sole author of 
Le droit commercial dans ses rapports avec le 
droit des gens et le droit civil (6 vols., 18448 ; 
2d ed., revised and enlarged, 4 vols., 1861-’3). 
With Charles Vergé he translated from the 
German into French with annotations, under 
the title Le droit civil francais, the Handbuch 
des franzésischen Civilrechts, by Karl Salome 
Zachariaé von Lingenthal (5 vols., Paris, 1854-9). 

MASSENA, a town and village of St. Law- 
rence co., New York, 170 m. N. N. W. of Al- 
bany; pop. of the town in 1870, 2,560; of 
the village, 483. The town borders on the 
St. Lawrence river, and is intersected by 
the Grass and Raquette rivers, which afford 
good water power. The village is situated on 
Grass river, and about a mile S. E. on the W. 
bank of the Raquette are the Massena springs. 
These are saline and sulphurous, and are much 
resorted to in summer. 

MASSENA, André, prince of Essling, a marshal 
of France, born in Nice in May, 1758, died in 
Paris, April 4, 1817. It has been said that he 
was of Jewish origin, and that his real name 
was Manasseh. In early life he was a sailor, 
and subsequently entered the royal Italian 
regiment in the Sardinian service, in which 
he served 14 years without rising above the 
grade of sergeant. On the annexation of Nice 
to the French republic in 1792 he resumed 
the profession of arms, was appointed adju- 
tant major and soon after colonel, and by the 
end of 1793 had attained the rank of gen- 
eral of division. His tactical skill in the Ital- 
ian campaigns of 1794~’5 attracted attention, 
and in 1796 Bonaparte gave him the command 
of the advanced guard of the army of Italy. 
At Montenotte, Millesimo, Castiglione, Arcole, 
and Rivoli, Masséna distinguished himself, and 
Napoleon surnamed him the “favored child 
of victory.” In February, 1798, he was sent 
to replace Berthier in the Papal States; but 
the appointment proving unpopular among the 
troops and the people on account of his char- 
acter for rapacity and avarice, he soon re- 
signed. In the succeeding campaign his ope- 
rations against the allied Austrian and Russian 
armies in Switzerland were attended with 
brilliant success, and the decisive defeat in-. 
flicted by him on the Russian general Korsa- 


262 MASSENA 


koff at Zitirich, Sept. 25, 1799, saved H'rance 
from invasion. Directed by Bonaparte to de- 
fend Genoa, which was invested by an Austrian 
army and blockaded by a British fleet under 
Lord Keith, he sustained a memorable siege of 
more than three months, and only surrendered 
(June 3, 1800) when the inhabitants, reduced 
to desperation by hunger, threatened to rise 
against him. The concentration of a large 
Austrian force at this point, however, greatly 
aided Bonaparte in gaining the important bat- 
tle of Marengo, fought eleven days after the 
capitulation of Genoa. Attached from inter- 
ested motives to the republic, Masséna op- 
posed the establishment of the empire; but 
his services were deemed by Napoleon too 
valuable to be dispensed with, and in 1804 
he was created a marshal. During the cam- 


paign of 1805 he commanded an army of 50,- 


000 men in Italy, where by skilful manceuvres 
he occupied the attention of the archduke 
Charles until Napoleon had gained the decisive 
victory of Austerlitz; and in 1806 he com- 
pleted the conquest of Naples and established 
Joseph Bonaparte on the throne of that king- 
dom. In the campaign of 1809 he command- 
ed the fourth corps of the army. In the 
battles of Aspern and Essling his firmness 
saved the retreating French forces from de- 
struction; and the title of prince of Essling 
was bestowed on him by Napoleon. At the 
battle of Wagram, where he commanded the 
left wing, he was obliged, in consequence of 
4 recent injury, to direct the movements of 
his troops from a carriage. Seeing his men 
waver at a critical moment, he caused himself 
to, be placed on horseback, and had scarcely 
changed his position when a cannon ball 
struck the seat he had been occupying. In 
1810 he was appointed chief in command of 
the army of Portugal, with orders to drive the 
British troops from the peninsula. Orossing 
the Mondego in the middle of September with 
70,000. men, he followed Wellington to the 
neighborhood of Lisbon, where his progress 
was arrested by the famous lines of Torres 
Vedras. He accordingly fell back to Santa- 
rem on the Tagus, to await reénforcements 
from Soult, who could not spare them. After 
lingering at Santarem until his army was 
greatly weakened by sickness and scarcity of 
supplies, he commenced on March 5, 1811, his 
celebrated retreat into Spain, “in which,” 
says Napier, ‘he displayed infinite ability, but 
withal a harsh and ruthless spirit.” In the 
latter part of April he entered Salamanca, 
having lost 30,000 men within six months; on 
May 5 he fought the bloody but indecisive 
battle of Fuentes de Onoro; and soon after he 
was obliged on account of ill health to resign 
his command and return to France. During 
the whole campaign he had been a confirmed 
invalid, and to his inability to reconnoitre 
personally Napoleon ascribed the ill result of 
his operations. After the restoration of his 
health he held the comparatively inactive post 


MASSEY 


of commander of the eighth military division 
of the empire. He gave in his adherence to 
the Bourbons at the restoration, and during 
the hundred days took no part in public af- 
fairs. —In military capacity Masséna ranks 
with the first generals of the empire, although 
it was said that he never began to act with 
judgment until the battle was going against 
him. His private character was stained by 
imputations of meanness and rapacity, which 
took definite form in a series of accusations 
brought against him by the inhabitants of Mar- 
seilles. Napoleon called him a ‘‘ robber,” and 
offered him a present of 1,000,000 francs if 
he would discontinue his peculations. He paid 
little attention to discipline or to the comfort of 
his troops, by whom he was cordially disliked. 

MASSEY, Gerald, an English poet, born near 
Tring, Hertfordshire, May 29, 1828. He was 
the child of an illiterate couple, who lived in 
the most abject poverty; and his whole educa- 
tion was confined to a few months at a penny 
school. At eight years of age he was sent to 
work in a neighboring silk mill, and was after- 
ward employed in straw plaiting. He read 
whatever books were accessible to him, and at 
the age of 15, when he went to London to 
seek employment as an errand boy, had made 
himself familiar with the Bible, ‘ Pilgrim’s 
Progress,” ‘‘ Robinson Crusoe,” and a few Wes- 
leyan tracts. At the age of 17 he fell in love, 
and at the same time began to write verses, 
Some of his early poems, dwelling upon the 
sufferings of the poor, and the “power of 
knowledge, virtue, and temperance to elevate 
them,” appeared in a provincial journal; and 
a collection of them was published in his na- 
tive town under the title of ‘‘ Poems and Chan- 
sons.”” The French revolution of 1848 ‘ had 
the greatest effect on him of any circumstances 
connected with his life.” He started in con- 
junction with some fellow working men, in 
April, 1849, a cheap ultra-radical weekly news- 
paper called the ‘Spirit of Freedom.” This 
brought him into some prominence among peo- 
ple of his class, and he aided the Rey. F. D, 
Maurice and the Rev. Charles Kingsley in their 
plans for codperative labor by means of work- 
ingmen’s associations. About the same time 
he married, and his poems, published occasion- 
ally in the London journals, began to attract 
notice. He has lectured extensively on spirit- 
ualism (in which he is a believer) and liter- 
ary topics in Great Britain, and in 1878 in the 
United States. In 1863 he received a pension 
on the civil list. He resides in a rustic cottage 
in his native county, presented to him by 
Lord Brownlow. He has published “‘ The Bal- 
lad of Babe Christabel and other Poems” 
(1858); ‘‘Craigcrook Castle” (1856); ‘* Rob- 
ert Burns, and other Lyrics” (1859); ‘' Voices 
of Freedom and Lyrics of Love” (1859); 
‘‘ Havelock’s March, and other Poems” (1861) ; 
‘‘ Shakespeare’s Sonnets never before Inter- 
preted” (1866); and “A Tale of Eternity, and 
other Poems” (1870). 


MASSILIA 


MASSILIA. See MarsEIxizs. 

MASSILLON, a city of Stark co., Ohio, on the 
Tuscarawas river and the Ohio canal, at the 
intersection of the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, 
and Chicago, the Lake Shore and Tuscarawas 
Valley, and the Massillon and Cleveland rail- 
roads, 95 m. N. E. of Columbus, and 50 m. 8S. 
of Cleveland; pop. in 1860, 3,819; in 1870, 
5,185; in 1874, estimated by local authorities 
at 7,000. It is regularly laid out, is substan- 
tially and compactly built, and contains many 
handsome residences, and an opera house cost- 
ing $100,000. Itis surrounded by one of the 
most productive coal fields of the state, and 
the coal obtained here has a wide reputation. 
The Massillon white sandstone, which is large- 
ly quarried, is shipped to all parts of the coun- 
try. Large shipments of iron ore, wool, flour, 
grain, &c., are also made. There are two 
blast furnaces, a rolling mill, founderies and 
machine shops, and manufactories of agricul- 
tural implements, iron bridges, and boilers. 
The city contains three banking houses, two 
large union school houses, a primary school 
building, a charity school, two weekly news- 
papers, a library belonging to the young men’s 
Christian association, and nine churches. It 
was laid out in 1826. 

MASSILLON, Jean Baptiste, a French prelate, 
born at Hyéres, Provence, June 24, 1663, died 
Sept. 18, 1742. He studied with brilliant suc- 
cess under the Oratorians in his native city, 
and entered their congregation in 1681. In 
the monastery of Sept-Fonts he was appointed 
to reply to the charge of the cardinal de 
Noailles, which office he fulfilled with remark- 
able brilliancy and unction; and from that 
time his talents and culture were directed to- 
ward the pulpit. He had been a professor 
successively at Pézénas, Montbrison, and Vi- 
enne, and had gained distinction by several fu- 
neral orations, especially by that on Henri de 
Villars, when in 1696 he was called to Paris to 
take charge of the seminary of St. Magloire. 
His sermons soon made him the rival of Bour- 
daloue, whom in 1698 he succeeded in a mis- 
sion to Montpellier. In 1699 he preached du- 
ring Lent in the church of the Oratory at 
Paris, where Bourdaloue was one of his listen- 
ers; and he delivered before the court at Ver- 
sailles an Advent sermon which caused Louis 
XIV. to say to him: “I have heard many great 
orators, and been satisfied with them; but 
when you spoke, I was very dissatisfied with 
myself.” His sermon on the small number of 
the elect was delivered for the first time at St. 
Eustache, and with so great effect that the en- 
tire audience rose during the peroration, ‘‘as 
if looking for the archangel to sound.” In 
1704 he preached a second time at court. He 
preached the funeral sermon of the prince of 
Conti in 1709, of the dauphin in 1711, and of 
the king in 1715. In 1717 he was appointed 
bishop of Clermont, and was invited to preach 
during Lent before the young king. The ten 
sermons, entitled Petit caréme, which he com- 


termed tragi-comedies, 


MASSINGER 263 


posed for this occasion, are among his master- 
pieces, and are esteemed models of French 
prose and eloquencé. From this time the ora- 
tor gave place to the bishop, and he rarely left 
his diocese. In 1719 he was received into the 
French academy, and in 1723 he preached at 
St. Denis the funeral sermon of the duchess of 
Orleans. He was noted for zeal, charity, and 
liberality. As the tendencies of the 18th cen- 
tury began to manifest themselves, his elo- 
quence, without ceasing to be that of a divine, 
became more and more that of a moralist and 
philosopher. His complete works were pub- 
lished by his nephew (14 vols., 1745-"6). Sub- 
sequent editions were substantially reprints of 
this, and differed in many respects from the 
original manuscripts. A better edition, con- 
formable to the manuscripts and containing 
many unpublished writings and new biographi- 
cal researches, was published by the abbé E. 
A. Blampignon, with a portrait (3 vols. 4to, 
Bar-le-Duc, 1865-7). His éloge before the 
academy was written by D’Alembert. 
MASSINGBERD, Francis Charles, an English 
clergyman, born in Lincolnshire in 1800, died 
at South Ormsby, in that county, in Decem- 
ber, 1872. He graduated at Magdalen college, 
Oxford, in 1822, took orders, and became rec- 
tor of South Ormsby in 1825. In 1847 he 
became a prebendary of Lincoln, and in 1862 
was appointed chancellor of the cathedral. 
For many years he was zealously occupied in 
the effort to revive the active powers of the 
convocation in the church of England. His 
principal publications are: ‘ History of the 
English Reformation” (8d ed., 1857); ‘‘ Law 
of the Church and State” (1857); and ‘ Lec- 
tures on the Prayer Book” (1864). He also 
published several letters and pamphlets. 
MASSINGER, Philip, an English dramatist, 
born in Salisbury in 1584, died in London, 
March 17, 1640. His father was a retainer of the 
earl of Pembroke. In 1602 Philip was entered 
at St. Alban’s hall, Oxford. According to An- 
thony 4 Wood, he occupied himself with po- 
etry and romances instead of logic and philos- 
ophy, left the university without receiving a 
degree, and went to London in 1606. Little is 
known of his life till the publication of his ear- 
liest drama, ‘‘The Virgin Martyr,” in 1622. 
His name occurs in Henslowe’s diary in 1614, 
in connection with two actors and dramatic 
authors, and from 1613 he was engaged as 
joint author with Fletcher, Field, and others. 
Most of his 18 extant plays were produced in 
the 10 years following 1622; ‘The Bashful 
Lover,” the latest of them, was written in 
1636. His health seems to have suffered from 
his laborious career, and his obscurity and 
lonely death appear from the register of his 
interment: ‘March 20, 1639-’40, buried Phil- 
ip Massinger, a stranger.” Five of his extant 
plays are tragedies; the remainder may be 
His most striking ex- 
cellences are in the conception of character, 
in dignity of sentiment, and in grace and mel- 


264 MASSINISSA 


ody of style. 
the best of his tragedies; ‘The Picture,” 
‘A Very Woman,” ‘‘A City Madam,” and “A 
New Way to Pay Old Debts,” are among his 
best tragi-comedies. The last alone retains a 
place on the stage, for which it is indebted to 
its effective delineation of the character of 
Sir Giles Overreach. The best edition of his 
works is that by W. Gifford (4 vols., London, 
1805; new eds., 1813 and 1850). His plays, 
with those of Ford, and with an introduction 
by Hartley Coleridge, were published in 1848. 

MASSINISSA. See Masrnissa. 

MASSON, David, a Scottish author, born in 
Aberdeen, Dec. 2, 1822. He was educated at 
Marischal college, Aberdeen, and at the uni- 
versity of Edinburgh, and at 19 became editor 
of a Scottish provincial newspaper. Two 
years later he went to London, and became a 
contributor to the magazines, subsequently 
spent several years in Edinburgh in a similar 
capacity, and about 1847 established himself 
again in London. In 1852 he was appointed 
professor of the English language and literature 
in University college, London, and in 1865 of 
rhetoric and English literature in the univer- 
sity of Edinburgh. He has published “ Essays, 
Biographical and Critical, chiefly on English 
Poets” (1856); ‘Life of John Milton” (2 
vols., 1859-71); ‘British Novelists and their 
Styles” (1859); ‘Recent British Philosophy, 
including Remarks on Mr. Mill’s Answer to 
Sir William Hamilton” (1865); ‘Essays on 
Wordsworth, Shelley, Keats” (1874); and 
“Chatterton” (1874). From 1859 to 1868 he 
was editor of “‘ Macmillan’s Magazine.” . 

MASSOWAH, or Massouah, a seaport town be- 
longing to Egypt, on an island in the Red sea, 
in the bay of Massowah, 250 m. N. E. of Gon- 
dar, and 420 m. N. W. of Aden; lat. 15° 36’ N., 
lon. 89° 21’ E.; pop. about 6,000. The island 
is a barren rock about 4 m. long, and from 800 
to 400 yards broad. The harbor is deep, shel- 
tered, and safe, and can accommodate about 
50 vessels. The inhabitants have no water, 
save what they can collect in tanks. In 1859 
the French acquired the port of Zula, about 25 
m. 8. of Massowah. Owing to the increasing 
commerce with Abyssinia and Darfoor, Masso- 
wah has of late become of great importance. 
Since 1865 it has been the seat of an Egyptian 
governor, subordinate to the governor general 
of Soudan. In 1874 this office was held by 
the Swiss traveller Werner Munzinger. 

MASTER AND SERVANT. The word servant 
(Lat. servus) is a generic term embracing all 
persons bound or obliged to render service to 
others, and therefore including slaves; but 
where slavery does not exist, a servant is un- 
derstood to be one who by contract has bound 
himself to render service to another, who in 
respect to the subject matter of the contract is 
his master. The law of England distinguishes 
domestic from other servants, and presumes 
a hiring when no time is specified to be for 
a year; but in the United States this distinc- 


MASTER AND SERVANT 


‘‘The Duke of Milan” is one of | tion is not recognized. The contract of hiring 


may be verbal or in writing; if it be for more 
than a year, it must be in writing, or it will be 
valid only so far as the parties have acted un- 
der it. When the time of service is fixed, nei- 
ther party has a right to terminate the contract 
except for cause; and what would be sufficient 
excuse is sometimes a question of difficulty. 
The master, if it is part of the contract that 
the servant shall reside with him, is bound to 
provide suitably for his wants, though not to 
furnish him medical attendance or medicine 
in case of sickness; and ill treatment or blows 
inflicted upon him area breach of the implied 
terms of the contract. On the other hand, the 
servant must obey all proper directions of the 
master in respect to the service, must attend 
faithfully to his duties, and be guilty of no 
grossly immoral or indecent behavior. The 
penalty if the servant shall leave the service 
without sufficient cause, or if the master shall 
wrongfully discharge him, is the payment of 
such damages as the other party can show he 
has sustained; and it is generally held that, 
as such a contract is an entirety, either party 
violating it can have no remedy against the 
other, but on the contrary will be liable to 
the other for a failure to perform it on his part 
for the whole period. But where no time is 
limited by the contract of service, either party 
may terminate it at his option, except perhaps 
that where the compensation is to be made by 
the week, month, or year, a strong if not con- 
clusive inference might arise that the hiring at 
the outset was for one of these terms, and for 
another if the service continued after one had 
expired, and so on. An apprentice is a ser- 
vant, but subject to some peculiar rules. (See 
APPRENTICE.) Stewards, factors, and bailiffs 
are also considered as servants pro tempore ; 
and for some purposes any one who assists an- 
other in his business, though only as a matter 
of kindness or favor, is by the law placed in the 
same category. The most important of these 
purposes is the protection of third persons who 
may be injured by the wrongful or negligent 
act of the person thus in the service of another. 
The rules of liability in these cases may be thus 
stated. Where a wrongful act is done by a 
servant by direction of the master, or in his 
presence so that his consent may fairly be im- 
plied, or as the natural or probable result of 
directions given by the master, or in the exer- 
cise of a discretion which the master has given, 
the master is answerable in damages to the 
person injured. Soif the servant in the course 
of his employment conducts himself so negli- 
gently, or manages the business with such want 
of skill or prudence, as to cause an injury to 
another, the master must respond therefor. 
These rules, however, do not make the master 
liable for anything done or omitted by the ser- 
vant when not acting in his service, or under 
his express or implied command; but if the 
servant steps aside from his duty to commit 
an intentional wrong, he alone is liable there- 


MASTER AND SERVANT 


for. But this rule is subject to an apparent ex- 
ception in the case of carriers of passengers. 
Where, for instance, a railway company re- 
ceives passengers to be carried, and intrusts 
them to the care of its conductors and other 
servants, if the conductor of a train shall cause 
a passenger who is in no default to be put off 
the cars, the company will not only be liable 
in that case upon the presumption that the 
conductor was acting in obedience to its orders, 
but it would also be liable if the conductor 
should in defiance of orders and wilfully and 
wantonly inflict an injury upon the passenger, 
because it was the duty of the company to see 
to it that the contract of carriage be not in- 
trusted for execution to those who would either 
negligently or purposely violate it. It should 
be observed in respect to these rules of liability 
on the part of the master, that they do not ap- 
ply in favor of one of his servants who is in- 
jured by the carelessness or negligence of a co- 
servant, but the servant is considered to have 
taken upon himself by the contract of hiring 
all risks of that character; though if he can 
show that the servant causing the injury was 
an incompetent or unfit person to be engaged 
in such employment, and that the master knew 
it when he employed him, thereby tracing the 
negligence back to the master, he may hold the 
latter responsible. One class of persons who 
make it their business to perform service for 
others are not held to be servants so far as 
to make the master liable for their negligent 
torts. These are such as act in an independent 
employment, and not under the immediate con- 
trol, direction, or supervision of the employer. 
The man who draws goods for me by the day 
or week is my servant, but the railway compa- 
ny that transports them is not, neither is the 
licensed drayman.—Corresponding to his lia- 
bilities to third persons, the master has some 
rights. One who entices his servant away 
from him before his time of service has ex- 
pired, or who injures him so that he cannot la- 
bor, or who seduces his female servant, is liable 
to him in damages; and in the last mentioned 
case heavy punitory damages are sometimes 
allowed to be recovered. The courts consider 
any female a servant who is living with and 
performing service, however slight, for an- 
other, whether under contract or not; and a 
father, at the common law, only recovers for 
the seduction of his daughter on the ground of 
her being his servant. In general, where a 
third person has a right to hold the master lia- 
ble for the servant’s act or non-feasance, he 
may at his option hold the servant also; and 
on the other hand, though the master may sue 
for an injury to the servant whereby he has 
lost his service, so the servant may have an ac- 
tion on his own account to recover the dam- 
ages which are personal to himself. It should 
be observed that, though the officers of a cor- 
poration are regarded as its servants, yet the 
chief executive officer or superintendent of. its 
business is for many purposes, so far as third 


MASTIC 965 


persons are concerned, regarded as standing in 
the place of and representing its principal for 
the purposes of control and direction of other 
officers and servants; and the liability of the 
corporation will be the same for acts done un- 
der his direction as though done by direction 
of the corporate board of management. 
MASTER SINGERS (Ger. MJeistersdnger), a class 
of minstrels who flourished in Germany during 
the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. They were 
generally of burgher extraction, and in the 
reign of the emperor Charles IV. were formed 
into regular corporations, for admission to 
which a course of apprenticeship was required. 
Their chief seats were the imperial cities, and 
they flourished most at Nuremberg. The com- 
positions of the members, consisting chiefly 
of devotional and Scriptural pieces, were sub- 
jected to a peculiar code of laws, and the 
main faults to be avoided, 32 in number, were 
distinguished by particular names. At public 
contests in Nuremberg, a board of four judges, 
called Merker, sat to hear the poems recited or 
sung, and mark the faults in each. The first 
compared the recitation with the text of the 
Bible lying before him, the second criticised the 
prosody, the third the rhymes, and the fourth 
the tunes. He who had the fewest marks re- 
ceived the prize, and the successful competi- 
tors were thereupon permitted to receive ap- 
prentices. These corporations began to decline 
in the 17th century, and have been succeeded 
in modern times by the Liederkranze, Singer- 
binde, and other singing societies. Among 
the most famous master singers were Hans 
Sachs, Muscatblit, and Michael Behaim. 
MASTIC (Gr. vaotiyn, from pacacbat, to chew 
or eat, so named from the practice of chewing 
the substance which prevailed formerly as at 


i 
Mastic Plant (Pistacia lentiscus). 


present in Greece), a resinous exudation from 
the bark of the pistacia lentiscus, a shrub 
about 12 ft. high, found upon the borders of 
the upper Mediterranean. The drug is ob- 


266 MASTIFF 

tained from the island of Scio or Chios in the 
Grecian archipelago, and from northern Africa 
and western Asia. It was known to the an- 
cients, being correctly described by Diosco- 
rides and Pliny, and that from Chios being par- 
ticularly recommended by Galen. It is col- 
lected during July or August, when the juice 
slowly exuding from the tree hardens in tears 
on the bark, or on cloth placed to receive it, 
or falls upon the ground. The best quality, 
known as mastic in tears, consists of tears of 
various sizes, pale yellow, semi-transparent, 
roundish, oval, or flattened, and brittle. The 
more ordinary kind, termed mastic in sorts, 
is obtained in irregular masses, mixed with 
bark, sand, and other impurities. Mastic has 
a sweet resinous odor and an aromatic taste. 


Alcohol dissolves about 90 per cent. of it, leav- | 


ing a tenacious resin that is soluble in turpen- 
tine. Chloroform, ether, and oil of turpentine 
are its proper solvents. By the inhabitants of 
the countries from which it is procured mas- 
tic is considered highly efficacious in purify- 
ing the breath and preserving the teeth, and it 
is extensively used for these purposes by the 
Turkish ladies. It is friable when first put into 
the mouth, but by chewing becomes soft and 
opaque. It is sometimes used for filling de- 
cayed teeth. Dissolved in oil of turpentine, it 
makes an excellent varnish used upon pictures, 
but of late for this and other uses it is largely 
superseded by the Australian resin dammar. 
Mastic has little medicinal effect, although it is 
an ingredient of a popular dinner pill composed 
of aloes, mastic, and red-rose leaves; the use 
of the mastic is to completely divide the aloes. 

MASTIFF (canis urcanus), a variety of the 
dog family, large and powerful, with truncated 
muzzle and elevated skull, strong neck, muscu- 
lar back, and robust limbs. The condyles of the 
lower jaw are above the line of the upper mo- 
lars; the head is large, with the ears small and 
partly drooping ; the tail truncated and carried 
erect; there is occasionally a fifth hind toe. 
The mastiff is calm, dignified, cotrageous, not 
easily irritated, but when angry a most deter- 
mined and fierce assailant. If we seek for the 
original where the race is now the most nu- 
merous and in the highest perfection, it would 
be in the mountains of Thibet, though there 
is no similar wild animal in that region; the 
nearest wild type is the lycaon of the Cape 
of Good Hope (see Hyana), which possesses 
many of the characteristics of the mastiffs. 
The mastiff form became known to the Greeks 
about the time of the Macedonian conquest, 
and the classic Roman writers describe the 
pendulous lips, fiery eyes, loose folds of skin 
above the brows, and other characters of the 
modern mastiff of Thibet. The color of the 
Asiatic breed is generally very dark, almost 
black, with a few tan-colored spots about the 
face and limbs. The mastiff of Thibet is the 
largest and finest of the breed, and extends 
through 8. and E. Tartary. The English mas- 
tiff, perhaps derived from this, but smaller and 


MASTODON 


somewhat crossed with the stag and blood 
hounds, is more elegant in form and more ma- 
jestic; the color is usually dark buff, with 
dark muzzle and ears; one mentioned by Ham- 


Mastiff (Canis urcanus). 


ilton Smith measured 294 in. in height at the 
shoulder, and others are described as engaging 
singly with the lion, and able to cope with the 
bear and leopard. On the continent of Eu- 
rope they are generally white, with large 
clouds of black or reddish; they have been 
seen 80 in. high at the shoulder. Mastiffs are 
very sagacious, and make excellent watch dogs. 

MASTODON (Gr. paoréc, nipple, and ddobc, 
tooth), an extinct proboscidian mammal, com- 
ing near the elephant, found either in the ter- 
tiary or more recent deposits in all quarters 
of the globe except Africa. This animal has 
the vaulted and cellular skull of the elephant, 
with large tusks in the upper jaw, and heavy 
form; from the characters of the nasal bones 


Mastodon giganteus. 


and the shortness of the head and neck, it has 
been concluded that it had a trunk; the crowns 
of the molars are divided by transverse rows 
of mammillary conical prominences, whence the 


MASTODON 


name; besides the upper incisors or tusks, the 
cheek teeth are §=6, succeeding each other from 
behind forward, as in the elephant, only two 
or three being in use at atime; during youth 
there were two short and straight tusks at the 
end of the lower jaw in the males, which were 
retained sometimes to adult life. The best 
known species is the North American masto- 
don (i. giganteus, Cuv., or M. Ohioticus of 
Falconer); this has been fully described in a 
superb work by Dr. John O. Warren, assisted 
by Dr. J. F. W. Lane (‘The Mastodon Gigan- 
teus of North America,” 2d ed., 4to, Boston, 
1855), to which the reader is referred for the 
fullest details and abundant illustrations of 
most of the species. A few remains of the 
mastodon had been discovered in North Amer- 
ica as early as 1705, but not until 1801 was 
anything like a complete skeleton obtained, 
when a tolerably complete one was procured 
from the morasses of Orange co., N. Y.; this 
was carried to London in 1802, but was soon 
returned to this country, where it occupied a 
prominent place in Peale’s museum at Phila- 


Skeleton of Mastodon. 


delphia until 1849 or 1850, when it suddenly 
disappeared; it was imperfect, wanting a con- 
siderable part of the head, some vertebra, ribs, 
and bones of the limbs; it was believed by 
Dr. Warren to have fallen into the possession 
of Prof. Kaup of Darmstadt, Germany. <An- 
other skeleton, less perfect than the last, ob- 
tained at about the same time, was exhibited 
in Baltimore for years, and in a dismounted 
state came into the possession of Dr. Warren 
of Boston in 1848, where it still remains. 
About 1840 Mr. Koch procured a rich collec- 
tion of mastodon bones from the banks of the 
Missouri, and put together a nondescript ani- 
mal, the so-called Missourium, which drew 
crowds of visitors in New York and London, 
until from the mass of bones of several individ- 
uals a tolerably complete skeleton was made 
up by Prof. Owen, which is now in the British 
museum. The skeleton now at Cambridge, 
Mass., was discovered in Warren co., N. J., in 
1844; with this young female were found four 
very perfect heads, a number of fine teeth, and 
several bones. The finest skeleton of this 


267 


species is the one described by Dr. Warren in 
the work above mentioned; it was discovered 
at Newburgh, N. Y., in 1845, in a swamp usual- 
ly covered with water, but left dry during that 
summer; it is now in Boston. Specimens 
have been found in New York, New Jersey, 
Indiana, Kentucky, Alabama, Missouri, Kansas, 
Texas, and other states, and as far as lat. 65° N. 
—Taking Dr. Warren’s specimen as the type of 
this species, the cranium is flatter than in the 
elephant, narrow between the temporal fosse, 
the face becoming twice as wide below the 
nasal opening; the length of the superior sur- 
face, from the vertex to the edge of the pre-. 
maxillary bones, is 48 in., and the width be- 
tween the superior orbitar processes 28 in.; 
the posterior or occipital surface is nearly ver- 
tical, roughened for muscular attachments; the 
temporal fossee are of great size, indicating the 
power of the muscles which filled them; the 
zygomatic processes thick and strong; lower 
jaw V-shaped, the anterior pointed extremity 
having on the internal surface a long wide 
groove for the tongue. The cervical vertebra 
have short spinous processes, except the last, 
which is 64 in. long; the dorsals are 20, and, 
with the 3 lumbar, form a considerable arch, 
the first 7 having very long spinous processes 
(that of the 3d, the longest, being 234 in.), and 
thence gradually diminishing to the last, which 
is only 4 in.; the transverse processes are also 
very thick in the first seven; the first lumbar 
measures across the transverse processes 17 in., 
of which the body is only 5 in.; the sacrum 
consists of five bones, and is 20 in. long on the 
lower surface; caudals probably about 22, very 
strong at the commencement of the tail, which 
reached to the knees. The pelvis is very 
strong and massive, 6 ft. 2 in. wide across the 
anterior superior spinous processes; thorax 
rounded, its anterior opening 2 ft. from above 
downward and 1 ft. transversely; sternum 
keeled below, with a stout pointed protuber- 
ance in front. The ribs are 20, 18 true and 7 
false, the first nearly vertical and resembling a 
clavicle, and 28 in. long; from this the ribs 
increase to the ninth, which is 54% in., and 
thence decrease to the last, which is 21 in.; 
the fifth, flat anteriorly, is 4 in. wide; after 
the seventh they become rounded; they are 
not unfrequently found united, as after frac- 
ture. The scapula is more nearly equilateral 
and in this respect more human than in the 
elephant, and like some of the other bones 
might in rude ages be easily mistaken for the 
remains of giant men; its spine is nearly ver- 
tical, bifurcating below, the infra-spinous fossa 
more than three times as ample as the supra- 
spinous, the former having generally a depres- 
sion near the spine; the glenoid cavity is 11 by 
5 in. The massive humerus is 39 in. long, 
and the same in its greatest circumference, 
with a remarkable projection extending two 
thirds down the limb for the deltoid muscle ; 
the circumference of the elbow joint is 44 
in.; radius 29 in. long and 64 in. wide below; 


268 


the ulna much the stoutest, and 34 in. long. 
The fore foot measures nearly 2 ft. across; 
the wrist has eight bones, in two rows of 
four each; metacarpals five, the first or thumb 
the smallest (4 in. long), the second and 
fourth 5 in., the third (the largest) 64, and 
the fifth about 45; phalanges in thumb two, 
and in the others three each, supposing an un- 
gual phalanx to be present in all, though want- 
ing in the skeleton. The thigh bone is massive 
and about as long as the humerus, 17 in. in cir- 
cumference at the middle and 30 at the lower 
portion; the knee pan nearly globular; tibia 
human-like, 28 in. long, 30 in. in circumfer- 
ence above and 134 in the middle; fibula 26 
in., ascending less high than the tibia, but de- 
scending lower to form the external malleo- 
lus; feet more depressed, and the toes more 


radiating, otherwise much as in the elephant. 


This skeleton is 11 ft. high, 17 ft. from end of 
face to beginning of tail, the latter being 63 
ft.; circumference around ribs 16 ft. 5 in.; 
tusks about 11 ft., of which 83 project beyond 
the sockets. The teeth consist chiefly of den- 
tine invested by enamel, though a layer of ce- 
ment, thinner than in the elephant, invests the 
fangs and is spread 
over thecrown. The 
whole number of 
teeth is 24, of which 
rarely more than 8 
were in use at one 
time; they are de- 
veloped from behind 
forward in order 
to relieve the jaws 
from the excessive 
weight of the whole 
at one time; the outer edge of the upper 
teeth projects beyond that of the lower. Two 
on each side in each jaw are developed soon 
after birth, and are shed early. In the lower 
jaw, the first is small, 1} in. by 4, and ¢ in. 
high, with two transverse bifid ridges slight- 
ly notched, and two projecting much curved 
fangs; the second, immediately behind it, has 
the same characters, but is larger, 12 by 1 in., 
and 14 in. high, with a prominent heel; the 
third is three-ridged and six-pointed, 8 by 2 
in., and 14 high; the fourth is 3} by 24, and 
1% in. high, with the inner mastoid eminence 
notched; the fifth is 44 by 3 in., with the in- 
ner points notched; the sixth is four-ridged, 
with complex heel and deeper cleft furrows, 8 
by 3 in., and 64 high; the last sometimes has 
five ridges. The first and second of the upper 
jaw resemble those of the lower; the third is 
three-ridged, 24 by 2 in.; the fourth is three- 
ridged, 8 by 24 in. (and sometimes much wi- 
der), with the eminences notched; the fifth is 
also three-ridged, 4 by 3 in., each with two 
eminences; the sixth is four-ridged, with a 
small heel, the points sometimes bifurcated, 
and the furrows deep, 64 by 8 in., sometimes 
larger, even to 94 by 54, and with five ridges. 
There is no evidence of an additional premolar 


Tooth of Mastodon. 


MASTODON 


under the second lower milk tooth, though 
there may be such in the upper jaw, as in other 
species of mastodon, and in the tapir. At an 
advanced age the sixth tooth remains alone on 
each side above and below; in a case mentioned 
by Dr. Warren there was a seventh or super- 
numerary tooth on one side of the lower jaw, 
7 in. long and 7} high. Besides the upper 
tusks, there are in the mastodon, though not In 
the elephant, inferior mandibular tusks. The 
food of the mastodon was entirely vegetable, as 
is proved by the remains of the twigs of conif- 
erous trees, leaves, and other vegetable matter 
found between the ribs; and the animal doubt- 
less resorted to marshy and boggy places, like 
other proboscidians, in search of succulent 
plants, where it was often mired in the very 
places whence its remains have been extracted 
during the 19th century. Around the Shawan- 
gunk skeleton were found tufts of dun-brown 
hair varying in length from 2 to 7 in.; so 
that the mastodon, like the Siberian mammoth, 
may have been clothed to withstand a climate 
considerably colder than that in which modern 
elephants live. The bones of I. giganteus 
have not been generally found in a mineral- 
ized state; in Dr. Warren’s specimen they are 
light-colored, of less specific gravity than re- 
cent bones, and retain from 27 to 30 per cent. 
of animal matter (bone cartilage); both bones 
and teeth, however, have been found silicified, 
and they are generally impregnated with iron, 
which it is well known has a great preserving 
power.—The geological position of the re- 
mains of this species has long been and still isa 
subject of dispute among geologists; in a few 
instances they are said to have been found be- 
low the drift, in the pliocene, and even in the 
miocene; but they have generally been obtained 
from the post-pliocene or alluvial formations 
at a depth of from 5 to 10 ft., in lacustrine 
deposits, bogs, and beds of infusorial earth; 
Pomel and others consider them diluvial; the 
bones of this mastodon and of the fossil ele- 
phant have been found in company in Ohio, 
South Carolina, Texas, the pliocene of Nebras- 
ka, and various other parts of North America. 
Some have thought that the mastodons became 
extinct since the advent of man upon the earth, 
like the dinornis and the dodo; according to 
Lyell, the period of their destruction, though 
geologically modern, must have been many 
thousand years ago. The same causes proba- 
bly acted in their extinction as in the case 
of the fossil elephant, perhaps partly climatic 
changes, but more probably some great con- 
vulsion on the surface of the globe at an epoch 
anterior to man.—About 30 species of masto- 
don have been described, for details on which 
see the work of Dr. Warren and those referred 
to by him. In South America lived the J, 
Humboldtii (De Blainv.), belonging to the 
narrow-toothed group, of which the European 
M. angustidens is the type; this is charac- 
terized by the shorter rostrated extremity of 
the lower jaw, the apparent absence of lower 


MASTODON 


tusks, and folds of enamel more complicated 
than in the teeth of AZ. giganteus. M. Andium 
(Cuv.), a smaller species, considered by D’Or- 
bigny the same as the last, had the same undu- 
lating folds of enamel, but a more elongated 
symphysis. The distinction between the J/. 
longirostris (Kaup) and the MM. angustidens 
(Cuv.) of Europe is not well made out, and 
authors differ exceedingly as to the limits of 
these species. The division of Pomel seems as 
probable as any; he describes as I/. longirostris 
(or Arvernensis, Cr. and Job.) those having a 
Jengthened lower jaw, four ridges in the third, 
fourth, and fifth teeth, five and sometimes six 
in the ultimate molar, tusks in the lower jaw, 
and a vertical upper premolar; the A. angus- 
tidens he limits to the Italian species, with the 
same narrow teeth and four ridges in the three 
penultimate molars, with no beak to the lower 
jaw as in WV. longirostris, or short truncated 
gutter as in IW. giganteus, but with a long 
horizontal semi-canal slightly inclined down- 
ward. The bones, according to De Blainville, 
resemble more those of the Asiatic elephant 
than the American mastodon. Dr. Falconer, 
on the contrary, considers the I. angustidens 
and longirostris as perfectly distinct, and the 
former as more nearly related by a three-ridged 
penultimate molar to the WZ. giganteus than to 
the MU. longirostris, placing the first two in 
the section trilophodon (with three ridges), 
and the last with the Asiatic species in the 
section tetralophodon (with four ridges to the 
third, fourth, and fifth molars). The famous 
Dusino mastodon (J. Turinensis), discovered 
near Turin in 1849 in a fluvio-lacustrine de- 
posit, described by Prof. Sismonda, whose de- 
scription is partially reproduced with a figure 
in Dr. Warren’s work, belonged to the I. 
angustidens ; in the same deposit were found 
remains of elephants and other large pachy- 
derms. Pomel’s other species, less clearly 
made out, are M. Cuvieri, with a prolonged 
lower jaw and the three penultimate molars 
with three ridges; I. tapiroides, with tuber- 
culated teeth, forming a connecting link with 
those of the dinotherium (both of the last are 
found in central and southern France, the J. 
longirostris having been found in central Ger- 
many, at Eppelsheim); and the J. Buffonis, 
with short thick teeth, to which he refers the 
Siberian specimens. The age of the European 
mastodons was earlier than that of the Ameri- 
can, their remains having been found as low 
as the miocene, and probably long anterior to 
the elephant, which was a contemporary of 
the American mastodon; according to Pomel, 
M. angustidens is found with M. Buffonis in 
pliocene, and M. Cuviert and tapiroides in 
miocene lacustrine deposits; but at Turin bones 
of the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and 
tapir were found with the Dusino specimen, so 
that the fossil elephant of the old world would 
seem to have been anterior to that of the new. 
Pictet describes also M. brevirostris (Gervais), 
from the pliocene of the south of France, with 


MASUDI 269 


the lower jaw short as in elephants, the lower 
tusks not at all or slightly developed, and the 
molars as in MM. longirostris, with secondary 
tubercles between the ridges; he mentions 
other species as found in the pliocene of Puy 
and Auvergne. Two species found in Asia 
may be mentioned here in conclusion—the JZ. 
Sivalensis (Fale. and Cautl.), from the Sivalik 
hills, and the M. latidens (Clift), from the 
banks of the Irrawaddy; in the former the 
teeth are very large, the ultimate molars being 
from 8 to 94 by 8 to 3} in., with six ridges in 
the upper jaw, rounded mammillex, and rather 
narrow form; in the latter the form is broader, 
and the teeth sometimes with as many as ten 
ridges, and seemingly one of the links con- 
necting mastodon with elephant; these belong 
to the section tetralophodon. The specific 
name of tetracaulodon given by Dr. Godman 
to some mastodon specimens, from their hav- 
ing two tusks in the lower jaw, is now gen- 
erally admitted to be ill-founded; lower tusks 
are found in young males of many species, and 
sometimes one or both in the adult male, their 
presence being probably a sexual and not a 
specific character. Dr. Leidy and others have 
indicated several species of mastodon in Kansas 
and Nebraska, and other newly explored re- 
gions of North America; these are described 
in the ‘‘ Proceedings ” of the Philadelphia acad- 
emy of natural sciences. Several specimens 
have been found near Cohoes and Ithaca, N. Y., 
and recent explorations have indicated their 
presence in all the middle, northern, and west- 
ern states.—According to Owen, the masto- 
dons were elephants with molars less complex 
in structure and adapted for coarser vegetable 
food, ranging in time from the miocene to the 
upper pliocene, and in space throughout the 
tropical and temperate latitudes. The transi- 
tion from the mastodon to the elephant type 
of dentition is very gradual. 

MASTODONSAURUS. See LasyrinTHopon. 

MASUDI, Abul-Hasan Ali ben Husein ben Ali, an 
Arabian scholar, born in Bagdad about 890, 
died probably in Cairo in 956. He belonged 
to a family illustrious from the time of Mo- 
hammed. From childhood he exhibited re- 
markable talents and fondness for study, and 
attained a universality of erudition which has 
been equalled by no other Arab. On some 
important questions he expressed ingenious 
and novel views, which were in advance of 
his successors for several centuries. Not 
content with the information contained in 
books, he undertook several long journeys. 
About 914 he visited the ancient Persepolis, 
and passed thence to India, Ceylon, the coast 
of China, Madagascar, and southern Arabia, 
and explored the region of the Caspian sea. 
About 926 he was in Palestine, and he subse- 
quently dwelt in Syria and in Egypt. He says 
he travelled so far to the east that he forgot 
the west, and so far to the west that he fer- 
got the east. His most important work is the 
Akhbar al-zeman, or ‘‘ History of the Times,” 


270 MASULIPATAM 


an immense general history, which has never 
been printed; no copy of it exists in Europe. 
His second work, entitled Aitab al-wasat, or 
‘‘Book of the Middle,” treated curious ques- 
tions in history, geography, philosophy, and 
the sciences; but copies of it are very rare, and 
unknown in Europe. Perceiving that these 
works were too voluminous to be popular, he 
wrote a smaller history, entitled Morw) al- 
dheheb ve-maadin al-jewdhir, or ‘‘ Meadows of 
Gold and Mines of Gems,” which is not rare 
in the libraries of Europe. The first volume 
has been translated into English by Dr. Aloys 
Sprenger (London, 1841); there is a French 
translation by Derenbourg, and an edition of 
the original with a translation by Barbier de 
Meynard (7 vols., Paris, 1861-’73). He is the 
author of a variety of other works on religion, 
morals, medicine, and the sciences, some of’ 
which are extant in manuscript, and others 
are known only by their titles. 

MASULIPATAM, a town of British India, capi- 
tal of a district of the same name, on the bay 
of Bengal, 220 m. N. by E. of Madras; pop. 
about 30,000. The native town is connected 
by a causeway with the fort, which contains 
military establishments, a Protestant and a Ro- 
man Catholic church, and several residences. 
Cotton goods and other articles manufactured 
here were formerly largely exported to the Per- 
sian gulf, but this business has greatly fallen off. 
The central part of the town belongs to the 
French government, and, not being amenable 
to British authority, is a resort of smugglers. 

MAT, a coarse fabric made by interweaving 
strips of the inner bark of trees, flags, rushes, 
husks, straw, grass, rattans, or similar mate- 
rials, and used for covering floors, for beds, 
sails, packing of furni- 
ture and goods, and a 
variety of other pur- 


MATAMOROS 


and elasticity of these well adapt them for 
beds or floor coverings. The Chinese make 
rattan floor mats of all sizes, but chiefly about 
7 ft. by 5; also rush floor mats, and table mats 
of rattans and rushes, all of which are export- 
ed. In Europe, mats from reeds and rushes 
are largely produced in Spain and Portugal ; 
but in Russia the manufacture is a prominent 
branch of national industry. The material 
there employed is the bark of the lime or lin- 
den tree, and the mats are known in Europe 
as ‘‘bast”? mats. In the governments of Vi- 
atka, Kostroma, and those adjoining, the vil- 
lages are said to be almost deserted during 
May and June, the whole population being in 
the woods stripping the trees. (See LinpEn.) 

MATAGORDA, a S. E. county of Texas, bor- 
dering on the gulf of Mexico and Matagorda 
bay, intersected by the Colorado river and 
Caney creek; area, 1,334 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
8,377, of whom 2,120 were colored. The soil 
of the Colorado and Caney bottoms is deep 
and rich, equally adapted for the cultivation 
of sugar and cotton. West of the Colorado 
are large prairies with light sandy soil clothed 
with luxuriant pasture. Timber (mostly oak, 
cedar, pecan, and hackberry) is confined to the 
banks of the streams. The chief productions 
in 1870 were 94,195 bushels of Indian corn, 
13,777 of sweet potatoes, 12,285 lbs. of wool, 
22,225 of butter, 1,590 bales of cotton, and 55 
hogsheads of sugar. There were 2,341 horses, 
808 mules and asses, 1,895 milch cows, 93,877 
other cattle, 8,488 sheep, and 2,811 swine. 
Capital, Matagorda. 

MATAMOROS, a frontier city of Mexico, in the 
state of Tamaulipas, on the right bank and 40 
m. from the mouth of the Rio Grande, oppo- 


poses. In Paris mats. = 


were commonly em- ———— 


ployed as tapestry for QZ 


lining the walls of see 


——— 


TAROT TD 


rooms till some time 

in the last century. 

They serve among rude 2 sesef 
nations as a substitute ee era 
for wooden doors and #& cot 
glass windows. By gar- ¢ 
deners they are em- 
ployed to protect deli- 
cate plants from frost. 
Mats are supposed to 
be the first fabrics that * = 
were woven by man; = 
and almost all savage 2 ee 


mT 
Mm 


ee = f lly ip 
—— ee 


Marl 


TH MINED LEY CCT TAT 
mON yun 


or) (lh nyt fl 
m1 I i 
st 


tribes now possess con- 
siderable skill in their 
manufacture. The grass 
mats of the South 
sea islanders are often of great beauty for 
their fineness and the brilliant colors of their 
dyes. The Japanese cultivate a peculiar spe- 
_ cies of rush for making mats, and the softness 


The Cathedral, Matamoros. 


site Brownsville, Texas, and 450 m. N. of 
Mexico; pop. about 12,000. It is situated in 
a plain on a bend of the river. The streets 
are wide and cross each other at right angles, 


MATAMOROS 


and the houses are mostly of brick and built 
after the American style. Churches and con- 
vents are numerous; and there are several 
public and private schools. In fair weather 
good-sized vessels are towed up to the town; 
while at other times the entrance to the river, 
obstructed by sand bars, is difficult and often 
impossible even for schooners. The climate is 
extremely hot from April to September, with 
violent south winds, while from December to 
March, in the season of the northers, it is very 
cold, often with much snow. Although con- 
sidered to be one of the most unhealthy places 
in Tamaulipas, Matamoros is the only gulf 
port exempt from yellow fever. Specie, hides, 
wool, and horses are the principal exports; 
cotton, linen, woollen, and silk fabrics, and 
machinery are imported, mainly from the 
United States and Great Britain.—Matamoros 
was founded toward the commencement of 
the present century. The Americans under 
Gen. Taylor occupied the town in May, 1846, 
after the victories at Palo Alto and Resaca 
dela Palma. The people are mainly of Span- 
ish descent; but there are many American 
residents, and English is almost as commonly 
spoken as Spanish. 

MATAMOROS, Mariano, a Mexican patriot, ex- 
ecuted at Valladolid, Feb. 18, 1814. The time 
and place of his birth and the circumstances 
of his early life are unknown. In Decem- 
ber, 1811, he was parish priest of Jantelolco, 


MATANZAS O71 


a small village south of Mexico, when, being 
molested by royalist troops and threatened 
with imprisonment, he fled to Izucar and joined 
the insurgents. He was favorably received by 
Morelos, and at once made a colonel. In that 
capacity he speedily acquired influence and 
popularity among the troops, and displayed 
great military talent. In the defence of Cuau- 
tla against Gen. Calleja, the glory attributed 
to Morelos was largely due to Matamoros. In 
the expedition to Oajaca he took a conspic- 
uous part, and in October, 1818, won the 
victory of San Agustin del Palmar. The 
Mexican revolution was now triumphant from 
Guatemala to Jalisco, except in a few of the 
larger cities, when Morelos injudiciously re- 
solved to attack the capital of Michoacan. Re- 
pulsed from Valladolid, Matamoros collected 
his forces at Puruaran, where Morelos again 
rashly precipitated an action fatal to the cause 
of independence. Matamoros was captured 
and executed. Alaman in his history describes 
Matamoros as the most active and successful 
leader of the insurrection, and ascribes its tem- 
porary failure to his death. His memory is 
highly honored by the Mexicans; his bones 
were placed with those of Hidalgo and Morelos 
in the cathedral of Mexico, and his name has 
been given to two important towns, as well as 
to districts in several states. 

MATANZAS, a fortified seaport of Cuba, on the 
San Juan river, here crossed by a bridge, and 


Matanzas. 


at the head of a beautiful bay of the same 
name, 53 m. E. of Havana; pop. about 30,000, 
a, considerable decrease since 1868, attributable 
to the large numbers who emigrated after the 
outbreak of the revolution in the island. The 
town stands on a gentle slope toward the river ; 
the streets are wide, regular, well kept, and 
lighted with gas; and the houses, chiefly of 
stone, are solidly built, and in the same style 
as those of Havana. The handsomest of the 
public squares is the plaza de Armas, where 
military bands attend every evening, and the 
walks are crowded with fashionable prome- 


539 YOULL 18 


naders. There are two churches, a castle, fine 
barracks, a hospital, a good theatre, and a cock- 
pit; and among the schools, which are propor- 
tionately more numerous here than in any other 
Cuban town, is the Empresa academy, one of 
the best educational establishments in the West 
Indies. The harbor is spacious, easy of access, 
and well sheltered, save to the northeast; and 
the surrounding country, comprising the rich- 
est portion of the island, is covered with mag- 
nificent sugar estates. The climate, though 
hot, is more salubrious than that of Havana. 
The principal exports are sugar, molasses, and a 


972 MATAPAN 


little coffee. The quantities of the first ex- 
ported in 1871, 72, and ’73 were as follows: 


YEARS Boxes. Hogsheads. Tota) in lbs, 
DS Vlivie aratereeters 954,874 191,469 608,585,850 
DET raters ote Wate 1,218,625 287,339 821,508,750 
Trt Bee tas 1,269,665 205,044 


764,171,000 


The imports include manufactured goods, bread- 
stuffs, and provisions, mainly from the United 
States, and machinery, partly from Great Brit- 
ain and partly from the United States. About 
500 American vessels of all sizes visit the port 
annually ; and the coasting trade, especially with 
Havana, is very extensive. Matanzas is con- 
nected by two lines of railway with Havana. 
MATAPAN, Cape. See Cape Martapan, 
MATARO, a maritime city of Catalonia, Spain, 
in the province and 16 m. N. N. E. of the city 
of Barcelona; pop. about 17,500. It is divided 
into the old and new towns; the former on 
a declivity, with narrow and crooked streets, 
and the latter with regular and spacious streets, 
and well built. There are eight squares. Be- 
sides the parish church, embellished with good 
’ paintings by Viladomat and Montafia, there are 
several chapels, two convents, a city hall, court 
house, prison, and barracks. The hospital and 
the custom house are fine structures. There is 
a college founded in 1737. Mataro is a pros- 
perous manufacturing town, producing cotton, 
linen, woollen, and some silk fabrics, sails, 
ropes, glass, hardware, soap, leather, wine, and 
brandy. Timber and fruit are also exported. 
Fishing is extensively carried on. Matar6 is 
connected with Barcelona by a railway opened 
in October, 1848, the first built in Spain. 
MATCH, a small stick of combustible material 
furnished with some very inflammable com- 
position, and used for producing fire. It is 
commonly known in England as the ‘lucifer 
match” or ‘ lucifer.” In 1680, a few years 
after the discovery of phosphorus, that sub- 
stance was introduced for this purpose in Lon- 
don by Godfrey Hanckwitz, who applied it 
by rubbing it between folds of brown paper 
till it took fire; it was then made to ignite 
a stick, one end of which had been dipped 
in sulphur, and which may be considered the 
earliest form of the common match. An- 
other form extensively used was called chem- 
ical matches, which were sold in little cases 
called phosphorus boxes, containing a few 
matches, at first as high as 15s. a box. They 
were small sticks of wood dipped first in sul- 
phur, and then in a composition of chlorate 
of potash, flowers of sulphur, colophony, gum 
or sugar, and cinnabar for coloring. Accom- 
panying them in the box was a vial containing 
sulphuric acid, into which the match being 
dipped, it was instantly ignited by the chemi- 
cal action induced between the acid and chlo- 
rate of potash. The other ingredients were 
added merely on account of their combustible 
qualities. The primitive flint, steel, and tinder, 
however, remained in common use till the in- 


MATCH 


vention of the lucifer match in 1829, by Mr. 
John Walker, chemist, at Stockton-upon-Tees. 
In his experiments upon chlorate of potash, he 
found that this could be instantly ignited by 
friction, as in rapidly drawing a stick coated 
with it and phosphorus by means of muci- 
lage or glue through folded sand-paper. Mr. 
Walker manufactured but few of these match- 
es for use in his neighborhood. Faraday, 
learning of them, procured some, and brought 
them into public notice. Their useful proper- 
ties were soon perceived, and their manufac- 
ture rapidly increased, till it became an im- 
portant branch of industry in Europe and the 
United States——The best wood for matches 
is clear white pine, which possesses the soft- 
ness required for the manufacturing process, 


.together with the necessary stiffness and in- 


flammability; and the quantity of this con- 
sumed in their manufacture is enormous. The 
wood is first sawed into blocks of uniform 
size, and the length of two matches. By ma- 
chines of ingenious construction, these are after- 
ward slit without loss of material into splints. 
They are then dipped in melted sulphur, and 
afterward in phosphorus composition. Round 
matches are formed by forcing the wood end- 
wise through holes in plates, which in the 
English works are an inch thick, with steel 
face and bell-metal back. In American es- 
tablishments tubes are employed whether for 
round or square splints. The perforations are 
made as near together as possible, only leav- 
ing enough of the metal between to give the 
necessary strength for cutting. This inven- 
tion was patented in England by Reuben Par- 
tridge in 1842.—Matches are now often made 
without sulphur, paraffine oil being employed 
for saturating the wood. According to Bétt- 
ger, the best composition for matches consists 
of phosphorus 4 parts, nitre 10, fine glue 6, 
red ochre 5, and smalt 2 parts. ‘‘Safety luci- 
fer matches” are made, in which a part of the 
combustibles, as the phosphorus, are placed 
upon one surface, as‘a piece of sand-paper, 
while the other part, containing chlorate or 
nitrate of potash, is placed on the tip of the 
match. Neither match nor sand-paper singly 
will take fire from friction except when rubbed 
against each other. To prevent matches from . 
smouldering, the wood is sometimes soaked 
in a solution of alum, borax, Glauber salts, 
or Epsom salts.—Nearly all the operations of 
match making, formerly conducted by hand, 
are now accomplished by machinery. In large 
establishments four machines are used for cut- 
ting, dipping, and delivering the matches. Two- 
inch pine plank is sawed up the length of the 
match, which is 24 in. These go into the ma- 
chine for cutting, where at every stroke 12 
matches are cut, and by the succeeding stroke 
pushed into slats arranged on a double chain, 
250 ft. long, which carries them to the sulphur 
vat, and thence to the phosphorus vat, and thus 
across the room and back, returning them at a 
point in front of the cutting machine, where 


MATE 273 


they are delivered in their natural order. They 
are gathered up by a boy into trays, and sent to 
the packing room. In this manner 1,000 gross 
or 144,000 small boxes of matches are made 
inaday. No correct statistics of match ma- 
king can be given, but it has been estimated 
that six matches a day for each individual of 
the population of Europe and North America 
is the average consumption. From these figures 
it is easy to see that the business is enormous. 
—The acid fumes thrown off from phosphorus 
in the various processes of making matches 
frequently cause among the people employed 
a terrible disease which attacks the teeth and 
jaws; and to such an alarming extent did it 
prevail in Germany, that the attention of the 
government was called to it. The dippers are 
most liable to suffer in this way, in consequence 
of standing for hours over the heated slab 
upon which the phosphorus is spread. <As 
persons with decayed teeth are most suscep- 


tible to the disease, they are carefully exclu- 


ded from some manufactories. No antidote 
has yet been discovered to this disease. Its 
natural course is to rot the entire jaw bone 
away. (See PuHosruorvs.)—Insignificant as 
matches are, it is important, on account of the 
immense numbers made, that the manufac- 
tories should be in districts where timber is 
cheap. Some of the splints are exported to the 
West Indies and South America. The match- 
es themselves are largely exported to the East 
and West Indies, Australia, China, Mexico, 
South America, &c. 

MATE, or Paraguay Tea, the leaves of a native 
holly found in South America, an infusion of 
which is drunk by the people as tea is by Chi- 
nese and Europeans. The leaf and the drink 


Yerba Maté (Ilex Paraguayensis). 


are called maté, the aboriginal name for the 
cup used in preparing the infusion. The plant, 
called yerba maté, is the ilex Paraguayensis, a 
holly which grows upon the banks of rivers in 


Paraguay and in the mountains of Brazil; it is 
a tree 15 or 20 ft. high, and when allowed to 
develop itself forms a handsome head, but 
where its branches are collected it is only a 
moderate-sized .shrub with numerous stems 
from one root. The ovate lanceolate leaves 
are persistent, 4 to 5 in. long, with their mar- 
gins unequally serrate; the numerous white 
flowers are in umbellate clusters, and succeed- 
ed by a four-seeded berry about the size of a 
pepper grain. The leaves are collected by par- 
ties of 20 to 50 persons, who go to the for- 
ests prepared for an encampment of several 
months. The first step is to prepare a hard 
earthen floor, by beating the ground with mal- 
lets; over this an arch of poles is built, upon 
which are laid the leafy branches of the maté, 
where they are kept over a lively fire made be- 
neath until thoroughly scorched; after this 
roasting, the leaves are beaten from the branch- 
es by means of sticks, in which operation they 
are reduced to a coarse powder. The broken 
leaves are packed in leathern sacks made of a 
bullock’s hide, which contain from 200 to 220 
lbs. A day’s work for a peon is the collection 
of a sufficient amount to make 200 Ibs. of the 
prepared maté. Several varieties are known, 
depending upon the development of the leaf 
and the care taken in the preparation of it. 
The method of using it is to place a handful of 
the leaves in the maté or cup, and pour boil- 
ing water over them; as soon as the infusion 
is sufficiently cool to be tolerated, it is sucked 
through a tube called a boguzlla, which is per- 
forated with holes at the lower end to prevent 
the entrance of fragments of the leaves; the 
cup is passed from one to another, each person 
among the South Americans using the same 
tube in turn; but Europeans living in the 
country carry a small glass tube which can be 
slipped into the opening of the cup. The lat- 
ter is frequently a calabash fixed upon a stand, 
and among the wealthy mounted with silver, 
or sometimes entirely of silver and elaborately 
ornamented. The Europeans found the maté 
in use by the aborigines and readily adopted 
the custom, and it is estimated that no portion 
of the world consumes so large an amount of 
Chinese tea in proportion to the population as 
is used of the maté by the South Americans. 
The infusion of maté is usually drunk with- 
out addition, though some use sugar and others 
lemon with it; it is described as having great 
fascination to those accustomed to it, and those 
who commence drinking it find it almost im- 
possible to abandon its use. It is taken at every 
meal and at all hours of the day, and mar- 
vellous stories are told of its virtues; like tea 
and coffee, it no doubt enables the system to 
resist fatigue, and its use among miners and 
others who undertake hard labor is universal 
in most South American countries. It seems 
to act as an excitant to the stomach, and in 
large doses is emetic and purgative. Its more 
important properties, however, are probably 
closely allied to those of ordinary tea or cof- 


274 MATERA 


fee, as it contains nearly one half of one per 
cent. (0°45) of caffeine and 20°88 of caffeo- 
tannic acid. The amount of the leaves export- 
ed annually from Paraguay is estimated at over 
5,000,000 lbs. The early Jesuit missionaries, 
knowing the fondness of the aborigines for the 
maté, established plantations of the tree, on 
which account it is sometimes called Jesuits’ 
tea. The leaves of a related species, ilea cas- 
sine, furnished the ‘‘ black drink” or yaupon of 
the Creek Indians; the leaves of this possess 
emetic qualities, and the power of resisting 
them was regarded as a mark of superiority. 
MATERA, a town of 8, Italy, in the prov- 
ince and 43 m. E. of the city of Potenza, on 
the Gravina; pop. about 14,000. It is the seat 
of an archbishop, and has a royal school of 


belles-lettres, medicine, law, and agriculture, 


and manufactories of firearms. Near it are 
the famous caverns of Monte Scaglioso. 
MATERIA MEDICA. See Mepicrne. 
MATHEMATICS (Gr. pd0nua, or pd6norc, learn- 
ing), as usually defined, the science of quanti- 
ties; or more precisely, the science which de- 
termines unknown quantities by means of their 
relations to known quantities. But the ten- 
dency of modern thought is to give the term a 
much wider meaning, to include under it all 
exact sciences, and to designate as mathematical 
every science which can be reduced to a limit- 
ed number of definite conceptions from which 
all the propositions which constitute the science 
can be deduced in accordance with the rules of 
logic. It is defined by Kant as the science of 
the laws of space and time, since it treats of 
the quantities occupying space and time, and 
representable by diagrams, numbers, or sym- 
bols. In this he has been followed by De 
Morgan and some other mathematicians. But 
in order to make the science conform to the 
definition, they have been obliged to regard 
the idea of number as included or implied in 
the idea of time. The present tendency of 
mathematical speculation is to regard mathe- 
matics, when considered in its most general 
form, as a branch of the science of mind, and 
every mathematical formula as expressing an 
operation of the understanding. This doctrine 
is expressly asserted by Ohm, and seems to be 
implied, if not expressly stated, in the writings 
of Grassmann, Peirce, and many other modern 
mathematicians.—The science is distinguished 
as pure or mixed mathematics, according as it 
treats of laws and relations in abstracto, with 
reference to nothing actual, or in conereto, 
with reference to existing phenomena. The 
former, dealing with abstract quantity, does 
not imply the idea of matter; the latter, deal- 
ing with concrete quantity, embraces the actual 
material world. The former gives the absolute 
forms of the universe; the latter, their illustra- 
tions by real examples. The elements em- 
ployed by the former are self-evident princi- 
ples, suggested or immediately grasped by the 
reason itself; the latter applies these principles 
to natural objects, the properties of which 


MATHEMATICS 


must be learned by induction from experience. 
The former treats of possible, the latter of ac- 
tual magnitudes.—The branches of pure mathe- 
matics are arithmetic, geometry, algebra, ana- 
lytical geometry, and the differential and in- 
tegral calculus. Arithmetic is the science and 
art of numbers. It does not calculate functions 
or relations, but special values in every case, 
Its single elementary idea is one or unity, from 
which all other numerical values, integral or 
fractional, are formed. ‘The processes of arith- 
metic lie at the basis of all others. Geome- 
try measures extension, comparing portions of 
space with each other. Its elements are not 
numbers, but lines, surfaces, and volumes or 
solids. Lines have only the dimension of length, 
and are either straight or curved. Surfaces 
embrace both length and breadth, are either 
plane or curved, and are distinguished as tri- 
angles, quadrilaterals, polygons, Wc., according 
to the number of lines within which they are 
contained. Solids combine the three dimen- 
sions of length, breadth, and thickness, and 
are distinguished as the cube, pyramid, cone, 
sphere, &c., according as they are bounded by 
planes, by plane and curved surfaces, or only 
by curved surfaces. Definitions, or statements 
of a priori facts, axioms, or statements of self- 
evident relations, and propositions, deduced 
from definitions and axioms, as premises, in a 
series of logical arguments, are the three class- 
es of geometrical truths. Algebra, analytical 
geometry, and the differential and integral 
calculus embrace the entire portion of mathe- 
matical science in which quantities are repre- 
sented, not by numbers or diagrams, but by 
letters of the alphabet. In arithmetic, all prop- 
ositions concerning numbers, embracing units 
of the same kind, are true without regard to the 
nature of the quantities to which the numbers 
may be applied. In geometry, every figure 
represents all the properties inherent in all the 
figures of its class. But the truths both of arith- 
metic and geometry are applicable only to spe- 
cial and actual classes of things. Algebra has a 
broader generalization. Its symbols extend to 
all objects whatsoever, and do not suggest 
ideas of particular things. They stand as rep- 
resentatives of things in general, whether ab- 
stract or concrete, real or hypothetical, known 
or unknown, finite or infinite. Having the 
relation of quantities embodied in an equation 
of symbols, we may proceed to trace what 
other truths are involved in the one thus stated, 
resolving the symbolical assertion step by step 
into others more fitted for our purpose, thus 
following long trains of symbolical reasoning, 
every result of which must express some general 
truth, though, in the present state of our knowl- 
edge, we may not be able to give any actual 
example of the truth. Analytical geometry, 
the application of algebra to geometry, is that 
branch of mathematical science which exam- 
ines, discusses, and develops the properties of 
geometrical magnitudes, by noticing the changes 
which take place in their representative alge- 


MATHEMATICS 


braic symbols. The geometrical question is 
solved by resolving the corresponding algebraic 
equation. Algebra being defined as the ordi- 
nary analysis, calculus is the transcendental 
analysis, and has various applications in the 
higher departments of the science. The best 
achievements of modern mathematics are due 
to it—To these branches of mathematics the 
19th century has added another, the final form 
of which is as yet undetermined, but the es- 
sential characteristics of which are to be found 
in the Quaternions” of Sir W. Rowan Ham- 
ilton, in the Ausdehnungslehre of H. Grass- 
mann, and in the “ Linear-Associative Alge- 
bra” of Prof. Peirce. The great character- 
istics of this new science are: 1, the introduc- 
tion of several units differing in quality; and 
2, the rigid distinction between the multiplier 
and the multiplicand, or between the thing 
which acts and the thing acted upon. In the 
mathematical sciences, as hitherto treated, ry 
is always equal to yz ; it is a matter of indif- 
ference which quantity we regard as multi- 
plier and which as multiplicand. In the new 
science the distinction must be always regard- 
ed; ay and ya are entirely different things. 
The second characteristic is really a result of 
the first. Thus, in geometry, as treated by 
Grassmann, we have four different units, viz., 
a point and three mutually perpendicular 
straight lines. From the combinations of these 
units all the truths of geometry are deduced. 
Prof. Peirce, in his work above mentioned, 
has endeavored to fix a priori the laws which 
must regulate this introduction of units, and 
has divided algebra, according to the number of 
units introduced, into single, double, triple, 
&c. Wecan enter into no further explanations 
of this branch of mathematics, but will re- 
mark that as the great event in the intellectual 
history of the 17th century was the inven- 
tion of the calculus, so perhaps future histo- 
rians will regard this as the great event in the 
history of the 19th century.—Algebra and ge- 
ometry are usually, but not with strict accura- 
cy, regarded as types respectively of analytical 
and synthetical reasoning. The former has 
an artificial language. Symbols are operated 
upon according to certain general rules, while 
the mind dismisses altogether the conceptions 
of the things which the symbols represent, 
whether lines, angles, velocities, forces, or 
whatever else. The steps in the processes are 
merely applications of the rule. The elements 
are symbols, and the results are only equations. 
Geometrical reasoning, on the contrary, is con- 
cerning things as they are. It retains the con- 
ceptions of quantities. It apprehends the na- 
ture of the new truths which it introduces at 
every step. Analysis is therefore the more 
powerful instrument for the professed mathe- 
matician, but geometry is the more effective 
mode of exercising the reason, and is a more 
useful part of the gymnastics of education.— 
Comte, who makes mathematics preéminent 
in the hierarchy of the positive sciences, intro- 


SS SS ee 


275 


duces a peculiar classification. Abstract math- 
ematics, according to him, embraces ordinary 
analysis, or the calculus of direct functions, 
and transcendental analysis, or the calculus of 
indirect functions. The former includes arith- 
metic and algebra; the latter, the differential 
and integral calculus and the calculus of varia- 
tions. Concrete mathematics embraces syn- 
thetic and analytic geometry, the former being 
either graphic or algebraic, and the latter be- 
ing distinguished according as its objects are 
of two or three dimensions. Comte includes 
also rational mechanics, or the laws of statics 
and dynamics, as a department of concrete 
mathematics. If the universe were immov- 
able, there would be only geometrical phenom- 
ena; but motions are mechanical phenomena, 
—As commonly explained, the mixed mathe- 
matics are the applications of abstract mathe- 
matical laws to the objects of nature and art. 


From the universality and variety of these ob- 


jects, no strict and comprehensive classifica- 
tion of them has been made. Matter in rest 
and matter in motion are the primary phenom- 
ena in space and time. The laws which rule 
the one and the forces which impel the other 
are the first objects of inquiry. Mechanics 
treats of both, and is divided into statics and 
dynamics, dealing respectively with the equi- 
librium and the action of forces. Astronomy, 
hydraulics, pneumatics, optics, and acoustics 
may be regarded as subdivisions of dynamics. 
Surveying, architecture, fortification, and navi- 
gation are among the principal applications of 
mathematics to the arts—The pure mathe- 
matics are merely formal sciences. They oc- 
cupy and discipline but do not fill the mind. 
Their entirely formal character will be best 
appreciated by one or two illustrations. It is 
a law of falling bodies that the spaces passed 
through by the falling body are proportional 
to the squares of the times during which it 
falls. It is a law of geometry that the areas of 
circles are proportional to the squares of their 
radii. The mathematical formula expressing 
one of these laws also expresses the other. 
Let A : a=)? : B?, and we may consider A 
and @ as representing either spaces described 
by a falling body or areas of circles, and B and 
b as representing either the times during which 
it falls or radii of circles. In either case the 
formula is true. Yet the space described by a 
falling body and the area of a circle, the time 
during which a body falls and the radius of a 
circle, are wholly disparate notions. When 
we see a person adding a column of numbers, 
no inspection of the column itself will tell us 
what the person who wrote it down intended 
to represent by those numbers. He may have 
had in his mind sums of money, or yards of 
cloth, or bushels of wheat. Whatever it was, 
the process of finding the sum is in all cases the 
same. Again, an engineer investigating a prob- 
lem in regard to bridge building, an actuary one 
in life insurance, a machinist one in mechan- 
ics, might all arrive at the same algebraical for- 


276 


mula. The formula expresses merely a rela- 
tion between the different objects, and the 
relation in all these cases may be the same, 
although the objects themselves have noth- 
ing in common. The engineer, the actuary, 
and the machinist would each interpret the 
formula in accordance with the nature of the 
objects about which he was specially con- 
cerned.—The attempt has often been made 
to give to philosophical speculations a mathe- 
matical form, in order to give them mathemat- 
-ieal certainty. Thus Pythagoras sought in 
the ideas of order and harmony mysteriously 
attached to numbers the reasons for great cos- 
mical phenomena. Plato, who forbade any 
one unacquainted with geometry to enter his 
school, combined mathematical with philo- 
sophical doctrines especially in his ‘‘ Timeeus,” 
the most obscure of his dialogues. The Neo- 
Platonists revived the Pythagorean mystical 
views of numbers. In modern times Spinoza, 
Wolf, and Herbart have been chiefly distin- 
guished for introducing the mathematical meth- 
od into ethical and metaphysical systems. The 
latter wrote a work on psychology abounding 
in algebraic formulas. These attempts have 
led to no important results. The definitions, 
axioms, and processes of mathematics deal 
with objects of sense, which are known with 
perfect exactitude, which are apprehended as 
precisely the same by all, concerning which as 
phenomena there can be no such thing as opin- 
ion, but only absolute certainty, and the reality 
of the relations between which can be doubted 
_ only by disputing the validity of all human 
ideas. In none of the most scientific meta- 
physical and moral systems have the definitive 
and axiomatic elements been thus precisely and 
authoritatively determined.—The history of 
mathematics may be divided into three great 
periods, each characterized by the introduction 
of important new methods. In the first, the 
era of Greek and Roman supremacy, geometry 
was almost exclusively cultivated. While arith- 
metic was hardly more than a mechanical cal- 
culation by means of the abacus, geometrical 
methods attained a degree of elegance scarcely 
to be surpassed, as appears from the rank still 
maintained by Euclid. After the decline of 
Rome, the sciences took refuge among the 
Arabs, who translated and preserved the liter- 
ary treasures of Greece. The Arabian philoso- 
phers were, however, rather learned than in- 
ventive, and added little to the heritage. But 
they introduced the second great period in 
the progress of mathematics by imparting to 
Europe the decimal arithmetic and the alge- 
braic calculus, both of which were perhaps 
of Indian origin. The latter, diffused in Italy 
by Leonardo, a merchant and traveller of Pisa, 
early in the 13th century, soon received im- 
portant improvements. Scipio Ferrea (1505) 
was the first to solve a cubic equation. Car- 
dan and Tartaglia disputed the honor with him 
and with each other, while Ferrari solved the 
biquadratic equation, and Vieta (1600), Girard, 


MATHEMATICS 


and Harriot entered upon the general theory 
of equations. The algebraic analysis was thus 
brought nearly to its present state of perfec- 
tion. It was at first regarded merely as a pre- 
paratory process in the investigation of a prob- 
lem, to be afterward exchanged for a geometri- 
cal construction and synthetic proof. But it 
gradually supplanted diagrams as a medium of 
demonstration, being found to surpass them in 
force and compass. With Descartes begins a 
great revolution of mathematical science. His 
mode of characterizing curves by an equation be- 
tween two variable magnitudes revolutionized 
the mode of conceiving geometrical questions. 
Symbolical language, found adequate for every 
purpose, soon became the general medium of 
mathematical inquiry, and has been the prin- 
cipal weapon by which its subsequent splendid 
triumphs have been achieved. Perceiving the 
importance of the discovery, Descartes hasten- 
ed to apply it to questions of the greatest diffi- 
culty and generality, and resolved the problems 
of tangents and of maxima and minima. The 
methods of Roberval and Fermat tended to- 
ward the discovery of the differential calculus, 
which was made independently by Newton 
(under the form of fluxions) and by Leibnitz. 
Already Napier had invented logarithms, and 
Newton the binomial theorem; Mercator had 
accomplished the quadrature of the hyperbola, 
and Wallis the quadrature of many other curves 
while seeking that of the circle. The integral 
calculus (the Newtonian method of quadra- 
tures), the inverse of the differential, was im- 
proved by Leibnitz and the Bernoullis; Euler 
extended the theory of analytical trigonom- 
etry; Fontaine illustrated that of differential 
equations; Taylor invented the calculus of 
finite differences or increments; Cavalieri pub- 
lished his method of indivisibles; and other 
improvements were introduced by Kepler, 
Huygens, and Wallis. The Principia of New- 
ton (1687) has gained for him the title of “the 
profoundest of geometers as well as the first 
of natural philosophers; and his influence 
combined with that of Leibnitz in preparing 
for the achievements of the mixed mathe- 
matics. Euler, D’Alembert, and Daniel Ber- 
noulli were the most distinguished of their 
successors till near the close of the 18th cen- 
tury. Euler suggested conceptions in the ap- 
plication of analysis which others elaborated 
in almost every part of mathematical science; 
D’Alembert established a principle by which 
every dynamical question was resolved into a 
statical one; Daniel Bernoulli received ten 
prizes from the French academy of sciences; 
and other contemporaries, as Clairaut and Mac- 
laurin, were extending the application of 
mathematics to mechanics and physics. Inthe 
period embracing the latter part of the 18th 
and the early part of the 19th century, the 
names of Lagrange and Laplace had no rivals. 
By them the application of all modes of calcu- 
lation to the mechanics of the universe was 
carried to the highest pitch of generality and 


MATHER 


symmetry. One of the most remarkable 
achievements of the science was Leverrier’s 
prediction in 1846 of the place and orbit of the 
planet Neptune from the motions of Uranus, 
announcing before its discovery by the tele- 
scope the existence, position, and magnitude of 
a body beyond the recognized limits of our 
system, merely as an inference from the per- 
turbations of the outermost planet known to 
us. Poisson, Airy, Plana, Hansen, Gauss, 
Adams, De Morgan, and Peirce are among the 
recent mathematicians who have solved im- 
portant problems in the physical application 
of analysis. Many new mathematical theories 
have been originated during the last half cen- 
tury. Among them may be mentioned the 
theory of determinants, the theory of invari- 
ants of Messrs. Cayley and Sylvester, that of 
clinants of Mr. Ellis, and many others. Some 
of them will probably pass into history only 
as evidences of the ingenuity of their authors, 
while others promise to be of great value. As 
they are of interest to professed mathematicians 
only, they require no further notice in this 
work.—Among the greatest works in mathe- 
matical literature are the Principia of New- 
ton, the Mechanica of Euler, the Théorie des 
Jonctions and the Méchanique analytique of 
Lagrange, the Application de lV analyse a la géo- 
métrie of Monge, and the Mécanique céleste of 
Laplace.—See Montucla, Histoire des mathé- 
matiques, continued by Lalande (4 vols., Paris, 
1799-1802); Bossut, Hssai sur Vhistoire des 
mathématiques (2 vols., Paris, 1802); Comte, 
Philosophie positive, vol. i., and Synthése posi- 
tive ; Libri-Carucci, Histoire des sciences ma- 
thématiques en Italie (4 vols., Paris, 1888-41) ; 
Montferrier, Dictionnaire des sciences mathé- 
matiques (2d ed., 3 vols. 4to, Paris, 1844), and 
Encyclopédie mathématique @aprés les prin- 
cipes de la philosophie des mathématiques de 
Hoine Wronski (4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1856-79) ; 
Fries, Die mathematische Naturphilosophie 
(Heidelberg, 1822); Poppe, Geschichte der 
Mathematik (Tibingen, 1828); Ohm, Versuch 
eines volkommenen, consequenten Systems der 
Mathematik (3d ed., Nuremberg, 1853-5) ; 
Bartholomei, Philosophie der Mathematik 
(Jena, 1860); Davies, “‘ Logic and Utility of 
Mathematics”? (New York, 1851); and Davies 
and Peck, ‘‘ Mathematical Dictionary” (New 
York, 1856). See also the works cited under 
the title GEoMETRY. 

MATHER. I. Richard, an English clergyman, 
born at Lowton, Lancashire, in 1596, died in 
Dorchester, Mass., April 22, 1669. He re- 
ceived a good education, became a schoolmas- 
ter at Toxteth Park, near Liverpool, at the 
age of 15, was admitted to Brazenose college, 
Oxford, in 1618, was ordained a few months 
later, and became the minister of Toxteth, 
where he remained 15 years. He was sus- 
pended for nonconformity to the ceremonies 
of the established church in 1633, and, though 
soon restored by the influence of friends, was 
again silenced in 1634. He therefore emi- 


277 


grated to New England, landing in Boston 
Aug. 17, 1685. In the following year he be- 
came pastor of the church in Dorchester, 
where he resided till his death. He was the 
author of several brief theological treatises 
and letters, chiefly on church government, and 
drew up in 1648, at the instance of the Cam- 
bridge synod, a model of discipline, which 
was accepted. He married in 1656 the widow 
of John Cotton. Of his six sons by his first 
wife, four were distinguished clergymen and 
authors: Samuel (1626-°71), in Dublin, Ire- 
land; Nathaniel (1630-97), in London; Elea- 
zar (1637-69), in Northampton, Mass.; and 
Increase. His “Journal, Life, and Death” 
has been published for the Dorchester anti- 
quarian and historical society (Boston, 1850). 
If. Increase, an American clergyman, son of 
the preceding, born in Dorchester, Mass., June 
21, 1639, died Aug. 23, 1723. He graduated at 
Harvard college in 1656, and in 1658 at Trinity 
college, Dublin. He afterward preached in 
Devonshire and the island of Guernsey. He 
returned to America in 1661, and was pastor 
of the North church, Boston, from 1664 till 
his death. He was a member of the synod of 
1679, and drew up the propositions which 
were adopted concerning the proper subjects 
of baptism. In 1681 he was elected president 
of Harvard college. The reluctance of his 
church to relinquish him induced him to de- 
cline the office; but in 1685 he accepted it 
with a stipulation that he should retain his 
relation to his people. He continued in this 
station till 1701, when he retired in conse- 
quence of an act of the general court requiring 
the president to reside in Cambridge. He 
procured an act authorizing the college to 
create bachelors and doctors of divinity, and 
received in 1692 the first diploma for the de- 
gree of D. D. that was granted in America. 
When in 1688 Charles II. demanded that the 
charter of Massachusetts should be resigned 
into his hands, Mather was foremost in oppo- 
sing the measure; and when that monarch 
annulled the charter in 1684, he was sent to 
England as agent for the colonies. He was in 
England during the revolution of 1688, and, 
finding it impossible to obtain a restoration of 
the old charter, accepted a new one, under 
which the appointment to all the offices re- 
served to the crown was confided to him. He 
returned in 1692, when the general court ap- 
pointed aday of thanksgiving for his safety 
and for the settlement of the dispute. He is 
said to have condemned the violent proceed- 
ings which followed relating to witchcraft. 
He was accustomed to spend 16 hours every 
day in his study, and always committed his 
sermons to memory. One tenth part of all 
his income was devoted to charity. He was 
the author of 92 distinct publications, now 
mostly very scarce. Two of these were writ- 
tenin Latin. His ‘‘ Remarkable Providences”’ 
was republished in the “Library of Old Au- 
thors” (London, 1856), with an introduction 


278 MATIIER 


by George Offor. He married a daughter of 
John Cotton. IN. Cotton, an American cler- 
gyman, son of the preceding, born in Boston, 
Feb, 12, 1663, died Feb. 18, 1728. He studied 
at the free school in Boston, and graduated at 
Harvard college in 1678. In his 14th year he 
began a system of rigid and regular fasting 
and vigils, which he continued through life, 
and at the age of 16 made the Christian pro- 
fession. After leaving college he taught, and 
having overcome an impediment in his speech, 
he then devoted himself particularly to theo- 
logical studies. In 1680 he became the assis- 
tant of his father in the pastorate of the North 
church, Boston, and in 1684 was ordained as 
his colleague. It was his aim to maintain the 
ascendancy which had belonged to the clergy 
in New England in civil affairs, but which was 


then on the decline; and in 1689 he prepared’ 


the public declaration justifying the imprison- 
ment of Gov. Andros. In 1685 he published his 
‘* Memorable Providences relating to Witch- 
craft and Possessions,”’ narrating cases which 
had occurred at intervals in different parts of 
the country, which was used as an authority 
in the prosecution of the ‘Salem tragedy.” 
When the children of John Goodwin became 
curiously affected in 1688, he was one of the 
four ministers of Boston who held a day of 
fasting and prayer, and favored the suspicion 
of diabolical visitation. He afterward took 
the eldest daughter to his house in order to 
inspect the spiritual and physiological phe- 
nomena of witchcraft, and his experiments 
are wonderful instances of curiosity and cre- 
dulity. He discovered that the devils were 
familiar with the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, 
but seemed less skilled in the Indian languages, 
suspected that they were not all alike saga- 
cious, and was persuaded that he himself was 
shielded against their power by special -pro- 
tection of Heaven. A discourse, in which he 
pronounced witchcraft “the most nefandous 
high treason against the Majesty on high,” was 
printed with a copious narrative of his recent 
researches, and the particulars were reprinted 
in London with a preface by Richard Baxter. 
When the first phenomena occurred at Salem 
in 1692, he at once became a prominent ad- 
viser concerning them, expressing his eager- 
ness ‘to lift up a standard against the infernal 
enemy,” whose assaults upon the country he 
regarded as “a particular defiance upon my 
poor endeavors to bring the souls of men unto 
heaven;” and in order to convince all who 
doubted the obsessions and disapproved of the 
executions, he wrote his ‘‘ Wonders of the In- 
visible World” (1692), which received the ap- 
probation of the president of Harvard college 
and of the governor of the state, though it 
was designed to encourage the excesses and 
to promote ‘‘a pious thankfulness to God for 
justice being so far executed among us.” 
When the reaction in the popular mind fol- 
lowed, he vainly attempted to arrest it; and 


though he afterward admitted that “there 


MATHEW 


had been a going too far in that affair,” he 
never expressed regret for the innocent blood 
that had been shed, and charged the responsi- 
bility upon the powers of darkness. Finally, 
he sought to shun the odium of the popular 
feeling by declaring the subject ‘too dark and 
deep for ordinary comprehension,” and refer- 
ring it for decision to the day of judgment. 
By the publication of Robert Calef’s ‘‘ More 
Wonders of the Invisible World” (London, 
1700), in which the veracity of many of the 
narratives of Mather was disputed, the delu- 
sion was at length dissipated. Though his 
influence declined, his activity continued. His 
publications amounted to 382, many of them 
small books and sermons. His Magnalia 
Christt Americana (London, 1702; 2: vols., 
Hartford, 1820) is a chaotic collection of ma- 
terials for an ecclesiastical history of New 
England, concerning which he was admitted 
to know more particulars than any other man. 
In 1713 his Curiosa Americana was read be- 
fore the royal society of London, and he was 
elected to that body, being the first American 
to receive this distinction. In its ‘‘ Transac- 
tions”? in 1721 appeared an account of the 
practice of inoculation for the smallpox; and 
by the efforts of Mather in connection with 
Dr. Boylston, against both professional and 
popular prejudice, the operation was first per- 
formed in Boston. His ‘‘ Essays to Do Good” 
(1710) and his ‘Christian Philosopher” and 
‘Directions for a Candidate of the Ministry ” 
enjoyed high repute. His greatest undertaking 
was entitled ‘‘ Illustrations of the Sacred Scrip- 
tures.” He labored upon it from his 81st 
year to his death, and the manuscript is now 
in the library of the Massachusetts histori- 
cal society. His life was written by his son, 
Samuel Mather (1729), and again by W. B. O. 
Peabody in Sparks’s ‘‘ American Biography.” 
MATHEW, Theobald, ‘‘the apostle of temper- 
ance,” born at Thomastown, county Tipperary, 
Ireland, Oct. 10, 1790, died Dec. 8, 1856. He 
was educated in an academy at Kilkenny and 
the college of Maynooth, and entered a Capu- 
chin convent at Kilkenny, where he remained 
until after his ordination in 1814, when he was 
placed in charge of a chapel in Cork. His ur- 
bane manners and charitable disposition soon 
acquired for him an extraordinary influence. 
He interested himself warmly in the condition 
of the lower classes, and organized a religious 
association for visiting the poor and sick, in 
which he induced numbers of young men to 
enroll themselves. In 1838 a Quaker first di- 
rected his attention to the necessity of sup- 
pressing intoxication. Soon afterward he was 
invited by several teetotallers in Cork to join 
them in devising a public crusade against drunk- 
enness. A total abstinence society was formed, 
of which he was unanimously chosen president. 
Thirty-five persons took the pledge at his hands 
at once; on the following day several hundreds 
joined the society, and in the course of five 
months he administered the pledge at Cork alone 


MATHEWS 


to 150,000 converts. No small part of this suc- 
cess was due to Father Mathew’s personal pop- 
ularity. He was invited to all parts of Ireland. 
In Limerick the crowds who came to hear him 
from the furthest parts of Connaught were so 
large, that but for the liberality of the citizens 
there would have been a famine in the place. 
He now gave up everything else to devote his 
life to the cause of temperance. At Galway 
he administered the pledge to 100,000 persons 
in two days, and after visiting every large town 
in Ireland he went to England, where he was 
received with the greatest enthusiasm. His be- 
nevolent labors had involved him deeply in 
debt, and although he received from the queen 
a pension of £300, most of it was applied to 
paying an insurance on his life for the benefit 
of his creditors. His brother, a wealthy dis- 
tiller in Ireland, assisted him until his business 
was ruined by the progress of the temperance 
movement. After travelling and lecturing for 
some time in England with scarcely less suc- 
cess than in his native country, he visited the 
United States, lecturing in the principal cities, 
and returned to Ireland in the autumn of 1851. 
A statue has been erected to him in the city of 
Cork, and in September, 1874, a movement was 
in progress in New York for the erection of 
a similar statue in Central park. 

MATHEWS. I. Charles, an English actor, born 
in London, June 28, 1776, died in Plymouth, 
June 28, 1835. He was educated at the mer- 
chant taylors’ school, and subsequently was ap- 
prenticed to his father, a bookseller. He grad- 
ually imbibed a predilection for the stage, and 
after appearing at several provincial theatres 
as an amateur, was engaged as a comedian at 
the theatre royal, Dublin. Meeting with un- 
just treatment here both from the manager and 
the public, he determined to return to his fa- 
ther’s business; but on the way to London he 
accepted an engagement at Swansea, where he 
performed for some time with success. After 
acting several years at York, he became a mem- 
ber of the Haymarket company, and on May 
16, 1803, made his début before a London au- 
dience as Jubal in ‘“‘The Jew.” He performed 
for many years at the principal London thea- 
tres; but feeling that the parts assigned to him 
did not afford fair scope for his talents, he in- 
stituted in 1818, in imitation of Foote and Dib- 
din, a species of entertainment in the form of 
a monologue, which, under the title of ‘‘ Ma- 
thews at Home,” proved very successful. For 
five successive seasons he drew crowded au- 
diences to the English opera house, where, by 
his comic songs, recitations, anecdotes of per- 
sonal adventure, and imitations of well known 
actors, he greatly enhanced hisreputation. In 
1822—’3 he made a successful tour in the Uni- 
ted States, where he gathered materials for 
his “Trip to America,” which was received 
with not less favor than his ‘‘ At Home.” He 
continued both entertainments for more than 
ten years longer, appearing at intervals on the 
stage in the regular drama; and in 1884 he re- 


MATHIAS 279 


turned to America and performed his “ Trip.” 
He died soon after his return to England. His 
powers of mimicry, combined with an expres- 
sive countenance, a flexible voice, and keen 
discernment, gave him a high position on the 
English stage. His Mawworm, Sir Fretful 
Plagiary, Morbleu, Monsieur Mallet, Multiple in 
“The Actor of All Work,” &., were among 
the most finished and original conceptions of 
the comic drama. His imitative powers were 
abundantly displayed in his ‘* At Home,” which 
was written for him by various authors. In 
private life he was greatly esteemed, and pos- 
sessed the friendship of Coleridge, Lamb, and 
other eminent men. His ‘‘ Memoirs” were 
published by his widow (4 vols. 12mo, Phila- 
delphia, 1839). I. Charles, son of the prece- 
ding, born in December, 1803, died June 24, 
1878. He was educated as an architect, but 
subsequently went upon the stage, and for many 
years held a prominent place as a light come- 
dian. In connection with his first wife, better 
known as Madame Vestris, who died in 1857, 
he was for years manager of the Olympic and 
Lyceum theatres in London. In 1857-’8 he 
made a professional tour in the United States, 
where he married Mrs. Davenport, an actress, 
known as Lizzie Weston. In 1860 he with- 
drew for a time from the stage, and gave en- 
tertainments similar to those of his father, in 
which he was assisted by his wife. In 1863 
he visited Paris and performed in a French 
version, made by himself, of one of his own 
plays. He visited the United States again in 
1869 and 1871, going in the interim to Austra- 
lia, and in 1872 returned to England, where 
his wife died in 1873. 

MATHEWS, Cornelius, an American author, 
born at Port Chester, N. Y., Oct. 28, 1817. 
He graduated at the university of New York, ~ 
and commenced his literary career in 1836 by 
contributions in prose and verse to various pe- 
riodicals. In 1839 he published ‘‘ Behemoth, 
a Legend of the Mound Builders;” in 1840, 
“The Politicians,’ a comedy; and in 1841, 
‘“‘ The Career of Puffer Hopkins,” a novel illus- 
trating various phases of political life in New 
York. His remaining works comprise ‘‘ Poems 
on Man in the Republic” (1848); ‘‘ Big Abel 
and Little Manhattan ” (1845); ‘‘ Witchcraft,” 
a tragedy (1846); ‘‘Jacob Leisler,” a play 
(1848); ‘‘Moneypenny, or the Heart of the 
World” (1850); ‘‘ Chanticleer, a Thanksgiving 
Story” (1850); “A Pen and Ink Panorama of 
New York City” (18538); ‘False Pretences,” 
a comedy (1856); and ‘‘ Indian Fairy Tales” 
(1868). He has edited various journals and 
contributed largely to periodicals. 

MATHIAS, Thomas James, an English author, 
born about 1750, died in Naples in 1835. He 
graduated at Trinity college, Cambridge, in 
1774, and several years later received an ap- 
pointment in the royal household, which he 
held till 1818, when he retired on a pension. 
He commenced his literary career by publish- 
ing a volume of ‘‘ Runic Odes” imitated from 


280 MATSUMAE 


the Norse (4to, 1781), and in 1788 produced an 
‘‘ Kssay on the Evidence relating to the Poems 
attributed to Thomas Rowley.” In 1794 he 
published the first part of an anonymous poem, 
of which three other parts subsequently ap- 
peared, entitled ‘‘The Pursuits of Literature,” 
remarkable for severe criticisms on literary men 
and opinions. It was followed by a variety 
of minor satirical pieces, after which he pub- 
lished an edition of the works of Thomas Gray, 
with his life and additions (2 vols. 4to, Cam- 
bridge, 1814). The latter part of his life was 
passed at Naples, where he published much’in 
the Italian language and on Italian literature. 
MATSUMAE, or Matsmai, a city of Japan, in 
Yezo, at the mouth of a small river on the 
S. coast, lat. 41° 80’ N., lon. 140° 3’ E., about 
42 m. S. W. of Hakodate; pop. estimated at 
50,000. It was the seat of the daimio Matsu- 
daira Idzu no Kami, and contains a castle, such 
as is usually found in a daimio’s capital. It 
carries on a thriving trade with Hakodate, and 
with Awomori on the main island, across the 
strait of Tsugaru. Next to Hakodate it is the 
largest town in Yezo. Matsumaé derives its 
importance in the eyes of foreigners from the 
fact that here the Russian captain Golovnin 
was imprisoned from 1811 to 1813. The ques- 
tion of opening Matsumaé as a port of foreign 
commerce was discussed by Commodore Perry 
with the Japanese in 1854, but without suc- 
cess. The name Matsumaé was applied by 
some of the earlier navigators both to the isl- 
and of Yezo and to the strait of Tsugaru. 
MATSYS, Metsys, or Messys, Quintin, a Flemish 
painter, born in Louvain about 1460, or ac- 
cording to some authorities in Antwerp in 
1450, died in Antwerp about 1530. He was 
brought up as a blacksmith, in which trade 
he continued until about his 20th year, when, 
according to the popular story, he became 
enamored of a painter’s daughter, and to win 
her hand forsook the anvil for the easel. He 
painted in the hard style of the early Flemish 
masters, colored highly, and was distinguished 
for minuteness of finish and force of expres- 
sion, particularly in religious subjects; although 
elsewhere he exhibits a cheerful conception of 
life, and occasionally considerable humor. His 
chief work is the great altarpiece in the mu- 
seum at Antwerp, consisting of a centre and 
two wings; in the former is represented the 
‘* Descent from the Cross,” of which Sir Joshua 
Reynolds says: ‘‘ There are heads in this pic- 
ture not exceeded by Raphael;” the latter are 
devoted to incidents in the history of St. John 
the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist. The 
artist received but 300 florins for this work; 
but Philip II. subsequently endeavored in vain 
to purchase it, and Elizabeth of England is said 
to have offered 64,000 florins for it. One of 
his best authenticated works is that in Windsor 
castle known as ‘‘ The Misers,” of which sev- 
eral repetitions are in existence. The heads 
are painted in a masterly manner. About 70 
pictures are ascribed to him, and these are 


MATTERHORN 


widely distributed throughout the chief gal- 
leries of Europe, and are highly prized. 
MATTER, Jacques, a French philosopher and 
historian, born at Alt-Eckendorf, Alsace, May 
81, 1791, died in Strasburg, June 23, 1864. He 
was intended for the legal profession, and after 
studying under private tutors and at the gym- 
nasium of Strasburg and the university of Gét- 
tingen, he went to Paris, where he attended 
the lectures of the faculty of letters, and wrote 
his Essai historique sur Vécole d’ Alexandrie, 
which received a prize from the academy in 
1816, and was published in 1820. By favor of 
Royer-Collard and Guizot he received in 1819 
a professorship in the college of Strasburg, 
which he exchanged two years afterward for 


the direction of the gymnasium and the pro- 


fessorship of ecclesiastical history in the Prot- 
estant academy of the same city. He pub- 
lished Histoire critique du gnosticisme (2 vols., 
Paris, 1828), and Histoire universelle del Hglise. 
chrétienne (3 vols., 1829-82). In 1828 he was 
appointed inspector of the academy of Stras- 
burg, and in 1831 corresponding member of 
the academy of inscriptions. His treatise De 
Dinfluence des meurs sur les lois et des lois sur 
les meurs (Paris, 1832) received from the acad- 
emy an extraordinary prize of 10,000 francs. 
In 1832 he was appointed by Guizot general 
inspector of the university of Paris; in 1845 
he became inspector general of public libra- 
ries, and subsequently he devoted himself to lit- 
erary labors at Strasburg. Among his other 
works are: Histoire des doctrines morales et 
politiques des trois derniers siécles (8 vols., 
1836-'7); De Vaffaiblissement des idées et des 
études morales (1841); Schelling et la phito- 
sophie de la nature (1842); De Vétat moral, 
politique et littéraire de lV Allemagne (2 vols., 
1847); Histoire. de la philosophie dans ses 
rapports avec la religion (1854); Philosophie 
de la religion (2 vols., 1857); La morale, ou 
la philosophie des meurs (1860); Saint-Mar- 
tin, le philosophe inconnu (1862); and Hm- 
manuel de Swedenborg (1863). 

MATTERHORN (Fr. Mont Cervin ; Ital. Monte 
Silvio), a mountain of the Pennine Alps, be- 
tween the canton of Valais, Switzerland, and 
the Val d’Aosta, Italy, 14,835 ft. high. It is 
one of the grandest peaks in the world. In the 
view from the Riffel its precipices rise 4,000 
ft. to a summit which appears like the wall 
and steep roof of a house. From Breuil, in 
the Val Tournanche, the whole Italian face is 
a series of terraced walls. From the north 
and south the mountain appears like a tower, 
and from the east and west it has the form of 
an obelisk. At the height of 11,096 ft. is the 
pass of Mont Cervin, traversed in summer by 
mules and horses, and exhibiting the remains 
of rude fortifications, supposed to have been 
erected two or three centuries ago as a de- 
fence against incursions from the Valais. Up 
to 1865 the Matterhorn was the last of the 
great Alpine peaks that remained unscaled. 
The first attempts to ascend it were made by 


MATTERHORN 


guides from the direction of Breuil in 1858 
and 1859, and the highest point attained was 
the “Chimney,” about 12,650 ft. In July, 
1860, three Englishmen, Alfred, Charles, and 
Sandbach Parker, of Liverpool, without guides, 
ascended 12,000 ft. In August Prof. John 
Tyndall and Vaughan Hawkins accomplished 
12,992 ft. In July 1861, the Messrs. Parker 
made another effort, and reached a few feet 
beyond the point attained by them the previous 
year. In August Edward Whymper ascended 
to the “Chimney.” In July, 1862, Tyndall as- 
cended 138,970 ft. In 1863 and 1864 Whymper 
made unsuccessful attempts to reach the sum- 
mit. On July 14, 1865, Mr. Whymper, Lord 
Francis Douglas, the Rev. Charles Hudson, 


The Matterhorn, from the Riffel. 


Mr. Hadow, and four guides started from Zer- 
matt, and on the day following accomplished 
the ascent. In descending the Matterhorn the 
rope connecting the party broke, and Michel 
Croz, one of the guides, Lord F. Douglas, and 
Messrs. Hudson and Hadow were plunged down 
a precipice 4,000 ft. The body of Douglas was 
never found; the others were buried at Zer- 
matt. Three days later (July 17) a successful 
ascent was made from Breuil by Jean Antoine 
Carrel and others. The next ascent was made 
in August, 1867, by Craufurd Grove. In July, 
1868, Mr. Elliott with two guides reached the 


summit from the north side; and in the same. 


summer Prof. Tyndall was the first to ef- 
fect the passage of the mountain across the 


MATTHEW 281 


crest from Breuil to Zermatt. The crest of 
the Matterhorn is a line of snow, 580 ft. long, 
and 6 ft. higher toward the east than toward 
the west. On the eastern face a hut has been 
built at a height of 12,526 ft., and since 1868 
numerous ascents have been made. 
MATTEUCCI, Carlo, an Italian savant, born in 
Forli, June 21, 1811, died in Leghorn in June, 
1868. He studied’ at Bologna and in Paris, 
returned to Forli in 1831, and there began his 
scientific experiments. He removed to Florence 
in 1834, and in 1887 became professor of phy- 
sics and director of the laboratory at Ravenna, 
and in 1840 professor of physics at Pisa. For 
his experiments in electro-physiology he took 
a prize at the French academy of sciences in 
1844, and also the Copley medal of the royal 
society of London. He constructed the first 
line of telegraph in Tuscany, in 1846, and was 
made superintendent of the telegraph service. 
He became a senator in 1848, a member of the 
council in 1859, and after the establishment of 
the kingdom of Italy a member of the national 


' senate and inspector general of telegraphs, and 
'in March, 1862, minister of public instruction. 


His principal works are on the phenomena of 
electro-physiology (1840), physics, electricity 
applied to the arts, and the physico-chemical 
phenomena of living bodies. 

MATTHEW, Saint, one of the twelve apostles, 
and author of the first Gospel. The New Tes- 
tament tells us little of his personal history. 
He was a son of Alpheus, and a receiver of 
customs at the lake of Tiberias. Jesus, while 
passing one day, said to him: “Follow me;” 
and Matthew at once obeyed. Most exegetical 
writers assume that the publican Levi, whose 
call to the discipleship is recorded by Mark 
and Luke, is the same person as Matthew; but 
among the opponents of this view are Ori- 
gen, Grotius, Michaelis, and Ewald. After 
the ascension of Christ, Matthew was at Jeru- 
salem, with the other apostles. Then history 
loses sight of him. Tradition relates that he 
preached the gospel for 15 years in Jerusalem, 
and then turned to other nations. Among 
these are mentioned the Ethiopians, Macedo- 
nians, Syrians, Persians, Parthians, and Medes. 
He is said to have been burned alive in Arabia 
Felix; and according to Baronius, his body was 
brought to Palermo in 954. The Roman Cath- 
olic church keeps his festival on Sept. 21, the 
Greek on Nov. 16.—The Gospel of Matthew, 
according to the unanimous tradition of the 
ancient church, was composed in Hebrew, or 
rather the Syro-Chaldaic idiom spoken at that 
time in Palestine. Following Erasmus, many 
eminent Protestant theologians, as Calvin, Be- 
za, Lightfoot, Credner, De Wette, Ewald, Har- 
less, Bleek, Schenkel, Keim, and Volkmar, and 
among Roman Catholics Hug, have contested 
the correctness of this tradition, and advocated 
the originality of the Greek text; but the op- 
posite theory has also found defenders, prom- 
inent among whom are Meyer and Lange. 
A considerable number of distinguished theo- 


282 MATTHEW PARIS 


logians, as Lachmann, Credner, Ewald, Reuss, 
Meyer, Bleek, Bunsen, Schenkel, Keim, and 
generally all the theologians of the Tiibingen 
school, infer from a passage of the early ec- 
clesiastical writer Papias, that Matthew him- 
self compiled only a summary of the sermons 
and sayings of Christ, which was put into his- 
torical form by another writer. But weighty 
authorities have since shown that this pas- 
sage of Papias admits of another interpretation. 
The Gospel was undoubtedly written for Chris- 
tians of Jewish descent in Palestine. With re- 
spect to its date ecclesiastical traditions vary 
from A. D. 41 to 67; a majority of modern 
writers seem to agree in fixing it between 60 
and 67. The chief aim of this Gospel is evi- 
dently to prove the Messianic character of 
Jesus. For its relation to the Gospels of Mark 


and Luke, see Marx; for collective commenta- 


ries on all the four, or the first three Gospels, 
see Luxr.—See Sieffert, Veber die Echtheit und 
den Ursprung des ersten canonischen Hvange- 
liums (1832); Schneckenburger, Ueber den Ur- 
sprung des ersten Hvangelii (1834); Schott, 
Ueber die Authenticitat des canonischen Evan- 
geliums nach Matthéus benannt (1887); Kern, 
Ueber den Ursprung des Evangeliums Matthia 
(1837); and Holtzmann, Die synoptischen Hoan- 
gelien (1863). 

MATTHEW PARIS, or Matthew of Paris (Lat. 
Mattheus Parisiensis, so called from his hay- 
ing studied in that city), an English historian, 
born about 1195, died in 1259. From 1217 he 
was a Benedictine monk of St. Albans, where 
he continued the Flores Historiarum of Roger 
of Wendover from 1235 to 1259, adding a near- 
ly equal amount of his own to the original. 
This, known as the Historia Major, was first 
printed by Archbishop Parker in 1571, and an 
edition by Dr. William Watts (fol., London, 
1640; Paris, 1644). Matthew Paris made a 
compilation from it, extending from 1066 to 
1253, known as the Historia Minor, the Chro- 
nicon, and the Liber Chronicorum, which Sir 
Frederick Madden published under the title 
Historia Anglorum (London, 1866), from the 
original in the British museum. An original 
manuscript of the lores Historiarum, discov- 
ered in the Chetham library at Manchester, ac- 
cording to Sir Francis Madden, settles beyond 
doubt that the largest portion of that work, 
attributed to “the pseudo Matthew of West- 
minster,” was written at St. Albans, under the 
eye of Matthew Paris, as an abridgment of his 
‘Greater Chronicle,” and the text from the 
close of 1241 to 1249 is in his own handwri- 
ting. It was continued by monks of St. Al- 
bans to 1265, and to 1325 at Westminster, 
whence the name Matthew of Westminster, 
otherwise unknown, became attached to it. 
The Historia Major has been translated into 
English by the Rey. J. A. Giles (5 vols. 8vo, 
London, 1849-54), and the Flores Historiarum 
by C. D. Yonge (2 vols. 8vo, 1853). 

MATTHEWS, an E. county of Virginia, bor- 
dering on Chesapeake bay; area, 68 sq. m.; 


MATTHIAS 


pop. in 1870, 6,200, of whom 2,096 were col- 
ored. It is a peninsula, having the Piankatank 
river on the N., the Chesapeake on the E., and 
Mobjack bay on the 8. W., and is connected 
with the mainland by an isthmus 1 m. wide; 
length 20 m., greatest width 8 m. It has a 
level surface and moderately fertile soil. The 
chief productions in 1870 were 3,268 bushels 
of wheat, 104,867 of Indian corn, and 13,577 
of oats. There were 390 horses, 2,269 cattle, 
957 sheep, and 4,055 swine. Capital, Matthews. 

MATTHIAS, a religious impostor, whose real 
name was Rosert Matrnews, born in Wash- 
ington co., N. Y., about 1790, died in Arkansas. 
He kept a country store, failed in 1816, and 
went to reside in New York. In 1827 he re- 
moved to Albany, where he became excited by 
the preaching of the Rev. Messrs. Kirk and 
Finney. He engaged in the temperance cause, 
and, claiming to have received a revelation, 
took to street preaching. Failing to convert 
Albany, he prophesied its destruction and fled 
to New York, where he involved several re- 
spectable families in his delusions, and was 
tried and acquitted on a charge of poisoning a 
wealthy disciple in whose family he lived. His 
impositions having been exposed, he disap- 
peared.—See ‘‘ Matthias and his Imposture,” 
by W. L. Stone (New York, 1835). 

MATTHIAS, emperor of Germany, born Feb. 
24, 1557, died March 20, 1619. His mother 
was a daughter of the emperor Charles V. His 
father was Maximilian II., who died in 1576, and 
was succeeded by his eldest son Rudolph II., 
whose jealousy of his brother’s participation 
in affairs at home had early impelled Matthias 
to espouse the cause of the revolted Nether- 
landers; and he was their nominal ruler from 
1577 to 1580, when he withdrew before the 
superior influence of the prince of Orange. 
The death of his brother Ernest, archduke of 
Austria (1595), brought him into prominence, 
Rudolph intrusting him with the administra- 
tion of that archduchy. He was notorious for 
his persecution of the Protestants. Commis- 
sioned by the emperor, he restored tranquillity 
in 1606 among the Hungarians, who had in- 
voked the aid of Bocskay of Transylvania and 
of the Turks against the house of Hapsburg; 
and in 1608, having formed a confederation of 
the Hungarian, Moravian, and Silesian estates, 
he forced Rudolph to cede to him Hungary, 
Moravia, and Austria, and to secure to him the 
succession to the kingdom of Bohemia. He 
now sought to propitiate the Protestants in 
order to obtain this concession; and subse- 
quently, when Rudolph manifested a prefer- 
ence for the archduke Leopold as future king 
of Bohemia, Matthias joined the disaffected Bo- 
hemians against his brother, and secured from 
him the cession not only of Bohemia, but also 
of Silesia and Lusatia. His brother leaving no 
issue, Matthias was unanimously elected (June, 
1612) to succeed him as emperor. He was un- 
able to grapple with the Turks in Hungary, 
whose advance on Vienna was only arrested by 


MATTHIAS CORVINUS 


his suing for peace in 1615. He was equally 
unfortunate in his attempts to arrest the reli- 
gious strife to which he had not a little contrib- 
uted by countenancing his brother’s support 
of the Jesuits. After failing to transfer the 
Catholic league (formed in 1609) from Bava- 
rian to Austrian control, he issued a decree 
(April, 1617) against this as well as the rival 
Protestant association established in 1608 un- 
der the lead of the count palatine Frederick 
IV. Both disregarded his decree, and his fail- 
ing health offered a convenient pretext for sub- 
stituting the archduke Ferdinand as king of 
Bohemia (1617) and Hungary (1618). But the 
bigotry of this prince (the future emperor Fer- 
dinand II.) resulted in the outbreak in Prague 
(May 238, 1618), which kindled the flames of 
the thirty years’ war. His death took place 
at a time when the revolted Bohemians had 
gained considerable advantages. 

MATTHIAS I., the Great, surnamed Corvyinvs, 
king of Hungary, born in 1448, died in Vien- 
na in 1490. He was a son of John Hunyady 
(Hunniades), the governor of Hungary during 
the minority of King Ladislas the Posthumous. 
His elder brother Ladislas perished on the scaf- 
fold by order of that king, but he succeeded the 
latter on the throne by election in 1458, after 
having been previously detained as a prisoner 
in Bohemia by the adversaries of his house. He 
met with bitter opposition on the part of many 
powerful nobles, who in 1459 elected the em- 
peror Frederick III. as rival king. Matthias, 
however, prevailed upon Frederick to surren- 
der to him the crown of St. Stephen; and 
he next expelled the Turks, who had availed 
themselves of the intestine troubles to invade 
the country. He restored order in the king- 
dom with a firm hand, curbing the license of 
the nobles with rigor. He had married a daugh- 
ter of George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, but 
was induced by ambition and the entreaties of 
the court of Rome to fight his own father-in- 
law, who had been excommunicated as a Hus- 
site in 1463, and afterward declared deposed 
by the new pope Paul II., a crusade being 
preached against him throughout the German 
empire. Podiebrad repulsed the invasion of 
Bohemia by Matthias, and concluded an armis- 
tice with him in April, 1469; but the latter, be- 
ing chosen king of Bohemia by a mock diet 
at Olmiitz, without effect, renewed hostilities, 
which did not terminate till July, 1470. In the 
mean time Matthias had wrested from Podie- 
brad Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia (1468-70) ; 
he also vanquished the Poles, and in 1485-’6 
wrested Vienna and a large part of Lower 
Austria from the emperor Frederick. The 
enormous expenses of these wars entailed heavy 
burdens upon his subjects; but his rule, though 
arbitrary, was so eminently judicious and pop- 
ular that after his death the adage gained cur- 
rency: “King Matthias gone, justice gone.” 
Hungary enjoyed under his influence an era of 
unprecedented prosperity and prestige in Eu- 
rope as the great bulwark against the Turks. 


MATTISON 2838 


At the same time he promoted letters and sci- 
ence more thoroughly than any other potentate 
of his day. He gathered round him learned 
Italians, founded the university of Buda, ac- 
quired Greek manuscripts, and employed nnu- 
merous copyists at Florence and Buda to add 
valuable materials to the royal library. Its 
partial destruction by the Turks in 1527 was 
a great calamity, especially as only a small por- 
tion of it found its way to Vienna.—John Cor- 
vinus, a natural son of Matthias, attempted to 
succeed to the throne, which was occupied 
after the latter’s death by Uladislas II. 
MATTHIAS, John. See ANABAPTists. 
MATTHISSON, Friedrich von, a German lyric 
poet, born near Magdeburg, Jan. 23, 1761, died 
near Dessau, March 12, 1831. Having devel- 
oped considerable talents as a poet, and gained 
great popularity, he was patronized by various 
German princes, but retired from court life in 
1824. His “Elegy in the Ruins of an Old 
Castle” is one of his finest lyrics. He edited 
selections from the lyric poets of Germany 
under the title of Lyrische Anthologie (20 
vols., Zurich, 1803-7). His Hrinnerungen and 
Schriften were published at Ziirich (5 vols., 
1810-16, and 8 vols., 1825-’31), and his post- 
humous works at Berlin (4 vols., 1882). 
MATTISON, Hiram, an American clergyman, 
born in Norway, N. Y., Feb. 11, 1811, died in 
Jersey City, N. J., Nov. 24,1868. He entered 
the Methodist ministry in 1885, and in 1836 
joined the Black River conference. In 1841 
he was appointed agent of the American Bible 
society for the state of New Jersey. Resu- 
ming the pastorate in 1842, he was successively 
stationed at Watertown and Rome, N. Y. From 
1846 to 1860 he was chietly employed in the 
preparation of works on astronomy, in lectu- 
ring, and in supplying the John street church, 
New York; but in 1856-7 he was pastor at 
Adams and Syracuse, and took a leading part 
in the anti-slavery movement. In 1859, by 
correspondence with the Methodists of Great 
Britain, he obtained the names of about 85,000 
petitioners to the general conference of 1860, 
praying that body to extirpate slavery from 
the Methodist Episcopal church; and a like 
paper from 45,000 petitioners in central New 
York was largely due to his efforts. In No- 
vember, 1861, he withdrew from the Methodist 
Episcopal church, because, as he affirmed, of 
its toleration of slaveholding; and soon after 
he became pastor of St. John’s Independent 
Methodist church, New York. In 1865 he re- 
turned to the former church, and was stationed 
at Jersey City, where he was prominent in his 
opposition to the claims of the Roman Catho- 
lic church. This led to his appointment in 
1868 as one of the district secretaries of the 
American and foreign Christian union. Among 
his works are: ‘‘ The Trinity and Modern Ari- 
anism,’ and ‘Tracts for the Times” (1848) ; 
‘Elementary Astronomy, accompanied by 
Maps” (1846); ‘“Burritt’s Geography of the 
Heavens,” edited and revised (1850); ‘“ High 


984 MATTO GROSSO 


School Astronomy” (1853); “Spirit Rapping 
Unveiled” (1854); ‘‘Sacred Melodies,” and 
‘‘ Impending Crisis” (1859); ‘‘ Immortality of 
the Soul,” ‘‘ Resurrection of the Body,” and 
‘‘Defence of American Methodism” (1866) ; 
and ‘‘ Popular Amusements” (1867). 

MATTO GROSSO (Port., thick brushwood), a 
province of Brazil, bounded N. W. and N. by 
Amazonas and Grado Para, E. and 8. E. by Go- 
yaz, Sao Paulo, and Parana, 8. by Paraguay, 
and S. W. and W. by Bolivia; area, 551,575 sq. 
m.; pop. about 100,000. This province, the 
largest in the empire after Amazonas, forms 
the western portion of the highlands of Brazil, 
comprising the Amazon-Paraguay watershed, 
which is so low that canoes ascending the Ta- 
pajos from Santarem are crossed over and 
floated on the Paraguay to descend to Villa 
Maria. 
watershed just referred to are several minor 
chains stretching N. and §., separated by deep 
valleys and immense plains covered with dense 
forests, which give the name to the province, 
and afford inexhaustible quantities of timber 
suited for every species of construction, and a 
great variety of precious cabinet woods. The 
Tapajos and Xingt rivers rise in the central 
portion and flow N. to the Amazon, while the 
Paraguay flows southward, forming part of 
the S. W. boundary line, and all receive the 
waters of innumerable streams, which else- 
where would rank as grand rivers. The Gua- 
poré or Iténez forms with the Madeira almost 
the whole of the remainder of the western 
boundary ; and the’ eastern and southern 
boundaries are constituted by the Araguay 
and Parana respectively. Gold is found in 
nearly every direction; but the mines, like 
those of diamonds, once extensively worked, 
especially in the region surrounding Cuyaba, 
are now mostly abandoned owing to the cost 
of working them, as the gems and the gold no 
longer occur near the surface. Copper, iron, 
and many other metals abound in the hills. 
The soil is extremely fertile, and the chief 
occupations of the inhabitants are agriculture 
and cattle raising. The principal commodi- 
ties exported are hides, ipecacuanha and other 
drugs, and balsams, all of which are sent to 
tio de Janeiro by caravans of mules, Millet, 
rice, and manioc are cultivated, as are also 
sugar, tobacco, and cotton. The chief impedi- 
ment to colonization is the absence of adequate 
means of transport to the centres of consump- 
tion and the seacoast. Capital, Cuyaba. 

MATURIN, Charles Robert, an Irish author, 
born in Dublin in 1782, died there, Oct. 80, 
1824. He was educated at Trinity college, 
Dublin, took orders, and became curate of St. 
Peter’s in his native city. In 1807 he published 
“The Fatal Revenge, or the Family of Mon- 
torio,” a novel, which was followed by sev- 
eral other romantic fictions, as ‘‘The Milesian 
Chief,” ‘‘The Wild Irish Boy,” ‘‘Women, or 
Pour et Contre,” and ‘“‘ Melmoth the Wander- 
er.” In 1816 his tragedy of *‘ Bertram” was 


From the transversal ridge forming the | 


MAUOH CHUNK 


accepted at Drury Lane theatre, through the 
influence of Lord Byron. He was noted for 
eloquence in the pulpit—His son Epwarp 
emigrated to America, where he published sey- 
eral poems and tales, among which are: ‘‘ Mon- 
tezuma, the Last of the Aztecs;” “‘ Benjamin, 
the Jew of Granada;” “Eva, or Isles of Life 
and Death” (1848); and ‘‘ Bianca, a Tale of 
Erin and Italy ” (1853). (See supplement.) 

MAUBEUGE, a fortified town of France, in the 
department of Le Nord, on the Sambre, 46 
m. 8. E. of Lille; pop. in 1866, 10,877. It is 
well built, and has long been important in a 
military point of view. Its fortifications were 
reconstructed by Vauban in 1680. After the 
battle of Waterloo it was captured by the Prus- 
sians. It has iron founderies, tanneries, salt 
refineries, and marble works. 

MAUCH CHUNK, a borough and the capital of 
Carbon co., Pennsylvania, on the W. bank of 
the Lehigh river, at its passage through the 
Mahoning mountain, on both sides of the mouth 
of Mauch Chunk creek, 46 m. above the en- 
trance of the Lehigh into Delaware river, and 
on the Lehigh canal and the Lehigh Valley rail- 
road and the Oentral railroad of New Jersey, 
89 m. by railroad N. N. W. of Philadelphia, and 
121 m. W. of New York; pop. in 1870, 3,841. 
It is built chiefly in the valley of the creek, . 
on a single street, between the Mahoning and 
Sharp mountains, in so contracted a place that 
little room is afforded for gardens to the houses, 
The hills on each side rise precipitously to the 
height of several hundred feet, and not far 
back attain an elevation of more than 1,000 
ft. above the river. The place derives its im- 
portance from the mines of anthracite found 
in the Sharp mountain at this eastern extrem- 
ity of the southern anthracite field of Pennsyl- 
vania. The mines of Summit hill or Sharp 
mountain, 9 m. W. of the village, up the valley 
of Mauch Chunk creek, have been famous as 
among the oldest known and most productive 
of the coal mines in the state. One bed more 
than 50 ft. thick has been worked over many 
acres, The coal from these mines was formerly 
taken to Mauch Chunk over the famous “‘Switch- 
back ” gravity railroad, and thence transferred 
by chutes to the Lehigh canal. The cars run 
by gravity the whole distance to Mauch Chunk, 
and were formerly drawn back by mules, which 
made the descent in cars provided for them. 
But a return track is now laid, along which the 
cars descend from the chutes at the canal to 
the foot of Mt. Pisgah, the high point of Sharp 
mountain next the river, and are then raised 
to its summit up an inclined plane by a station- 
ary steam engine. From this point they then 
run 6 m. by gravity to the foot of another 
inclined plane, up which they are raised as be- 
fore, and from its summit descend to the dif- 
ferent mines. This road has been superseded 
by a tunnel at Nesquehoning, and it is now 
only used for pleasure excursions. The Lehigh 
canal, with the slackwater navigation of the 
Lehigh, was formerly continued 25 m. further 


_ 


u 


MAUDSLEY . 


up the river to Whiteshaven, but having been 
destroyed by a flood it is now abandoned above 
Mauch Chunk. The coal mines and furnaces 
in the vicinity and the Lehigh Valley railroad 
are controlled largely by residents of the bor- 
ough. It contains several handsome houses, 
a fine public school house, court house, jail, 
two founderies and machine shops, a flour mill, 
two national banks, a private bank, two week- 
ly newspapers, a library, and five churches. 
The beauty of the scenery, the coolness and 
purity of the air, and the excellence of the 
water have rendered it a famous summer re- 
sort. Glen Onoko, near the borough, a wild 
and beautiful ravine, is a prominent attraction. 
The borough limits being circumscribed, the 


MAULE 98h 


lege, consulting physician to the West London 
hospital, and editor of the “Journal of Mental 
Science.” His principal works are: ‘* Physi- 
ology and Pathology of Mind” (London, 1867); 
‘‘The Gulstonian Lectures on Body and Mind ” 
(London, 1870); and ‘“ Responsibility in Mental 
Disease,” written for the “ International Scien- 
tific Series” (London and New York, 1874). 
MAUI, the second in size of the Hawaiian isl- 
ands, in lat. 21° N., lon. 156° 80’ W.; length 
50 m., greatest breadth. 27 m.; area, 603 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1872, 12,884. It is of volcanic 
formation, and consists of two mountains con- 
nected by an isthmus. East Maui is the larger. 
Its chief summit, Halé-a-ka-la (“house of the 
sun’’), is 10,200 ft. high, and contains a crater 
27 m. in ‘circumference 
and 2,000 ft. deep. Abun- 
dant undecomposed lavas 


are found in it, but no 


tradition remains of its ac- 


tivity. The mountain is 


very regular in its slopes, 


which vary from 8° to 10°, 


and are the steeper on the 


windward or N. E. side, 


where they are cut up into 


deep ravines and worn 


away by the action of the 


Mauch Chunk. 


population hasextended to Upper Mauch Chunk, 
on a plateau above the town, and to Kast Mauch 
Chunk, a borough on the E. bank of the Lehigh, 
having 1,585 inhabitants in 1870. The popu- 
lation of the township of Mauch Chunk, on 
both banks of the river, exclusive of the bor- 
oughs, was 5,210. The name is of Indian ori- 
gin, and its meaning is said to be Great Bear. 
MAUDSLEY, Henry, an English physiologist, 
born near Settle, Yorkshire, in 1835. He studied 
medicine at University college, London, and 
received the degree of M. D. in 1856. He 
became resident physician of the Manchester 
lunatic hospital in 1859, which post he retained 
till 1862, when he commenced a consulting 
practice in London. He is now (1875) profes- 
sor of medical jurisprudence in University col- 


strong trade winds and 
the rain. West Maui is 
of still older formation. 
There is no summit crater ; 
it has a more broken sur- 
face and a deeper soil, and 
the degradation is more ex- 
tensive. Its highest peak 
is about 6,000 ft. The con- 
necting isthmus is a low 
sandy plain, rising but a 
few feet above the sea; 
vessels have run upon it 
by night, supposing a pas- 
sage to exist. Sugar cul- 
ture is the chief industry 
of Maui. The soil, with 
proper treatment, appears 
to be inexhaustible, and 
there is no danger of frost. 
The custom of the planters is to take off two 
crops and then let the field lie fallow for two 
years; four tons of sugar to the acre is not an 
uncommon yield. The cane matures, accord- 
ing to the altitude, in from 14 to 24 months, 
Owing to bad management, however, the plan- 
tations are often unsuccessful. The principal 
town is Lahaina, on West Maui; pop. 3,002. 
MAULE, a S. province of Chili, bounded N. 
by Talca, E. by the Andes, 8. by Nuble and 
Concepcion, and W. by the Pacific; area, 
6,424 sq. m., or according to a Chilian author- 
ity, about 8,100 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 211,- 
567. The surface to the east is roughened by 
numerous hills; to the west it is traversed 
from N. to S. by the coast mountains; and in 
the centre it is a magnificent champaign coun- 


286 MAULMAIN 


try, highly cultivated, and affording excellent 
pasturage for numerous cattle. The Maule, 
which rises in a lagoon near the base of the 
Descabezado peak, and forms the boundary line 
with Talca, is a considerable river, but is only 
navigable 30 m. for small vessels, on account 
of its numerous rapids and a bar at its mouth. 
Many irrigating canals branch from it, and 
flour mills abound along its banks. The Itata 
and Perquilanquen separate the province re- 
spectively from Concepcion and Nuble. There 
are several smaller rivers and numerous moun- 
tain torrents. The climate is temperate. The 
hilly region is for the most part covered with 
forests, yielding among others a species of tim- 
ber eminently adapted for ship building, being 


remarkably strong and durable; and many | 


ships are built along the coast. The principal 
productions are wheat, barley, maize, garden 
vegetables, &c., which, with good wines, 
cheese, and salt, are sent in large quantities to 
the neighboring provinces, but especially to 
Valparaiso, between which port and that of 
Constitucion an extensive coasting trade is 
carried on. Gold mining, which was active 
in the last century, has nearly ceased. There 
are many mineral springs. The province is 
divided into the departments of Cauquenes, 
OConstitucion, Itata, Linares, and Parral. The 
capital is Cauquenes, and the ports are Con- 
stitucion (the largest) on the Maule, Curanipe, 
and Huechupureo. A line of railway across 
the province, from Curicéd to Chillan, is in 
course of construction (1874). 

MAULMAIN, or Moulmein, a port of Tenasse- 
rim, on the E. side of the bay of Bengal, at the 
mouth of the Salwen, on a small peninsula 
formed by that river and the Gyne and Atta- 
ran, and nearly opposite the Burmese town of 
Martaban ; lat. 16° 30’ N., lon. 97° 87’ E.; pop. 
about 50,000. The banks of the Salwen are 
lined with jungle from its mouth to the town, 
and the horizon is bounded, at the distance. of 
from 1 to 6 m., by hills parallel with the stream, 
covered with trees to their summits. The na- 
tive houses are raised on piles, 10 or 12 ft. from 
the ground, and are formed of mats and palm 
leaves. The houses of the Europeans and 
‘those of the wealthier Burmans are built en- 
tirely of wood, also raised upon piles. There 
are a few scattered brick buildings. The native 
town consists of one long street, which runs 
for nearly 4 m. along the bank of the Salwen, 
and a few others which branch from it toward 
the heights on the east and connect it with the 
European houses. There are several wooden 
jetties along the shore. The inhabitants con- 
sist of Burmans, Talains, Chinese, Bengalese, 
and Madrasese, with a few Armenians, Jews, 
and Cingalese. A considerable number of Eu- 
ropeans are settled there, and a few mission- 
aries. There are seven Christian churches, 
five of which are Protestant. Maulmain is a 
place of considerable trade, principally with 
Calcutta, Madras, Rangoon, and Penang. The 
exports consist chiefly of timber, ivory, wax, 


MAUNA LOA 


stick lac, caoutchouc, cajeput oil, gum resins, 
nut oil, sandal wood, dammar, tanning sub- 
stances and dyes, aloes, and sapan wood. 
With the exception of timber, all the articles 
used in ship building are imported,: besides 
cotton cloth, coarse earthenware, sugar, to- 
bacco, arms, and gunpowder. ‘The forests in 
the immediate neighborhood yield an abundant 
supply of teak timber, and ship building is suc- 
cessfully carried on. When the Tenasserim 
provinces were ceded by the Burmese to the 
British in 1826, the site upon which Maulmain 
stands was covered with jungle overrun by 
tigers. The heat is not so oppressive as on 
the coast of Coromandel, the thermometer sel- 
dom rising above 90° in the shade. 

MAUNA KEA, the highest mountain in the 
Hawaiian islands and in Polynesia; elevation, 
as estimated by the United States exploring 
expedition, 18,953 ft. It occupies the north- 
ern and central parts of Hawaii, and is a dome 
of volcanic formation, with terminal craters 
that have long been extinct. Though steeper 
and apparently rougher in surface than Mauna 
Loa, it is easier to ascend, owing to the greater 
degradation of the lavas which form its slope. 
Snow rests upon it during the greater part of 
the year. The terminal peaks are truncated 
cones of gravel and reddish scoria; the angle 
of their outer slope is about 30°. Herds of 
wild cattle roam in the forests that cover the 
flanks of the mountain, and are hunted for the 
sake of their horns, hides, and tallow. 

MAUNA LOA (‘‘long or high mountain”), a 
volcanic mountain occupying a large part of 
the central and southern regions of the island 
of Hawaii; elevation, 13,760 ft. It is entirely 
composed of lavas which have been thrown 
out in a highly fluid state, and which in conse- 
quence have flowed laterally with such freedom 
as to build up a mountain with extremely gen- 
tle slopes, averaging, according to Prof. Dana, 
but 6° 30’; the declivity upon the E. side is 
somewhat the steepest. It presents the ap- 
pearance of a smooth, regular dome, usually 
crowned with snow, and partially forest-clad. 
On the east the forests cease at the elevation 
of 5,000 ft. Vegetation reaches to the height 
of 7,000 and 10,000 ft. on the leeward and 
windward sides respectively. The surface of 
Mauna Loa is composed of recent lavas in three 
forms: 1, the pahothoi or “‘satin lava,” a dense 
and solid rock ; 2, scoriaceous lava, or ‘‘ clink- 
ers;” 8, a black slag or spongy lava, of the 
horrible roughness and hardness of which it 
is difficult to convey any idea. Its craters are 
numerous, occurring near the summit and on 
the sides; new ones sometimes open, and are 
the source of the grandest of the Hawaiian 
eruptions. The terminal crater, Mokua-weo- 
weo, is circular, 8,000 ft. in diameter, with two 
lateral depressions which increase its dimen- 
sions in the N. and S. direction to 13,000 ft. 
It was about 1,000 ft. deep in 1864, with nearly 
perpendicular walls. Eruptions from Mauna 
Loa often take the form of enormous lava 


MAUNDY THURSDAY 


fountains, spouting continuously from the top 
of the mountain. In February, 1859, such a 
fountain played actively for four or five days, 
throwing up a sheaf of white-hot fluid lava 
about 200 ft. in diameter, and 200 or 300 ft. 
high, illuminating the horizon at a distance of 
150m. In April, 1868, the lavas forced their 
way 20 m. under ground, and appeared near the 
S. point of the island, bursting forth through 
a fissure 2 m. long, which ran N. and 8. On 
the 10th Mr. H. M. Whitney observed four 
enormous lava fountains continuously spouting 
up from this opening. Two of them occasion- 
ally united laterally; and sometimes the whole 
four joined in one, making a continuous foun- 
tain a mile long. It boiled with the most 
terrific fury, throwing up enormous columns of 
crimson lava and red-hot rock to the height of 
500 or 600 ft. The lava was ejected with a 
rotary motion, uniformly toward the south. 
Mauna Loa has been seen at sea from a dis- 
tance of 53 leagues; ‘‘the most striking ex- 
ample I have yet known,” says Humboldt, 
‘‘of the visibility of a mountain.” 
MAUNDY THURSDAY. See Hoty WEEx. 
MAUPERTUIS, Pierre Louis Moreau de, a French 
astronomer, born in St. Malo, July 17, 1698, 
died in Basel, July 27, 1759. He was five years 
in the army, but he resigned in 1723, and was 
admitted into the academy of sciences. His 
ability in opposing the physical theory of Des- 
cartes, and substituting for it that of Newton, 
gained him admission in 1727 into the royal 
society of London. The controversy had ex- 
cited public interest, when the French govern- 
ment resolved to verify one of the hypotheses 
of the British philosopher, that of the flattening 
of the terrestrial globe near the poles. Manu- 
pertuis was at the head of a commission of 
academicians, including Clairaut and Lemon- 
nier, which in 1736-7 measured an arc of a 
meridian in Lapland; and the result, confirm- 
ing the conjecture of Newton, gave him dis- 
tinction throughout Europe. He was invited 
by Frederick the Great to Berlin, where he be- 
came president of the academy, married a lady 
of a distinguished family, and received large 
pensions. In 1750 he became involved in a 
controversy with Kénig, who disputed one of 
the principles of Maupertuis and maintained 
that it was a plagiarism from Leibnitz. The 
latter years of his life were afflicted by illness. 
MAUR, Congregation of St. See Sarnt-Mavtr. 
MAUREPAS, Jean Frédéric Phelypeaux, count, 
a French statesman, born July 9, 1701, died 
Noy. 21,1781. He was grandson of the chan- 
cellor Pontchartrain, and at the age of 14 suc- 
ceeded his father as secretary of state, the ad- 
ministration of the office being intrusted to 
the marquis de La Vrilliére till 1725, when he 
became the acting minister. 
the duties of this office till 1749, embellished 
the capital, sent La Condamine, Bouguer, and 
others to measure an arc of the meridian in 
Peru, near the equator, and Maupertuis, Clai- 
raut, and others to measure an arc in Lap- 
540 VOL. xI1.—19 


He discharged 


MAURICE 987 


land. He also promoted the expeditions of 
Fourmont to Greece andthe Orient, and of 
Jussieu to Peru. An epigram which he wrote 
upon Mme. de Pompadour caused his ban- 
ishment from court for 25 years. He was 
recalled by Louis XVI, again became pres- 
ident of the council of state, restored the ex- 
iled parliaments, called Turgot and Necker 
successively into the ministry, but by his fickle 
and frivolous administration hastened the ca- 
tastrophe of the French revolution. The Mé- 
moires du comte de Maurepas was published 
by the abbé Soulavie (4 vols., Paris, 1792). 

MAURER. I. Georg Ludwig ven, a German 
jurist, born at Erpolsheim, Rhenish Bavaria, 
Nov. 2, 1790, died in Munich, May 9, 1872. 
He took his degree at Heidelberg in 1812, and 
studied in Paris till 1814. He was subsequently 
assistant attorney general in various places till 
1826, when he became professor at the univer- 
sity of Munich. Having been made councillor 
of state, he was from 1882 to 1834 a member 
of the regency in Athens, Greece, and distin- 
guished himself by drawing up most of the 
codes of law. In 1847 he was for a short 
time minister of foreign affairs and of justice. 
Among his numerous works are Das griechi- 
sche Volk (8 vols., Heidelberg, 1836), and Ge- 
schichte der Stddteverfassung in Deutschland 
(4 vols., Erlangen, 1869-71). II. Konrad, a 
German author, son of the preceding, born at 
Frankenthal in 1823. In 1847 he became pro- 
fessor of jurisprudence at Heidelberg. He is 
a high authority on early Scandinavian his- 
tory, laws, languages, and literature. His 
principal works are: Die Entstehung des is- 
lindischen Staats und seiner Verfassung (Mu- 
nich, 1852); Die Bekehrung des norwegischen 
Stammes zum Christenthum (2 vols., 1855- 
6); an edition of the Icelandic Gullthoris- 
saga (Leipsic, 1858); and Isldndische Volks- 
sagen der Gegenwart (1860). 

MAURETANIA. See Mavriranta. 

MAURICE, count of Nassau and prince of 
Orange, stadtholder of the United Dutch Prov- 
inces, born at Dillenburg, Nov. 14, 1567, died at 
the Hague, April 23,1625. He was the second 
surviving son of William I. of Orange, surnamed 
the Silent, by Anna, the daughter of Maurice 
of Saxony. Maurice of Nassau was in his 17th 
year when his father was assassinated (1584), 
and was soon after proclaimed governor and 
captain general by the states of Holland and 
Zealand, his elder brother Philip William hav- 
ing been carried by the duke of Alva to Spain. 
Maurice, though commencing his military ca- 
reer under the control of the count of Hohen- 
lohe, was elected by the states in 1587 gov- 
ernor and commander-in-chief of the republic, 
during the temporary absence of Leicester; 
and after the recall of Leicester by Queen 
Elizabeth he was acknowledged as stadtholder 
and commander-in-chief by all the provinces, 
Lord Willoughby commanding the English aux- 
iliary forces. Opposed to the greatest captain 
of that period, Alessandro Farnese, Maurice 


288 


surprised and captured Breda (1590), and in the 
following year took Zutphen, Deventer, Nime- 
guen, and other places. The conquest of Ger- 
truidenberg (1593) and Groningen (1594), after 
protracted sieges, manifested still more clearly 
his abilities; and his camp soon became, like 
that of the duke of Parma, who died in 1592, 
one of the great schools of the military art, to 
which warlike youth flocked from every Prot- 
estant country. In these and many subsequent 
conquests, Maurice was assisted by the Eng- 
lish auxiliary troops under Sir Francis Vere, 
and he was still more indebted to the aid of 
the latter in his first battle in the open field, 
before Turnhout in Brabant, where he routed 
the Spaniards and compelled the fortress to 
surrender (1597). In 1598 Albert of Austria, 
governor of the Netherlands in right of his 
wife Isabella, on whom the sovereignty had 
been bestowed by her father Philip II., de- 
manded from the United Provinces a voluntary 
submission to their new rulers. The republic 
answered only by a more vigorous prosecution 
of the war by land and sea. Maurice routed 
the archduke at Nieuport near Ostend (1600), 
the issue of the battle being long disputed, 
and the English under Sir Francis Vere claim- 
ing the principal honor of the victory. The 
Protestant army, however, was exhausted, and 
Albert was allowed to resume the field with 
superior forces, and to commence the siege of 
Ostend, while Maurice successively laid siege to 
other places. The resistance of Ostend lasted 
more than three years; but when the Italian 
Spinola took the command of the besieging 
army, all efforts to save the fortress proved 
vain, and an honorable capitulation ended the 
struggle, which had cost the king of Spain 
80,000 men. Maurice had in the mean while 
achieved numerous conquests, which more than 
balanced the loss of Ostend, and the Dutch 
colonial possessions had been much extended, 
largely at the expense of Spain and Portugal. 
Spinola himself advising peace, Philip III. 
finally yielded, and a truce for 12 years was 
concluded at the Hague (1609), under which 
the Dutch retained their liberty and conquests. 
This termination of the struggle was owing 
chiefly to the diplomacy of Barneveldt, Mau- 
rice resisting it to the last. Bent on usurping 
supreme power, Maurice was ready to sacri- 
fice the interests of his country in order to re- 
tain his command; and when checked by the 
energy of the veteran statesman, he eagerly 
sought for his destruction. Maurice flattered 
and excited the passions of the Gomarists, 
while Barneveldt adhered to the Arminians. 
The synod of Dort was convoked (1618), a 
mock trial was held, and Barneveldt perished 
on the scaffold (1619). Grotius and others 
were thrown into prison. A son of Barne- 
veldt, who undertook to avenge his father, was 
executed. But the people punished Maurice 
by unconcealed detestation, and he entirely 
lost the fruit of hiscrimes. Only the renewal 
of the war after the expiration of the truce 


MAURICE 


(1621) restored him to popularity. He com- 
pelled Spinola to raise the siege of Bergen-op- 
Zoom (1622), for the conquest of which he 
had sacrificed 10,000 of his best troops, but 
was unable to rescue Breda, his grief on the 
fall of which (1625) is believed to have caused 
his death. His elder brother having died, as 
restored prince of Orange, in 1618, the younger, 
Frederick Henry, succeeded as stadtholder.— 
See Motley, ‘‘ History of the United Nether- 
lands” (1860-67), and ‘Life and Death of 
John of Barneveld” (1874). 

MAURICE, duke and elector of Saxony, a Ger- 
man general, born in Freiberg, March 21, 1521, 
died at Sievershausen, near Liineburg, July 11, 
1553. He received a brilliant education, and 
joined the Protestant church in 1539. In 1541 
he married a daughter of the landgrave Philip 
of Hesse, and in the same year (Aug. 18) suc- 
ceeded his father Henry the Pious on the ducal 
throne. In 1542 he fought in the army of the 
emperor Charles V. against the Turks, and in 
1543 against the French. He aided the empe- 
ror in defeating the Smalcald league at the bat- 
tle of Mihlberg (April 24, 1547), although his 
father-in-law was one of the two principal lead- 
ers of the league. The other leader was his 
cousin John Frederick of the Ernestine line of 
the house of Saxony, with whom he had pre- 
viously quarrelled, and whose dominions wera 
now added to his own, with the rank of elector 
conferred upon him by the emperor (July 1, 
1547). The landgrave of Hesse was at the same 
time treacherously arrested at Halle, and oth- 
er arbitrary measures soon alienated Maurice 
from the emperor and caused him to originate 
a bold scheme, which with one stroke of his 
sword cut the knot that imperilled the ref- 
ormation and the liberties of Germany. He 
availed himself in 1550 of the commission giv- 
en him to enforce the imperial ban against the 
disaffected city of Magdeburg to make milita- 
ry preparations, and concluded a secret treaty 
with Henry II. of France at Friedewalde, Oct. 
5,1551. Before throwing off his mask, he once 
more demanded the liberation of his father- 
in-law, which was refused by Charles V. He 
now marched on Innspruck, where Charles was 
lying very sick with gout, and suddenly made 
his appearance before that city in May, 1552, 
while the French occupied the emperor’s pos- 
sessions in Lorraine. Charles narrowly escaped 
capture by hasty flight, and was obliged to re- 
store to liberty both the cousin and the father- 
in-law of Maurice, and to grant by the treaty 
of Passau (Aug. 2, 1552) the fullest religious lib- 
erty to the Protestants, upon which Maurice 
had insisted as the condition of peace. Subse- 
quently he joined the emperor and his brother 
King Ferdinand in a new campaign against the 
Turks, and behaved with his wonted gallan- 
try, but without achieving any decided success. 
Early in 1553 he joined the league against the 
margrave Albert of Brandenburg, who would 
not recognize the treaty of Passau. Maurice 
achieved a brilliant victory over him at Sievers- 


MAURICE 


hausen (July 9), but received a wound from 
which he died two days afterward. In 1853 a 
monument was erected on the battle field in 
his honor. He promoted important civil, mil- 
itary, and educational reforms in Saxony, and 
added several institutions to the university of 
Leipsic. He was succeeded by his brother 
Augustus. His only surviving daughter, Anna, 
became the wife of William I., prince of Or- 
ange.—See Moritz, Herzog und Kurfirst von 
Sachsen, by Langenn (2 vols., Leipsic, 1841). 
MAURICE, John Frederick Denison, an English 
clergyman, born in 1805, died in London, 
April 1, 1872. He was the son of a Unitarian 
minister, and was sent at an early age to Trin- 
ity college, Cambridge, where he contracted a 
friendship with John Sterling, and they mar- 
ried sisters. He declined a fellowship on the 
ground that, being a dissenter, he could not 
sign the thirty-nine articles of the church of 
England, and take adegree. Going with Ster- 
ling to London, he became connected with the 
‘* Atheneum,” and published a novel entitled 
*‘ Eustace Conyers, or Brother and Sister.” It 
was not put in circulation till 1834, when the 
publisher had quite lost sight of the author. 
The villain of the novel was called Capt. Mar- 
ryat; and Mr. Maurice received a challenge 
from Capt. Frederick Marryat, whose aston- 
ishment was great on learning that the anony- 
mous author of ‘ Eustace Conyers” had never 
heard of the author of ‘‘ Frank Mildmay,” and, 
being in holy orders, was obliged to decline 
fighting a duel. At the end of two years he 
became a member of the church of England, 
and a candidate for holy orders, and about 
1828 received ordination. Endeavoring to 
make the theology of his church minister to 
the social wants of the people, he pursued a 
career of activity and usefulness in that direc- 
tion, although he encountered much opposi- 
tion. Allying himself from the outset with 
that movement in the established church now 
known as the ‘ Broad Church” party, of 
which Dr. Arnold of Rugby was the acknowl- 
edged pioneer, he was after the death of the 
latter commonly regarded as his successor in 
its leadership. His personal influence secured 
many adherents; and his numerous writings, 
nearly all of which were devoted to the ex- 
position of “Broad Church” views, were 
widely circulated in Great Britain and Amer- 
ica. Not less remarkable was his advocacy 
of “Christian socialism,” in which he found 
an able and enthusiastic colleague in the Rev. 
Charles Kingsley. He founded a working- 
men’s college in London, to which he devoted 
much time and attention. In 1846 he was 
appointed chaplain and reader to Lincoln’s 
Inn, and about the same time professor of the- 
ology in King’s college, London, which latter 
post he resigned in 1853; and in 1860, by the 
queen, incumbent of the district church of 
Vere street, Marylebone. 
professor of moral philosophy in the univer- 
sity of Cambridge, and in 1867 received the 


In 1866 he became 


MAURICIUS 289 
honorary degree of M. A. Charles Kingsley 
says that, although he was a great and rare 
thinker, he was greatest in his personal influ- 
ence. His principal works are: ‘Theological 
Essays” (1853), which cost him his professor- 
ship in King’s college; ‘Philosophy of the 
First Six Centuries,” and “Unity of the New 
Testament” (1854); ‘The Patriarchs and 
Lawgivers of the Old Testament,” and “ The 
Prophets and Kings of the Old Testament ” 
(1855); ‘‘ The Epistles of St. John,” and ‘‘ Medi- 
eval Philosophy” (1857); ‘* Parochial Ser- 
mons” (6 vols., 1860); ‘“ The Religions of the 
World,” and ‘ Lectures on the Apocalypse ” 
(1861); ‘“‘ Modern Philosophy ” (1862); ‘The 
Gospel of the Kingdom of Heaven” (1864); 
“The Gospel of St. John,” and ‘‘ The Conflict 
of Good and Evil in our Day ” (1865); ‘The 
Workman and the Franchise,” and ‘‘ The Com- 
mandments, as Instruments of National Refor- 
mation” (1866); ‘‘ The Conscience” (1868); 
and ‘Social Morality, Twenty-one Lectures 
delivered in the University of Cambridge ” 
(1869). In connection with a layman he 
wrote ‘The Claims of the Bible and of Sci- 
ence’’ (1863). A posthumous work on the 
Lord’s prayer, with a biographical sketch, was 
published in 1872, and “The Friendship of 
Books, and other Lectures,” edited by Thomas 
Hughes, in 1874. A memorial of him has 
been printed, the proceeds to be devoted to 
placing his bust in Westminster abbey, to es- 
tablishing the workingmen’s college on a more 
permanent basis, and providing for lectures in 
it, chiefly on the history and study of the Bible. 
MAURICE, Thomas, an English clergyman, 
born in Hertford about 1755, died in London, 
March 30,1824. He graduated at Oxford, and 
became curate of Woodford in Essex. He re- 
signed that post in 1785, and accepted a small 
pastorate at Epping. In 1799 he became as- 
sistant librarian to the British museum. His 
principal works are: ‘Indian Antiquities” (7 
vols. 8vo, London, 1791-7); ‘‘ History of Hin- 
dostan” (8 vols. 4to, 1795-9) ; ‘‘ Modern His- 
tory of India” (2 vols., 1802-’4); and his per- 
sonal ‘‘ Memoirs” (3 vols., 1819-22). 
MAURICE OF SAXONY. See Saxe. 
MAURICIUS, Flavius Tiberius, a Byzantine em- 
peror, born in Arabissus, Cappadocia, about 
5389, executed Noy. 27, 602. Descended from 
an ancient Roman family, he passed his youth 
in the camp and at the court of Justin I., and 
on the accession of Tiberius I]. in 578 was 
appointed to conduct the war against the Per- 
sians. In 580 and 581 he totally overthrew 
the Persians in two pitched battles, and re- 
turned to Constantinople in triumph. On the 
death of Tiberius, who proposed Mauricius for 
his successor, the latter ascended the throne 
amid universal rejoicing (582). The Persians 
immediately renewed the war, and twice de- 
feated the Byzantine commander-in-chief on 
their borders. Mauricius sent out his brother- 
in-law Philippicus, who gained a great victo- 
ry at Solacon in 586, but soon after suffered 


290 MAURITANIA 


a total defeat in Arzanene. Philippicus was 
deposed, but raised a mutiny, by which he 
regained the command only to give new proof 
of his incompetency; he was again deposed, 
and Heraclius retrieved the fortunes of the 
empire by repeated victories. The war which 
succeeded between the Turks and Persians gave 
relief to the Byzantine arms. The Persian 
king Chosroes II., being driven into exile, took 
refuge in the Byzantine territory, and wrote a 
letter to Mauricius imploring aid. The em- 
peror gave him a large sum of money, and sent 
a powerful army for the invasion of Persia. 
The Persian rebel Bahram was decisively de- 
feated at Balarath, Chosroes was restored to 
his throne (591), and from this time till the 
death of Mauricius there was peace between 
Persia and the empire. Hostilities, begun in 


587, had in the mean while been carried on 


against the Avars. After one defeat the bar- 
barians refrained from any incursion for five 
years. When they again threatened the em- 
pire, Mauricius intended to put himself at the 
head of the army; but it was already the By- 
zantine custom for the emperor not to com- 
mand in the field, and yielding to the remon- 
strances of the senate, he sent Priscus as a sub- 
stitute. He was unsuccessful, and was super- 
seded by the emperor’s brother Peter, and the 
latter soon after by Commentiolus, who suf- 
fered a disastrous defeat, in which 12,000 By- 
zantines were made prisoners by the Avars, and 
engaged in treacherous intrigues. The fortune 
of the war was restored in five successive battles 
by Priscus, who was again placed in command. 
In 602 he was ordered by Mauricius to pass 
to the northern side of the Danube into the 
Avar territory. The emperor had allowed 
the prisoners taken by the Avars to be put to 
death rather than ransom them, the reason 
probably being that they were the mutinous 
and dangerous soldiers of Commentiolus. The 
troops of Priscus now complained that they 
were destined to destruction like the 12,000 
prisoners, organized a rebellion, made Phocas 
commander-in-chief, and marched toward Con- 
stantinople; and while an insurrection arose 
in the city, Mauricius escaped with his family 
by sea, took. refuge in the church of St. Au- 
tonomus, near Chalcedon, and despatched his 
son to Chosroes to ask him in turn for aid in 
the recovery of his throne. The emissaries of 
Phocas, who had been proclaimed emperor, 
found him in the sanctuary, and dragged him 
thence to the scaffold. Five of his sons were 
executed with him, his eldest son Theodosius 
soon after, and the empress and three of her 
daughters were imprisoned and afterward put 
to death. He was distinguished for habits of 
self-control, affection, and piety. He strictly 
enforced beneficial laws, protected art and 
learning, and wrote a treatise on the military 
art, which still exists. ‘ 
MAURITANIA, or Mauretania, in ancient geog- 
raphy, the N. W. coast of Africa, including the 
modern Morocco and part of Algeria. It was 


MAURITIUS 


bounded N. by the Mediterranean, E. by the 
river Ampsaga, which separated it from Nu- 
midia, S. by the Atlas mountains, and W. by 
the Atlantic. Numerous rivers intersect this 
mountainous region and empty either into the 
Atlantic or the Mediterranean; among them, 
besides the Ampsaga, may be mentioned the 
ancient Sala, Subur, Lix, Mulucha, and China- 
laph. The Pheenicians at a remote age founded 
so many settlements here, that along the whole 
coast there was not a single town whose popu- 
lation was not of Canaanitish race. Herodo- 
tus does not mention the nations of this region. 
Later writers say that from the earliest times 
it was inhabited by Maurusii or Mauri (Moors), 
blacks, atribe probably of the same race as the 
Numidians; but their accounts of the origin or 
immigration of this people seem to be fabulous. 
The people have by recent research been con- 
nected with the Libyans of the Egyptian mon- 
uments. (See Lisyans.) They first became 
known to the Romans when the latter in their 
contests with the Carthaginians had carried the 
war into Africa. In the Jugurthine war Boc- 
chus, king of Mauritania, was conspicuous, and 
his sons Bogudes and Bocchus were confirmed 
as joint kings of the country by Julius Ceesar 
in49 B.C. In A. D. 42 the Romans divided the 
kingdom into two provinces separated from 
each other by the river Malua or Mulucha; 
the western province was called Mauritania 
Tingitana, and the eastern Mauritania Cesar- 
iensis. The Romans founded in these prov- 
inces 21 considerable colonies, and introduced 
into the population a large element of Italian 
origin. In 429 the Vandals, led by Genseric, 
conquered Mauritania; but in 534 it was recon- 
quered by Belisarius, and remained a province 
of the empire till it was overrun and subdued 
by the Mohammedan Arabs about the close 
of the 7thcentury. (See Moors, and Morocco.) 

MAURITIUS, or Isle of France, an island belong- 
ing to England, in the Indian ocean, between 
lat. 19° 58’ and 20° 81’ S. and lon. 57° 21’ and 
57° 51' E., about 500 m. E. of Madagascar, 120 
m. E. N. E. of Réunion, and 2,700 m. from 
the Cape of Good Hope; length N. and S. 39 
m., greatest breadth 27 m.; area, 676 sq. m. ; 
pop. in 1872, 326,454. The island is divided 
into nine districts. (See map.) Port Louis is 
the capital and the port through which all 
the foreign trade is carried on. The popula- 
tion is made up of various Asiatic, African, 
and European races, and of every conceivable 
admixture of them all. Among them are sey- 
eral thousand Hindoos, by whom the sugar es- 
tates are mostly worked. The English ele- 
ment is generally confined to the public func- 
tionaries and a few merchants, and has not 
penetrated the mass of the population. Eng- 
lish is little spoken.i—There are numerous 
capes and bays along the shore, and the island 
is encircled by coral reefs at various distances, 
but generally parallel to the land. In these 
reefs there are 11 passes, through most of 
which large vessels may enter and find good 


MAURITIUS 


anchorage within. The rivers are of little im- 
portance ; in the rainy season they are swollen 
into tor rents, while in the dry they are little 
more than brooks. There are several lakes, 
which are called either bassins or mares. The 
largest is the Grand Bassin in the moun- 
tains of Savane. The Mare aux Vakois, named 
from the vakoi or screw pine (pandanus uti- 
lis), which abounds in the district, and with 
which it is encircled, covers about two square 
miles in rainy weather. Many streams flow 
into it; itis in some places 25 fathoms deep, 
and is well stocked with crawfish, prawns, eels 
of enormous size, and a small red fish original- 
ly brought from China. Mauritius is exceed- 
ingly picturesque, having lofty ranges of hills, 
with bold and grand outlines. It is intersect- 
ed by three principal chains of mountains, with 
spurs radiating to the coast, which vary from 
1,800 to 2,800 ft. above the sea, and many of 


57/30” Goin de Mian 
“MAURITIUS lng 


12345 10 Miles 
DISTRICTS P. 
1 Port Louis 
2 Pamplemousses 
3 Riviere du Rempart 
4Plaines Wilhelms 
5 Moka 
6 fe 
Noire 
7 Savanne 
8Grand Port 


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P.des woes 
B.du Toms AS 
ad 
Ft.Ge 


be F 
“Pamyflemods Bae 
a me on 


<8 ane 


af ren Pr ee “gence 
a ceeees 
} a an 


wa juilia’ 12 ee 
“ r,s 


aos 


is ay 
eRe 2 . - re, is 
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4 age, , “Colette 
Tuk i Ghana ata Fifa 
~O Ras aS 


Sse A 
wii 


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WUE JY 


naan: es owing a 


them are of very singular form. The most re- 
markable is Pieter Booth or Peterbote, 2,874 ft. 
high, terminated by a spire of naked rock, on 
the top of which rests an immense mass of 
stone, larger than the point on which it is 
balanced. The highest peak is the Piton of 
the Riviére Noire, which is 2,902 ft. above the 
sea. Another, called Le Pouce from its re- 
semblance to the human thumb, is 2,707 ft. 
high. There are many curious caverns, of 
considerable extent, in some of the ranges. In 
the centre of the island, on an elevated pla- 
teau, there is a mountain of a sugar-loaf form 
called Piton du Milieu de l’fle. The land rises 
gradually from the shore to the interior, and 
the N. end is more elevated than the 8. The 
island presents numerous indications of vol- 
canic origin. The rocks rise in strata from 
the shore to the centre of the island, upon 
which there are many mountains composed of 


| 


291 


ferruginous rocks and grayish lava. Iron ore 
is very abundant, but the iron is of inferior 
quality.—The heat, which is greatest from No- 
vember to April, is tempered on the coasts by 
sea breezes, and in the interior by the elevation 
of the surface ; and the climate is so salubrious, - 
that Europeans whose health is impaired in 
India come here to restore it. The mean an- 
nual temperature at Port Louis is about 74° F 
and somewhat less on the opposite side of the 
island. The average annual fall of rain at Port 
Louis is 89°25 inches. The rainy season is 
from January to April, but showers are fre- 
quent at all times, particularly in the interior. 
Between December and May the island is sub- 
ject to hurricanes, for which its neighborhood 
is famous. In 1773 the church and about 300 
houses were destroyed at Port Louis by a hur- 
ricane; and on the opposite side of the island 
the sea rose 45 ft. In March, 1818, and Febru- 
ary, 1824, great hurricanes did immense damage 
to the plantations and shipping, and caused the 
loss of many lives. During a terrible cyclone 
on March 10-12, 1868, nearly 8,000 valuable 
buildings were destroyed, including some of 
stone and iron, and more than 20,000 huts of 
the laboring population; the number of per- 
sons killed was 89 ; and a vast amount of prop- 
erty of all kinds was destroyed. The mor- 
tality among the troops is very little greater 
than in Europe, and does not much exceed 8 
per cent. per annum. But of late years mala- 
rious fevers have prevailed, and in 1872 had 
become endemic and were likely to occur with 
more or less severity in every hot season. In 
1867 the number of deaths in the island was 
40,114, or 12 per cent. of the population; but 
no such terrible mortality has occurred in any 
other year. The number of deaths in 1868 
was 18,403, and it continued to decrease till 
1871, in which year and 1872 there was again 
a slight increase. In 1871 the mortality from 
fever was nearly 45 per cent. of that from all 
causes; and in 1872 it was 43 per cent.—The 
chief production is sugar; coffee is grown, and 
rice in small quantities; but the production of 
all articles of food is far inferior to the con- 
sumption. The vegetation in general resembles 
that of the Cape of Good Hope. Indigo, cot- 
ton, and spices have been successfully culti- 
vated. The native timber is of excellent qual- 
ity and considerable variety, including ebony 
(the finest in the world), oak, ironwood, and a 
kind of pine. The vacoua or screw pine (pan- 
danus utilis) is not only a very common wild 
plant, but is largely cultivated for the sake of 
its leaves, extensively used in the manufacture 
of the sacks in which the sugar is exported. 
Nearly every beautiful tree of the tropics flour- 
ishes here. The indigenous fruits are of little 
value, and are chiefly those of the ebony and 
palmiste; but guavas, 138 kinds of bananas, 
peaches, pineapples, mulberries, and straw- 
berries are raised on most of the plantations. 
The government botanic gardens at Pample- 
mousses, established by M. Poivre, the gover- 


292 


nor in 1768, are remarkable for their varied 
productions, and contain the richest and rarest 
plants of the East. With a view to improving 
the culture of the cane, an agricultural society 
was formed in 1853 by the principal planters. 
The surface of the ground being to a great ex- 
tent covered with stones, renders the use of the 
plough impracticable, and cultivation is chiefly 
carried on by the hoe. Guano is extensively 
used as a manure. Its power in increasing the 
product of the cane is at first almost incredi- 
ble, but in a few years it exhausts the land. 
Deer and wild hogs and goats are abundant in 
the mountains, and short-legged hares are nu- 
merous in the plains. Apes are to be found in 
the forests, and are frequently used as food by 
the negroes. The tenrec, a species of hedge- 
hog, is common, and with the moutouck, an 


insect which eats into the heart of trees, is’ 


delicate food in the dry season for the wood 
cutters of the Plaines Wilhelms. There are 
great numbers of rats, which are exceedingly 
destructive, and mice are common.. The birds 
of the island are not numerous, and are mostly 
of the smaller tribes, with partridges, wood 
pigeons, and doves, and in the marshy spots a 
kind of water hen. The only bird of prey is 
a species of hawk. Mauritius was once the 
home of the dodo and of a number of other 
birds of species now supposed to be extinct. 
Among these were the “ giant” (Leguatia 
gigantea), a kind of water hen, 6 ft. high, 
and a red bird of the rail family, with a bill 
like a snipe (aphanapteryx imperialis). The 
martin, introduced from Asia, has checked 
the increase of insects. There is still, how- 
ever, a considerable variety of beautiful insects 
on the island, among which are butterflies, 
moths, great numbers of grasshoppers, wasps, 
and wild bees. A most destructive insect, 
called the kakerlae (blatta Americana ferru- 
ginea), is one of the greatest pests of the isl- 
and, attacking every kind of substance, leath- 
er, binding of books, and provisions. Ants in- 
fest every place, and one kind occasions great 
damage to trees and wood work. There are 
no serpents, nor any venomous insects, except 
small species of scorpion and centipede. The 
fish on the coast are abundant and excellent ; 
and there is a great variety of crabs and mol- 
lusks. The lobster attains a prodigious size. 
The sea slug so highly esteemed in China is 
found within the reefs. Horses, mules, don- 
keys, horned cattle, sheep, and hogs are im- 
ported. In 1870 there were on the island 18,- 
394 horned cattle and 18,059 sheep.—Sugar was 
exported in 1863 to the amount of 296,512,877 
lbs., the largest quantity ever exported in any 
one year; in 1868, 221,760,000 lbs.; in 1869, 
239,680,000 Ibs.; in 1870, 228,480,000 lbs. ; in 
1871, 275,520,000 Ibs.; and in 1872, 284,480,- 
000 lbs. The average price per pound since 
1867 has been 24d. The total value of the ex- 
ports to Great Britain for the five years 1868- 
"72 was as follows: 1868, £1,055,419; 1869, 
£667,515 ; 1870, £871,387; 1871, £833,386 ; 


MAURITIUS 


1872, £1,539,565. The total value of the ex- 
ports to all countries in 1871 was, by official re- 
turns, £3,053,054, or including specie £3,120,- 
528; and in 1872, £3,177,301, or including 
specie £3,243,112; ‘‘but the true exports,” 
says the government administrator, ‘‘ undoubt- 
edly far exceeded the amount declared.” The 
value of the imports from Great Britain in the 
same period was as follows: 1868, £404,425; 
1869, £399,879; 1870, £499,975; 1871, £538,- 
909; 1872, £5,911,712. The total value of 
the imports from all countries in 1871 was 
£1,807,382, or including specie £2,044,386; 
and in 1872, £2,487,512, or including specie 
£2,677,974. The only home product of note- 
worthy amount exported, besides sugar, is rum. 
Mauritius is mostly dependent upon imported 
provisions and manufactures. In 1870, 574 
ships arrived, of which 322 were British, 39 
French, and 3 from the United States. In 
1872 the total tonnage of vessels entered and 
cleared was 543,452. The main roads of the 
island are good, being mostly macadamized 
and kept in order by the government. There 
are two lines of railway: the North line, from 
Port Louis to Grande Riviére S. E., and the 
Midland, from Port Louis to Mahébourg, each 
of which has short branch lines. The scenery 
upon the latter line is very fine. Telegraphs 
are established along the lines.—There are at 
Port Louis a convent with a large boarding 
school attached for young ladies, and a con- 
vent with a hospital attached under the charge 
of the sisters of charity. There is also a royal 
college, in connection with which a new ele- 
mentary school was opened in 1872; a branch 
school at Curepipe, and numerous other publio 
schools, are in a very flourishing condition. 
The total number of pupils on the rolls of the 
government schools in 1872 was 5,040; and 
the annual grant for schools voted by the legis- 
lature is about £5,000. The Roman Catholic 
is the prevailing religion, presided over by a 
bishop. There are 17 Catholic churches and 
32 chapels. The church of England is repre- 
sented by a bishop with the title ‘“‘ Lord Bishop 
of Mauritius and its Dependencies.” Both the 
Protestant and Catholic clergy are paid out of 
the colonial treasury. Mohammedanism is pro- 
fessed by some of the inhabitants, and a mosque 
is in course of building. Several newspapers 
are published at Port Louis, only one of which 
is in the English language.—The government of 
the island is vested in a governor aided by an 
executive council, and a legislative council con- 
sisting of seven official members and ten non- 
official members chosen from the chief landed 
proprietors of the island, and confirmed in their 
appointment by thecrown. There is a supreme 
court of civil and criminal justice, presided 
over by three judges; and a petty court for 
the trial of trivial crimes and offences. The 
revenue of the island, chiefly derived from 
customs and licenses, was for 1871 and 1872 
£468,851 and £528,689; and the expenditure, 
£445,111 and £464,149 respectively. The gross ~ 


MAURITIUS 


railway revenue for the same years was £103,- 
462 and £116,446, and the expenditure £73,- 
194 and £88,423. The estimated army ex- 
penditure for 1872—’3 was £55,300; about one 
half of this outlay is generally contributed by 
the insular government.—The granitic island of 
- Rodriguez; the Seychelles islands, 85 or 36 in 
number; the Carga dos Garayos or St. Brandon 
isles, 16 in number; the Perhos Banhos, 25 in 
number; the Amirantes, 17 in number; Die- 
go Garcia, and several smaller, are dependen- 
cies of Mauritius. Rodriguez is about 330 m. 
to the eastward, in lat. 19° 41’S. It is 26 m. 
long by 12 broad, and is composed of hills, with 
intervening valleys covered to a great extent 
with rocks and stones. There is an abundance 
of fish around the island, great quantities of 
which are salted and sent to Mauritius; and 
sperm whales abound in the vicinity. The isl- 
and of St. Brandon is noted for its scarlet co- 
ral (tubifora musica). The Seychelles are be- 
tween lat. 3° 80’ and 5° 45’ S. They were dis- 
covered but never occupied by the Portuguese. 
In 1742 the French took possession of them and 
named them [les de Labourdonnais, but the 
name was soon changed to Seychelles, after the 
vicomte Hérault de Seychelles. When Mauri- 
tius was taken possession of by the British, 
this group fell into their hands with it. The 
chief of the islands are Mahé, Praslin, Silhou- 
ette, La Digue, and Curieuse, and the area of 
the whole group is about 50,000 acres. More 
than half of this area is included in Mahé, 
which is 16 m. long and from 3 to 5 m. wide, 
with avery steep and rugged granite mountain 
running through the centre, of which the prin- 
cipal peak, Morne Blanc, is 2,000 ft. high. 
The vegetation of this island, as well as of 
many others of the group, is exceedingly lux- 
uriant; among the productions are cotton, 
sugar cane, tobacco, and various spices. The 
town of Port Victoria, formerly Mahé, is situ- 
ated on the N. E. coast; pop. estimated at 
about 7,000. These islands are a favorite re- 
sort for whaling vessels; all have abundance 
of excellent water. The most remarkable pro- 
duction is the coco de mer (Lodoicea Seychel- 
larum), so called because the nuts, weighing 
some 40 lbs. each, were found on the coast of 
Malabar long before the place of their growth 
was known. Tortoise shell is procured in con- 
siderable quantities. Storms are unknown; 
and notwithstanding their proximity to the 
equator, the climate is agreeable, the heat be- 
ing tempered by the sea breezes. Diego Garcia 
lies about 14° further E., and is a low coral isl- 
and, It abounds with turtle, and has a few 
residents from Mauritius. The Amirantes are 
a group of low coral islands about 100 m. 8. W. 
of the Seychelles. They supply vessels with 
water, cocoanuts, sheep, fish, and turtle.— 
Mauritius was discovered in 1505 by Pedro 
Mascarenhas, who called it Cerné. The Portu- 
guese held it till 1598, when a Dutch squadron 
took possession of it, the commander changing 
the name to Mauritius, in honor of Maurice 


MAURY 993 


of Nassau. The Dutch first settled here in 
1644, but they abandoned it in 1712 for the 
Cape of Good Hope; and it was taken in 1715 
by the French, who called it [le de France. 
The first regular settlement took place in 1721; 
and under Mahé de Labourdonnais, who in- 
troduced the cultivation of the sugar cane, in- 
digo, and manioc, and was appointed gover- 
nor in 1734, the colony became very prosper- 
ous. It was during his second administration 
that the ship St. Geran was wrecked, in which 
was lost the young lady whose story was the 
basis of Bernardin de Saint-Pierre’s tale of 
‘‘ Paul and Virginia.” During the wars of the 
revolution and empire, the French island owed 
most of its wealth to corsairs, the terror of 
British merchant vessels in the Indian seas. 
The British seized the island with its depen- 
dencies in 1810, and by the peace treaties of 
1814 and 1815 the English possession of the 
island was ratified. In 1835 slavery ceased to 
exist in Mauritius. The island was made a 
bishopric in December, 1854.—See Pike’s ‘‘Sub- 
tropical Rambles in the Land of the Aphanap- 
teryx” (New York, 1878). 

MAUROCORDATOS. See MavrocorparTos, 

MAURY, a central county of Tennessee, inter- 
sected by Duck river and drained by its tribu- 
taries area, 570 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 36,289, 
of whom 16,265 were colored. It has a diver- 
sified surface, and the soil is fertile. It is in- 
tersected by the Nashville and Montgomery 
line of the Louisville, Nashville, and Great 
Southern railroad, and the branch to Mount 
Pleasant. The chief productions in 1870 were 
200,684 bushels of wheat, 1,449,935 of Indian 
corn, 61,387 of oats, 28,570 of Irish and 24,962 
of sweet potatoes, 14,245 lbs. of tobacco, 35,- 
544 of wool, 167,372 of butter, 4,114 tons of 
hay, and 9,367 bales of cotton. There were 
8,464 horses, 5,346 mules and asses, 6,735 cows, 
11,093 other cattle, 21,330 sheep, and 53,124 
swine; 8 flour mills, 1 cotton mill, 16 saw mills, 
14 tanneries, and 6 wool-carding and cloth- 
dressing establishments. Capital, Columbia. 

MAURY, Jean Siffrein, a French cardinal, born 
at Valréas, Venaissin, June 26, 1746, died May 
11, 1817. He was the son of a shoemaker, and 
was educated for the priesthood at Avignon. 
At the age of 20 he went to Paris as abbé pré- 
cepteur, but devoted himself to preaching, ob- 
tained an accessit from the academy for an éloge 
on Fénelon in 1770, and by his panegyrics on 
St. Louis in 1772 and St. Augustine in 1775 
placed himself at the head of the French pulpit 
orators of the time. He was appointed preach- 
er to the court, pleased both believers and phi- 
losophers, and through the influence of the 
former obtained the abbey of Frénade and the 
priory of Lihons, and through that of the lat- 
ter a seat in the academy. In 1785 he pro- 
nounced his masterpiece of religious eloquence, 
a panegyric on St. Vincent de Paul. At the 
convocation of the states general he was chosen 
to it as a deputy of the clergy, immediately 
took a leading part in the debates as a defender 


294 


of the church, aristocracy, and royalty, and was 
the most daring and powerful antagonist of 
Mirabeau. Until the flight of Louis XVI. he 
opposed the revolutionary measures with pre- 
eminent skill and at constant peril. Attheclose 
of the constituent assembly he left France, and 
was received with a triumph at Rome, where he 
took up his residence. He was made succes- 
sively archbishop of Nicea in partibus, nuncio 
to the diet at Frankfort for the election of em- 
peror, cardinal, and bishop of Montefiascone 
and Corneto. On the invasion by the French 
in 1798 he escaped in disguise to Venice, and 
passed thence to St. Petersburg. Returning in 
1799, he was appointed by the count of Pro- 
vence (afterward Louis X VIII.) his ambassador 
to the holy see, but became reconciled to Na- 
poleon, and returned to France in 1806. He 
was declared a French cardinal, was consulted 
in ecclesiastical affairs, and elected a member of 
the institute, but lost the esteem of his former 
friends. In 1810 he was appointed archbishop 
of Paris, and his florid episcopal charges were 
subjects of ridicule, and showed no signs of his 
former energy. When the pope was taken to 
Savona as a captive of Napoleon, he ordered 
Cardinal Maury to relinquish the administra- 
tion of his diocese. He disobeyed, and after 
the restoration was imprisoned at Rome. His 
Essai sur Véloquence de la chaire (2 vols., 1810) 
is still esteemed.—See Poujoulat, Le cardinal 
Maury, sa vie et ses wuvres (Paris, 1855). 
MAURY, Louis Ferdinand Alfred, a French au- 
thor, born in Meaux, March 28,1817. In 1836 
he became attached to the royal library, which 
he quitted in 1838. His bibliographical knowl- 
edge caused him to be recalled in 1840, and in 
1844 he was elected sub-librarian to the insti- 
tute. In this office he rendered important ser- 
vices, and in 1857 he was elected a member of 
the academy of inscriptions and _ belles-lettres. 
In 1860 he was appointed librarian of the Tui- 
leries, in 1862 professor of history and moral 
philosophy in the collége de France, and in 
1868 director general of the archives. His 
principal publications are: ssai sur les lé- 
gendes pieuses du moyen age (Paris, 1848); Les 
Jées du moyen dge (1855); Histoire des grandes 
Soréts dela France (1856); La terre et Vhomme 
(1856), a summary of recent geographical, eth- 
nological, and philological researches; Histoire 
des religions de la Gréce antique (8 vols., 
1857-60); and Musée d’archives, an account 
of a collection from the Merovingian period 
till the first French revolution, with 1,200 fac- 
simile autographs by Charles Bethmont. 
MAURY, Matthew Fontaine, an American hy- 
drographer, born in Spottsylvania co., Va., 
Jan. 14, 1806, died in Lexington, Va., Feb. 1, 
1873. His parents removed while he was still 
young to Tennessee. In 1825 he entered the 
naval service as midshipman, and was appointed 
to the Brandywine, then fitting out to convey 
Lafayette to France. He returned with this 
vessel in 1826, and made a voyage in her to the 
Pacific, where he was transferred to the sloop 


MAURY 


of war Vincennes, in which he circumnavigated 
the globe. During this cruise, and while yet 
a passed midshipman, he began -his ‘‘ Treatise 
on Navigation,” which passed through several 
editions, and was used as a text book in the 
navy. In 1836 he was promoted to a lieuten- 
ancy, and received the appointment of astrono- 
mer to the South sea exploring expedition, but 
resigned it. In 1839 he met with an accident 
which resulted in permanent lameness and un- 
fitted him for service afloat. He was now 
placed in charge of the depot of charts and in- 
struments at Washington, afterward known as 
the hydrographical office; and upon the organ- 
ization and union with it of the national ob- 
servatory in 1844, he was made superintendent 
of. the combined institutions. Before this he 
had begun a series of investigations in what 
Humboldt. has called the ‘physical geography 
of the sea,” and had gathered many observa- 
tions of the ocean winds and currents from the 
records of naval and merchant vessels. In 
some cases special cruises were made to supply 
data, until material was collected for a syste- 
matic study of the actual course of winds and 
currents. In 1844 he made known his conclu- 
sions respecting the Gulf stream, ocean cur- 
rents, and great-circle sailing, in a paper read 
before the national institute, and printed under 
the title of ‘“‘ A Scheme for Rebuilding Southern 
Commerce.” With the accumulation of mate- 
rial the need was felt of systematizing the obser- 
vations and records themselves, particularly as 
ships of different nations used different methods 
of observation and registry. Lieut. Maury ac- 
cordingly entered into a project for assembling 
a general maritime conference, which at the 
suggestion of the United States government 
met in Brussels in 1853, and recommended a 
form of abstract log to be kept on board ships 
of war and merchant vessels. The principal 
results of Maury’s researches are embodied in 
the ‘‘ Physical Geography of the Sea” (New 
York, 1856, several times revised and greatly 
enlarged; last ed., ‘‘ Physical Geography of the 
Sea and its Meteorology,” 1873). In 1855 Lieut. 
Maury was promoted to the rank of commander. 
On the outbreak of the civil war he resigned 
and was made a commodore in the confederate 
navy, and subsequently professor of physics in 
the Virginia military institute. Hewasamem- 
ber of many of the principal scientific associa- 
tions of America and Europe, and received 
valuable testimonials from several foreign goy- 
ernments. Besides the works already men- ~ 
tioned, he published ‘‘ Letters on the Amazon 
and the Atlantic Slopes of South America;” 
‘“‘ Relation between Magnetism and the Circula- 
tion of the Atmosphere,” in the appendix to 
‘“Washington Astronomical Observations for 
1846” (1851); ‘‘ Astronomical Observations” 
(1853); ‘Letters concerning Lanes for the 
Steamers crossing the Atlantic” (1854); ‘‘ Man- 
ual of Geography: a Complete Treatise on 
Mathematical, Civil, and Physical Geography” 
(1871); and smaller works on geography. 


er 


MAUSOLEUM 


MAUSOLEUM. See Haxrioarnassvs. 

MAUVE (Fr., purple mallow), a dyeing ma- 
terial obtained by the oxidation of aniline, a 
product of coal tar. It was first extracted by 
Mr. Perkin of England, who gave it this name. 
It is prepared by dissolving equivalent propor- 
tions of sulphate of aniline and bichromate of 
potash in water, mixing, and allowing them to 
stand some hours. <A black precipitate, ob- 
tained on filtering, is washed, dried, and di- 
gested in coal-tar naphtha to extract a brown 
resinous substance. The coloring matter is 
then extracted by digestion in alcohol, and is 
obtained on distilling off the spirit in a coppery 
friable mass; or it may be kept liquid in alco- 
hol. The colors it gives are a variety of shades 
of purple, the blue predominating in some, and 
red in others. (See Anitine, and Dyerrna.) 

MAVERICK, a S. W. county of Texas, sepa- 
rated from Mexico by the Rio Grande, and 
intersected by San Ambrosio river; area, 900 
Sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 1,951, of whom 281 were 
colored. Only a small portion of the land is 
fit for cultivation. The chief productions in 
1870 were 8,315 bushels of Indian corn and 
24,060 lbs. of wool. There were 294 horses, 
797 milch cows, 28,863 other cattle, and 17,932 
sheep. Capital, Eagle Pass. 

MAVROCORDATOS, Alexander, a Greek states- 
man, born in Constantinople in February, 1791, 
died in Aigina, Aug. 18, 1865. He made him- 
self an accomplished linguist, and in 1817 was 
secretary of his uncle Caradja, hospodar of 
Wallachia. Subsequently he resided for some 
time in Switzerland and Italy. In 1821, on 
the outbreak of the Greek revolution, he sailed 
with a number of French and Italian volun- 
teers to the Peloponnesus, and was sent to or- 
ganize the insurrection in tolia and Acar- 
mania. At the close of the year he was elected 
president of the national assembly at Epidau- 
rus, which framed the provisional constitution 
and promulgated the declaration of indepen- 
dence (January, 1822). He was made soon after 
proedros or president of the executive com- 
mittee. In the following years, as command- 
er-in-chief, he distinguished himself in the 
defence of Missolonghi, Navarino, and Sphac- 
teria. A supporter of liberal tendencies, he 
violently opposed the Russian leanings of both 
John and Augustine Capo d’Istria. In 1833-4 
he was in the cabinet of King Otho, and after- 
ward was ambassador at Munich, Berlin, and 
London, whence he was recalled in July, 1841, 
to take the presidency of the ministry. In 
1843 he was a special ambassador to the Porte, 
and for a short time in 1844 was again at the 
head of the ministry. In 1850-54 he was 
ambassador at Paris, and on his return was 
once more placed at the head of the cabinet, 
from which in 1856 he resigned and retired 
to private life. 

MAWMOISINE. See Matvotstne. 

MAXCY, Jonathan, an American clergyman, 
born in Attleborough, Mass., Sept. 2, 1768, died 
in Columbia, S. C., June 4, 1820. He gradu- 


MAXIMILIAN I. 295 


ated at Brown university in 1787, and in Sep- 
tember, 1791, was instituted pastor of the first 
Baptist church of Providence, and at the same 
time elected professor of divinity in Brown 
university. In the succeeding September, al- 
though but 24 years of age, he became its 
president. In 1802 he was elected president 
of Union college, N. Y., and in 1804 of the 
South Carolina college. This latter station he 
occupied until his death. His “Literary Re- 
mains, with a Memoir,” was published by the 
Rev. Romeo Elton (New York, 1844). 
MAXENTIUS. See Constantine I., the Great. 
MAXIMIANUS I. See Droctertan. 
MAXIMIANUS II. See Gatenrtvs. 
MAXIMILIAN I., emperor of Germany, born 
in Neustadt, near Vienna, March 22, 1459, 
died at Wels, Jan. 12, 1519. He was the son 
of the emperor Frederick III., of the house of 
Hapsburg, and of Eleanor, a princess of Por- 
tugal. He learned to speak several languages, 
acquired various branches of knowledge, and, 
spending his youth in the wars of his father 
with Podiebrad of Bohemia, Matthias Corvinus 
of Hungary, and others, became an excellent 
horseman, tilter, and hunter, gallant, chivalric, 
and adventurous. His father, faithful to the 
maxim of his house to conquer by marriages, 
sought for him the hand of Mary, daughter 
and heiress apparent of Charles the Bold of 
Burgundy, promising a royal crown to the 
duke. The parties and their parents met at 
Treves in 1478; but the mutual distrust of the 
latter broke off the negotiations. After the 
death of Charles (1477) his widow Margaret 
rejected the offers of Louis XJ. of France in 
behalf of his infant son Charles (afterward 
VIII.), and soon afterward the rich and beauti- 
ful heiress became the wife of Maximilian, and 
in a few years the mother of two children, 
Philip and Margaret. But her husband neither 
saved all her possessions from the rapacity of 
Louis XI., nor obtained the ready allegiance 
of the rich cities of the Netherlands, when on 
her sudden death by a fall from her horse in 
1482, he claimed the regency for his son Philip. 
Louis was active in instigating and promoting 
revolts in those provinces, and Maximilian 
suffered still greater injury from France when, 
after his election and coronation as king of 
the Romans (1486), having married by proxy 
another rich heiress, Anne of Brittany, and 
promised his own daughter Margaret to Charles 
VIII., Anne de Beaujeu, the regent for the 
latter, suddenly broke off both engagements, 
bringing Brittany with Anne into the hands 
of Charles, and sending back Margaret to her 
father. The war which ensued was of short 
duration. Maximilian now married Bianca 
Sforza, daughter of the murdered duke*of Mi- 
lan, Galeazzo Maria, receiving 300,000 ducats 
from her uncle and guardian, the bloody Lu- 
dovico Moro, on whom he bestowed Milan, the 
heritage of the brother of his bride. The 
wife of the lawful heir, however, a Neapolitan 
princess, sought for aid from her native coun- 


296 


try, and the usurper Moro thereupon prevailed 
on the king of France to renew the old claims 
of the house of Anjou to Naples, and to enter 
on an Italian campaign. This led to those long 
Italian wars, in which during Maximilian’s life- 
time Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I. 
of France, Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, 
the popes Alexander VI. and Julius II., the 
empire, Switzerland, the republic of Venice, 
and Naples were principally engaged. Cam- 
paigns, treaties of peace, alliances, and treach- 
erous desertions of allies followed in rapid 
succession; but the details belong to the his- 
tory of the more important actors. Maximil- 
ian, who in 1493 had succeeded his father as 
emperor, played in the whole a secondary part, 
so far inadequate to his schemes were the sup- 
plies which he was able to extort from the 
unwilling states. 
of becoming pope after the death of Julius II. 
Instead of aiding their emperor, the states of 
Germany were always ready to complain, and 
the empire itself was not a little distracted by 
feuds, in spite of the eternal peace decreed by 
the diet of Worms in 1495, of the new: Reichs- 
kammergericht, and the exertions of the Swa- 
bian league for the maintenance of order. 
Switzerland, which was to be reconquered, 
now entirely detached itself from the Germanic 
body, whose head saw himself often deserted 
by his allies, sometimes by his own troops, and 
frequently penniless. The troubles of the ref- 
ormation broke out shortly before his death. 
In the mean time he had not neglected to con- 
tinue the safer and peaceful conquests of his 
house. Philip and Margaret, his only two 
children by Mary of Burgundy, married Juana 
and Juan, the children of Ferdinand of Aragon 
and Isabella of Castile; Philip succeeded to the 
throne of Castile in 1504, and died in 1506; 
and his son Charles, on the death of Ferdinand 
in 1516, inherited the whole of Spain. This 
young prince also became the successor of 
Maximilian as emperor of Germany, under the 
name of Charles V., his younger brother Fer- 
dinand receiving the German possessions of 
Austria, and subsequently, in consequence of 
other marriage connections, also ascending the 
thrones of Hungary and Bohemia. Having 
also succeeded Charles V. in the empire, Ferdi- 
nand |. left all his thrones to his good-natured 
but feeble son Maximilian IT. (1564~'76). Max- 
imilian I. left several treatises on military 
science, gardening, the chase, and other sub- 
jects, and a poetical work on his own life. 
MAXIMILIAN (FerpiInanp Maximiian Jo- 
sEPH), archduke of Austria and emperor of 
Mexico, born in Vienna, July 6, 1832, shot in 
Querétaro, Mexico, June 19,1867. He was the 
second son of the archduke Francis Charles and 
of the archduchess Sophia, and a brother of 
the present emperor Francis Joseph. He en- 
tered the naval service, and in 1854 became 
rear admiral and chief of the navy, and in 1857 
governor of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom. 
In the same year he married in Brussels (July 


One of these plans was that: 


MAXIMILIAN 


27) the princess Charlotte, daughter of Leo- 
pold I. and sister of the present king of the 
Belgians. On the outbreak of the war of 
1859 he retired to Venice, and subsequently to 
his beautiful chateau of Miramar near Trieste. 
Here, with the exception of a voyage of sci- 
entific exploration to Brazil, he resided until 
his departure, April 14, 1864, for Mexico, hav- 
ing accepted, at the instance of Napoleon III., 
the crown of Mexico, under the name of Max- 
imilian I., with the consent of the emperor 
of Austria and of that portion of the people 
of Mexico whose sanction could be secured 
through French influence. He had waived 
his claim of succession to the throne of Aus- 
tria in the event of his brother’s death, and 
made farewell visits at the French, Belgian, 
and English courts; and in Rome he received 
the pope’s blessing. He landed with his wife 
at Vera Cruz, May 28, 1864. An auxiliary 
corps was organized in Austria and Belgium, 
and a loan was raised in France for the benefit 
of the new Mexican empire, which was in- 
tended by Napoleon to consolidate the power 
of the Latin race in the new world. One of 
the first measures of Maximilian, who was 
childless, was to adopt a son of the emperor 
Iturbide as his presumptive successor on the 
throne. He established committees for the 
regulation of public affairs, promulgated an 
amnesty, and manifested excellent intentions 
for the faithful administration of the govern- 
ment; but he soon lost the support of the 
clergy, who were grievously disappointed by 
his failure to restore their sequestered estates, 
and who had been almost his only zealous par- 
tisans. Almost from the beginning he found 
himself confronted by formidable difficulties, 
which increased in proportion to the deter- 
mined resistance of President Juarez and of 
the masses of Mexicans to the French invasion 
and to his usurpation of the throne, a resist- 
ance encouraged by the dissatisfaction of the 
United States with European encroachments 
upon the American continent. In 1865, after 
the close of the civil war in the United States, 
the attitude of the latter government became 
more determined; and public opinion in France, 
and the increasing complications of Napoleon 
at home and abroad, admonished the latter to 
abandon the scheme, The empress Charlotte 
in vain attempted in 1866, in interviews with 
Napoleon in Paris and with the pope in Rome, 
to change the current of events. While in 
Rome her mind gave way under the pressure 
of anxiety, and she has ever since lingered at 
the chateau of Laeken hopelessly insane. Na- 
poleon, having formally undertaken to with- 
draw his troops, despatched Gen. Castelnau 
to the city of Mexico to reconcile Maximilian 
to the necessity of abdicating; but the latter 
would not entertain such an idea, and went to 
Orizaba to avoid meeting the French envoy. 
Here in November he assembled his ministers, 
who were nearly all opposed to his abdication, 
and on Dec. 5 he called a national congress, 


MAXIMILIAN JOSEPH 


by whose decision he promised to abide. But 
no such assembly could be brought together, 
owing to the opposition of the great majority 
of republicans; and the meeting of Jan. 14, 
1867, consisted of only 35 notables, all but 10 
of whom were opposed to the abdication. But 
no practical result could have been achieved 
under any circumstances, as the authority of 
Juarez was fully restored excepting in the 
cities of Mexico, Puebla, Vera Cruz, and Que- 
rétaro. Besides, Maximilian’s exchequer was 
empty, and the withdrawal of the French un- 
der Bazaine included even those who had en- 
listed in his army. Yet, instead of remaining 
in the capital, to which he had returned, and 
where there were more adequate means of re- 
sistance than anywhere else, he decided on re- 
moving to Querétaro with a single corps (Feb. 
13), and offering battle to his adversaries, who 
speedily besieged that place. He made several 
gallant but unavailing sorties, and he and his 
soldiers were reduced to the last extremities by 
the exhaustion of provisions, when he decided 
to escape through the enemy’s line (May 15). 
But Gen. Escobedo, having gained access to the 
city in the preceding night through the treach- 
ery of Col. Lopez, arrested Maximilian and 
Gens. Miramon and Mejia. After a fruitless 
effort to procure the intervention of the United 
States in his behalf, he was sentenced to death 
by court martial, June 13, and shot six days 
afterward, together with the two generals. 
The emperor of Austria sent Vice Admiral 
Tegetthoff to Mexico to convey his remains to 
Vienna, where they were interred in the im- 
perial vault, Jan. 18, 1868.—His writings have 
been published under the title Aus meinem 
Leben, Reiseskizzen, Aphorismen, &c. (7 vols., 
Leipsic, 1867). See also Eugéne de Keératry, 
LD Empereur Maximilien, son élévation et sa 
chute (Paris, 1867); Hellwald, Maximilian J., 
Kaiser von Mexico, nebst Abriss der Geschichte 
des Kaiserreichs (Vienna, 1869); and Kendall, 
‘* Mexico under Maximilian ” (London, 1872). 

MAXIMILIAN JOSEPH, ‘‘duke in Bavaria,” a 
German author, born in Bamberg, Dee. 4, 1808. 
He is the only son of Pius Augustus, duke in 
Bavaria, married in 1828 the princess Louisa, 
a daughter of King Maximilian I., and was ap- 
pointed to a high rank in the army. He de- 
scribed his journey to the East in 1838 in his 
Wanderung nach dem Orient (Munich, 1839). 
His other works, published under the nom 
de plume of Phantasus, include Novellen (2 
vols., 1831); Skizzenbuch (1834); the novels 
Jakobina (1835) and Der Stiefbruder (1838) ; 
and Sammlung oberbaierischer Volkslieder und 
Singweisen (1846). He has three sons and 
five daughters, one of whom, Elizabeth, be- 
came in 1854 the wife of the emperor Francis 
Joseph of Austria. 

MAXIMIN (Carus Jutius Verus Maxrminvs), 
a Roman emperor, born in Thrace in the latter 
part of the 2d century, killed before Aquileia in 
238. He was the son of a Goth by an Alan wo- 
man, and was brought up asashepherd. During 


MAXWELL 297 


the passage of the emperor Septimius Severus 
through Thrace, on his return from the East, 
he attracted the attention of that monarch by 
marvellous feats of strength and agility, as well 
as by his gigantic stature, being more than 8 
ft. high, and eventually able to wear the brace- 
let of his wife as a ring on his finger. Admitted 
to the army, though a barbarian, he rose from 
rank to rank, gained the admiration of his 
fellow soldiers by valor equalling his strength, 
and after several reigns succeeded in supplant- 
ing the virtuous Alexander Severus, on whose 
assassination by the soldiers in Gaul he was 
proclaimed emperor (235). He appointed his 
son Maximus to the dignity of Cesar. Though 
successful in his almost continual wars against 
the Germans, the imperial barbarian, who is 
said to have eaten 40 pounds of meat and 
drunk an amphora of wine a day, was tor- 
mented by a sense of insecurity, and in order 
to preserve his. power perpetrated cruelties 
which surpassed those of his previous masters, 
Caracalla and Elagabalus. He spared none 
whom birth or merit. exposed to suspicion. 
For alleged conspiracy, Magnus, a senator, was 
put to death, with 4,000 other persons, Sim- 
ple death was regarded asafavor. His rapaci- 
ty was no less disastrous than his cruelty, and 
he finally sunk under the general indignation 
of the provinces aroused by a wholesale con- 
fiscation of municipal property for the use of 
the imperial treasury. The insurrection broke 
out in Africa, where the two Gordians were 
proclaimed emperors. These perishing soon 
after, the senate proclaimed Maximus and Bal- 
binus their successors. Maximin, who had his 
winter quarters on the lower Danube, has- 
tened to Italy, crossed the Alps, and besieged 
Aquileia, but was soon murdered, together 
with his son, by his own soldiers. 

MAXWELL, James Clerk, an English physicist, 
born in Edinburgh in 1881. He was educated 
at the academy and university of Edinburgh 
and Trinity college, Cambridge, graduating at 
the last institution in 1854. In 1856 he was 
appointed professor of natural philosophy in 
Marischal college, Aberdeen, and in 1860 in 
King’s college, London, where he remained 
till 1865. In 1871 he became professor of ex- 
perimental physics in the university of Cam- 
bridge. He has published ‘‘ Essay on the Sta- 
bility of the Motion of Saturn’s Rings” (Lon- 
don, 1859), “Theory of Heat” (12mo, 1871), 
and ‘‘ Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism” 
(2 vols. 8vo, 1873). The last named work 
possesses much interest beyond its mere value 
as a scientific treatise, being a translation into 
mathematical form of Faraday’s ‘“‘ Experimen- 
tal Researches in Electricity.” Mr. Maxwell 
with many others regards Faraday’s as a pro- 
found mathematical mind, although not famil- 
iar with technical mathematical language, and 
believes that many methods of research em- 
ployed by mathematicians could be better ex- 
pressed ‘‘in terms of ideas derived from Fara- 
day than in their original form.” 


298 MAY 

MAY (Lat. Maius), the fifth month in the 
Gregorian calendar, consisting of 381 days. 
Among the Romans it was sacred to Apollo, 
and almost every day was a festival. On the 
9th, 11th, and 13th days was celebrated the 
festival of the Jemuria in memory of the dead, 
and consequently it was believed that marriages 
contracted in this month would result fatally. 
There is also a French proverb: Noces de 
Mai, noces de mort. From the ancient F'lora- 
lia, or festival in honor of Flora, celebrated 
from April 28 to May 2, is perhaps derived 
the medieval and modern custom of observing 
May 1 (Mayday) with festive and floral rites. 
The druids also were accustomed to light large 
fires upon the summits of hills on the eve 
of May. Polydore Vergil says it was usual 
to adorn not only houses and gates, but also 
churches, with boughs and flowers. Hall men- 
tions in his “Chronicle” that Henry VIII. 
rode a-Maying with Queen Catharine and 
many lords and ladies from Greenwich to the 
high ground of Shooter’s hill. 

MAY, Caroline, an American authoress, born 
in England. She is the daughter of the Rev, 
Edward Harrison May, for many years pastor 
of one of the Dutch Reformed churches of 
New York. She has edited “ American Fe- 
male Poets” (1848), with numerous biograph- 
ical and critical notes; ‘‘Treasured Thoughts 
from Favorite Authors” (12mo, 1851); ‘‘ The 
Woodbine” (1852), an annual; and has pub- 
lished ‘‘ Poems” (1864), and ‘‘ Hymns on the 
Collects” (1872). Miss May is also a painter 
and musician. She resides at Pelham, West- 
chester co., N. Y., on the grounds of Miss 
Bolton’s ‘‘ Priory.”—Her brother, Epwarp H. 
May, is a painter of some celebrity in Paris. 

MAY, Samuel Joseph, an American clergyman, 
born in Boston, Sept. 12, 1797, died in Syracuse, 
N. Y., July 1,1871. He graduated at Harvard 
college in 1817, studied divinity at Cambridge, 
and in 1822 settled as a Unitarian minister at 
Brooklyn, Conn. He was a member of the 
convention which organized the national anti- 
slavery society in 1833, and signed the ‘‘ Decla- 
ration of Sentiments.” In 1835 he became 
general agent of the Massachusetts anti-slavery 
society, in which capacity he travelled and lec- 
tured extensively. In 1836 he became pastor 
of the Unitarian society in South Scituate, 
Mass., and from 1842 to 1844 was principal of 
the girls’ normal school at Lexington, Mass. 
In 1845 he accepted the pastorate of the Uni- 
tarian society in Syracuse, N. Y., which he 
retained until three years before his death. 
He was always active in the cause of popular 
education, as well as in the promotion of char- 
ity. For his advocacy of emancipation his life 
was frequently in danger, and in January, 1861, 
he was mobbed and burned in effigy in Syra- 
cuse for attempting to hold an abolition con- 
vention. He published ‘‘ Recollections of the 
Anti-Slavery Conflict’ (Boston, 1868), and sev- 
eral addresses and essays.—See ‘‘ Memoir of 
Samuel Joseph May ” (Boston, 1873). 


MAYAS 


MAY, Sir Thomas Erskine, an English author, 
born in 1815. In 18381 he was appointed as- 
sistant librarian of the house of coramons, and 
was gradually promoted until in 1871 he be- 
came clerk of the house. He was knighted in 
1866. In 1844 he published a ‘‘ Treatise on 
the Laws, Privileges, Proceedings, and Usage 
of Parliament,” which is the acknowledged 
parliamentary text book, and has been often 
reprinted and translated into foreign languages. 
He has also published several other works on 
the practice and mode of procedure in the 
house of commons. In 1854 he collected and 
reduced to writing, for the first time, the 
‘“Rules, Orders, and Forms of Proceeding of 
the House of Commons,” which were adopt- 
ed. and ordered to be printed by the house. 
In 1861-3 he published ‘The Constitutional 
History of England since the Accession of 
George -III., 1760-1860” (a continuation of 
Hallam’s work on that subject), which was 
reprinted in the United States and transla- 
ted into French and German, and of which a 
third edition with a supplementary chapter 
appeared in 1871. He has also published the 
“* History of Democracy in Europe.” 

MAYAS, the race of Indians inhabiting Yuca- 
tan and some adjoining districts. By some 
ethnologists they are regarded as a distinct 
race, though the precise period of their arrival 
on the peninsula is unknown; by others as 
descended from the Toltecs, according to which 
theory the first immigration must have taken 
place between 1052 and 1200; and others still - 
imagine them to be the resultant of two races, 
one from the islands of Hayti, Cuba, &c., and 
the other from the west (Toltecs?), under the 
guidance of Zamna, a priest, who named the 
different parts of the coast and the interior, 
and was the first to train the people in the 
arts of civilization. The last theory appears 
the most plausible, inasmuch as nearly all 
writers agree in crediting the Toltecs with the 
introduction of civilization into the peninsula. 
As to their rulers, Landa is of opinion that 
three brothers came from the west to Chichen 
Itza and ruled there; that after the death or 
departure of one, the two others became ty- 
rannical and were slain; and that Cuculan 
(the Mexican Quetzalcoatl) reéstablished order, 
founded Mayapan (a name afterward extended 
to the whole peninsula), and left the lordship 
to the house of the Cocomes, about the 10th 
century. From the south (Chiapas) came large 
tribes, the Tutuxiu (also Toltecs), who aided 
the natives to overthrow the Cocom dynasty 
and massacre the monarch of Mayapan, proba- 
bly in the first half of the 15th century. The 
kingdom was then divided into upward of 40 
petty seigniories, all tributary and submissive 
to the batabe or cacique of Mani. Large num- 
bers migrated to the adjoining district of Peten, 
where they are known under the name of 
Itzaes. Landa, and since him Stephens, Squier, 
and many others, rank the Mayas among the 
most civilized of American nations, with an 


MAYAS 


alphabet and a literature, cultivating the soil, 
manufacturing, having sailing vessels, carrying 
on trade, using a medium of exchange, and 
erecting temples and other edifices of stone, 
which, from their size and profuse ornamenta- 
tion in carved and colored figures and bassi 
rilievi, are, even in their ruined state (at Pa- 
lenque, Uxmal, Chichen Itza, &c.), the most 
remarkable architectural relics in the western 
hemisphere. Orozco y Berra, Morelet, and oth- 
er travellers and archeologists, contend that the 
Toltecs alone could have been the builders of 
these edifices and cities; and Morelet strongly 
maintains this theory, which he bases upon the 
‘indisputable analogy existing between these 


225606 


Maya Alphabet. 


ruins and the ancient monuments of Tula and 
Mitla, and the geographical position of the 
former, which spread over the line of Toltec 
emigration.” Be this as it may, it is certain 
that the Maya language bears no relation to 
the Toltec, but is the principal branch of the 
Huaxteco-Maya-Quiché family. Possibly the 
language of the immigrants from the West 
Indies prevailed to the exclusion of the Toltec, 
as the Maya has successfully resisted the influ- 
ence of the Spanish tongue since the conquest. 
The Maya writing was of two kinds, one repre- 
senting the letters of the alphabet, which lacks 


MAYENNE 299 
the Spanish d, 7, g, g, 7, and », the other ex- 
pressing syllables by characters, Landa gives the 
first alphabet, some samples of the second, and 
the signs of the months, with their system of 
numerals, with the help of which scholars have 
been enabled to decipher some of the ancient 
Maya manuscripts still preserved in Europe, as 
the Troano, Dresden manuscript, &c. They are 
written on long strips of prepared inner bark, 
folded in book form, the lines reading from 
right to left or from bottom to top. The Maya 
abounds in monosyllables, elisions, and syn- 
copes; different meanings are given to the same 
word by tones. The plural is generally formed 
by adding 0b, comparison by il. ‘The first 
grammars were drawn up by Villalpando and 
Landa; an Arte del idioma Maya, by Gabriel 
de San Buenaventura, was printed at Mexico 
in 1560, and others followed. That of Pedro 
Beltran de Santa Rosa Maria (Mexico, 1746) 
contained the first dictionary. In recent times 
many works upon the Maya have been issued 
by the abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, including 
Gramitica de la lengua Quiche, drawn chiefly 
from the Tesoro de las lenguas Quiche, Cakchi- 
quel y Tzutuhil of Francisco Ximenez (Paris, 
1862), and Dictionnaire, grammaire et chres- 
tomathie de la langue Maya, précédés d'une 
étude sur le systéme graphique des indigénes 
du Yucutan (Mexique) (Paris, 1872). His the- 
ories are not as readily accepted as the histor- 
ical material he presents. A Maya dictionary 
by Dr. Behrend is now in press (1875).—The 
Mayas flattened the head of their infants, paint- 
ed the face and body, and tattooed their persons; 
the women filed their teeth, and wore pieces 
of amber in the cartilage of the nose; both 
sexes wore ear rings. They bathed frequent- 
ly for religious purposes, and always washed 
their hands and mouth after eating; but they 
used a drink like mead, rendered intoxicating 
by the infusion of a root, and both sexes drank 
to excess. They had drums and wind instru- 
ments, and though some of their dances were 
obscene, the women were chaste and modest. 
As money they used shells, pieces of copper, or 
cacao beans. Their religion, as administered 
by the cheles or priests, was a terrible system, 
the victims being slain with arrows, or cut open 
and flayed after the heart was extracted. Oth- 
ers were thrown down the sacred pit of Chi- 
chen Itza. In war they used arrows tipped with 
obsidian or teeth of fish, flint-headed spears, 
and copper hatchets. They had bucklers and 
defensive armor made of quilted cotton with 
salt inside. Their year was of 18 months, 
each with 20 days, and 5 days 6 hours over. 
They had a bissextile year. 

MAY BUG. See CookoHAFER, 

MAYENCE. See Menrz. 

MAYENNE, a N. W. department of France, 
formed from the old province of Maine, bor- 
dering on La Manche, Orne, Sarthe, Maine- 
et-Loire, and Ille-et-Vilaine; area, 1,996 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1872, 850,637. The surface is rug- 
ged and diversified. Iron, coal, and slate are 


300 


found. The river Mayenne traverses the de- 
partment from N.to S., joins the Sarthe near 
Angers, department of Maine-et-Loire, taking 
the name of Maine, and 7 m. beyond falls into 
the Loire, after a course of 120 m. It is navi- 
gable from Laval, about 55 m. The climate is 
mild and healthful. The soil, except in the S. 
districts, is not fertile. The chief manufac- 
tures are linen, canvas, cotton, and paper. It 
is divided into the arrondissements of Chateau- 
Gontier, Laval, and Mayenne. Capital, Laval. 

MAYER, Alfred Marshall, an American physi- 
cist, nephew of Brantz Mayer, born in Balti- 
more, Md., Nov. 13, 1836. He was educated 
at St. Mary’s college, Baltimore. He has oc- 
cupied the chair of physics, with chemistry or 
astronomy, in several institutions, as follows: 
University of Maryland, 1856-’8; Westminster 


college, Missouri, 1859-’61; Pennsylvania col- 


lege, Gettysburg, 1865-7; Lehigh university, 
Pennsylvania, 1867-70; Stevens institute of 
technology, Hoboken, N. J., since 1871. In 
1863-—"4 he studied in the university of Paris. 
At Lehigh university he superintended the 
erection of an observatory, from which he 
made a series of observations of Jupiter. He 
was in charge of the party sent to observe the 
eclipse of the sun at Burlington, Iowa, Aug. 
7, 1869, and took 41 perfect photographs of the 
eclipse. At Hoboken he began his researches 
in acoustics, in which he has made his most 
important discoveries; among these are: the 
measurement of the relative intensities of 
sounds of the same pitch; an acoustic pyrom- 
eter; the connection of the pitch of a sound 
with the duration of its residual sensation; 
the reflection of sound from flames and heat- 
ed gases; that the fibrils of the antenne 
of the mosquito are its auditory organs; the 
mechanism of hearing in mammals; and new 
methods of sonorous analysis. In 1873 he 
was one of the editors of the ‘‘ American 
Journal of Science and Arts,” from which he 
withdrew on account of weakness of sight, and 
visited England. Among his numerous scien- 
tific papers are: ‘‘ Estimation of the Weights 
of very small Portions of Matter” (1858); 
“Lecture Notes on Physics” (1868); ‘ Re- 
searches in Electro-magnetism” (1870 and 
1873); ‘‘An Investigation of the Composite 
Nature of the Electric Discharge” (1874); and 
‘* Researches in Acoustics” (7 papers, 1871-4). 

MAYER, Brantz, an American author, born in 
Baltimore, Sept. 27, 1809, died there, Feb. 23, 
1879. His father was a merchant of German 
birth, engaged in trade with the East Indies 
and Mexico, and for many years consul general 
of Wirtemberg in the United States. After 
graduating at St. Mary’s college, Baltimore, he 
visited Java, Sumatra, and China, and returned 
in 1828. _ He practised law from 1832 till 1841, 
when he was appointed secretary of legation 
to Mexico, where he remained a year, and 
on his return edited for a short time the 
‘“‘ Baltimore American’ newspaper. In 1867 
he was appointed a paymaster in the Uni- 


MAYER 


ted States army, a post which he resigned 
in 1875. Among his works are: ‘‘ Mexico as 
it was and as it is” (1844; 3d ed., 1847); 
“ History of the War between Mexico and the 
United States” (1848); ‘‘ Mexico, Aztec, Span- 
ish, and Republican” (1852); ‘Calvert and 
Penn, or the Growth of Civil and Religious 
Liberty in the United States” (1852); ‘* Cap- 
tain Canot, or Twenty Years in an African 
Slaver’’ (1854); “Observations on Mexican 
History and Archeology,” in ‘‘Smithsonian 
Contributions” (1857); ‘‘Mexican Antiqui- 
ties’ (1858); and “‘ Baltimore as it was and 
as it is’ (1871). He also contributed to the 
Maryland historical society the ‘Journal of 
Charles Carroll of Carrollton during his Mis- 
sion to Canada,” and ‘‘ Tah-gah-jute, or Logan 
and Captain Michael Cresap.”’ 

MAYER, Constant. See supplement. 

MAYER, Johann Tobias, a German mathema- 
tician, born at Marbach, Wirtemberg, Feb. 17, 
1728, died in Géttingen, Feb. 20, 1762. He early 
taught mathematics, and made himself known 
by scientific productions. The university of 
Gottingen in 1750 chose him its professor of 
mathematics, and appointed him director of 
its observatory. His ‘‘Zodiacal Catalogue,” 
comprising 998 stars, is of high authority ; 
and his ‘Lunar Tables,” published in 1755, 
were deemed of such value by the English 
astronomer royal that the British parliament 
awarded his widow £38,000. The most im- 
portant of his discoveries was the principle of 
the ‘repeating circle,” employed by Borda in 
measuring the are of the meridian. 

MAYER, Julins Robert, a German physicist, 
born in Heilbronn, Nov. 25, 1814, died March 
20, 1878. He received his early education in 
the gymnasium of Heilbronn, and studied medi- 
cine at Tiibingen, finishing his course in Mu- 
nich and Paris. In 1840 he made a voyage to 
Java, and spent the summer of that year in 
Batavia. While there he observed that the 
venous blood of some of his patients had a 
singularly bright red color, and he came to the 
conclusion that it was due to the fact that a 
less amount of oxidation sufficed to keep up 
the temperature of the body in a hot climate 
than in a cold one. The darkness of the ve- 
nous blood he regarded as the visible sign of 
the. energy of the oxidation. His attention 
was drawn by this observation to the whole 
question of animal heat. One great principle 
of the physiological theory of combustion, he 
observes, is that under all circumstances the 
same amount of fuel yields by its perfect com- 
bustion the same amount of heat; that this 
law holds good for vital processes; and that 
hence the living body is incompetent to gener- 
ate heat out of nothing. We are thus driven 
to the conclusion that it is the total heat gener- 
ated within and without that is to be regarded 
as the true calorific effect of the matter oxi- 
dized in the body. From this again he in- 
ferred that the heat generated externally must 
stand in a fixed relation to the work expended 


MAYER 


in its production. He then sought to express 
this relation numerically. In the beginning of 
1842 he had made considerable progress, but 
having in the mean time become town physi- 
cian of Heilbronn, he could devote but little 
time to purely scientific inquiry. He deter- 
mined however to publish a preliminary notice 
of the work then accomplished, and he con- 
tributed to the May number of Liebig’s Anna- 
len der Chemie und Pharmacie a brief but re- 
markable paper entitled Bemerkungen iiber die 
Kriafte der unbelebten Natur, which contained 
‘the germ of his future labors. In 1845 he 
published a memoir entitled Die organische 
Bewegung in ihrem Zusammenhange mit dem 
Stoffwechsel, in which he expanded and illus- 
trated the physical principles laid down in his 
first paper, applying them to organic nature. 
In 1848 appeared his essay, Beitrige zur Dy- 
namik des Himmels, in which he applied the 
same principles to the heavenly bodies. In 
1851 he published another essay, Bemerkungen 
aber das mechanische Aequivalent der Warme, 
in which he developed yet further the mechan- 
ical theory of heat. His general argument is 
that all the mechanical motions upon the earth 
and all the phenomena of vegetable and animal 
life are produced by the sun’s heat, the source 
of all power. Nature stores up the light 
which streams earthward from the sun and 
casts it into a permanent form. To this end 
she has overspread the earth with organisms 
which, while living, take in the solar light, 
and by its consumption generate forces of 
another kind. These organisms are plants, 
and the vegetable world therefore constitutes 
the instrument whereby the wave motion 
of the sun is changed into the rigid form of 
chemical tension, and thus prepared for future 
use. The physical forces collected by plants 
become the property of animals. Animals 
consume vegetables and cause them to reunite 
with the atmospheric oxygen. Animal heat is 
thus produced, and also animal motion. Mayer 
thus grasped the mechanical theory of heat, 
illustrating it and applying it in the most di- 
verse domains. He began with physical prin- 
ciples; he determined the numerical relation 
between heat and work; herevealed the source 
of the energies of the vegetable world, and 
showed the relationship of the heat of our 
fires to solar heat. He followed the energies 
which were potential in the vegetable up to 
their local exhaustion in the animal. He then 
drew attention to the great amount of heat 
generated by gravity where the force has suffi- 
cient distance to act through. He found that 
the gravitating force between the earth and 
sun was competent to generate an amount of 
heat equal to that obtainable from the com- 
bustion of 6,000 times the weight of the earth 
of solid coal. He saw that this was a power 
sufficient to produce the enormous tempera- 
ture of the sun, and also to account for the 
primal molten condition of the earth; and he 
concludes that the light and heat of the sun 


MAYFLY 301 
are maintained by the constant impact of 
meteoric matter. Similar conclusions in rela- 
tion to the mechanical theory of heat were 
arrived at in England by Dr. James Prescott 
Joule almost contemporaneously with the in- 
vestigations of Dr. Mayer; but there is no rea- 
son for supposing that either derived his inspi- 
ration from the other. Each was an indepen- 
dent creator of the theory. (See CorreLa- 
TION.) In the revolution of 1848 Dr. Mayer 
took what was called the side of order, which 
aroused against him the antagonism of many 
of his neighbors. His scientific labors were 
attacked, and this in connection with the loss 
of children threw him into an excited and 
sleepless condition. On May 28, 1850, being 
suddenly seized with a fit of delirium, he quit- 
ted his bed and leaped from a second-story 
window, 30 ft. high, to the street below. He 
recovered from the shock, but his mind was se- 
riously affected. After spending some time in 
an asylum he was fully restored to health, and 
he afterward resided in Heilbronn. A com- 
plete edition of his works has been published 
under the title Die Mechanik der Warme (Stutt- 
gart, 1867). In 1871 the Copley medal was 
awarded to him by the royal society of London. 

MAYER, Karl, a German pianist and composer, 
born in Clausthal in 1799, died in Dresden, 
July 2, 1862. His father was a clarinet vir- 
tuoso, and was attached to the military band 
of a regiment ordered to Russia in the cam- 
paign of 1812. He remained in Russia, and 
the young Karl received at Moscow lessons 
from the pianist John Field. In 1818 he went 


to Paris, and during 1819 resided at Brussels. 


After this he travelled through Germany, and 
then returned to Moscow, where, as well as at 
St. Petersburg, he was held in high esteem as 
a teacher. He eventually returned to Ger- 
many. He was one of the most graceful com- 
posers for the piano of his day, and his num- 
bered works for that instrument are 351. His 
larger compositions consist of concertos and 
rondos for piano and orchestra. 

MAYER, Karl Friedrich Hartmann, a German 
poet, born at Neckar-Bischofsheim, Wirtem- 
berg, March 22, 1786, died in Tiibingen, Feb. 
25, 1870. He studied law at Tiibingen, where 
he became chief councillor of justice. In 1833 
he was a liberal member of the chamber. He 
was an intimate friend of Uhland, whose biog- 
raphy he published (Stuttgart, 1867). Several 
editions of his poems have appeared. 

MAYFLY, an insect generally placed in the 
order neuroptera, with the dragon flies, ephe- 
mere, myrmeleon, and termites or white ants, 
forming the genus phryganea as restricted by 
Latreille. The jaws are hardly perceptible; 
the lower wings are broader than the upper, 
and longitudinally plaited; they have no sting 
nor piercer, and the antennew are as long as the 
body; they undergo complete transformation, 
larves and pups living in the water and feeding 
on aquatic insects and plants. The eggs are 
laid on the leaves of willows and other trees 


302 MAYFLY 


overhanging the water, attached by a viscid mat- 
ter; the small six-footed larvee, when hatched, 
fall into the water, and there form for them- 
selves cases of bits of straw, wood, leaves, 
stones, and shells, cemented together by a glu- 
tinous silk; they are hence called case or cad- 
dis worms; the larva pro- 
trudes its head and shoulders 


BR from the case when search- 
ies ing for food ; the manner in 
Vie which these cases are made, 
Gn SAN ballasted, and balanced af- 
oN fords a striking example of 
a . insect architectural ingenu- 
vey, ity. (See Rennie’s “ Insect 
eit) Architecture.”) Thepupais 
lees incomplete, and is enclosed 
PASS in the larva case, at one end 
TALL : ‘ 5 ; 

bs i of which is a silken grating 


through which the water for 
respiration is admitted and 
ejected; just before quitting 
the case the grating is cut 
through by a pair of curved 
mandibles, and the insect leaves the water by 
means of the four anterior legs, which are uncon- 
fined, to assume the perfect state. The flies as 
well as the larve are greedily eaten by fish, and 
are well known to anglers, who imitate the per- 
fect insects by colored feathers as bait for trout, 
grayling, &c. Mayflies fly heavily, and gen- 
erally alight on bushes near the water’s edge; 
most of them are brown with cinereous, green- 
ish, and yellowish markings; they include the 
willow, alder, green-tail, and dun flies, which 
cover the surface of the water during the cloudy 
days of spring, affording plentiful food for fish ; 
as the season advances they appear chiefly in 
the morning and evening, and during the heat 
of summer are principally nocturnal. About 
300 species are described, one of the largest 
of which is the P. grandis (Linn.) of Europe, 
nearly an inch long, with a spread of about 2 
in.; the upper wings are brownish gray with 
cinereous spots, and the antenns as long as 
the body. Kirby established the order ¢ri- 
choptera for these insects, which present some 
peculiarities connecting them with lepidoptera ; 
the larves resemble the moths in making cases; 
the perfect insects have the wings hairy but 
scaleless, without reticulations, and the under 
ones folded longitudinally; the antennew are 
like those of moths, and the tibiew are often 
armed with the two pairs of spurs observable 
in the latter; but they have not a spiral tongue, 
and the head has three single eyes as well as 
the usual compound ones; the abdomen is 
never furnished with terminal sete. There 
are some of the pyralides or delta moths, in 
the larva state living in leafy cases under water, 
and feeding on aquatic plants, which seem to 
make a transition to the trichoptera or this 
division of the newroptera.—Another neurop- 
terous insect, of the subulicorn family and 
zenus ephemera (Linn.), is also called mayfly ; 
the lower wings are much smaller than the 


Mayfly—Larva and 
case. 


skins several times they 


MAYHEW 


upper, and both are carried perpendicularly ; 
the abdomen is terminated by two or three 
sete; the antenne are short, and the body is 
soft, long, and tapering. These frail creatures 
appear in the winged state toward evening 
in summer, often in immense numbers; the 
EH. albipennis, a European species, with white 
wings, occurs sometimes in such abundance in 
midsummer as to re- 
mind one of a snow 
storm. The larve are 
aquatic, and excavate 
burrows in the banks 
of streams under water, 
in which they are safe 
from fishes and yet am- 
ply supplied with food ; 
after changing their 


become nymphs, with 
the long caudal appen- 
dages and lateral fringes 
of the larvae, but with rudimentary wing cases in 
addition ; after attaining the winged state, they 
cast off a complete envelope of skin. Passing 
a year or two in their imperfect condition, they 
assume their perfect shape and sport for a few 
days, perhaps for a few hours only, in the sum- 
mer day or evening. The fishermen of France 
call them manna from their furnishing abun- 
dant food for fish, covering the surface of the 
water with their countless swarms in Au- 
gust. (See Rennie’s “‘ Insect Transformations.”) 
These are called day flies, and are imitated, as 
baits for fish. There are several in America. 
MAYHEW, the name of several brothers dis- 
tinguished in contemporary English literature. 
I. Henry, born in London, Nov. 25, 1812, was 
educated at Westminster school, and afterward 
established himself in London as a literary 
man. In 1841 he assisted in founding the 
comic periodical ‘“‘Punch” (which was pre- 
ceded by ‘ Figaro in London,” also started by 
himself), and for some years was its chief edi- 
tor. His principal publication is ‘‘ London La- 
bor and the London Poor,” commenced in the 
columns of the London ‘ Morning Chronicle” 
and published in 8 vols. 8vo (1861; new ed., 
1868). In conjunction with his brothers Hor- 
ace and Augustus, the former of whom was for 
many years attached to the staff of ‘‘ Punch,” 
he produced a series of humorous novels and 
Christmas stories by the ‘‘ Brothers Mayhew,” 
including ‘‘ The Image of his Father” (1848) ; 
‘‘The Greatest Plague of Life, or the Adven- 
tures of a Lady in Search of a Husband” (1849); 
‘‘The Good Genius that turned Everything into 
Gold” (1851); ‘‘ Whom to Marry and How 
to get Married’ (1856); ‘‘ The Magic of Kind- 
ness,” ‘Acting Charades,” &c. Under his 
own name he has published several interesting 
juvenile books, ‘‘ Young Benjamin Franklin,” 
‘Boyhood of Martin Luther,” ‘“‘ The Story of 
the Peasant-Boy Philosopher,” founded on the 
life of James Ferguson, and ‘‘ The Wonders 
of Science,” founded on that of Sir Humphry 


Mayfly (Ephemera). 


MAYHEW 


Davy. He is also author of ‘‘ The Mormons, 
or Latter-Day Saints, a Contemporary His- 
tory” (1852); ‘“‘Upper Rhine,” illustrated by 
Birket Foster (1858); ‘‘ Lower Rhine ” (1860) ; 
‘“German Life and Manners ” (new ed., 1866) ; 
and, in conjunction with John Binny, ‘The 
Criminal Prisons of London” (1862). II. Ed- 
ward, born in London in 18138, was during his 


youth the manager of a strolling company, and. 


in that capacity wrote ‘‘ Make your Wills,” and 
other farces. He has published a valuable 
manual on the ‘‘ Management and Treatment 
of Dogs,” ‘Treatise on the Mouth of the 
Horse” (1849), and ‘‘The Illustrated Horse 
Doctor” (1860). II. Thomas, born in 1810, 
was one of the first to prepare cheap publi- 
cations for the poorer classes, and started 
several ‘“‘penny dictionaries,” ‘‘penny gram- 
mars,” and similar works, forming the ‘‘ Penny 
National Library.” He was at one time editor 
of the ‘‘ Poor Man’s Guardian,” which during 
the agitation of the reform bill encountered 
the opposition of government in consequence 
of its radical opinions. IV. Horace, born in 
London in 1819, besides sharing largely in the 
authorship of the books by the “ Brothers May- 
hew,” published several humorous works under 
his own name, including ‘‘ Change for a Shil- 
ling,” and ‘ Model Men and Women” (1848); 
“The Toothache, imagined by Horace May- 
hew, and designed by George Cruikshank ” 
(1849); ‘Letters left at the Pastry Cook’s” 
(1852); and ‘* Wonderful People” (1856). He 
died April 80, 1872. V. Augustus Septimus, who 
had an equal share with Horace and Henry in 
the production of the ‘‘ Brothers Mayhew ” 


MAYNOOTH 303 


series, was an industrious contributor to peri- 
odical literature, and published under his own 
name “Finest Girl in Bloomsbury” (1851) ; 
‘Kitty Lamere” (1858); ‘Paved with Gold, 
or the Romance and Reality of the London 
Streets” (1858; 4th ed., 1872); “Faces for 
Fortune” (1866); and ‘Blow Hot and Blow 
Oold” (1869). He died Dec. 25, 1875. 
MAYHEW, Jonathan, an American clergyman, 
born in Martha’s Vineyard, Mass., Oct. 8, 1720, 
died in Boston, July 9, 1766. He graduated 
at Harvard college in 1744, and in 1747 was 
ordained minister of the West church in Bos- 
ton, a post which he filled during the remain- 
der of his life. He was distinguished as a 
preacher and a writer of controversial tracts. 
His opposition to the proceedings of the Brit- 
ish society for the propagation of the gospel in 
foreign parts and the introduction of bishops 
into the colonies involved him in a controver- 
sy with Dr, Apthorp and Dr. Secker, the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. He codperated with 
Otis and other early opponents of the arbitrary 
designs of the mother country, occasionally in- 
troducing his liberal opinions into his sermons 
with a boldness which ranked him among the 
ultra whigs. Among his published works are 
a volume of seven sermons (1749); ‘‘ Christian 
Sobriety, in eight Sermons to Young Men;” 
and ‘‘Observations on the Charter and Con- 
duct of the Society for Propagating the Gos- 
pel in Foreign Parts.” A memoir of him was 
written by Alden Bradford (Boston, 1838). 
MAYNOOTH, a market town of Ireland, county 
Kildare, on the Royal canal, 15 m. W. N. W. of 
Dublin; pop. in 1871, 2,091. It has a ruined 


f: Af: Ate areal 


St. Patrick’s College, Maynooth. 


zastle built in 1426 by John Fitzgerald, earl of 
Kildare, and is the seat of the royal college 
of St. Patrick, founded in 1795 by act of the 
Irish parliament for the education of Roman 
Catholics for the priesthood. About £8,000 
was voted annually for its maintenance from 
1808 to 1845, when £30,000 was appropriated 
541 VOL, xI.—20 


to repair and erect buildings, and the annual 
grant was raised to £26,360. By the Irish 
church act, July 26, 1869, this grant ceased 
after Jan. 1, 1871, and a compensation of 
£372,331 was voted. The college has an in- 
come of £460 per annum from the Dunboyne 
estates in the county of Meath. By the act 


304 MAYO 

8 and 9 Victoria, cap. 25, the institution was 
placed on a new foundation, and endowed for 
the support and education of 500 students, and 
of 20 senior scholars on the Dunboyne founda- 
tion. Allowances are made to 250 members 
of the three higher classes and to the 20 Dun- 
boyne scholars. Candidates over 16 years of 
age, and intended for the priesthood in Ire- 
land, are admitted on the recommendation of 
their bishops, and no others can be received. 
The faculty consists of a president, vice presi- 
dent, four deans, a prefect of the Dunboyne 
establishment, who is also librarian, a bursar, 
four professors of moral and dogmatic theol- 
ogy, and one professor of each of the fol- 
lowing branches: natural philosophy; sacred 
Scripture and Hebrew; ecclesiastical history ; 
logic, metaphysics, and ethics; rhetoric and 
belles-lettres; humanity; English rhetoric and 
French; and the Irish language. 

MAYO, a maritime county of Ireland, in the 
province of Connaught, bordering on Sligo, 
Roscommon, Galway, and the Atlantic ocean; 
area, 2,131 sq.m.; pop. in 1871, 245,855. The 
coasts are indented by numerous bays and har- 
bors, the principal of which are Killala bay 
on the north, and Broadhaven, Blacksod, and 
Clew bays on the west. The surface toward 
the east is level and fertile, but the western dis- 
tricts are for the most part barren and moun- 
tainous, some of the summits attaining an ele- 
vation of more than 2,500 ft. The only im- 
portant river is the Moy, but the lakes are nu- 
merous, the largest being Loughs Corrib, Mask, 
Conn, Cullin, and Carra, the two first named 
belonging in part to the county of Galway. 
The most important minerals are iron, marble, 
and slate; but the iron mines, though valuable, 
are not worked for want of fuel. Oats are 
the chief crop, but a large part of the land is 
devoted to pasturage. The principal manufac- 
tures are linens, flannels, woollen stockings, 
and straw hats. Chief towns, Castlebar (the 
capital), Ballina, and Westport. 

MAYO. J. Amory Dwight, an American cler- 
gyman, born in Warwick, Mass., Jan. 31, 1823. 
He passed a year in Amherst college, then 
studied theology, was ordained, and was set- 
tled at Gloucester, Mass., over the Independent 
Christian church. Eight years afterward he 
removed to Cleveland, Ohio, and preached one 
year to the Congregational society of Liberal 
Christians. In 1855 he took charge of the first 
Congregational Unitarian society of Albany, 
and subsequently of a congregation in Cincin- 
nati. He afterward became pastor of a church 
in Springfield, Mass., a post which he still oc- 
cupied in 1874. He has contributed much to 
periodicals, and many of his writings in vindi- 
cation of his peculiar religious tenets appeared 
in a serial publication, the Albany ‘ Tracts for 
the Times.” Among his works are: ‘The 
Balance” (Boston, 1847); ‘‘Graces and Pow- 
ers of the Christian Life” (Boston, 1852); 
“Symbols of the Capital” (New York, 1859) ; 
and ‘Religion in Common Sebools ” (Cincin- 


MAYOR 


nati, 1869). He also prepared a selection from 
the writings of his wife, with a memoir (Bos- 
ton, 1849). If. Sarah ¢. (Epearton), wife of the 
preceding, born at Shirley, Mass., in 1819, died 
in 1848. She was married in 1846. During 
nine years she edited ‘‘ The Rose of Sharon,” an 
annual, conducted ‘The Ladies’ Repository,” 
and contributed to various periodicals. She 
wrote ‘The Palfreys,” “Ellen Clifford,” and 
‘‘ Memoirs of Mrs. Julia W. Scott’; and com- 
piled ‘‘The Poetry of Women,” ‘‘The Flower 
Vase,” ‘‘Spring Flowers,” ‘‘The Floral For- 
tune Teller,” and ‘ Fables of Flora.” 

MAYO, Isabella. See supplement. 

MAYO, Richard Southwell Bourke, earl of, a Brit- 
ish statesman, born in Dublin, Ireland, Feb. 
21, 1822, assassinated at Port Blair, Andaman 
islands, Feb. 8, 1872. He graduated M. A. at 
Trinity college in 1844, travelled, and in 1845 
published a narrative of his observations in St. 
Petersburg and Moscow. He was a member 
of pdrliament from 1847 to 1866, and chief 
secretary for Ireland from March to Decem- 
ber, 1852, again from February, 1858, to June, 
1859, and for the third time from July, 1866, 
to September, 1868, with a seat in the cab- 
inet. On the death of his father, Aug. 12, 
1867, he succeeded as sixth earl of Mayo. He 
was appointed governor general of India in 
the latter part of 1868, and arrived at Calcutta 
in January, 1869. His administration was dis- 
tinguished by executive ability and by the in- 
troduction of many reforms. Early in 1872 he 
set out upon a tour of inspection of the British 
provinces in India, and had reached the penal 
settlement of Port Blair when a Mohammedan 
convict broke through the guards and stabbed 
him in the back, killing him instantly. 

MAYO, William Starbuck, an American author, 
born in Ogdensburgh, N. Y., April 20, 1812. 
He studied medicine, and after practising for 
several years made a tour through the Barbary 
States and Spain. After his return he took 
up his residence in New York. His principal 
works are: ‘‘ Flood and Field, or Tales of Bat- 
tles on Sea and Land” (1844); ‘ Kaloolah,” 
purporting to be the autobiography of Jonathan 
Romer, describing his adventures in Africa 
(1849); ‘*The Berber, or the Mountaineer of 
the Atlas,” a romance of adventure similar to 
‘* Kaloolah ”’ (1850); ‘‘ Romance Dust from the 
Historic Placer,” a collection of stories chiefly 
founded on historical incidents (1851); and 
‘Never Again,” a novel (1878). 

MAYOR (Lat. major; Fr. maire), the chief 
municipal officer in a borough or corporate 
town. The office arose out of the immunities 
granted to free cities by sovereigns in the mid- 
dle ages, and in England dates from the reign 
of Richard I., previous to which time the 
chief magistrate of a town was called portreeve 
or boroughreeve. In England mayors are ad- 
dressed as ‘‘ your worship,” and those of Lon- 
don, Dublin, and York enjoy the prefix of lord 
to their titles by special royal grant. In France 
the maire is the first municipal officer in each 


MAYOR OF THE PALACE 


commune, and is charged with the preserva- 
tion of public security, the preparation of sta- 
tistics of marriages, births, &c., and with ju- 
dicial power over certain minor offences. The 
chief executive officers of cities in the United 
States are termed mayors, and are elected an- 
nually or biennially by the citizens. 

MAYOR OF THE PALACE (Lat. major domus 
regie, or magister palatiz), an officer of state 
in France under the Merovingian kings, who 
originally exercised the functions of royal stew- 
ard, having the management of the king’s es- 
tates and the direction of his household. By 
degrees these functionaries usurped almost the 
entire power of the state, the kings remaining 
such only in name, whence they were called 
rois fainéants or lazy kings. This assumption 
of absolute power dates from the middle of 
the 7th century, when the administration of 
Austrasia, Neustria, and Burgundy was en- 
grossed by their mayors, Grimoald, Archam- 
baud, and Ebroin. Pepin of Héristal, mayor 
of Austrasia, from 688 to his death in 714 
ruled France with absolute sway, and was suc- 
ceeded by his natural son Charles Martel, whose 
son Pepin the Short, father of the emperor 
Charlemagne, took the title of king, and found- 
ed the Carlovingian dynasty of French mon- 
archs. ‘The office then lost much of its impor- 
tance, or was altogether abolished. 

MAYSVILLE, a city and the capital of Mason 
co., Kentucky, situated on the Ohio river, at 
the terminus of the Maysville and Lexington 
railroad, 65 m. above Cincinnati, and 61 m. N. 
E. of Lexington ; pop. in 1870, 4,705, of whom 
681 were colored. It lies on a bend of the 
river, and is backed by a range of hills which 
give it a very attractive appearance. Among 
the public buildings are a handsome city hall, a 
court house, a substantial stone jail, and a hos- 
pital. The city has an active trade derived 
from N. E. Kentucky, and is one of the most 
extensive hemp markets in the United States. 
It contains three banks, two flour mills, two 
extensive plough factories, one cotton factory, 
and chair, coach, and wagon factories. There 
are several public schools, a high school, a con- 
vent, an academy, one tri-weekly and three 
weekly newspapers, and twelve churches. It 
was settled in 1784, and incorporated in 1838. 

MAYWEED, a plant of the composite fam- 
ily, with so much the aspect of the chamomile 
that some botanists place it in the same genus 
as anthemis cotula, while others regard the 
fact that the ray flowers are neutral as suffi- 
cient to characterize a separate genus, maruta. 
The plant is a native of Europe, and has be- 
come extensively naturalized in this country; 
and while it is very common along roadsides 
and in barnyards, it is not an aggressive weed 
upon cultivated grounds. It is also known as 
dog’s fennel and stinking chamomile; it has 
not only the appearance of chamomile, but 
similar properties, but accompanied by a nause- 
ous odor, which does not prevent its occasional 
use in domestic medicine. It is said that the 


MAZARIN 305 


fresh plant, especially if bruised, will cause 
blistering if applied to the skin. Its only im- 
portance is as an exceedingly common weed; 


Mayweed (Maruta cotula). - 


and as it is an annual and easily exterminated, 
its presence is an index of careless cultivation. 

MAZACA. See C#sarea (II.). 

MAZARIN, Jules (Ital. Mazarrni, or Mazza- 
RINO, Grvxio), cardinal, a French statesman, 
born at Piscina, in the kingdom of Naples, or 
according to some in Rome, July 14, 1602, 
died in Paris, March 9, 1661. He was of a 
noble Sicilian family, received his early edu- 
cation at Rome, and afterward studied law 
at the universities of Alcala and Salamanca 
in Spain. In 1625 he was a captain in the 
papal army. Even at this early age he dis- 
played remarkable diplomatic talent, and was 
employed in important negotiations with the 
French and Spanish commanders in Italy. 
Entering the civil service of the pope, he was 
attached to the suite of Cardinal Sacchetti, 
the papal ambassador at Turin. In 1629 the 
cardinal returned to Rome, leaving Mazarin at 
Turin, with the title of internuncio and full 
powers to conclude a peace. In this capaci- 
ty he went to Lyons in 1630, where he was 
presented to Louis XIII., and subsequently to 
Cardinal Richelieu, who succeeded in attaching 
him to the interests of France. In 1634 Riche- 
lieu caused him to be made vice legate of Avi- 
gnon, and in 1641 procured for him a cardinal’s 
hat from Pope Urban VIII. After the death of 
Richelieu in December, 1642, Mazarin became 
a member of the council of state; and on the 
death of Louis XIII. in May, 1648, the regent 
Anne of Austria made him prime minister, 
He at first pursued a cautious policy, affecting 
great humility and moderation; but a power- 
ful party was soon organized against him, 
headed by the duke of Beaufort, the prince of 
Conti, the duchess of Longueville, and De Retz, 
archbishop-coadjutor of Paris. The people 
being already heavily taxed, the parliament of 


306 MAZARIN 


Paris refused to consent to a new impost, and 
the cardinal caused Blancmesnil, its president, 
and Broussel, one of its most popular members, 
to be arrested. Instigated by De Retz and the 
other leaders of the opposition, the citizens of 
Paris rose in insurrection in August, 1648, and 
thus began the civil war of the Fronde. Maza- 
rin fled to St. Germain with the queen regent 
and the young king, and was proscribed by 
the parliament. Peace was restored March 
11, 1649, chiefly through the influence of the 
great Condé, who, however, conducted himself 
with such arrogance that Mazarin caused him to 
be arrested and imprisoned, Jan. 18, 1650, to- 
gether with the prince of Conti and the duke 
of Longueville. The parliament espoused the 
cause of the princes, and issued a decree of 
banishment against Mazarin. As the parlia- 
ment was sustained by the people, the cardinal 
liberated the princes in 1651, and fled to Ger- 
many. His influence over the queen, to whom 
he is supposed to have been secretly married, 
was so great that he still governed the king- 
dom from his exile; and in 1652, the excite- 
ment against him having apparently subsided, 
he entered France at the head of an army of 
6,000 men under the authority of a passport 
from the queen. The prince of Condé was at 
this time again in rebellion, and the young king 
Louis XIV., who had recently assumed his 
majority at the age of 13, was at Poitiers with 
his court, and toward that city Mazarin directed 
his march. The news of his return to France 
created great commotion in Paris. The parlia- 
ment hastily assembled, decreed that the car- 
dinal was a rebel, and ordered his magnificent 
library and other property to be sold, and from 
the proceeds of the sale 150,000 livres sef apart 
as a reward to whoever should deliver him up 
dead or alive. Mazarin, regardless of these de- 
crees, continued his march, and at the end of a 
month reached Poitiers, where he was received 
by the king and the court with the greatest 
demonstrations of delight. The civil war con- 
tinued for some months longer, being carried 
on by the princes and the parliament on the 
pretext that the king was a prisoner in the 
hands of Mazarin, whose foreign birth made 
him peculiarly unpopular. At length the car- 


dinal, finding that nearly all parties were weary: 


of the contest and only needed an excuse for 
laying down their arms, tendered his resigna- 
tion as prime minister, and withdrew from the 
court. The parliament then submitted, toge- 
ther with all the principal leaders of the Fronde 
except Condé, and the king returned to the 
capital amid the acclamations of the people. 
Louis immediately ordered Cardinal de Retz, 
the principal instigator of sedition, to be ar- 
rested and sent to prison at Vincennes. Maza- 
rin, who had meanwhile taken command of the 
army on the frontier, and gained some suc- 
cesses over the Spaniards, seized the occasion 
toreturn to Paris. The king and the courtiers 
went out several miles to welcome him, and he 
entered the capital in triumph, in the same car- 


MAZATLAN 


riage with the king, amid general rejoicings. 
His first care after his return was for the 
public finances, which were in great disorder, 
and next for his own. His financial skill and 
his thrifty habits soon restored his fortunes, 
and he advanced those of his family, which 
included a number of beautiful and profligate 
nieces. (See Mancrnt.) From his return to 
Paris till his death Mazarin ruled France with 
absolute power, the king quietly submitting to 
his guidance. His last great stroke of policy 
was his negotiation of the peace of the Pyre- 
nees with Spain in 1659, and the marriage of 
Louis: XIV. with the Spanish infanta, which 
was celebrated in the following year. Mazarin 
had accumulated during his administration 40,- 
000,000 livres, an enormous sum at that time. 
On his deathbed his conscience troubled him 
about his property, and he gave it to the king, 
who after keeping it three days restored it, and 
it became the inheritance of his relatives. His 
‘“‘ Letters’ were published in Paris in 1745. 
MAZATLAN, a maritime city of Mexico, in the 
state of Sinaloa, at the head of a bay at the 
entrance of the gulf of California, 530 m. N. 
W. of Mexico; pop. in 1867 (according to offi- 
cial reports), 11,681; in 1871, 12,706, of whom 
about 4,000 constitute a floating population, 
mostly merchants and traders, who in summer 
resort hither from Chihuahua, Sonora, Jalisco, 
Colima, and Durango. The upper part of the 
town, standing in front of rocky hills, is some- 
what irregular; but that facing the bay con- 
tains some very good streets with handsome 
residences, mostly in, the old Castilian style of 
architecture. There are five public squares, 
on the largest of which, the plaza de Armas, 
enclosed with railing, and embellished with 
orange trees, stand the chief public buildings. 
On another square nearer the beach are the 
custom house, the offices and residences of the 
commandant and captain of the port, and the 
public stores, all tastefully constructed. The 
American consul reported in 1873 that many 
of the houses were vacant, and some as well 
as the custom-house wharf greatly decayed, 
and that business was rapidly declining. 
Other reports, however, are more favorable. 
The climate is damp, and in summer exces- 
sively hot, the mean temperature from June to 
October being about 90° F.; while during the 
remainder of the year the temperature ranges 
from 70° to 75°, and frequent rains inundate 
the country, rendering travel almost impracti- 
cable. Silver mines abound in every direction, 
those which are worked on the largest scale 
being the property of Americans, and valued 
at $2,000,000. Although the soil favors agri- 
culture, the only products are cotton, corn, 
and beans, for home consumption. Such im- 
mense quantities of bananas are used in the 
town and its neighborhood that the local sup- 
ply is quite insufficient, and the fruit is yearly 
imported to the value of about $200,000. The 
chief articles of export are dyewoods, fine 
pearls, and gold and silver. Mining machinery 


MAZEPPA 


and implements, and sugar, fruits, and vege- 
tables, are brought from San Francisco; and 
the various cotton fabrics, &c., come from Eu- 
rope. The value of the exports for the year 
ending Sept. 30, 1878, was $2,797,385, inclu- 


MAZZINI 3807 
Peter the Great; but when the Russians began 
to encroach on the liberties of his adopted 
country, he entered into secret connection with 
Stanislas Leszcezynski of Poland, and subse- 
quently into a league with Charles XII. of 

Sweden. These plans 


failed, Mazeppa being 


besieged by the Russians 


in his capital, Baturin, 


whence he escaped with 


an inconsiderable force. 


The defeat of Poltava 


(July 8, 1709) put it out 


of the power of Charles 


Mazatlan. 


ding gold and silver bullion and coin to the 
amount of $2,485,450; imports, $1,276,000. 
The import duties for the same year amounted 
to $758,300, and the export duties to $137,670. 
The entrances and clearances for the year 
were 53 steamers and 26 sailing vessels, with 
an aggregate tonnage of 117,493. There are 
six public schools (two primary and one gram- 
mar school each for both sexes), with an at- 
tendance of 400 scholars in 1867; besides 
which there were 21 private establishments 
for the primary and higher branches. The 
number of adults unable to read or write was 
in the same year 5,761. 

MAZEPPA, Jan, hetman of the Cossacks, born 
about 1645, died in Bender, Turkey, Sept. 22, 
1709. He was the son of a Polish gentleman 
in Podolia, and became page at the court of 
John Casimir, king of Poland. On returning 
to his native province he formed an improper 
intimacy with a married lady, whose husband 
caused him, according to the common story, to 
be tied to a wild horse, which was then let 
loose on the plains and ran till he reached the 
country of the Cossacks, where Mazeppa was 
unbound, and kindly treated by the inhabi- 
tants. Another account says that Mazeppa 
was fastened to his own horse, which brought 
him back to his own door, and that, unable to 
endure the disgrace of his position, he left his 
country and took up his residence among the 
Cossacks. However he may have arrived 
among them, his abilities soon gave him great 
influence, and on the death in 1687 of the het- 
man Samoilovitch, whose secretary and adju- 
tant he had been, he was chosen to the chief 
command. He attained to high favor with 


to aid him, and both fled 
to Turkey. 

MAZZINI, Giuseppe, 
an Italian revolutionist, 
born in Genoa, June 28, 
1805, died in Pisa, March 
10, 1872. His father, 
who was arich medical 
professor in the univer- 
sity of Genoa, gave him 
an excellent education. 
He learned the German, 
French, and English lan- 
guages, studied jurispru- 
dence, and before 18380 
published several liberal essays in the Jndica- 
tore of Genoa and the Antologia of Florence. 
In 1880 he joined the carbonari, and soon 
afterward was imprisoned six months in the 
citadel of Savona, and then expatriated. He 
went to Marseilles, at that time the headquar- 
ters of Italian exiles, where he organized a 
league called la Giovine Italia, or Young Italy, 
and established a journal of the same name. 
Among the most active emissaries of Young 
Italy were sailors, who scattered Mazzini’s pub- 
lications all over the peninsula. The move- 
ment soon attracted the attention of the au- 
thorities. A private correspondence in cipher 
was intercepted, and disclosed the purpose of 
raising guerilla bands, and other preparations 
for revolution. Extracts of this correspon- 
dence were published in the latter part of 
1832 in the Roman journal Notizie del Gior- 
no, and traced to Mazzini and his fellow con- 
spirators. A circular inviting the codperation 
of republican leaders in foreign countries was 
addressed, in February, 1833, to a journalist 
of Paris, and was signed Strozzi, the nom de 
guerre of Mazzini. His name was associated 
with political and military conspiracies which 
were discovered in Piedmont in 18383, and 
with their ramifications in Naples and other 
parts of Italy. After continuing for some time 
to issue his journal from a hiding place in Mar- 
seilles, he was at length compelled to leave the 
French territory and to seek refuge in Switzer- 
land, where, in connection with Polish, Ger- 
man, and other Italian refugees, he planned an 
expedition to seize the fortress of St. Julien in 
Savoy, and the small town of Annecy, which 
commanded the road to Chambéry, while an- 


308 


other wing of the revolutionists, under Ra- 
morino, was to advance from Les: Kchelles to 
unite at Chambéry, and to organize from that 
place military operations against Piedmont. 
The attack was made Feb. 1, 1834, at the fron- 
tier of Savoy, upon a few custom-house offi- 
cers; the custom house was destroyed, and the 
insurgents advanced to the village of Anne- 
masse, where a proclamation signed by Maz- 
zini, Melegari, and Jacopo Ruffini, announced 
the formation of a provisional government at 
St. Julien; but it had no effect except to afford 
opportunities of smuggling during the confu- 
sion. The enterprise failed entirely. Sentence 
of death in contumaciam. was passed by the 
Sardinian courts upon Mazzini, who however 
remained unmolested in Switzerland. Many 
of those implicated in the Savoy expedition 
were expelled from Switzerland, particularly 
the Polish refugees. But before their depar- 
ture Mazzini obtained the codperation of the 
principal representatives of the various na- 
tionalities in the organization of a new asso- 
ciation to be called Young Europe. ‘ Young 
Italy,” ‘“Young Poland,” &c., appointed dele- 
gates, who on April 15, 1834, solemnly agreed 
to abide by the political, social, and religious 
platform which was laid down by Mazzini. 
The main object of Young Europe, according 
to Mazzini, was to lay the foundation for a 
universal development of thought and action, 
which would lead to the discovery and prac- 
tical application of the divine laws of human 
government. Mazzini defined the league as 
the young Europe of the people, which was 
to supplant the old Europe of kings; as a con- 
flict between the modern principles of freedom 
and the medieval system of servitude, between 
the modern sentiments of equality and the old 
spirit of caste, monopoly, and privileges; and 
as a triumph of new religious aspirations and 
ideas over a decaying ecclesiasticism. The so- 
cial application of Mazzini’s principles is fully 
explained in his work, Foi et avenir (Bienne, 
1835). Dissensions between Mazzini and the 
‘Young Switzerland” (in whose interest a 
journal of that name had been published at Bi- 
enne chiefly under his influence) and “ Young 
Germany” parties led him to withdraw from 
the central committee of Young Europe, and 
also of the Young Italy league, but without re- 
laxing his zeal for the furtherance of the ends 
of both of these associations, of which he con- 
tinued the principal leader, With the excep- 
tion of a brief term of arrest in 1835, Maz- 
zini was not interrupted in his agitation in 
Switzerland till 1837, when the Swiss author- 
ities requested him to leave, and he went to 
London. His numerous partisans and friends 
continued the secret political agitation of It- 
aly, while Mazzini labored by writing and by 
public addresses in the meetings of the Poles, 
Italians, or other oppressed nationalities in 
London. He wrote articles for various peri- 
odicals, among which are papers on Byron and 
Goethe, George Sand, Victor Hugo and Lamar- 


MAZZINI 


tine, Thiers and Carlyle, on Fourierism and 
communism, and on Italian and German music. 
Besides publications, in journals and in pam- 
phlets, on the political condition of Italy and 
other European states, he wrote in behalf of a 
comprehensive system of popular education, in 
the Italian journal Apostolato Popolare, which 
he published in London from 1840 to 1848. 
In 1842 he wrote a preface to a new edition of 
Dante’s Divina Commedia, and prepared a com- 
plete edition of the works of Ugo Foscolo. He 
founded in London in 1840 a Sunday school for 
poor Italian children, and officiated as one of 
the teachers.—The tragic fate of the brothers 
Bandiera called public attention to Mazzini in 
1844, he being considered as the inspiring spirit 
who had led those men to make the daring at- 
tempt upon the Austrian fleet which cost them 
their lives, although Mazzini had in reality op- 
posed that particular movement. At the same 
time the English home secretary, Sir James 
Graham, was detected in having intercepted 
and opened letters addressed to Mazzini, which 
led to the discovery and suppression of the Ban- 
diera conspiracy. There was a general cry of 
indignation against this violation of the post 
office, and the proceedings which the despotic 
powers wished the English government to in- 
stitute against the Italian refugees fell to the 
ground. After protesting in 1846 against the 
enlistment of Swiss soldiers for the papal army, 
and against the annihilation of the republic of 
Cracow, he founded in 1847 an “international 
league of peoples,” the principal object of which 
was to enlighten the people of England upon 
foreign politics, and to diffuse principles of 
self-government among the nations of Europe. 
At the end of 1847 he went to Paris to con- 
fer with other leaders in regard to the grow- 
ing revolutionary feeling in Italy, but soon 
returned to London, where the revolution of 
February, 1848, took him by surprise. He re- 
turned at once to Paris, where he had an inter- 
view with Gioberti, Mamiani, and other leaders 
of the constitutional party. Mazzini was op- 
posed to the annexation of the smaller Italian 
states to Sardinia, which was eventually pro- 
posed by the others. In March he issued an 
address to the people of Lombardy, congratu- 
lating them upon the success of their revolu- 
tion, and soon returned to’ Italy, after an exile 
of 17 years. But his exertions in behalf of 
national independence were neutralized by the 
vacillating rival policy of Charles Albert, who 
had begun his campaign against the Austrians, 
After being foiled in Milan, and endeavoring 
in vain to raise the standard of revolution in 
other parts of Italy, Mazzini offered to enlist 
as a common soldier under Garibaldi, whose 
vanguard was on the point of advancing from 
Monza to Bergamo, when the capitulation of 
Milan to the Austrians (Aug. 5) led to the dis- 
bandment of the patriots, and Mazzini took ref- 
uge in Switzerland. Shortly after his arrival 
there, the news of the rising in Tuscany was 
received, together with the continued resistance 


MAZZINI 


of Venice, which from the beginning had acted 
in accordance with his republican views under 
the lead of Manin, and encouraged him to pro- 
ceed to Florence. Here he became a member 
of the provisional government, and was sent 
as deputy to the Roman republic, which had 
been proclaimed in February, 1849. He was 
elected a triumvir by the Romans, and became 
the ruling spirit of the republic, which was 
soon suppressed by French intervention. Maz- 
zini went to Lausanne, where he continued the 
journal LZ’ Jtalia del Popolo, which he had com- 
menced at Milan. He remained for some time 
in Switzerland, organizing there a new national 
committee for continuing his agitations. Re- 
turning to London, he united his efforts with 
those of Ledru-Rollin, Kossuth, Arnold Ruge, 
and other revolutionary leaders. His name 
was associated with the dagger insurrection in 
Milan (Feb. 6, 1853), started by young enthu- 
siasts who were led on by the inflammatory 
zeal of Mazzini, and promptly suppressed by 
the Austrian government. Orsini, formerly 
one of his most active partisans, in his memoirs 
published at Edinburgh in 1857, reproached 
Mazzini with recklessness and disregard of the 
lives of his friends. The latter, however, per- 
sisted in his propagandism; and notwithstand- 
ing the disapprobation of Manin and of other 
republican leaders, he again instigated an in- 
surrection in Sardinia in 1857, and went to 
Genoa to superintend it. His followers seized 
Fort Diamante in the night of June 29; but as 
the people did not join the movement, Mazzini 
was compelled to abandon the enterprise. His 
friends who attempted similar outbreaks at 
Leghorn and Naples fell into the hands of the 
government, including those captured on board 
the steamer Cagliari, and were put to death or 
imprisoned, while Mazzini himself retired to 
his place of concealment near Geneva, and 
afterward returned to London, where he pub- 
lished ‘‘ The late Insurrection defended by Jo- 
seph Mazzini” (1858). In January, 1858, his 
name was unjustly associated with Orsini’s in 
the attempt to assassinate Napoleon III. At 
the end of ‘that year he established in London 
a weekly journal, entitled Pensiero ed Azione. 
During the war of 1859 in Lombardy, he con- 
stantly resisted the idea that Italy could be 
benefited by the intervention of Napoleon III.; 
but he was warmly interested in the subsequent 
efforts to unify Italy, though he wanted it to 
be republican as well as united. In September, 
1862, he published a manifesto to the people 
of Italy. In 1865 he was elected to the Italian 
parliament, but his election was annulled. <Af- 
ter 1870 he resided principally at Genoa and 
Pisa. He was buried at Genoa, and it was 
estimated that 80,000 people witnessed his fu- 
neral. In addition to his literary works above 
noticed, he published L’Jtalie, ? Autriche et le 
pape (English ed., London, 1845); Le pape au 
ALIX siécle (Paris, 1850); ‘Royalty and Re- 
publicanism in Italy” (London, 1850), trans- 
lated into French with a preface by George 


Leyden, and Padua. 


MEAD 309 


Sand; “The War and the Commune” (1871), 
and other pamphlets. There are editions of 
his works in Italian (12 vols., Milan, 1861 e¢ 
seg.) and English, ‘‘ Life and Writings of Maz- 
zini” (6 vols., London, 1864—70).—See Mae- 
zini gugé par lui-méme et par les siens, by Jules 
de Breval (Paris, 1853; translated into Eng- 
lish) ; his ‘‘ Life”? by Simoni (1870); and ‘‘Jo- 
seph Mazzini, a Memoir,” by E. H. V., with 
two essays by Mazzini (London, 1874). 

MAZZOLINI, Lodovico, an Italian painter, born 
in Ferrara about 1481, died there about 1530. 
He was a pupil of Lorenzo Costa, and in small 
pictures, particularly his miniature altarpieces, 
attained great excellence. His architectural 
backgrounds are especially admired. His works 
are not numerous. 

MAZZUCHELLI, Giovanni Maria, count, an Ital- 
ian jurist, antiquary, and biographer, born in 
Brescia, Oct. 28, 1707, died there, Nov. 19, 
1765. He was educated at Bologna, and after- 
ward became keeper of the Quirinian library 
in his native city, where he devoted himself to 
Italian antiquities and biographical literature. 
He wrote Notizie storiche e eritiche intorno 
alla vita, alle invenzioni ed agli scritts di 
Archimede Siracusano (Brescia, 1787); Gli 
scrittort dItalia; cioé notizie storiche e cri- 
tiche intorno alle vite ed agli scritti dei let- 
terati italiani (2 vols. fol., in 6 parts, 1753-63, 
not complete); and many other works. He 
left a vast collection of casts and medals, after- 
ward engraved and published. 

MAZZUOLA, Francesco. See PARMEGIANO. 

MEAD, Larkin Goldsmith, an American sculp- 
tor, born in Chesterfield, N. H., Jan. 3, 1835. 
In 1852 he went to Brooklyn,’ N. Y., where 
for three years he was a pupil of Henry Kirke 
Brown. At Brattleboro, Vt., he modelled in 
snow a statue of the ‘‘ Recording Angel,” cut 
in marble in 1855. In 1857 he executed the 
colossal statue ‘‘ Vermont,” which crowns the 
dome of the state house, and in 1861 the statue 
of Ethan Allen, which stands in the portico. 
In 1862 he went to Florence, and produced 
the statuettes ‘‘ Echo,” ‘‘Sappho,” ‘‘ Joseph, 
the Shepherd,” ‘‘The Mountain Boy,” and a 
bust of ‘‘Echo.” His first elaborate work in 
Italy was a group, ‘‘The Returned Soldier,” 
executed in 1866. From 1868 to 1874 he was 
occupied upon the groups ‘‘Columbus’s Last 
Appeal to Queen Isabella,” and ‘‘ America” 
for the soldiers’ monument at St. Johnsbury, 
Vt., and executed the statue and corner figures 
for the Lincoln monument at Springfield, M1, 
unveiled Oct. 15, 1874. Besides portrait busts, 
he has modelled ‘‘ Venice, the Bride of the 
Sea,” and ‘‘The Discovery of America,” and 
in 1874 he completed for the state of Vermont 
a statue of Ethan Allen, to be placed in the 
old hall of representatives in Washington. 

MEAD, Riehard, an English physician, born at 
Stepney, near London, in 1675, died in Lon- 
don, Feb. 16, 1754. He studied at Utrecht, 
In 1703 he was elected a 
member of the royal society, and in the same 


310 


year was chosen physician of St. Thomas’s 
hospital. In 1711 he was appointed anatomi- 
cal lecturer to surgeons’ hall, and in 1714 re- 
moved to London. In 1727 he was nominated 
physician to George II. He made valuable 
collections of books, antiquities, and works of 
art. His principal work was Medicina Sacra 
(London, 1748; translated into English, 1755), 
in which he maintains that demoniacal posses- 
sions were a species of insanity. His ‘‘ Medical 
Works” were published in 1762 (4to, London). 

MEADE, a N. county of Kentucky, on the 
Ohio river, drained by Otter and Spring creeks 
and other tributaries of the Ohio; area, about 
400 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 9,485, of whom 1,294 
were colored. It has an undulating surface 
and fertile soil. The chief productions in 1870 
were 67,691 bushels of wheat, 464,674 of Indian 
corn, 122,136 of oats, 40,662 of potatoes, 539,- 
000 Ibs. of tobacco, 22,656 of wool, 94,440 of 
butter, and 2,487 tons of hay. There were 
3,209 horses, 1,791 milch cows, 3,248 other 
cattle, 7,460 sheep, and 18,170 swine; 1 cotton 
factory, 5 flour mills, 4 saw mills, 1 distillery, 
and 3 wool-carding and cloth-dressing estab- 
lishments. Capital, Brandenburg. 

MEADE. I. Richard Kidder, an American rey- 
olutionary soldier, born in Nansemond co., Va., 
about 1750, died in Frederick (now Clarke) co. 
in the early part of the 19th century. He was 
educated at Harrow school in England, and 
soon after his return to Virginia embarked in 
the revolutionary contest. In December, 1775, 
he commanded a company at the battle of the 
Great Bridge near Norfolk, the first fought in 
the state, and soon after he was appointed by 
Washington one of his confidential aides, in 
which capacity, with the rank of colonel, he 
rendered signal service throughout the war. 
He was with the commander-in-chief in all his 
great battles, and superintended the execution 
of Major André. The latter part of his life 
was passed in Frederick co., occupied with ag- 
ricultural pursuits. If. William, an American 
bishop, son of the preceding, born in Frederick 
(now Clarke) co., Va., Nov. 11, 1789, died at his 
residence near Millwood, Olarke co., March 14, 
1862. He graduated at Princeton college in 
1808, and three years later was ordained to the 
ministry of the Protestant Episcopal church. 
In 1813-14 he was active in procuring the elec- 
tion of Dr. Moore of New York as bishop of 
Virginia, and contributed materially to the es- 
tablishment of a diocesan theological semina- 
ry at Alexandria, and various educational and 
missionary societies. In 1829 he was unan- 
imously elected assistant bishop of Virginia, 
and in August of that year was consecrated 
in Philadelphia. He thenceforth assumed the 
chief care of the diocese, and in 1841, upon 
the death of Bishop Moore, became bishop. Tl 
health soon compelled him to ask for an assis- 
tant, who was provided in 1842 in the person 
of Dr. John Johns of Baltimore. He was for 
several years the acknowledged head of the 
evangelical branch of the Protestant Episcopal 


MEADE 


church in the United States. His publications 
comprise ‘‘ Family Prayer” (Alexandria, 1834); 
‘‘ Lectures on the Pastoral Office ;” ‘ Lectures 
to Students” (New York, 1849); and ‘‘Old 
Churches, Ministers, and Families in Virginia” 
(2 vols., Philadelphia, 1856). His life has been 
written by Bishop Johns (Baltimore, 1868). 
MEADE. I. Richard Worsam, an American 
merchant, born in Chester co., Pa., June 23, 
1778, died in Washington, D. C., in 1828. He 
was a son of George Meade, a Philadelphia 
merchant, who was active in the opposition to 
the stamp act, and made the continental gov- 
ernment a present of $10,000 in gold. Richard 
went to Cadiz, Spain, in 1803, as a merchant 
and ship owner, and from 1805 to 1816 was 
United States navy agent. During the penin- 
sular war he imported immense quantities of 
supplies into the port of Cadiz, and frustra- 
ted Victor’s attempt to starve out the allied 
garrison. In 1810 his vessels carried thither 
250,000 barrels of flour. In 1815 he incurred 
the ill will of certain members of the Spanish 
council of war, and on May 2, 1816, was im- 
prisoned in the castle of Santa Catalina, where 
he remained two years, and was then released 
at the demand of the United States govern- 
ment. The case which has since become cele- 
brated as the Meade claim grew out of the 
losses incurred by him at this time, and the 
ruin of his business consequent upon his long 
imprisonment. In 1819 a special tribunal ap- 
pointed by the Spanish government awarded 
him a certificate of debt, which was signed by 
the king, for $491,153 62. In 1822 the com- 
mission appointed at Washington to consider 
such claims declined to receive this certificate, 
and demanded the original vouchers; but before 
these could be procured the session expired, 
and the fund was distributed among the other 
claimants. Subsequent attempts to get a re- 
hearing of the case have all been fruitless, 
though the most celebrated lawyers were re- 
tained, including Webster, Clay, and Choate. 
Mr. Meade had the finest private gallery of 
paintings and statuary in the country; it con- 
tained the only bust of Washington taken from 
life; and he is said to have been the first im- 
porter of merino sheep and sherry wine into 
the United States. II. George Gordon, an Amer- 
ican general, son of the preceding, born in Ca- 
diz, Spain, Dec. 30, 1815, died in Philadelphia, 
Nov. 6, 1872. He graduated at West Point in 
1885, served in the Florida war, and resigned 
Oct. 26, 1836. From 1837 to 1842 he was an 
assistant engineer in the government survey of 
the delta of the Mississippi, the Texas boundary, 
and the N. E. boundary of the United States. On 
May 19, 1842, he was reappointed in the army 
as second lieutenant of topographical engineers. 
He served through the war with Mexico, was 
attached to the staff of Gen. Taylor and after- 
ward of Gen. Scott, distinguished himself at 
Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, and Monterey, 
was brevetted first lieutenant for gallant con- 
duct, and on his return was presented with a 


MEADOW LARK 


sword by citizens of Philadelphia. He was 
made captain of engineers in 1856, and was in 
charge of the surveys on the northern lakes till 
1861. He was commissioned brigadier general 
of volunteers, Aug. 31, 1861, and took part in 
the action of Dranesville, Va., Dec. 20; at Me- 
chaniesville, June 26, 1862; at Cold Harbor, 
June 27; and at Frazier’s farm, June 30, where 
he was severely wounded. (See Cuickanom- 
InY.) On June 18, 1862, he was made major 
of topographical engineers. He was engaged 
in the second battle of Bull Run, Aug. 29, 30; 
commanded a corps of the army of the Poto- 
mac in the Maryland campaign; was in the 
battles of South Mountain and Antietam in Sep- 
tember; and was made major general of vol- 
unteers Nov. 29. At Antietam he was slight- 
ly wounded and had two horses shot under 
him. From December, 1862, to June 28, 1863, 
he was in command of the first corps and af- 
terward of the fifth corps of the army of the 
Potomac, and was engaged at Fredericksburg 
‘and at Chancellorsville. On June 28, 1863, he 
was suddenly called to succeed Gen. Hooker in 
command of the army of the Potomac; and on 
July 1-3 he fought the battle of Gettysburg. 
(See Gretrysspure.) He was made brigadier 
general in the United States army July 8. 
From October to December he participated in 
several minor actions in Virginia. From May 
4, 1864, to April 9, 1865, he was, under Gen. 
Grant, in the immediate command of the army 
of the Potomac, from the battle in the Wilder- 
ness down to the capture of Petersburg and 
the surrender of Lee. He was made major 
general in the United States army, Aug. 18, 
1864. On Jan. 28, 1866, he received the 
thanks of congress ‘‘for the skill and heroic 
valor with which at Gettysburg he repulsed, 
defeated, and drove back, broken and dispir- 
ited, beyond the Rappahannock, the veteran 
army of the rebellion.” From July 1, 1865, 
to Aug. 6, 1866, he was in command of the 
military division of the Atlantic, in 1866-7 of 
the department of the East, and subsequently 
of the third military district, comprising Geor- 
gia, Florida, and Alabama, with headquarters 
at Philadelphia. He became a member of the 
historical society of Pennsylvania in 1868, and 
of the Philadelphia academy of natural sci- 
ences in 1865, in which year he received the 
degree of LL. D. from Harvard university. He 
died in a house which his fellow citizens pre- 
sented to his wife, and after his death a fund 
of $100,000 was subscribed for his family. 
MEADOW LARK, a starling, of the American 
genus sturnella (Vieillot). The body is thick 
and stout, the legs large, with hind toes reach- 
ing beyond the tail, which is short, even, and 
of narrow pointed feathers; the bill is nearly 
straight, and three times as long as high; inner 
lateral toe longer than the outer; hind claw 
nearly twice as long as the middle; feathers 
of head stiffened, the shafts above extended 
into a black bristle. The common species (S. 


MEADOW MOUSE 311 


extent of wing of 16, and the bill 1} in.; the 
color above is dark brown, each feather with 
a brownish white margin and a pale reddish 
brown terminal spot; wings and tail with dark 
brown bars; yellow beneath, with a black 
pectoral crescent; sides, rump, and tibiew pale 


Meadow Lark (Sturnella magna). 


reddish brown, with blackish streaks; a light 
median and superciliary stripe, yellow in front 
of the eye, and a black line behind. It is found 
in the eastern United States to the high central 
plains, extending perhaps as far south as Mex- 
ico. Itis abundant in the southern states in the 
winter, whence it proceeds northward as far 
as Maine to breed, returning in the autumn in 
small flocks; the flight is generally short, un- 
steady, and at a moderate elevation; the notes 
at early morning are loud and melodious. The 
males are very pugnacious in breeding time; 
the nest is made of grasses in a hollow of the 
ground, and is covered over like an oven; both 
sexes incubate; the eggs, four or five, are 
white, with reddish brown spots at the larger 
end; the young are hatched about the end of 
June in the middle states. The meadow lark 
is the friend of the farmer in its destruction 
of injurious larve, but it sometimes pulls up 
the young corn, grain, and rice; it occasion- 
ally kills small birds, especially in confinement. 
In autumn and winter meadow larks are. fat, 
and are sought by sportsmen; the flesh of the 
young is esteemed as food. On the Pacific 
coast is found a variety nearly resembling the 
other, but rather paler in tint, with the yellow 
on the chin and throat extending on the sides of 
the lower jaw. This bird is related to the star- 
lings of Europe, of the genus sturnus (Linn.) 
MEADOW MOUSE, the common name of the 
small rodents of the genus arvicola (Lacép.). 
The molars are 3—3, and rootless; the ears are 
short, nearly hidden in the fur; the muzzle is 
broad and rounded; the tail shorter than the 
body, cylindrical and hairy, soles naked anteri- 
orly; the skull short, deep, and broad; whis- 
kers in five horizontal series. The common 
meadow mouse of this country (A. riparia, 
Ord) is 44 in. long, and the tail about 14; the 
feet large and scaly; hair rather short; the 
eyes small, the thumb of the fore foot obso- 
lete, and mamme four inguinal and four pec- 
toral; the color above is dark brown, varied 


magna, Swains.) is about 11 in. long, with an | with reddish and yellowish brown; ashy plum- 


312 MEADOW SAFFRON 


beous below; tail and feet dusky. Many oth- 
er species are described in vol. viii. of the re- 
port on the ‘ Pacific Railroad Survey.” The 
European species are called aiso campagnols 
and voles; the largest is the hypudeus am- 
phibius (Il.), which is aquatic, inhabiting the 
banks of streams and digging in the marshes* 
for roots. The campagnol (ZZ. arvalis, Il.), of 
the size of a mouse, is yellowish gray above 
and whitish gray below; it lives in holes dug 
in the ground, in which it collects food for the 
winter. The economic meadow mouse (/. 
economus, Ill.) lives in Siberia, laying up am- 
ple winter stores, and sometimes migrating in 
large troops like the lemmings.—The meadow 
mice are spread over the northern hemisphere 
of America, Europe, and Asia, as yet not hav- 
ing been found in South America and Africa; 
they are abundant in the mossy swamps in the’ 
vicinity of the arctic circle. Some are aquatic, 
having the antitragus of the ear so developed 
as to act as a valve under water; others live 
in dry places and high lands, where they do 
much mischief by gnawing the bark of trees 


yh 
)) I Vy KG 
ce 


(ps 
Balla’ 
ype TZ, An 


Campagnol (Hypudeus arvalis). 


and destroying grain and fruit; they do not 
climb, and are not dormant in winter, but re- 
treat at that time to their well stored bur- 
rows. They are very prolific, and hence are 
often the source of considerable loss to the 
farmer; in 1818 and 1819 most of the harvest 
of Holland, and in 1837 of that of an entire 
province of Italy, was destroyed by them; in 
a German province in 1822, 1,500,000 were 
captured in 14 days. These animals in their 
turn furnish a supply of food to carnivorous 
mammals, birds, and reptiles. For an account 
of their habits, see Audubon and Bachman’s 
*“‘Quadrupeds of North America.” 

MEADOW SAFFRON. See Corontoum. 

MEADVILLE, a city and the capital of Craw- 
ford co., Pennsylvania, on the E. bank of 
French creek, and on the Atlantic and Great 
Western railroad at the junction of the Frank- 
lin branch, 82 m. N. by W. of Pittsburgh and 
34 m. 8S. of Erie; pop. in 1850, 2,578; in 1860, 
3,702; in 1870, 7,108. It is situated in the 


midst of a fertile country, and has an exten- 
sive trade with the oil regions. Its manufac- 


MEAGHER 


tures are important, the chief establishments 
being machine works and woollen mills. There 
are also paper mills, an edge-tool factory, &c. 
The business portion is compactly built. In 
the suburbs is Greendale cemetery, well laid 
out. The city contains a handsome court 
house, a state arsenal, an opera house, two na- 
tional banks with a joint capital of $300,000, 
two savings banks, 19 graded public schools, 
including a high school, a public library with 
2,500 volumes, a daily and three weekly news- 
papers, and 15 churches. Allegheny college 
occupies three buildings on a hill N. of the 
city. It was founded in 1815, and since 1833 
has been under the direction of the Methodist 
Episcopal church. It is open to both sexes, 
and in 1873-4 had 6 instructors, 40 prepara- 
tory and 64 collegiate students, and libraries 
containing 12,000 volumes. The Meadville 
theological school, under the control of the 
Unitarians, was established in 1844, and in 
18734 had 4 resident professors, 7 other in- 
structors, 21 students, and a library of 12,000. 
volumes. Meadville was founded in 1789. 
MEAGHER, a central county of Montana, 
bounded W. by the Missouri river; area, 
7,650 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 1,387. It is 
drained by Mussel Shell river and other afflu- 
ents of the Missouri. There is some arable 
land, but gold mining is the chief industry. 
The census of 1870 returns 11 hydraulic and 
93 placer mines as in operation. The chief 
productions were 26,771 bushels of wheat, 
14,501 of oats, 11,3824 of barley, 6,419 of po- 
tatoes, 19,594 lbs. of butter, and 1,763 tons of 
hay. There were 237 horses, 1,008 milch 
cows, 1,960 other cattle, and 436 swine. Cap- 
ital, Diamond City. 
MEAGHER, Thomas Franeis, an Irish revolution- 
ist, born in Waterford, Aug. 8, 1828, drowned 
in the upper Missouri, near Fort Benton, Mon- 
tana, July 1, 1867. He was educated at Roman 
Catholic colleges in Ireland and England, and 
studied law in Dublin, where he became the 
leader of the Young Ireland party. In 1846 he 
assisted in organizing the Irish confederation. 
On the overthrow of Louis Philippe in 1848, 
Meagher was sent at the head of a delegation 
to Paris to congratulate the French republican 
leaders. Soon after his return he was arrest 
ed for sedition, and released on bail, but was | 
rearrested on a charge of high treason, found 
guilty, and received a sentence of death, which 
was commuted to transportation for life to Tas- 
mania. From there he escaped, arrived in New 
York in May, 1852, and spent two years in lec- 
turing on Irish independence in the principal 
cities of the United States. In 1855 he was 
admitted to the bar in New York, and in 1856 
edited the ‘‘ Irish News.” In 1861 he joined 
the 69th New York regiment, of which he was 
acting major at the first battle of Bull Run. 
After the close of its three months’ term of 
service he returned to New York, organized the 
Irish brigade, was colonel of the first regiment, 
and on the acceptance of the brigade was 


MEAL WORM 


put in command and made brigadier general 
of volunteers, Feb. 3, 1862.. He was engaged 
in the battles before Richmond, at Antietam, 
at Fredericksburg, where he was wounded, 
and at Chancellorsville. In May, 18638, he re- 
signed, but early in 1864 he was recommis- 
sioned and was assigned to the command of’ 
the district of the Etowah, including portions 
of Tennessee and Georgia, where he performed 
valuable services till January, 1865. After be- 
ing mustered out of service he was appointed 
secretary of Montana territory, and in Septem- 
ber, 1866, the governor appointed him acting 
governor in his absence. Meagher was travel- 
ling to take measures to protect settlers from 
Indian hostilities when he fell from the deck 
of a steamboat and perished. He published 
‘‘Speeches on the Legislative Independence 
of Ireland” (12mo, New York, 1853), and 
‘“‘ Last Days of the 69th New York Regiment 
in Virginia” (8vo, 1861). 

MEAL WORM, the name given in Europe to the 
larva of a black heteromerous beetle, the tene- 
brio molitor (Linn.). The perfect insect, about 
two thirds of an inch long, appears in the 
evening in the least frequented parts of dwell- 
ings, in flour mills, bake houses, and pantries. 
The larva is more than an inch long, cylin- 
drical, scaly, and of an ochrey yellow color; 
it is destructive to flour and meal, and to arti- 
cles made from them ; it is said to remain two 
years in this condition, and occasionally to have 
been eaten and rejected from the human stom- 
ach; it forms a favorite food for the domes- 
ticated nightingale-—The name of meal worm 
is given in New England 
to the larva of a small 
delta moth (pyralis fari- 
nalis, Harr.). The moth 
is often seen on the ceil- 
ing of rooms, resting with 
its tail curved over the 
back; the fore wings are 
long and narrow, and 
cover the hind ones when 
at rest; they are light brown, crossed by two 
curved white lines, and have a dark choco- 
late spot at the base and tip of each. The 
larve are long and slender, tapering at each 
end, naked, and with numerous legs; they are 
often seen in flour barrels, meal chests, and 
similar places—Some of the larve of the 
moths of the genus tinea make a thick whi- 
tish gray web over corn and meal. 

MEALY BUG, a very destructive insect in 
greenhouses, of the order hemiptera, and fam- 
ily coceide or bark lice, the coceus Adonidum 
(Linn.). The perfect insects resemble small 
scales; the reddish larvee are small, but very 
active, flat and oval in shape; the females have 
a beak with which they pump up the juices of 
plants; they fix themselves from time to time 
for the purpose of changing their skin, when 
they cover themselves with a white, powdery, 
cottony substance, which has given them-their 
common name. Several broods are produced 


Meal Worm Moth (Py- 
ralis farinalis). 


MEASLES 313 


in a year, which cause great annoyance in hot- 
houses; the eggs are deposited in a similar 
cottony material. In the natural state many 
are destroyed by ichneumon parasites and are 
devoured by birds. Alkaline washes are found 
most effectual in checking their ravages, both 
within and out of the greenhouse. 

MEANDRINA. See Corat. 

MEARIM, a river of Brazil, rising in the cen- 
tral portion of Maranhio, and flowing N. to 
lat. 8° 20’ S., where it unites with the Pindaré 
to form the Maranhao, at the mouth of which 
is the island of San Luiz. Brazilians call the 
entire stream, from its source to the sea, Mea- 
rim. This river has so strong a current that 
the tide, after long resistance, rises with a fu- 
rious bore (pororoco), like that which occurs 
at the mouth of the Amazon, traversing in 15 
minutes a distance usually requiring nine hours. 
The Mearim is navigated by steamers. 

MEARNS, The. See KincarpINESHIRE. 

MEASLES (rubeola, morbilli), a contagious 
exanthematous fever, attended with a charac- 
teristic eruption. Up to the latter part of the 
last century measles and scarlet fever were 
confounded together, or at least were esteemed, 
like simple dnd confluent smallpox, to be mere 
varieties of a common disease. Measles com- 
mences with the ordinary symptoms of fever, 
chilliness, loss of appetite, and lassitude, suc- 
ceeded by heat of the skin, thirst, and fre- 
quency of pulse; but in addition to these, the 
attack is almost invariably attended with in- 
flammation of the mucous membrane lining the 
air passages; the eyes are red and watery; 
there is defluxion from the nostrils, hoarseness, 
and cough. The eruption commonly appears 
on the fourth day, at first about the head and 
neck, then the trunk and arms, and finally 
reaching the lower extremities; it takes two or 
three days to complete its course, and when it 
reaches the feet and legs has often begun to 
disappear from the face. The eruption con- 
sists of little papules, somewhat resembling 
flea bites, of a dark red color, which as they 
coalesce at their edges assume an irregularly 
crescentic form. The period of incubation, 
that is, the time elapsing from exposure to the 
contagion to the time of attack, is put down as 
from seven to fourteen days. All ages are 
liable to it, though infants at the breast are not 
so apt to be attacked as those somewhat older.., 
It often shows itself in newly recruited regi- 
ments, spreading from one individual to an- 
other so rapidly as to assume the form of an 
epidemic. The disease is not commonly dan- 
gerous, though when introduced into the Pacific 
islands, some years since, it proved exceedingly 
fatal. When the eruption is fully out, the 
cough, at first dry and troublesome, generally 
becomes softer and less frequent; and at the 
end of six or seven days from the coming out 
of the first papules they have disappeared. 
Where danger occurs, it is from inflammatior 
of the air passages; the disease may thus be- 
come complicated with croup, or in subjects 


314 MEASURES 


predisposed to consumption the seeds of that 
disease may be developed. The eyes, too, are 
sometimes left irritable and inflamed. In all 
ordinary cases, a simple diet, the maintenance 
of an equable temperature, and perhaps the ex- 
hibition of a mild diaphoretic or expectorant, 
are all that is required.—For an account of 
measles in swine, see ENTozoA. 

MEASURES. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

MEATH, an E. maritime county of Ireland, in 
the province of Leinster, bordering on the coun- 
ties Cavan, Monaghan, Louth, Dublin, Kildare, 
King’s, and Westmeath, and the Irish sea; area, 
903 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 94,480. It has only 
about 8 m. of coast, and no harbor of impor- 
tance. The surface is generally level, the soil 
fertile, and the climate healthful. Oats are 
the principal crop, but only about one third of 
the land is under cultivation, the rest being 
devoted to grazing. The chief rivers are the 
Boyne and Blackwater. Coarse linens, cot- 
tons, frieze, paper, &c., are manufactured. The 
Midland Great West- 


MECCA 


public building worthy of note is the shrine or 
temple called eit Allah, ‘‘ House of Allah,” 
or more commonly Caaba, ‘‘Square House.” 
This great sanctuary, the most famous and 
holy in the Mohammedan world, stands in the 
centre of an oblong square, enclosed by a wall 
250 paces long and 200 broad, none of the sides 
of which run in a straight line, though at first 


| sight the whole appears to be of regular shape. 


Inside of the wall is a colonnade consisting of 
a quadruple row of pillars on the eastern side 
and of a triple row on the other sides. These 
pillars are more than 20 ft. high, and generally 
about 18 in. in diameter. Some are of white 
marble, granite, or porphyry, but the greater 
number are of common stone from the neigh- 
boring hills. Their number is variously stated ; 
Burton counted 554. They are united by 
pointed arches, every four of which support a 
small dome plastered and whitened on the out- 
side; these domes are 152 in number. Parts 
of the walls and arches are gaudily painted in 


ern railway and the ——— 


Dublin and Belfast = = 


Junction railway pass 


through the county. 


The principal towns 


are Kells, the capital, 


Navan, and Trim. 


MEAUX, a town of 
France, in the depart- 
ment of Seine-et- 
Marne, 25. m. E. N. 
E. of Paris; pop. in 
1866, 11,348. It is 
on the Marne, near 
the canal of Ourcgq. 
Meaux is an episcopal 
town, and was the see 
of Bossuet, whose re- 


mains repose in the 


cathedral, and relics of 


whom are preserved 
in the episcopal pal- 
ace. The cathedral 
dates from the 12th century, but is still un- 
finished. There is a communal college with 
a library of 15,000 volumes, and the town has 
a brisk trade in grain and cheese. 

MECCA, the chief of the three holy cities of 
the Mohammedans, capital of the province of 
Hedjaz, Arabia, 65 m. E. of Jiddah, its port 
on the Red sea, and 250 m. 8S. of Medina, in 
lat. 21° 80’ N. and lon. 40° 15’ E.; pop. about 
45,000. It lies in a narrow valley shut in by 
bare hills, from 200 to 500 ft. high. Its length 
from N. to S. is about 24 m., its breadth is 
somewhat less than a mile, and it is defended 
by a fortress on an elevation S. of the city. 
The houses are well built of brick and stone, 
and, unlike those of most oriental towns, have 
windows opening to the street ; they generally 
contain apartments which are let as lodgings to 
the pilgrims who annually visit the holy city. 
The streets are broad and unpaved. The only 


The Great Mosque, Mecca. 


stripes of yellow, red, and blue. The floors of 
the colonnades are paved with large stones 
badly cemented together. The Caaba is 115 
paces from the northern colonnade and 88 from 
the southern. It is an oblong massive struc- 
ture, 18 paces long, 14 broad, and from 35 to 
40 ft. high, and is built of fine gray granite 
in horizontal courses of masonry of irregular 
depth; the stones are well fitted together with 
excellent mortar like Roman cement. It was 
entirely rebuilt as it now stands in 1627, a tor- 
rent in the preceding year having thrown down 
three of its sides. The roof of the Caaba be- 
ing flat, it has at a distance the appearance of 
a perfect cube. At the S. E. corner of the 
Caaba is the famous ‘‘ black stone,” which is 
believed to have been brought from heaven by 
angels. It forms a part of the angle of the 
building, 4 ft. 9 in. from the ground, and is an 
irregular oval about 7 in. in diameter, with an 


MECCA 


undulating surface composed of about a dozen | 
smaller stones of different sizes and shapes 
well joined together with a small quantity of 
cement, and perfectly smoothed. It is said to 
have been broken in pieces by order of a he- 
retical sultan in 1022, but was cemented to- 
gether and bound with asilver ring. The color 
is black and metallic, and the stone is worn 
smooth by the lips of worshippers. Burck- 
hardt thought it looked like a mass of lava 
containing several small extraneous particles 
of a whitish and of a yellowish substance ; 
while Burton says it appeared to him like a 
common aérolite. The pilgrims who walk 
around the Caaba begin their procession at 
the black stone, which is touched and kissed 
with the highest veneration. A pavement of 
‘granite, polished like glass by the feet of the 
faithful, surrounds the Caaba. Outside of this 
pavement, which forms an irregular oval, is a 
line of iron posts supporting cross rods from 
which hang white or green glass globe lamps. 
The interior of the Caaba is plain, and there 
are no windows or any other opening except 
the entrance and a small door leading to a stair- 
case to the roof. The floor and walls are cov- 
ered with marble of various colors, but mostly 
white; and the roof and upper part of the 
walls are covered with red damask embroidered 
with gold. The interior is lighted by many 
lamps, but there is no other furniture except 
a small press in one corner in which the key 
of the building is sometimes placed. Near the 
door, outside, is a small hollow, where Abra- 
ham and Ishmael are said to have mixed the 
cement for building the Caaba. On the N. W. 
side are the supposed graves of Ishmael and 
Hagar, enclosed by a semicircular wall covered 
with white marble. Opposite the E. corner is 
the zem-zem or sacred well, believed to be that 
of Hagar. Its water is unpleasant in taste, 
and has a cathartic effect; the Mohammedans 
ascribe to it great and peculiar virtues. None 
but Mohammedans are admitted to the Caaba 
or its enclosure, but a few travellers from 
Christendom have ventured to enter in dis- 
guise at the risk of their lives. It was thus 
visited by Burckhardt in 1814, by Burton in 
1852, and by Maltzan in 1862. Arafat hill, 12 
m. E. of Mecca, is visited by all pilgrims, who 
must perform there certain devotions and list- 
en to an annual sermon before they can justly 
claim to have performed the pilgrimage. It is 
about 200 ft. high, and rises from a gravelly 
plain on which the pilgrims pitch their tents. 
(See Ararat.)—The trade of Mecca is chiefly 
derived from the pilgrims, who come from all 
parts of the Mohammedan world, and generally 
bring merchandise with them. The people are 
lively and polished in their manners, and have 
a remarkable knowledge of languages. There 
are a few artisans, and some small potteries 
and dye works. The climate of Mecca is sul- 
try and unwholesome, especially in August, 
September, and October. It was the birth- 
place of Mohammed. It is ruled by a sherif, 


MECHANICS 315 


who at present is nominally dependent on the 
Turkish sultan. The Wahabees took possession 
of Mecca in 1803 and held it till 1818, when 
they were expelled by the forces of Mehemet 
Ali, pasha of Egypt. The number of pilgrims 
to Mecca in 1873 was larger than for many 
previous years, and was estimated at 200,000, 
Of these, more than one half came by cara- 
vans; about 46,000 arrived by way of Jiddah 
and other ports on the Red sea, and for their 
transportation 12 ships, 87 steamboats, and a 
large number of small vessels were employed. 
Nearly 15,000 Malays and Hindoos came from 
India, embarking at Calcutta and Bombay. 
Turks, Egyptians, Mogrebins, and Caucasians, 
to the number of 20,000, came by way of the 
Suez canal; and there were 3,000 pilgrims 
from ports in the Persian gulf. 

MECHAIN, Pierre Frangois André, a French 
mathematician and astronomer, born in Laon, 
Aug. 16, 1744, died in Castellon, Spain, Sept. 
20,1805. After receiving a limited education, 
he became a mathematical tutor, devoting his 
leisure hours to the study of astronomy. Try- 
ing to sell his telescope in order to assist his 
father, he attracted the notice of the astrono- 
mer Lalande, who procured him a situation as 
hydrographer under the government. In this 
capacity he assisted M. Bretonniére in sur- 
veying the French coast between Nieuport 
and St. Malo; but his attention was chiefly di- 
rected to the theory of eclipses and comets, 
11 of the latter having been discovered and 
the orbits of 24 computed by him. In 1782 
the academy of sciences admitted him to mem- 
bership and awarded a prize to his ‘‘ Memoir 
on Comets.’”’ Under the republic he was em- 
ployed, together with Delambre, to measure the 
arc of the meridian comprised between Dun- 
kirk and Barcelona. On returning to Paris, 
he refused to deliver his papers to the acad- 
emy, because he had detected a difference of 
8” in his calculations respecting the latitude 
of Barcelona. After being appointed director 
of the observatory of Paris, he solicited the 
board of longitude to permit him to prolong 
the measurement of the arc from Barcelona to 
the Balearic islands, that he might have an op- 
portunity of correcting his error. The board 
consented, and Méchain set out for Spain to 
conduct the operation, but fell a victim to an 
epidemic disorder on the way. The most im- 
portant of his scientific papers are to be found 
in the Mémoires des savants étrangers, in the 
Transactions of the French academy, and in 
the Connaissance des Temps from 1786 to 1794, 
of which he was for some time editor. 

MECHANICS, that branch of natural philoso- 
phy which treats of the action of forces on 
bodies. It is divided into statics, which treats 
of the action of forces in equilibrium, and dy- 


namics, which treats of the action of forces 


on bodies in motion. Newton divided it into 
practical and rational mechanics, the former re- 
lating to the mechanical powers, and the latter 
to the theory of motion. In a restricted sense 


316 


the word mechanics signifies the inventing of 
machines (Gr. uy yavacba, to inventor construct), 
or at most consideration of the action of forces 
upon them, and this is the sense in which the 
-ancients used it; but the science has long since 
passed beyond such limits, and comprehends 
the laws by which the motions of the heavenly 
bodies are governed, as well as those which 
affect their form, and also the action of gravi- 
tation upon bodies on the earth. Hydrostatics, 
hydrodynamics, and even sometimes pneumat- 
ics, are considered branches of the general 
science of mechanics. (See HypDROMECHANIOCS, 
and Pnrvumatics.)—The invention of simple 
machines for moving large masses of bodies 
is older than history. ‘The lever and inclined 
plane were probably the first simple powers 
used, the construction of the latter being natu- 
rally suggested by the advantages offered by 
the natural slopes of hills. It is generally be- 
lieved that the vast blocks of stone which are 
found in elevated positions in ancient Egyp- 
tian structures were raised to their places by 
inclined planes formed of earth on the exte- 
rior of the walls and afterward removed. The 
successive steps in the invention of machines 
have not been recorded, the work of Vitruvius 
on architecture, written under Augustus, being 
the principal source of information of those 
which were in use at and before his time. 
From his descriptions there were then in use 
the lever, the wheel and axle, the simple and 
compound pulley, and a forcing pump for sup- 
plying the public fountains, whose invention 
he ascribes to Ctesibius of Alexandria, who 
flourished in’ the latter half of the 3d cen- 
tury B. C. Among other machines this mech- 
anician also invented the clepsydra or water 
clock. (See Crepsypra.) Vitruvius also de- 
scribes a complex machine in which wheels 
acted upon each other by means of cogs, and 
which was used for measuring distances tray- 
elled by carriages or ships; and he describes at 
considerable length military engines for throw- 
ing masses of stone. Water wheels were used 
for grinding corn, and water was raised by 
buckets which were moved by wheels, the 
power being supplied by men walking on 
them. It is probable that most of the engines 
described by him were in use by the Greeks 
before the erection of the Parthenon. There 
is no positive evidence of the employment of 
the expansive force of steam as a moving pow- 
er before the latter part of the 17th century, 
and then it was only used to raise water; and 
its general application to machinery dates only 
from the year 1768. Among the ancients, 
Archimedes seems to stand almost or quite 
alone in the power of conceiving in any great 
degree true theoretical ideas of mechanics. 
He explained the theory of the lever and some 
important properties of the centre of gravity, 
and also the fundamental doctrines of hydro- 
statics, particularly the equilibrium of floating 
bodies. The idea that the particles of a fluid 
have the power to communicate force with- 


MECHANICS 


out loss, in consequence of being perfectly 
free to move among one another, seems ney- 
er to have been clearly comprehended before 
his time. Archimedes was so far ahead of his 
age that it was only within a comparatively 
recent period (the epoch of Galileo), that his 
doctrines became established. Before Archi- 
medes the doctrines of Aristotle had been 
generally adopted in physics, and for many 
centuries afterward were accepted by the sci- 
entific world. Aristotle taught that all motion 
was naturally circular, an idea which lasted 
till the first law of motion was established. 
He divided motion into natural and violent, 
and accounted for the fact that a body thrown 
in a horizontal direction diminishes in velocity, 
while a falling body increases, by saying that 
the former is a violent and the latter a natu- 
ral motion. In accounting for the continu- 
ance in motion of a stone thrown by the hand, 
he asks: “If the hand was the cause of the 
motion, how could the stone move at all when 
left to itself? If not, why does it ever stop?” 
He answers by saying: ‘‘There is a motion 
communicated to the air, the successive parts 
of which urge the stone onward, and each 
part of this medium continues to act for some 
while after it has been acted upon; and the 
motion ceases when it comes to a particle 
which cannot act after it has ceased to be act- 
ed on.” He attempted the discussion of the 
properties of some of the simple machines, and 
propounded some theories in regard to the le- 
ver, but even these have more the nature of 
mere suggestions. He asks why small forces 
may move great weights by means of a lever, 
and answers by asking if it is because the great- 
er radius moves the faster; and he also queries 
whether a wedge affords power because it is 
composed of two opposite levers. As to the 
reason why a person when rising from a chair 
bends his legs and body to acute angles with 
his thigh, he suggests that it is because the 
right angle is connected with equality and rest. 
Here he again departs from the more philo- ~ 
sophical method he had pursued with the arms 
of the lever, and returns to his usual meta- 
physical ones; and this is the tendency of most 
of the mechanical ideas of the ancients, with 
the exception, as has been observed, of those 
of Archimedes, which were unappreciated by 
his contemporaries. The latter, in his in- 
vestigations concerning the properties of the 
lever, commences with the axiom that two 
equal weights balance each other on a lever 
of equal arms, and proceeds by employing the 
mathematical methods then in use to show 
that equilibrium always will exist in a lever 
when the bodies supported by it are inversely 
proportional to their distances from the ful- 
crum. Proceeding in his reasoning, he also 
concludes that there must be in every body a 
centre of force corresponding to the fulerum 
in the lever. The principles which were so 
long ago clearly conceived by him were how- 
ever not only undeveloped, but were not un- 


MECHANICS 


derstood, and were therefore neglected for 
many centuries, till they were revived by Gali- 
leo and by Stevinus.—The mechanical advan- 
tage of the inclined plane was one of the first 
and most important propositions which engaged 
the attention of mechanicians on the revival 
of physical science. Oardan in 1545 asserted 
that the force necessary to support a body on 
an inclined plane is double when the incli- 
nation is double., Guido Ubaldo in 1577 at- 
tempted to prove that an acute wedge will 
produce a greater mechanical effect than an 
obtuse one, but did not establish the proposi- 
tion. His references to the screw, the inclined 
plane, and the wedge, however, show that he 
comprehended their relations. Michael Varro, 
whose Tractatus de Motu was published at 
Geneva in 1584, treats of the wedge in a man- 
ner which indicates at least an approach to 
the doctrine of the composition and resolution 
of forces. The explanation of the true the- 
ory of the inclined plane was first made by Ste- 
vinus of Bruges. He supposed a loop of a 
string, loaded with 14 equal balls at equal dis- 
tances, to hang over a double inclined plane 
whose sides were in the proportion of two to 
one, and which would therefore support four 
and two balls respectively. That the loop 
must remain at rest followed from the fact 
that after any motion it would still be in the 
same condition as before, so that if motion 
took place it would go on indefinitely and re- 
sult in perpetual motion, which he regarded 
as an absurdity. He shows that the festoon 
of eight balls hanging below the planes may 
be removed without disturbing the equilibrium 
of those resting upon the planes; so that the 
four balls on the longer plane would balance 
the two on the shorter, which would make 
the weights supported by the planes propor- 
tional to their length. Stevinus also shows 
that when three forces act upon a point, they 
will be in equilibrium when they are in pro- 
portion to the sides of a triangle which are 
parallel to the direction of the forces. He 
however only gives a demonstration of the 
case in which two of the forces are at right 
angles to each other. Leonardo da Vinci had 
before this obtained clear ideas regarding the 
equilibrium of oblique forces, as shown by 
extracts from his manuscripts published by 
Venturi in 1797. In 1499 Leonardo gave a 
correct statement of the forces exerted in an 
oblique direction on a lever, and made a dis- 
tinction between the length of the arm of the 
lever and that of the perpendicular to the di- 
rection of the force. These views of Leonardo 
are believed to have been sufficiently known 
by Galileo to aid him in his speculations, and 
the modes of reasoning of the two are some- 
what similar. Leonardo had also asserted that 
the time of descent of a body down an inclined 
plane is to the time of its vertical descent in 
the proportion of the length of the plane to 
its height. The most important discoveries 
of Galileo are in regard to the laws of falling 


317 


bodies, as determined by his observations on 
the vibrations of a pendulum, which he found 
were proportional to the square roots of the 
lengths of the pendulum. He was also the 
first to enter into a mathematical investigation 
of the strength of materials in resisting strains. 
The problems regarding the collision of bodies 
were attempted by Descartes, who made some 
important observations; but no clear ideas or 
theories were obtained till Huygens in Holland 


and Wallis and Wren in England turned their 


attention to the subject, all these about the 
same time sending papers to the royal society 
of London. The first example of a correct so- 
lution of a problem of circular motion occurs 
in the theorems of Huygens. The problem 
of the centre of oscillation was proposed by 
Mersenne in 1646, and had attracted the at- 
tention of Huygens when a youth, but he was 
then unable to find any principles sufficient 
for its solution. But when, in 1673, he pub- 
lished his Horologium Oscillatorium, a fourth 
part of the work was on this subject, and the 
theories then advanced have been found strict- 
ly correct. In 1687 Newton’s great work 
was published, when for the first time the 
science of mechanics was extended from a con- 
sideration of the action of forces upon bodies 
on the earth to the action of forces exerted be- 
tween celestial bodies, and the adoption of the 
theory of universal gravitation. It was en- 
riched about the same time by the method of 
fluxions of Newton, and its improvement by 
Leibnitz, known as the differential calculus, an 
invention which greatly facilitated the investi- 
gations of mechanical problems. The illustri- 
ous family of Bernoullis of Basel, all of whom 
were natural philosophers, added much to the 
mathematical knowledge of mechanics. The 
transcendent mathematical powers of Euler 
gave analytical method to mechanical solutions. 
His memoirs occupy a large portion of the “‘ Pe- 
tropolitan Transactions” from 1728 to 1783, and 
so many were left at his death that their publi- 
cation was not completed in 1818. In 1747 
D’Alembert and Clairaut sent on the same day 
to the French academy of sciences their solu- 
tions of the celebrated ‘“‘ problem of three bod- 
ies”? (see Moon), which for a long time claimed 
the attention of mathematicians. The labors 
of Clairaut have been of great service to the 
science of mechanics, but his name, and those 
of D’Alembert, Lagrange, and Laplace, be- 
long more to the department of physical as- 
tronomy, and with others have received at- 
tention in the article Astronomy.—The sub- 
jects of friction, strength of materials, theory 
of arches and domes, perpetual motion, and 
hydromechanics, will be found under those 
heads. Universal gravitation is treated in the 
articles Astronomy, Gravity, Moon, and un- 
der other astronomical titles, and the science 
of projectiles under Gunnery. This article 
will be occupied only with a consideration of 
the following subjects: 1, the laws of motion, 
including the laws of impact and uniformly 


318 


accelerated rectilinear motion; 2, the compo- 
sition and resolution of forces; 3, centrifugal 
force; 4, the pendulum; 5, the mechanical 
powers, or the theory of machines. Statical 
and dynamical principles will be treated in 
conjunction, as the subjects generally embrace 
both. J. Tue Laws or Motion. These laws 
were pretty well recognized if not established 
before the Principia of Newton was written. 
Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, Wren, Halley, 
Hooke, and Huygens had successively advanced 
toward a comprehension of them, the two 
works of the last named, on the impact of 
bodies and on centrifugal force, containing as- 
sumptions, if not direct statements, of what 
are known as the three laws of motion. The 
mission of Newton was more to generalize 
these laws and apply them to the solution of 
the motion of the heavenly bodies. His Prin- 
cipia commences with a statement of the laws 
of motion, and it is in the form there given 
that they are generally known. They are 
as follows: Zaw 1. Every body continues 
in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a 
straight line unless acted on by some exter- 
nal force. This law results from the prop- 
erty of inertia, by which matter cannot give 
itself or deprive itself of motion. Law 2. 
Change of motion is proportional to the force 
impressed, and is in the direction of the line 
in which that force acts. Law 3. To every 
action there is always opposed an equal re- 
action. Force may be defined as any cause 
by which a body is moved, or held in any 
position, or has its motion changed. It may 
be the expansive force of steam and gases, 
animal power, the attraction of gravitation, or 
electricity. Inertia is that property of mat- 
ter which offers resistance to any force tend- 
ing to change its state of rest or of motion, 
and it is an element of the greatest impor- 
tance in mechanics, requiring consideration 
in every calculation where change of motion 
takes place. A body occupying a fixed place in 
space would be in a state of absolute rest; but 
ordinarily a body is said to be at rest when it is 
stationary with regard to surrounding bodies. 
A body is in absolute motion when moving 
from one point to another in space, and in 
relative motion when it is regarded as moving 
with respect to some other body. The velocity 
of a moving body is the distance it travels in a 
given time, the units of space and time being 
the foot and the second. Velocity may be 
uniform or variable. It is uniform when the 
body moves through equal spaces in equal 
times. Variable motion may be regular or ir- 
regular, and it may be accelerated or retarded. 
When it is accelerated in a constant ratio, it is 
said to be uniformly accelerated; and when 
in like manner retarded, it is said to be uni- 
formly retarded.—Momentum and Impact. The 
force of matter in motion is called its mo- 
mentum, and sometimes quantity of motion, 
and is equal to the mass or quantity of matter 
multiplied into its velocity; thus m=g x2, the 


MECHANICS 


unit of mass being generally considered the 
pound avoirdupois. A cannon ball weighing 
100 lbs. and moving with a velocity of 1,200 
ft. per second would have a momentum of 
120,000 lbs. or 60 tons. When two bodies. 
have equal momenta, their velocities will be in 
the inverse ratio to their quantities of matter ; 
that is, if w@ixg=ag’ x0’, then 0, >-oysg ae, 
A force is impulsive when it acts for a moment 
only, like the stroke of a hammer. When such 
a force alone acts against a movable body, it 
necessarily causes uniform motion, a fact which 
may be shown experimentally by using <At- 
wood’s machine, as will be seen further on. 
When bodies meet by impact, the motion 
which results depends upon their degree of 
elasticity and upon their relative momenta. 
Bodies are elastic when they have the power 
of restoring their form after compression or 
expansion. There are no solids which are per- 
fectly elastic, although glass and steel are near- 
ly so within certain limits. Permanent gases 
are perfectly elastic, having the property of 
expanding after compression to their original 
bulk, and of being unchanged in their power of 
resisting pressure. (See Exasriciry.) Vapors 
are also perfectly elastic for all pressures at 
which the liquids from which they are derived 
are above their boiling points. (See Borne 
Point.) Bodies are inelastic when they have 
no power of restitution after compression. 
Putty is almost per- 

fectly inelastic. If ™ m! . 
an inelastic body, m, 0-6 ee 
fig. 1, is moving in Weed 

the direction m ec, 

and it encounters another inelastic body, m’, 
which is at rest, the two bodies will after 
impact move together with a common veloci- 
ty equal to half that which the body m had 
before impact, this having imparted half its 
momentum to m’; therefore the momentum 
of the two bodies after impact must be equal 
to that of m before impact. If » represents 
the velocity of the body m before, and 0’ 
its velocity after impact, then mvo=(m+m’)v', 


mv . . ° 
and Og ee When two inelastic bodies, 


moving in the same direction with unequal 
velocities, collide, they will move together 
with a common velocity, and with a momen- 
tum equal to the sum of their momenta pre- 
vious to impact; or mo+m/v'=(m-+m’)o’, or 
ue me +m'v’ 

m+n * 
2, moving toward each other, collide, they 
will come to rest if 


If two bodies, m and m’, fig. 


their momenta are »m nt 
equal; but if ther @————z———-® 
momenta are uwune- Fra. 2. 


qual, they will after 

collision move together with a common ve- 
locity in the direction of the body having 
the lesser momentum, and with a momen- 
tum equal to the difference of momenta be- 
fore impact; or mvo—m/o’=(m+m')o"", and 


MECHANICS 


p__ mo—m'e! 
—~ mn +m! 
propositions of Huygens on elastic bodies. If 
a body meets an equal body at rest, after im- 
pact the former will be at rest, but the latter 
will acquire the velocity of the impelling body. 
If two equal bodies moving with unequal velo- 
cities strike one another, they will after impact 
move with interchanged velocities. Any body, 
however large, is moved by any body, how- 
ever small, and moving with any velocity what- 
soever. If two bodies meet from opposite 
directions whose velocities are inversely in 
proportion to their quantity, each will rebound 
with the velocity with which it approached. 
These propositions may be experimentally veri- 
fied by the apparatus shown in fig. 3. Let 
two elastic balls be suspended at equal heights 
by slender threads of a 
radius corresponding to 
the graduated are ab. 
If one of the balls is 
raised and allowed to 
fall against the other, 
this will be impelled to 
acorresponding height; 
if both are raised to 
5 the same height and 

let fall, they will re- 

bound to their original 

heights (theoretically) ; 
and if one is let fall from a greater height than 
the other, they will rebound with reciprocal 
velocities. If several balls are hung between 
them so that they touch each other, and im- 
pact is made by a terminal ball, all the in- 
termediate balls will remain at rest, the im- 
pulse being transmitted through them to the 
opposite ball. If a perfectly elastic ball is 
thrown obliquely against a smooth plane, it 
will be reflected so as to make the angle of 
reflection equal to the angle of incidence. If 
the ball is imperfectly elastic, the angle of re- 
flection will be greater than the angle of in- 
cidence; and if the ball is perfectly inelastic, 
it will not be reflected, but will slide upon 
the plane.— Uniformly accelerated Rectilinear 
Motion; Laws of Falling Bodies. As a con- 
sequence of the property of inertia, when a 
body has been put in motion and all force is 
removed, it tends to continue in motion with 
uniform velocity and in a right line. But if 
the force which caused the motion is uniform 
and constant, the body will receive equal in- 
crements of force during equal spaces of time, 
and therefore its motion will become uniformly 
accelerated. The most uniform constant known 
force at the surface of the earth is gravitation, 
and it is by its means that the laws of uni- 
formly accelerated motion are studied. <A 
body falling through the air does not in fact 
have its motion uniformly accelerated, because 
of the resistance of the air; but it can be 
proved by experiment as well as by a process 
of reasoning that such would be its motion 
inavacuum. That all bodies near the surface 
542 VOL. x1.—21 


a! 


.—The following are among the 


s 


< b 
Pidgno ds BS 
Fig. 3. 


319 


of the earth tend to fall with equal velocities 
without regard to their density or bulk, is 
shown by the common guinea and feather ex- 
periment in a tube exhausted of air. The 
element of resistance of the air will not there- 
fore, in considering the subject, be taken into 
account. The velocity of a falling body, in 
consequence of gravity being a uniform and 
constant force, will be in proportion to its 
time of fall, and its average velocity during 
any given space of time will be at the middle 
of that space; and therefore the velocity 
which a body in falling acquires at the end 
of any period of time will be double the aver- 
age velocity from the commencement. Let 
the figures 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6 on the left of the 
column in the adjoining diagram 
represent the number of seconds 
during which a body falls from 
rest; they will alsorepresent the 4 
velocities acquired at the ends of 

the seconds. Now, as the aver- | 
age velocity during the first two 
seconds is acquired at the end of 
the first second, and as the aver- 
age velocity of the next two sec- 

onds is acquired at the end of | 
the third second, if we represent 
the space fallen through during 
the first two seconds by §, the 
space fallen through during the 
third and fourth seconds will be 6 
represented by 8 8, and for simi- 
lar reasons the space fallen through during 
the fifth and sixth seconds will be represent- 
ed by58. Therefore, during equal successive 
portions of time a body falls from rest through 
successive spaces represented by the odd num- 
bers 1, 3, 5, 7, &c.; so that if the space through 
which it falls in one second be called a unit, 
that through which it falls during the first two 
seconds will be 14+38=4, and that through 
which it falls from rest in three seconds will 
be 1+8+45=9 spaces; or the spaces through 
which a body falls from rest during 1, 2, 3, 4, 
&c., seconds will be proportional to the squares 
of these numbers. We thus by a process of 
reasoning, and without the assistance of ex- 
perimental demonstration, arrive at the follow- 
ing laws of falling bodies: 1. The velocity 
acquired by a body in falling is proportional to 
the time of fall. 2. The spaces through which 
a body falls in equal successive periods of time 
vary as the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, &c. 38. The 
whole space through which a body falls from 
rest is proportional to the square of the time. 
4, The velocity acquired by a falling body 
during any period of time, if continued uni- 
formly, will carry it through twice the space 
in the same time; a law which follows from 
the second law, by which the spaces fallen 
through during equal successive periods of time 
increase by a constant quantity, which is twice 
the space through which a body falls from rest 
during one second. This constant quantity, 
which in this latitude is 82°16 ft., is usually 


320 


expressed by the letter g. The following table 
embraces the facts contained in these laws: 


TABLE SHOWING LAWS OF FALLING BODIES. 


Velocities | Spaces fallen Total height 


TIME Pia : 

acquired in values through in values/fallen through in 
IN, SRO ae. of 9. of 49. values of 47. 
Dhia sarah manereders = a2 16 toe ele 60S tte = 8608 It. 
Desai Rowe Qg= 64:32 “ 8= 48°24 * 4= 6432 “ 
Oyaeieeiar ees 8g= 96-48 * 5= 80°40 “ 9=144:72 * 
Bate RB aGGAC 4g=128°64 “ T=112°56 “ | 16=257-28 * 
Du caret cunemter 5g=160-80 “ 9=144-72 “ | 25=402 00 “ 
GIFS EG ick 6g=192°96 “* | 11=176°S8 “ | 86=578°88 “ 


These laws may be experimentally verified 
with considerable accuracy, but in order to do 
so it is necessary to reduce the velocity of the 
falling body, because a body dense enough not 
to be much affected by the resistance of the 
air soon acquires so great a velocity that it 
cannot be estimated with accuracy; and if the 
body is light, it soon meets with so much 
resistance that the motion becomes uniform. 
The most ancient method for diminishing the 
velocity was with the inclined plane, by Gali- 
leo. By referring to that part of this article 
which treats of the inclined plane, it will be 
seen that the force with which a body tends 
to move down such a plane is to the force with 
which it would fall freely as the height of the 
plane is to its length. If its height is 1 ft. and 
its length 16 ft., it will move down the plane 
1 ft. during the first second, 3 ft. during the sec- 
.ond second, and so on; and therefore through 


the 16 ft. during four seconds. But the results 
are not as accurate as with the employment of 
Atwood’s machine, a simplified form of which, 
to facilitate explanation, isshown in fig.4. Two 


MECHANICS 


equal weights, a and 0, are suspended over a 
friction wheel placed at the top of a graduated 
post 9 or 10 ft. high. A platform, p, having 
a joint by means of which it may be suddenly 
dropped at any desired moment by connection 
with clockwork, is placed just below the wheel. 
The weight a is placed upon this platform and 
loaded with a metallic bar, whose gravity is 
used as the accelerating force. At a chosen 
moment the platform falls and the weight be- 
gins to descend with accelerated velocity. A 
ring, c, placed at any desired distance below 
the platform, takes off the accelerating bar, 
after which the weight descends with uniform 
motion, only imperceptibly retarded by the air 
and an exceedingly small amount of friction. 


If the sum of the weights a and 6 is 99 ounces 


and the accelerating bar weighs one ounce, 
gravity acts practically on only one ounce, but 
it has to give motion to 100 ounces; therefore 
the velocity of descent will be ;4, as great as 
that of a weight falling freely ; so that during 
the first second it will fall only 1:93 in., during 
the fourth second only 13°51 in., and during 
four seconds only 61°75 in. It will be observed 
that the velocity may be varied by changing 
the weight of the accelerating bar. By chang- 
ing the position of the ring ¢ from one point 
to another, the rate of acceleration may be de- 
termined, and the velocity of motion attained 
at any point of time or space fallen through 
may be ascertained by measuring the uniform 
motion of the weights after the removal of 
the accelerating bar. The principal advantage 
of this machine is the facility it affords for 
estimating the relations between the accelera- 
ting force and the space described in a given 
time. Atwood’s machine has been modified 
by Bourbouze so as to act somewhat on the 
principle of Morin’s apparatus next described. 
The weights are set in motion by means of 
temporary magnets, and upon a cylinder cov- 
ered with smoked paper curves are traced by a 
vibrating style, which is also moved by a tem- 
porary magnet. Morin’s apparatus is auto- 
graphic, and in some respects, especially in its 
great accuracy and facility in verifying the law 
of acceleration, is preferable to Atwood’s ma- 
chine. Its essential parts are shown in fig. 5. 
A frame 8 or 10 ft. high holds the parts in 
position, which consist of a light wooden cylin- 
der, M, about one third of the length of which 
is shown in the figure. It is turned by a 
weight, Q, suspended by a cord passing around 
a drum, G, which carries a cog wheel ¢ that 
plays into the endless screw a. At first the 
motion is accelerated, but after a short time, 
on account of the resistance of the air en- 
countered by the revolving fan which is turned 
by the endless screw d, uniform motion is at- 
tained. Then, by pulling a cord, K, a lever, 
A, displaces a catch, ©, which liberates a 
weight, P, which then begins to fall with ac- 
celerated velocity between two vertical gui- 
ding wires. The weight is provided with a pen- 
cil, 7, which describes a line in descending upon 


MECHANICS 


the revolving cylinder, which, being marked 
with equidistant vertical and transverse lines, 
indicates at a glance the direction of the curve. 
When the paper is flattened out, this curve is 
found to be parabolic, thus showing that the 
spaces through which the weight falls are in 
proportion to the squares of the times. The 
other laws may also be verified by Morin’s ap- 
paratus; but such verification is unnecessary, 
for the other laws are natural consequences of 
the law of squares. The following formulas 
are of frequent use in mechanical calculations. 
If the number of seconds during which a body 
falls from rest is represented by ¢, and the 
space fallen through in one second by 3g, the 
entire space fallen through will be expressed 
by the following equation: s=3gé? (1). Now, 
as the velocity acquired in falling during one 
second is g, and as velocity is proportional to 
time of fall, we derive the following equa- 
tion: o=gt, andv’=g’t? (2). Dividing this by 


(1), we have = = 29, whence 0=1/296 (3). Ex- 


ample: What velocity will a body acquire in 
falling 1,000 ft., and what time will it occupy 
in falling? Taking (8), 0=,/29s = ./64320 = 
253°6 ft. per second. Again, taking equation 


(1), s=4g0’, we derive ¢= Peat == 71°88 
seconds. A body does not fall in a perfect- 
ly vertical direction, because. the point from 
which it falls, in consequence of its greater 
distance from the earth’s centre, describes a 
greater circle than the point to which it falls. 
It will therefore strike a point somewhat 
to the east—about one fourth of an inch for 
a fall of 150 ft. The motion of an ascending 
body is retarded by the same law as that 
by which a descending body is accelerated. 
II. Composition AND RESOLUTION oF ForcEs. 
The union of two or more forces to produce 
a mechanical effect is called a composition of 
forces. Conversely, when a single force is re- 
placed by two or more forces which produce 
the same effect, or when it is resolved into 
components for the purpose of mathemati- 
cal analysis, such operation is called a resolu- 
tion of forces. Analyses of cases must have 
regard to: 1, the quantity or intensity of the 
force or power; 2, the direction in which the 
force acts; and 8, the part of the body or load 
to which it is applied, and which is called the 
point of application, The quantity of force or 
power is usually expressed by assigning it a 
value in weight. It may also be represented by 
a straight line of proportionate length. Two 
or more forces acting in the same direction are 
equal to their sum; acting in opposite direc- 
tions, they are equal to their difference. When 
two forces act together to produce a third, they 
may be represented by two sides of a triangle, 
pee the resultant is represented by the third 
side. 
three forces, these forces may be represented 
in quantity and direction by the sides of a tri- 


If a point is kept at rest by the action of | 


321 


angle. Thus, the point a, fig. 6, will be kept 
at rest when acted upon by three forces in the 
direction of the arrows 8, c, and d, where the 
forces are represented respectively in quantity 
and direction by the 
sides 0’, c’, and ad’. 
If the adjacent sides 
of a_ parallelogram 
represent two forces 
in quantity and di- 
rection, the resultant 
forces will always be 
represented by the 
diagonal contained between them. Thus, if ca 
and ed, fig. 7, represent two forces equal: in 
quantity, having the direction shown by the 
arrows, their resultant will be represented by 
the longer diagonal cd; but if ab and bd 
represent two forces acting in the direction of 
the arrows, the resultant will be represented 


Fig. 6. 


Fie 7%. 


by the shorter diagonal ad. These proposi- 
tions may be experimentally verified by the 
method of Gravesande. Let two weights of 
8 and 10 lbs. be suspended over two friction 
pulleys by a string, as shown in fig. 8, and let 
a third weight of say 14 lbs. be suspended 
from this string, between the pulleys. After 
a time the system will 
come to rest. If now 
the string supporting the 
middle weight be ex- 
tended upward vertical- 
ly to some point as d, 
and da and dé be drawn 
parallel to the strings ab 
and bce, a parallelogram 
will be formed whose 
adjacent sides ab and 
bc, and whose diagonal 
bd will have the re- 
spective values 8, 10, 
and 14. The point 0 is acted upon by three 
forces, represented by the respective sides of 
the triangle ad in quantity and direction, 
the weight 8 acting in the direction bc, the 
weight 10 acting in the direction 0a, and the 
weight 14 acting in the direction db. The 
resultant of a number of forces acting upon 
the same point of a body may be determined 
by finding the resultant of the first two, and. 
of this with the third, &c. This will be ob- 
vious by supposing four equal forces, ae, be, 
ce, and de, fig. 9, acting at right angles to 
each other upon the point e. The resultant 
of we and be will be the diagonal fe of the 
parallelogram aed; the resultant of fe. and 
ce will be be; and that of de and de will be 


Fie. 8. 


822 


zero; which will also appear by observing 
that the forces ae and ce balance each other, 
as also do the forces be andde. The resultant 


of any number of 
; a 4 torces may also be 
LS 
LS 7) 
WN 
NY a NS 
6 


found by connecting 

the lines representing 

the forces, as shown 

in fig. 10. Suppose 

the forces to be rep- 

resented in quantity 
Fia. 9. and direction by the 
lines ab, bc, ed, and 
de. Connect the points a and e, and the 
line ae will represent the resultant of all 
the forces in quantity and direction; for ac 
is the resultant of 
ab and be, ad 
that of ae and 
ed, and ae, that 
of ad and de. 
The force which 
impels a sail ves- 
sel, moving with 
the wind off -the 
quarter, is the re- 
sultant produced 
by the oblique ac- 
tion of the wind against the sails. Let a 3, 
fig. 11, represent the position of the sail, and 
dc the direction and force of the wind. This 
force may be resolved into 
the components df and fc, 
the former parallel with 
and the latter perpendicu- 
lar to the surface of the 
sail, and therefore the only 
force which is effective. 
But it is not acting in the 
direction of the keel, mk ; 
therefore it must be resolved 
into the components /g 
and gc, the latter of which 
will represent in quantity 
and direction the effective 
propelling force given by 
the wind, whose force is measured by dc.— 
Centre of Gravity. The point through which 
the resultant of all the forces caused by attrac- 
tion of gravitation of the molecules of a body 
passes is called the centre of gravity. This 
point may be within the body, or, in conse- 
quence of its form, may be beyond it. The 
finding of the centre of gravity is a geometri- 
cal problem, but with an irregular-shaped body 
it can most easily be determined experimental- 
ly by suspending it:in two positions, and find- 
ing the point of intersection of the two verti- 
cal lines which pass through the two points 
of suspension. This point of intersection will 
necessarily be the centre of gravity, for it is 
evident that it must reside in each of the two 
verticals, as each vertical is the resultant of all 
the gravitating forces of the body while sus- 
pended in any one position. In the case of 
bodies of uniform density and of geometrical 


Fig. 10. 


Bie. Li. 


MECHANICS 


form, the centre of gravity is readily deter- 
mined by geometrical principles. In a circle or 
sphere it coincides with the geometrical cen- 
tre. In a plane triangle it 

is at the point of intersec- e 

tion of two lines joining 

the vertices of two angles 

with the middle of the . 
opposite sides, as shown 

in fig. 12. In a cone or 

pyramid it is in the line 

joining the vertex with “Z d 

the centre of gravity of Fic. 12. 

the base, and at one fourth 
the distance from the base. A body is said te 
be in equilibrium when the centre of gravity 
and the point of support are in the same verti- 
cal line. When the point of support is above 
the centre of gravity, the equilibrium is said 
to be stable. Founded upon this is the some- 
times so-called paradox of maintaining a beam 
in a horizontal position with only one end rest- 
ing upon a support, as shown in fig. 18. The 
condition is easily understood if the beam 0} 
and the leaden ball 
a, with the attached 
bent rod, are consid- 
ered as forming one 
body whose centre 
of gravity is at c. 
When this is verti- 
cally below the point 
of support the sys- 
tem will be in sta- 
ble equilibrium. When a body has its cen- 
tre of gravity above the point of support, 
but in the same vertical, it is said to be 
in unstable equilibrium. A distinction must 
be made between a state of stable equilib- 
rium and a merely stable condition; for equi- 
librium implies a balance of force. <A block, 
for example, may rest in a stable condition 
when lying upon the floor, although supported 
below its centre of gravity. But it cannot be 
said to be supported by a point; if it were, 
this point would need to be in a vertical with 
the centre of gravity. There are some cases 


Fig. 18. 


of stable equilibrium when the centre of grav- 


ity is above the 
point of support. 
Thus when the body 
is an oblate sphe- 
roid, stable equilib- 
rium will exist when 
it rests upon one of 
its poles a or 3, fig. 
14, because the cen- 
tre of gravity occu- 
pies the lowest pos- 
sible position. Disturbing the spheroid so as 
to bring the axis out of the perpendicular 
will raise the centre of gravity, and although 
it carries it to one side, as from ¢ to c’, the 
point of support is removed still further in 
the same direction, as from } to d; and there- 
fore gravity will bring the body back till the 


Fie. 14. 


MECHANICS 393 


axis is vertical. When the point of support 
and the centre of gravity coincide, as in a 
wheel, the equilibrium is said to be indifferent, 
as is also the case when a sphere rests upon a 
horizontal plane, because the centre of gravity 
and point of support will always be ina vertical 
line. A prolate spheroid or an egg, lying on its 
side upon a plane, is in a state of stable equilib- 
rium in one direction, and in that of indifferent 
equilibrium in another. Supported at the pole, 
the case becomes one of unstable equilibrium. 
The vertical line which passes through the cen- 
tre of gravity is called the line of direction of 
the centre of gravity. A body will rest upon 
a horizontal plane only when the line of direc- 
tion falls within the base on which it rests; 
and its degree of stability or power to resist 
change of position depends upon the horizon- 
tal distance of the line of direction from the 
edge of the base as compared with the height 
of the centre of gravity above the base, or 
upon the length of the are which the centre of 
gravity will describe when the body is raised 
from a horizontal position of the base to that 
in which the line of direction falls through the 
edge of the base. Thus, if a horizontal plane 
is rotated on one edge till its centre of gravity 
falls in the line of direction, it will describe 
the quadrant of a circle, as shown in fig. 15; 


=e 
~s. 


Hie, 15; 


Fie. 16. 


while the centre of gravity of a cube requires 
to be moved only through an are of 45° in or- 
der to. bring it vertically over one edge, as 
shown in fig. 16. HI. Cenrrirueat Forces. 
We will consider only the case of a body re- 
volving in a horizontal circle, and exerting 
force only in the plane of the circle. Such 
a force is exerted when a ball is placed upon 
a horizontal rod, as shown in fig. 18, and ro- 
tary motion is produced by 
turning a vertical axis. Let 
dm, fig. 17, represent the 
horizontal rod, and ¢ the 
centre of motion, and sup- 
pose the body to be placed 
at m. The force exerted 
upon it by the revolution 
of the rod at each moment 
is perpendicular to the rod 
and in the direction of the 
tangent me. To prevent 
its moving in that direction, therefore, some 
force must be exerted to restrain it. In this 
case the restraining force is the tension of 
the bar, the body being fastened to it. This 


_ Fig. 17. 


force is called centripetal, and it is mani- 
festly precisely equal to the force with which 
the body tends to fly from the centre, or the 
centrifugal force. By its action the body is 
forced to move in the direction ma, and to ar- 
rive at @ in the same time it would without 
restraint have arrived ate. The two forces 
that have produced this deflection from me to 
ma are the force which is communicated by 
the rod, which may be represented by ab=me, 
and the centripetal force, which may be repre- 
sented by the line m6, and which is precisely 
equal to the force with which the body tends 
to fly from the centre, or the centrifugal force. 
It may be demonstrated that the centrifugal . 
force of a body moving in a horizontal circle is 
equal to the product of its weight multiplied 
into the square of its velocity, divided by the 
product of the radius of the circle it describes, 
multiplied by g=82°16, or the constant acceler- 
ating increment of a falling body. This may 
be expressed by the equation ¢ = oe, Let n 
represent the number of revolutions or parts 
of a revolution per second, and 277 the cir- 
cumference of the circle described by the 
body; then 27.7.n will be its velocity. Hence 
Ci ee = = 00.7? == 1:2275 x 2.7.07. 
Therefore the centrifugal force of a body re- 
volving in a horizontal circle is equal to its 
weight multiplied by the number of feet in the 
radius of the circle, and this product by the 
square of the number of revolutions or parts of 
a revolution per second, and this by 1°2275. 
Example: A ball weighing 10 lbs. is whirled in 
a horizontal circle on a radius of 5 ft., making. 
15 revolutions per second; what is its cen- 
trifugal force? 1°2275 x 10 x5 x 15°=138,873 lbs. 
(6936 tons). In agreement with these princi- 
ples are the first three of the celebrated prop- 
ositions of Huygens appended to his Horolo- 
gium Oscillatorium, which were then for the 
first time advanced: 1. If two equal bodies 
revolve in equal times in unequal circles, their 
centrifugal forces will be proportionate to the 


diameter of the circles. 2. If equal bodies 
revolve in equal circles with uniform but un- 
equal velocities, their centrifugal forces will 
be proportional to their diameters. 3. If two 


324 


equal bodies traverse with equal velocity une- 
qual circles, their centrifugal forces will be in 
the inverse ratio of the diameters. It follows 
from the first proposition that the centrifugal 
forces of any two bodies revolving around their 
common centre of gravity are equal. These 
propositions can be verified experimentally by 
employing the whirling table, fig. 18. A spi- 
ral spring which moves a registering index is 
fixed to one end of the horizontal rod. The 
adjustments may be so made as to cause a ball 
to revolve in any desired circle with any de- 
sired velocity. The applications of these prin- 
ciples are of daily occurrence. A horse or a 
_ carriage running in a circle exerts a centrifu- 
gal force requiring an inclination of the body 
toward the centre of the circle to counteract 
the tendency to be thrown over. The proper 
angle of inclination is found as follows: Sup- 
pose a horse to be running in a circle whose 
centre is c, fig. 19, 


and whose radius 4 Z 

is ac. Draw the 

perpendicular ab 

to represent the 

weight ofthehorse, 4 é 


and let 6d, paral- 
lel with ac, repre- 
sent the centrifugal force; then a d will be 
the resultant, and the proper angle of incli- 


For 


Fie. 19. 


nation will bed a b, whose tangent ==. 


tangent bad = S —*—™ An inclination 
a w r”g 
is imparted to railway carriages when tray- 
ersing curves, by giving such an elevation to 
the rail on the outer curve of the track that 
the cross section of the latter shall be perpen- 
dicular to the required inclination or line of 
direction. Example: On a railway track 4 
ft. 8 in. wide, how much elevation should be 
given to the outer rail on a curve of 600 ft. 
radius for a velocity of 80 ft. 
per second? Taking the equation 


ec 9 900 
Pao the value becomes aeaan 
1 e 
=-——~, Therefore the outer rail 
21°47 
e 1 s 
must be raised > 77 of 56 in., or 


2°6 in. When any body is rotated 
it has a tendency to revolve on 
its shortest axis, in consequence of 
the greater momentum in the par- 
ticles furthest from the centre of 
motion. When a body having the 
form shown in fig. 20 is turned on 
its longer axis by means of a string 
suspended from ¢, if the body is 
perfectly regular and the geomet- 
rical axis perfectly coincides with 
. the axis of motion, it will not change its posi- 
tion; but as such coincidence never exists, the 
body will on being rotated begin to change its 
axis of rotation, and when sufficient speed is 
attained, the increased momentum resulting 


Fia. 20. 


MECHANICS 


from the change of position will cause the body 
to assume a position at right angles to its first 
position, and revolve about its shorter axis. 
The oblate spheroidal figure of the earth and 
other heavenly bodies is due to the action 
of centrifugal force. (See HypRroMEoHANIcs.) 
IV. Tue Penputum. A simple pendulum may 
be defined as a body whose weight is con- 
fined to a point, and which, suspended from 
a fixed point, vibrates in an arc. A simple 
pendulum can only exist in theory. A sin- 
gle vibration of a pendulum is the distance 
through which it oscillates from the point 
at which it begins to descend on one side of 
the vertical, as at a, fig. 21, to the point on 
the opposite side of the ver- 
tical, as at b, where its mo- 
tion is arrested by the ac- 
tion of gravity. Its passage 
from a to b and back to a 
is called a double vibration. 
All pendulums are com- 
pound because, having ex- 
tension, their different par- 
ticles are at different dis- 
tances from the centre of 
motion, and therefore tend 
to vibrate in different times, 2 
because the time of vibra- 
tion is increased by increas- 
ing the length of the pendu- 
lum. For small arcs the times of vibrations are 
the same; beyond certain limits increasing the 
arc increases the time. These facts were first 
ascertained by Galileo about 1585, when making 
use of the pendulum for counting time in astro- 
nomical observations. It has been demonstra- 
ted by mathematicians that if a pendulum vi- 
brates in a small circular are, the ratio of the 
time of one vibration to the time in which a 
body would fall half the length of the pen- 
dulum is equal to the ratio of the circumfer- 
ence of a circle to its diameter. Therefore, 
according to equation (1), substituting 7 for 
s, and letting ¢ denote the time of one vibra- 


tion, we have dig saris or t= m4/o, 


From this equation it will be observed that the 
time of vibration of a pendulum varies as the 
square root of its length. Squaring both mem- 
bers of the equation, ? = " OP tl i 
A half-seconds pendulum is therefore found as 
(4)2x82°16 ft. 96°48 in. a ee 

siaie? ~ — oer OTT in. 
A seconds pendulum is 39-1 in., and a two-sec- 
onds pendulum 156°4 in. When the arc of 
vibration is 1° on each side of the vertical, the 
daily retardation compared to the vibration in 
an are which causes no retardation is 13 second. 
When the arc is 2°, the loss is 6% seconds; 
when 3°, it is 15 seconds; the formula for esti- 
mating the retardation being $D?, where D 
represents the number of degrees the pendu- 
lum describes on each side of the vertical. The 


c 


iP 
Fig. 21, 


follows: 7 = 


MECHANICS 395 


inequalities in the times of vibration were ob- 
viated by Huygens by causing the pendulum to 
vibrate in a cycloidal arc, which he was the 
first to demonstrate is the curve of quickest 
descent from one point to another. To pro- 
duce this cycloidal vibration, it is only neces- 
sary to cause the 
string by which 
the pendulum is 
suspended to wind 
around a_ semi- 
cycloid placed at 
each side, and to 


“Pe me unwind from it 
ee when it falls from 

d rest, as shown in 

Fig. 22, fig. 22. The prac- 


tical difficulties in 

the use of cycloidal arcs for pendulums are 
however greater than the advantage gained ; 
therefore the pendulums of astronomical clocks 
are made to vibrate in small circular arcs. It 
has been said that in a compound pendulum 
there is a tendency in the different parts which 
are at different distances from the point of 
suspension to vibrate in different times. This 
will appear from 

M a consideration of 

fig. 28. Suppose 
several balls, A, 
B, ©, D, E, sus- 
pended by sepa- 
rate strings of un- 
equal lengths from 
a horizontal bar 
at M. If they are 
all let fall at the 
same time from 
the line M E, the 
ball A on the 
shortest string will 
descend more rap- 
idly than B, B 
more rapidly than 
C, &c., so that af- 
ter a time they 
will have the positions A’, B’, &c. If they are 
all attached to the same wire and kept in the 
same line while vibrating, the balls moving in 
the smaller arcs will tend to accelerate the 
motion of those further from the centre of 
motion, and those vibrating in the larger arcs 
will tend to retard the motion of those nearer 
the centre of motion. Therefore there is a 
certain point where there is neither a tendency 
to retard nor to accelerate; this point is called 
the centre of oscillation of the system. The 
distance between this point and the point of 
suspension measures the length of a compound 
pendulum. If a homogeneous cylindrical bar is 
suspended at one end and made to vibrate, the 
centre of oscillation is two thirds the distance 
from the point of suspension. The discovery 
of the centre of oscillation, as we have seen, also 
marked an era in the science of mechanics, be- 
ing one of its most important principles, and 


having a wide application. The centre of os- 
cillation and the point of suspension of a pen- 
dulum are convertible points; that is, if the 
centre of oscillation is made the point of sus- 
pension, the time of vibration will not be 
changed; a principle which allows of the ex- 
perimental determination of the centre of os- 
cillation, and therefore of the length of the 
pendulum. The centre of oscillation may be 
entirely beyond the pendulum, as in the me- 
tronome, an instrument used to measure time 
in music. (See Merronome.) Its principle is 
shown in fig. 24, where a horizontal axis sup- 
ports a rod, upon which there 
are two balls whose distance 
from the centre of motion may 
be varied at pleasure. If the 
balls are of equal weight and at 
equal distances from the centre 
of motion, they will not oscil- 
late; but at unequal distances 
they will, and slowly in propor- 
tion as the difference of distance 
is small. The pendulum affords 
a correct means of finding the value of g, 
and therefore the height through which a 
body will fall from rest in one second of 


time. Taking the equation / = ee and trans- 
7 


2d 


posing, we have g=-. Therefore, if the 


length of the seconds pendulum is 39:1 in., the 
equation becomes in numbers g = 3714159? 
x 39°1 = 32°16 ft., which is twice the space 
through which a body will fall in one sec- 
ond of time.—The principal use of the pen- 
dulum is to measure time. To do this accu- 
rately, it is necessary to keep the point of sus- 
pension and the centre of oscillation at the 
same distance from 
each other, or in other 
words, to preserve a 
constant length. In- 
crease of temperature 
causes a pendulum 
made of one piece to 
lengthen by expansion. 
If, however, two ma- 
terials are so combined 
that while the expan- 
sion of one tends to 
lengthen the system, 
that of the other tends 
to raise the centre of os- 
cillation, and the com- 
bination is such that 
the expansion of one 
shall exactly counteract 
that of the other, the 
desired end is attained. 
Such pendulums are called compensation pen- 
dulums. Two forms are shown in figs. 25 and 
26. The bob of fig. 25 consists of a steel 
frame holding a hollow glass cylinder contain- 
ing mercury. It is evident that if this mer- 
cury by its expansion causes the centre of 


326 


oscillation to rise just as much as the expan- 
sion of the rod causes it to descend, the length 
of the pendulum will remain unchanged. Now, 
as mercury expands about 14 times as much 
as steel, if the rod and frame are of steel, the 
column of mercury should be a little less than 
6 in. for a seconds pendulum. Fig. 26 is 
the gridiron pendulum. It is made of brass 
and steel, whose rates of expansion are about 
10 to 6. The bars are so arranged that the 
expansion of the brass shall exactly compen- 
sate that of the steel both in the gridiron and 
in the rod above it. The pendulum is used as 
a standard of measures of length. The length 
of a seconds pendulum at London was in 1824 
declared by parliament to be 39°1393 in., and 
our government has adopted that standard. 
The French government in 1790 adopted as 
its standard the gg,ao4.n09 part of the quad- 
rant of a great circle of the earth, which they 
called a métre, equal to 39°37079 English 
inches. V. MerouanrcaL Powers.— Theory 
of Machines. A machine is an instrument or 
contrivance by which force may be trans- 
mitted from one point to another. The force 
employed in working a machine is called the 
power; the resistance which the body acted 
on offers to the force is called resistance, 
weight, or load, and is expressed in terms of 
weight whose unit is usually the pound avoir- 
dupois; the point at which the power is ap- 
plied is called the point of application ; the line 
of direction of the force is the line in which 
the force is applied, and in which it tends to 
make the body move, although it usually moves 
in the direction of a resultant. That part of a 
machine which is immediately applied to the 
resistance is called its working point. The 
power, like the resistance, is expressed in units 
of pounds avoirdupois. It is usual, in explain- 
ing the theory of machines, to neglect many 
conditions for the purpose of perspicuity and 
convenience, which are. afterward taken into 
account. Thus the parts of a machine are 
primarily supposed to have no weight, to move 
without friction, and to encounter no resis- 
tance from the air. After the theoretical effects 
have been calculated, these accidental effects 
receive attention. Machines are divided into 
simple and compound. The definition of a 
simple machine is not so obvious as is often 
thought. It is sometimes defined as consisting 
of one part; but as the pulley and wheel and 
axle are called simple machines, this definition 
is not exact, because each of these consists of 
several parts. If we conclude, however, that 
the only simple machines are the lever, the 
inclined plane, and the cord, this definition 
may be accepted; but simple machines, or, as 
they are often called, the simple mechanical 
powers, have generally been divided into six 
classes, viz.: 1, the lever; 2, the wheel and 
axle; 3, the pulley; 4, the inclined plane; 5, 
the wedge; 6, the screw.—l. The Lever. This 
power may be defined as an inflexible bar rest- 
ing on a fixed point or edge, called the fulcrum 


MECHANICS 


or prop. Levers are of three kinds, called the 
first, second, and third. ‘The first kind is 
shown in fig. 27, where the fulcrum is between 
the power and the weight, and separates the 
two arms of the lever. These two arms are 
usually of unequal length, the weight having 


Fic. 27. 


Fie. 28. 


the same ratio to the long arm as the power 
has to the short arm. The second kind of 
lever, fig. 28, has the weight between the ful- 
crum and the power. The third kind, fig. 29, 
has the power between the weight and the 
fulcrum. In the first kind of lever it is evi- 
dent that to produce 


equilibrium the pow- ef i \)_ 

er may be either less “~~ p 
or greater than the ve 
weight, according as Fie. 29. 


it is placed further 

from or nearer to the fulcrum. The propor- 
tion of power to resistance, in any kind of 
lever, to produce equilibrium is reckoned in 
the inverse proportion of the distance of 
these forces from the fulcrum; the weight 
multiplied into the distance from the fulcrum 
being equal to the power multiplied into its 
distance from the same point. It cannot 
therefore be said that the second and third 
kinds of lever have two distinct arms. In the 
second kind, the weight, being always near 
the fulcrum, must always be greater than the 
power; in the third, the power, being always 
between the weight and the fulcrum, must 
always be greater than the weight. As the 
distances through which the power and weight 
move are in proportion to their respective dis- 
tances from the fulcrum, it follows also that 
equilibrium is maintained when the product of 
their weights into the distances they respec- 
tively travel, or in other words, into their ve- 
locities, are equal, and furthermore that when 
a weight is moved by means of a lever, what is 
gained in power is lost in velocity. The com- 
mon steelyard is an example of a lever of the 
first kind, nut crackers of the second, and fire 
tongs of the third. All these three kinds of 
lever are found in various parts of the mech- 
anism of the human body and in that of many 
of the lower animals. An example of the 
first kind is seen in the movement of the oc- 
cipital bone upon the atlas or upper bone of 
the spinal column. The raising of the body 
upon the toes by the action of the muscles of 
the calf of the leg, if the ankle joint is con- 
sidered as a fulcrum, is an example of a lever 
of the second kind. The action of the biceps 
muscle upon the forearm, where the elbow 
joint is a fulcrum and the weight is held in the 
hand, is an example of a lever of the third 
kind, The power or the weight may act upon 


MECHANICS 


the lever in an oblique direction ; but in making 
calculations the perpendicular distance of the 
lines of direction from the fulerum must be 
regarded instead of the actual distances on the 
lever, as will be 

we readily understood 

jdt a: by observing fig. 30, 

: where the power is 

applied in the direc- 
tion dp, the long 
arm of the lever, 
ca, being practical- 


nee side cd of the right- 


angled triangle eda. When two or more 
levers, of one or more kinds, are combined, 
the system is called a compound lever. Plat- 
form weighing scales, such as are shown in fig. 
31, are combinations of this kind, where the 
beam is a lever of the first kind, and ed, ad, 
and gf levers of the second kind, if we consider 
the weights on the beam km the power; but 
if we consider the load as a force acting on the 


Fig. 81. 


platform and raising the weights at p, then a, 
cb, and fg become levers of the third kind. 
—2. The Wheel and Azle. This power is a 
modification of the lever, and consists of a 
wheel and cylinder, or of two cylinders of 
unequal radii, revolving about a common axis, 
the larger cylinder being called the wheel and 
the smaller the axle. The wheel and axle may 
have the action of either kind of lever, but 
usually has that of the first, as shown in fig. 
32, where the power is applied at a, the ful- 
crum is the axis ¢, while the weight is sus- 
pended from the short end of the lever, which 
is equal to the radius of the axle, the long end 
being equal to the radius of the wheel. If, how- 
ever, the weight is suspended upon the same 
side with the power, and 
the latter is applied in an 
upward direction, as is often 
the case, the machine acts 
upon the principle of a lever 
of the second kind; and by 
applying the power to the 
axle the machine may: be 
made to act as a lever of the 
third kind. Indeed, prac- 
tically, levers are constant- 
ly changing in their action 
from one kind into another; thus a shovel or 


hay fork held in the two hands may at one. 


moment be a lever of the first kind and at the 
next one of the third kind, as the one or the 


ly reduced to the } 


327 


other hand becomes fixed or movable. In the 
simple wheel and axle the mechanical advan- 
tage is in proportion to the ratio of the radius 
of the wheel to that of the axle; if the former 
is 5 ft. while the latter is 5 in., the ratio of 
power to weight is as 1 to 12. This mode 
of increasing the efficiency of the machine is 
often inconvenient, and may be obviated by 
employing a differential axle, consisting of 
two parts of different diameters, as represent- 
ed in fig. 83, the cord winding upon one part 
and off the other, and the weight being sup- 


ihiveh, Sy, Fie. 84. 


ported by a pulley. The most common plan 
in machinery is to employ a system of cog 
wheels, as shown in fig. 84. An equilibrium 
of forces will obtain where the product of 
the power multiplied into the radii of all the 
wheels is equal to that of the weight multi- 
plied into the radii of all the pinions. Cog 
wheels are of three kinds, spur, crown, and 
bevelled. A spur wheel is shown at a, fig. 35, 
a crown wheel at 6, and bevelled wheels at 
ce. They are used to 
change the direction of 
force or axis of mo- 
tion. The wheel and 
axle when applied to 
carriages serves a dif- 
ferent purpose from 
that in ordinary ma- 
chinery, and acts in 
a different way. The 
action of the carriage 
wheel when ascending 
an inclination is like 
that modification of the 
inclined plane called the 
toggle joint (fig. 44). 
When the road is a 
rigid and level plane, 
the wheel merely serves to afford successive 
supporting points to the load, 
the only resistance to be over- 
come being the sliding friction 
of the axle and the rolling fric- 
tion between the wheel and the 
road. (See Friotion.)—3. Zhe 
Pulley. The pulley is common- 
ly said to act upon the princi- 
ple of a lever of the first kind 
with equal arms, but this does 
not explain its principle. In 
fig. 36 we have indeed a lever 
of the first kind, with equal arms ac and cb; 
and fig. 87 shows another such lever in the 


Fre. 36. 


328 


stationary pulley, and also a lever of the 
second kind in the movable pulley, where 
the power is applied at f the weight sus- 
pended at 6, while the fulcrum, which is 
changeable as the pulley ascends, is at a. 
This would seem to account for the mechan- 


ical advantage, which is in the ratio of 2 
to 1; but in place of the pulleys there may 
be substituted smooth cylinders which shall 
not revolve, and if they are well lubricated 
a similar mechanical advantage is obtained 
as when revolving pulleys are used. In this 
case there is evidently no use of a lever, so 
that it must be concluded that the mechani- 
cal advantage which is obtained is derived 
from the use of the cord. The system of pul- 
leys shown in fig. 88 may include any number, 
the mechanical advantage being doubled with 
every additional movable pulley; for it is 
evident that the cord a sustains half of the 
weight W, and the cord ¢ half of this, or one 
fourth of the whole; and further, that the 
cord e or f sustains one eighth 
of the whole. Several pulleys 
may be placed in one block. In- 
stead of having one fixed pulley 
and the others movable, they 
may be placed in two frames 
or blocks, as shown in fig. 39, 
one block being fixed and the 
other movable. In this case 
one cord goes round all the pul- 
leys, and therefore the weight 
is divided equally between the 
parts of the cord in the lower 
block, which parts are equal to 
twice the number of pulleys in 
the block. In this arrangement, 
where there are three pulleys in 
each block, the power will there- 
fore be to the weight in the ratio 
of 1 to 6. The pulley is a very portable and 
efficient power, the cord allowing great freedom 
in changing the direction in which the power 
is applied, by the employment of fixed single 
pulleys, which may be fastened to the ground, 
allowing of the application of horse or steam 


| following man- 


MECHANICS 


power, or of any desired number of men. The 
rigging of ships is almost entirely managed by 
means of the pulley, and the hoisting of build- 
ing material is to a great extent effected by 
the same machine.—4. Zhe Inclined Plane. 
This power depends for its efficiency in the 
elevation of great weights upon the nearness 
with which the plane approaches to a hori- 
zontal surface. 
The power re- 
quired to pro- 
duce*the equi- 
librium of 
forces on an 
inclined plane 
may be deter- 
mined in the 


ner: We will 
suppose two 
cases, the first 
in which the 
power is ap- 
plied in a direction parallel to the plane, and 
the second in which it is applied in a hori- 
zontal direction, or parallel to the base. Let 
m, fig. 40, be the centre of gravity of a freely 
moving body resting on a plane whose length 
is a 6, and whose height is bc. Let the per- 
pendicular me fall from the centre of grav- 
ity upon the plane; also draw md perpen- 
dicular to the plane. Let me represent the 
force of gravity, then will md represent the 
pressure perpendicular to the plane, and de or 
mt will represent the force in quantity and 
direction with which the body tends to move 
downward along the plane. An equal force 
acting in the opposite direction will therefore 
produce equilibrium. Since the triangle med 
is similar to abe, ed: em:: be: ab. Con- 
sequently, when the power is applied in a di- 
rection parallel to the plane, equilibrium will 
exist where » : w:: height of plane: length 
of plane, or p:w::sin a: rad. In the sec- 
ond case, where the power is applied in a di- 
rection parallel with the base, produce md to 
h, and draw ef parallel to the base; then will 
ehormk of the parallelogram meh k repre- 
sent the force necessary to produce equilib- 
rium, and m hf will represent the pressure per- 
pendicular to the plane. But in this case eh : 
em::b6ce:ac. Therefore, power: weight :: 
height of plane : length of base of plane, or p : 
wi: sin @: cos a.— 
5. The Wedge, fig. 41, 
is a double inclined 
plane. Itis used for 
forcing asunder bod- , 
ies which offer great 

resistance, such as 

fibres of wood and the seams of rocks. It 
is usually propelled by percussion, which is 
applied to the head in the direction of its 
length, from a to 6. The forces will be in 
equilibrium where the proportion of power to 
resistance is the same as that of thickness of 


Fie. 40. 


Fig. 41. 


MECHANICS 


head to length of wedge. It is, however, 
difficult to estimate the power of percus- 
sion. To make the instrument effectual, con- 
siderable friction is required to prevent the 
resistance from forcing the wedge out of the 
crevice into which it has been driven.—6. The 
Screw. This machine is another form of the 
inclined plane. If a triangular piece of paper 
is wound around a cylinder, as shown in fig. 
42, it will illustrate the formation and princi- 
ple of action of the screw. 
In passing once around the 
cylinder, the height be- 
tween two adjacent layers 
of the edge which forms 
the hypothenuse will rep- 
resent the height of a plane 
which has the circumfer- 
ence of the cylinder for its 
base. The power is applied 
by means of a lever, and in a direction at right 
angles to the axis of the screw, or in a direc- 
tion parallel with the base of the plane. There- 
fore the forces are in equilibrium where the 
proportion of power to resistance equals that 
of the distance between the threads to the cir- 
cumference of a circle described by the revolu- 
tion of that point in the lever to which the 
power is applied. The distance between the 
threads is measured in the direction of the 
axis of the cylinder. The power of the screw 
is increased by increasing the length of the 
lever by which it is turned, or by diminishing 
the distance between the threads. It may also 
be increased by letting a screw with compara- 
tively fine threads pass within another having 
coarser threads, thus causing the height of the 
plane to be practically diminished to the dif- 
ference in distance between the threads. This 
form is called Hunter’s differential screw. An 
endless screw is often combined with spur or 
crown wheels in the manner shown in fig. 43. 
It is often employed to measure minute spaces, 
as in the dividing en- 
gine for graduating 
mathematical instru- 
ments. (See Grapva- 
T10N.)— Toggle Joint. 
The toggle joint, or 
elbow joint, which 
is used in various 
kinds of presses, con- 


Fig. 42. 


arms joined together 
by a hinge, as shown 
in fig. 44. The power 
may be applied at the hinge or joint a, usually 
in the direction a m, forcing the ends 6 and ¢ 
further apart, and with great power as the 
arms approach a right line. It may also be 
applied at } and c, drawing the ends together, 
and forcing the point @ outward in a trans- 
verse direction; a form used in hay and cotton 
presses. That this machine acts upon the 
principle of the inclined plane may be demon- 
strated as follows: Consider the end 6} of the 


Fieg. 48. 


sists of two radii or 


329 


radius a 6 to be stationary. The power being 
applied in the direction a m, the point a will 
describe the arc of a circlead. <A tangent to 
this arc, at any point in which the joint a may 
be moving, will repre- 
sent the inclination, and 
mn the height of the 
plane by which the equi- 
librium of forces is de- 
termined. If the ra- 
dius a 0 is inclined at an 
angle of 45°, then the 
inclination of the plane 
will be 45°; so that if 
we consider it to have 
extension, its base will 
be equal to its height, 
and the power being ap- 
plied in a horizontal di- 
rection it will produce 
equilibrium when it is 
opposed to a force hav- 
ing the effect of an 
equivalent weight sus- 
pended vertically from 
a. As the point a ap- 
proaches d the tangent 
will approach a hori- 
zontal direction, and at 
last become perpendicular to the radii ab, ac, 
which will then be brought to form one and 
the same straight line, the theoretical force at 
this instant becoming infinite. The ratio of 
power to resistance in the case represented 
in the figure is as mn: am, or as the height 
of the plane is to its base; or p: w:: sec b 
—cos 6: sin b.—A carriage wheel in overcom- 
ing an obstacle acts upon the same principle. 
Let ¢, fig. 45, be an obstacle, and a g the line 
of draught. The weight, sustained by the 
axle at a, acts perpendicularly, and to over- 
come the obstacle this point must be raised 
to the position 
of 0, vertically 
aboveit. At first 
the motion of the 
axle will tend in 
the direction of 
the tangent ad, 
and there will be 
equilibrium when 
De SADIAG a (ag. 
It will successive- 
ly move in the 
direction of tan- 
gents at every 
point in the are a 8, until it will finally take the 
direction of the horizontal tangent, b, when the 
obstacle will be overcome. This action has also 
been explained upon the principle of the lever 
of the first kind. The obstacle is considered 
as a fulcrum supporting the bent lever ac n, 
the arm to which the power is applied at the 
axle being the radius of the wheel, a@ c, and 
the other arm, ¢n, the horizontal distance from 
the obstacle to a vertical let fall from a. The 


Fie. 44, 


330 MECHELN 


point 7 in this vertical is supposed to support 
the load. The practical length of the arm ac 
is the perpendicular drawn from c to the line 
of draught; thus, if the line of draught is in 
the direction dg, p: wi:ne: ge. The load, 
however, is actually supported by the axle at 
a, and the power is also applied at the same 
point, so that the analogy of the action to that 
of the lever is not as close as to that of the in- 
clined plane.—For a further consideration of 
the science of mechanics, besides the works 
of Huygens, Newton, and others already men- 
tioned, see L. N. M. Carnot, Principes jonda- 
mentaua de Véquilibre et du mouvement (Paris, 
1803); James Renwick, ‘‘Elements of Me- 
chanics” (Philadelphia, 1832); Poisson, Zraité 
de mécanique (Paris, 1833); the Rev. H. Mose- 
ley, ‘A Treatise on Mechanics” (London, 
1834); Christopher Bernoulli, Hlementarisches 
Handbuch der industriellen Physik, Mechanik 
und Hydraulik (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 
18345); W. B. Carpenter, “‘ Elements of Me- 
chanical Philosophy ’’ (London, 1844); Arthur 
Morin, Legons de mécanique pratique (Paris, 
1853); ‘‘ Appleton’s Dictionary of Mechanics” 
(New York, 1868); W. H. OC. Bartlett, ‘ Ele- 
ments of Synthetic Mechanics” (New York, 
1871); W. G. Peck, ‘“‘ Elements of Mechanics” 
(New York, 1873); and Thomson and Tait’s 
‘“‘ Natural Philosophy” (London, 1874). The 
reader may also consult Ribliotheca Mechanico- 
Technologica, by Engelmann (Leipsic, 1844). 

MECHELN, or Meckenen, Israel von, a German 
engraver and painter of the latter half of the 
15th century. From the difference in the 
style of the Mecheln prints, of which upward 
of 300 are known, it is almost certain that 
there were two artists of the name. Their 
works are among the earliest specimens of the 
art. About the latter half of the 16th cen- 
tury flourished an artist of the school of Co- 
logne, who is generally designated as the 
‘‘ master of the Passion,” from his chief work, 
a representation of the Passion on eight panels. 
Several other works by the same hand are ex- 
tant in Germany, painted in the stiff Gothic 
style, with something of the manner of the 
Van Eycks. By some this unknown artist is 
supposed to have been identical with Israel 
von Mecheln the younger. 

MECHERINO. See Becoarumi, DomENtco. 

MECHI, John Joseph, an English agriculturist, 
born in London, May 22, 1802. His father, 
an Italian, was a member of the English royal 
household. The son became a clerk in a mer- 
cantile house, speculated in a small patent, and 
in 1827 set up in business as a cutler. By 
the sale of a ‘“‘magic razor strop,” aided by 
liberal advertising, he acquired a fortune; and 
in 1840 he bought a farm of 170 acres at Tip- 
tree heath, Essex, where he made the experi- 
ments in scientific agriculture for which he 
became widely known. These experiments at 
first subjected him to much ridicule, but finally 
changed the farm from one of the most sterile 
into one of the most profitable. He collects 


MECKLENBURG 


the manure in a vast reservoir, liquefies it, and 
distributes it by a steam engine, through sub- 
terraneous pipes, over all parts of the farm, 
which it fertilizes and irrigates at the same 
time. Mr. Mechi has been an alderman and 
sheriff of London, and was a commissioner 
to the Paris exhibition of 1855. He has 
published ‘‘ Letters on Agricultural Improve- 
ments”? (1845), ‘‘ Experience in Drainage” 
(1847), and ‘ How to Farm Profitably ” (1859; 
4th enlarged ed., 1871), &c. 

MECHITAR. See Mexuirar. 

MECHLIN, or Meehelen (Fr. MJalines), a city 
of Belgium, in the province of Antwerp, on 
the Dyle, 13 m, N. by E. of Brussels; pop. in 
1870, 36,090. It is one of the railway centres 
of Belgium, four lines radiating from the town, 
which however presents a deserted appearance, 
vividly contrasting with the bustle at the sta- 
tion, half a mile outside the gates. Mechlin is 
one of the most picturesque Flemish cities. In 
the Grande Place are the cathedral and a statue 
of Margaret of Austria by Geefs. The princi- 
pal public edifices besides the cathedral are the 
churches of Notre Dame, St. Peter and St. 
Paul, St. John the Baptist, St. John the Evan- 
gelist, and an English church ; the archiepisco- 
pal palace ; the Beguinage, an asylum for aged 
widows; and the college. There are manufac- 
tories of woollens, linens, lace, beer, &c. The 
lace manufacture, formerly celebrated, has 
greatly fallen off both in quantity and quality. 
Mechlin is the seat of an archbishop, who is 
primate of Belgium. Its churches contain 
some fine paintings by Rubens and Vandyke. 

MECHOACAN. See Mrowoacan. 

MECKLENBURG. I. A S. E. county of Vir- 
ginia, bordering on North Carolina, bounded 
N. by the Meherrin river, intersected by the 
Roanoke, and drained by its tributaries; area, 
640 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 21,318, of whom 
14,150 were colored. The surface is undula- 
ting and well timbered, and the soil generally 
fertile. The Roanoke Valley railroad termi-— 
nates at Clarkesville. The chief productions 
in 1870 were 83,033 bushels of wheat, 243,506 
of Indian corn, 123,492 of oats, 11,288 of Irish 
and 12,512 of sweet potatoes, 2,166,628 lbs. of 
tobacco, 8,815 of wool, and 147,599 of butter. 
There were 1,479 horses, 767 mules and asses, 
2,557 milch cows, 1,081 working oxen, 3,367 
other cattle, 5,439 sheep, and 11,108 swine. 
Capital, Boydton. Il A S. W. county of 
North Carolina, bordering on South Carolina, 
bounded W. by the Catawba river ; area, about 
700 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 24,299, of whom 10, 
721 were colored. It has an elevated surface 
and fertile soil, and contains several gold mines. 
It is intersected by the Charlotte, Columbia, 
and Augusta, the Atlanta and Richmond Air 
Line, and other railroads. The chief produc- 
tions in 1870 were 69,826 bushels of wheat, 
454,864 of Indian corn, 75,990 of oats, 12,159 
of Irish and 18,774 of sweet potatoes, 125,939 
lbs. of butter, and 6,067 bales of cotton. There 
were 2,017 horses, 1,822 mules and asses, 3,853 


MECKLENBURG 


milch cows, 4,676 other cattle, 5,403 sheep, 
and 16,862 swine; 1 distillery, 11 saw mills, 
and 1 woollen mill. Capital, Charlotte.-—The 
people of Mecklenburg took an early and spirit- 
ed part in the resistance to Great Britain ; and 
in May, 1775, they publicly renounced alle- 
giance to the crown and adopted a declaration 
of independence. 

MECKLENBURG, a territory of northern Ger- 
many, belonging to the German empire, di- 
vided into the grand duchies of Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz, bordering 
on the Baltic sea, Pomerania, Brandenburg, 
Hanover, Lauenburg, and Liibeck. The house 
of Mecklenburg is the oldest in Germany. The 
original inhabitants were of Germanic race, 
but were conquered during the great migration 
of nations by Slavic tribes. After long wars 
against the German monarchs, under the lead 
of native princes, the country was conquered 
about 1160 by Henry the Lion of Saxony, who 
divided it among his nobles, and gave a part 
of it to Pribislas, the descendant of a native 
dynasty, under the name of the principality of 
Mecklenburg. The reigning house was subse- 
quently divided into two branches. The elder 
line was founded by John the Theologian, 
whose grandson Henry II. (or IV., 1302-’29) 
enriched it by the domain of Stargard. The 
sons of the latter, Albert and John, were 
made dukes in 1349; and a great-grandson of 
Albert became duke of the whole of Mecklen- 
burg. Afterward the country was again di- 
vided into two lines, remaining so till 1628, 
when, on account of a supposed alliance with 
Denmark, Wallenstein was made ruler of the 
country. In 1632 the expelled dukes were 
restored to power by Gustavus Adolphus, and 
shortly afterward the final division of the 
country into the two parts took place.— 
MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN has an area of 5,188 
sq.m.; pop. in 1872, 557,897, chiefly Luther- 
ans. <A ridge of hills traverses the country, 
but the surface is generally level. It abounds 
in forests and lakes. Miuritz is the largest lake, 
and Lake Malchin the most remarkable for 
its fine scenery. The chief river is the War- 
now, which at Rostock expands to a breadth 
of about 2,500 ft., and falls into the sea at 
Warneminde. The soil is fertile and well 
cultivated. Agriculture is the chief employ- 
ment of the population. The principal product 
is wheat. Horned cattle and sheep are numer- 
ous, and the horses are celebrated. The num- 
ber of vessels entering the ports in 1872 was 
1,002, tonnage 113,740. The registered ship- 
ping comprised 426 vessels, tonnage 142,954. 
The legislature consists of 622 proprietors of 
Rittergiter or knights’ estates, and 40 repre- 
sentatives of towns. Every two years the diet 
forms a joint assembly with that of Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz for common legislation. The pub- 
lic debt in 1872 was estimated at $5,000,000, 
nearly half of which was caused by loans for 
the construction of railways. The country is 
divided into the provinces of Mecklenburg and 


MEDE 331 


Wenden, the principality of Schwerin, the city 
of Rostock, and the lordship of Wismar. It 
contains 40 towns, the largest of which, and the 
principal trading port, is Rostock. Schwerin 
is the capital—MrckLeNnBuRG-STRELITZ con- 
sists of the dominion of Stargard or duchy of 
Strelitz (area, 909 sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 79,976) 
on the east and the principality of Ratzeburg 
(area, 144 sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 17,006) on the 
west of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Stargard con- 
tains 53 lakes, of which the Tollen lake is the 
largest. The principal river there is the Havel, 
and in Ratzeburg the Trave. The government 
is the same as in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, ex- 
cepting in Ratzeburg, which is not represented 
in the legislature. The grand duke is assisted 
by a cabinet. He is noted for his great wealth. 
No official accounts of the revenue and ex- 
penditure are published. The public debt is 
estimated at about $1,450,000. Capital, Neu 
Strelitz—In 1867 both grand duchies joined 
the North German Confederation, and in 1868 
the Zollverein; and in 1871 they became parts 
of the German empire, toward the founda- 
tion of which the grand duke of Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin had contributed by his services 
in the Franco-German war. (See FREDERICK 
Francis II., vol. vii., p. 453.) By a special 
military convention concluded in 1872, the 
armies of both grand duchies were incorpo- 
rated with that of Prussia. As the constitu- 
tion of the empire guaranteed to every par- 
ticular state a constitutional form of govern- 
ment, the liberals of Mecklenburg invoked the 
interference of the German Reichstag in be- 
half of the abolition of their feudal institutions. 
In consequence of the resolution passed by the 
Reichstag, the grand ducal governments sub- 
mitted drafts of a new constitution to the diet; 
but in July, 1874, no agreement between the 
governments and the diet had been arrived at. 

MECOSTA, a central county of the S. penin- 
sula of Michigan, watered by the Muskegon 
and Chippewa rivers; area, 576 sq. m.; pop. 
in 1870, 5,642. The surface is undulating and 
the soil productive. It is traversed by the 
Grand Rapids and Indiana railroad. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 19,789 bushels of 
wheat, 15,734 of Indian corn, 27,805 of oats, 
58,729 of potatoes, 47,510 Ibs. of butter, and 
8,176 tons of hay. There were 885 horses, 
660 milch cows, 1,085 other cattle, 917 sheep, 
and 741 swine; 8 flour mills, and 2 saw mills. 
Capital, Big Rapids. 

MEDALS. See NumIsMATICs. 

MEDE, or Meade, Joseph, an English theolo- 
gian, born at Berden, Essex, in October, 1586, 
died in Cambridge in October, 1638. He grad- 
uated at Christ’s college, Cambridge, in 1610, 
and obtained a fellowship. His most esteemed 
work, Olavis Apocalyptica, appeared in Latin 
in 1627, and in English in 1643. This was the 
first rational attempt of an English theologian 
to explain the Apocalypse. A collective edi- 
tion of his works was published in London by 
Dr. Worthington in 1672. 


332 MEDEA 


- MEDEA, a mythical princess, a daughter of 
Rétes, king of Colchis, by the oceanid Idyia, 
or Hecate, daughter of Perses. She was famous 
for her skill in sorcery, and enabled Jason, 
with whom she had fallen in love, to possess 
himself of the golden fleece. (See ARGoNAUTS.) 
Medea accompanied her lover to Greece, and 
lived with him as his wife, but was subse- 
quently deserted by Jason for Creiisa, daugh- 
ter of Oreon, king of Corinth. In revenge 
Medea destroyed her own children by Jason, 
and sent to Oreiisa a poisoned garment which 
burned her to death. Then, fleeing to Athens 
in a chariot drawn by winged dragons, she 
there married Aigzeus, by whom she had sev- 
eral sons. Having been afterward detected in 
laying snares for the destruction of Theseus, 
she was driven from Attica, and went to Asia 
accompanied by her son Medus, who became 
the founder of the Median nation. Medea has 
been made the subject of tragedies both an- 
cient and modern, among which are those of 
Euripides, Seneca, and Corneille. 

MEDFORD, a town of Middlesex co., Massa- 
chusetts, at the head of navigation on Mystic 
river, and on the Boston and Lowell and a 
branch of the Boston and Maine railroad, 5 m. 
N. W. of Boston; pop. in 1870, 5,717. It 
manufactures tin ware, leather, rum, crackers, 
casks, cabinet ware, harnesses, woollens, cot- 
tons, buttons, bricks, carpets, oil silk, boots and 
shoes, &c., and was formerly noted for ship 
building. It has a savings bank, public library, 
reading room, weekly newspaper, 21 schools, 
besides a high school, and 11 churches, and is the 
seat of Tufts college. (See Turrs CoLizGz.) 

MEDHOURST, Walter Henry, an English mission- 
ary, born in London in 1796, died there, Jan. 
24,1857. He was educated for the ministry, 
and in 1816, under the auspices of the church 
missionary society, started on a tour through 
India and Malacca, and resided chiefly in Ba- 
tavia, Java, from 1822 to 1880. During this 
interval and for several years afterward he 
pursued his missionary labors also in Borneo 
and on the coasts of China. After a residence 
of two years in England, he settled in 1848 in 
Shanghai. Subsequently he passed six years 
in the interior of China, and in 1856 returned 
in ill health to London. Besides a Chinese 
version of the Bible, his principal works are: 
‘Chinese Repository ” (20 vols., Canton, 1838 
—'51); “Chinese Miscellanies” (3 vols., Shang- 
hai, 1849-53); a “‘ Chinese and English Dic- 
tionary ” (2 vols., Batavia, 18423); and an 
‘English and Chinese Dictionary” (2 vols., 
Shanghai, 1847-8). His ‘‘ China, its State and 
Prospects’? (London, 1838), has been a text 
book for those interested in missionary enter- 
prises in China. 

MEDIA (Old Pers. Mada; Heb. Madai), an 
ancient country of Asia, bounded N. by Ar- 
menia, from which it was partly separated by 
the Araxes (Aras) river, and the Caspian sea, 
E. by Hyrcania, Parthia, and the desert of 
Aria, 5. by Persis, 8. W. by Susiana, and W. 


MEDIA 


by Assyria and Armenia. It thus correspond- 
ed nearly to the modern Persian province of 
Irak-Ajemi. It formed the westernmost part 
of the table land of Iran, being for the most 
part fertile, and producing wine, figs, and or- 
anges, and an excellent breed of horses. The 
most important mountain range in the interior 
was the Caspian (now Elburz) mountains, the 
territory between which and the Caspian sea 
was inhabited by independent tribes. Media 
was well peopled, originally by Turanian Scyths. 
In the time of Herodotus, and according to his 
statement, it was occupied by six tribes, who 
are said to have been a kindred race to the 
Persians, that is, a branch of the great Aryan 
family. In the time of the Persian power 
they, or at least a large part of them, spoke 
the same language as the dominant race, and 
had the same laws, manners, and religion. 
But there is great difficulty in determining 
when the supremacy of the Aryan element 
over the original Turanian or Scythic began, 
how far the two were blended together, and 
what relation they occupied to each other du- 
ring the period of special Median history. Ac- 
cording to Otesias, the Medes revolted from 
the Assyrians and became independent under 
Arbaces about 875 B. C.; but his whole story 
about the fall of that empire and the death of 
its king Sardanapalus is now discredited. 
About the same period ‘the Medes first appear 
in real history, occupying the region S. of the 
Caspian, when the Assyrian monarch whose 
expeditions are recorded on the black obelisk 
in the British museum made the earliest au- 
thentic assault on their independence. The 
list of eight successors to Arbaces on the 
throne of Media given by Ctesias can find no 
credit, as his names and dates are at variance 
with those given by Herodotus. According to 
the latter, Media, having been for centuries un- 
der the sway of the Assyrian monarchs, afford- 
ed the first example of a successful revolt to 
the nations suffering under the same yoke, ap- 
parently in the latter half of the 8th century. 
The people, however, having elected no com- 
mon chief, suffered greatly from anarchy until 
Deioces, a popular judge, secured by stratagem 
his appointment as ruler of the united state 
(about 708), by common consent of the Medes, 
when he founded a fortified capital, Ecbatana, 
He was succeeded by his son Phraortes, who, 
says Herodotus, ‘‘ not being satisfied with a do- 
minion which did not extend beyond the single 
people of the Medes,” attacked and subdued the 
Persians, and with the united forces of these 
two nations engaged in war with the Assyrians, 
but perished with the greater part of his army 
about 638. The authenticity of this account 
of the first two Median reigns is rejected by 
Rawlinson as inconsistent with the monuments; 
but it seems probable that the principal facts 
of Herodotus can be reconciled with the mon- 
umental history, by supposing his Deioces and 
Phraortes to have been either half independent 
viceroys of the Assyrian monarchs, or rulers 


MEDIA 


in parts of Media which succeeded in conquer- 
ing and maintaining their independence. Ac- 
cording to Rawlinson, the Median kingdom 
was probably first established about 633 by 
Cyaxares, the third king of Herodotus, At all 
events, it was probably that monarch, generally 
regarded by Greeks and Asians as the founder 
of a dynasty, who made the Aryan element 
paramount in the kingdom, after a hard strug- 
gle against native and foreign Turanian tribes. 
The Aryan emigration from the east had for 
centuries been pressing upon the Turanian 
populations of the regions E. and S. of the 
Caspian, and under Cyaxares a violent strug- 
gle of the two races was after many years de- 
cided in favor of the former. This struggle He- 
rodotus brings in connection with the invasion 
of Asia by the Cimmerians, relating that the 
Seyths, their pursuers, interrupted the suc- 
cesses of Cyaxares, the conqueror of Nineveh 
in alliance with Babylonia, and spread the ter- 
ror of their arms as far as the confines of 
Egypt, holding sway over Asia for 28 years. A 
treacherous massacre is. said to have termina- 
ted this sway, when Media, which under Cyax- 
ares also waged war against Alyattes of Lydia, 
became the first among the nations of Asia, 
another empire being simultaneously founded 
by its Babylonian ally. The reign of Asty- 
ages, the son of Cyaxares, which lasted 385 
years, was peaceful, but ended (about 558) with 
a catastrophe, which changed the united king- 
dom of ‘Media and Persia,” as it is called 
in Scripture, into another styled Persia and 
Media, in which the people of the conqueror, 
Cyrus, became the predominant race. The 
difficulty, however, which arises from the fact 
of a Darius the Mede being represented in the 
book of Daniel as king of Babylon, has induced 
some critics to accept the relation of Xeno- 
phon, strengthened by that of Josephus, con- 
cerning the reign of a Cyaxares II., son and 
successor of Astyages, for whom Cyrus, his 
nephew, conquered Babylon, in preference to 
the detailed story of Herodotus; while others 
find Darius the Mede, not in a Cyaxares IL, 
but in Astyages, who may have maintained a 
shadow of royalty under his grandson, Cyrus. 
(See Darius.) Both Media as a province, and 
its undoubtedly mixed population, continued 
prominent in the history of the new Aryan 
empire, though two great struggles for the re- 
covery of independence, under Darius Hystas- 
pis and Darius Nothus, failed. Many of the 
highest offices in the state were held by Medes; 
and the Scythic inscriptions on the Persian 
monuments prove the importance which was 
attached to the populations of the ancient Me- 
dian provinces. The relation of the influential 
caste of the Magi to the Median tribe of the 
same name, as well as of the Scythic element 
of the Medo-Persian religion to the Aryan, is 
not yet satisfactorily cleared up. The Median 
religion appears to have been Magism, while 
that of the Persians was Mazdeism. Desirous 
of conciliating the religious notions of ‘the Tu- 


‘be divided into four periods: 


MEDICAL ELECTRICITY 3303 


ranian people who formed a large element in the 
population of Media, the Magi, the great ones, 
or priests, combined the worship of Ormuzd 
with that of Ahriman, whom they identified 
with the Turanian Afrasiab. (See Ormuzp, 
and Zoroaster.) Semitic races formed also 
a constituent part of the population of Me- 
dia, and hence the Magi introduced also the 
worship of the gods of Assyria and Elam. It 
seems that the Magi also practised sorcery and 
incantations, which pure Zoroastrianism ex- 
pressly forbids. Otherwise but little is known 
of the state of Median civilization, arts, and 
religion. Median architecture, according to 
Rawlinson, appears to have possessed a bar- 
baric magnificence, but not much of either 
grandeur or beauty.—After the Macedonian 
conquest, and the death of Alexander, a gov- 
ernor of the latter, Atropates, made himself 


‘independent in the N. W. part of Media, hence 


called Atropatene, which continued to exist 
as a kingdom down to the time of Augustus, 
while Great Media was under the successive 
rule of the Seleucide and Parthians. Both 
parts of ancient Media were again united un- 
der the Neo-Persian kings, and its subsequent 
history is blended with that of Persia.—See 
George Rawlinson, ‘‘The Five Great Monar- 
chies of the Ancient Eastern World” (London, 
1862-8); Lenormant, Manuel @histoire an- 
cienne de 1 Orient (Paris, 1868-9); Spiegel, 
Erdanische Alterthumskunde (ULeipsic, 1871- 
3); and Duncker, Geschichte des Alterthums 
(4th ed., Leipsic, 1874 et seq.). 

MEDICAL ELECTRICITY, or Electro-Therapeu- 
ties, the therapeutical application of the various 
kinds of electricity. The attempt to employ 
electricity in medicine dates as far back as the 
knowledge of the phenomena of electricity it- 
self. The history of electro-therapeutics may 
1, the period 
before the invention of the electrical machine 
and Leyden jar; 2, from the invention of this 
machine to the discovery of galvanism; 3, 
from the discovery of galvanism to that of 
magneto-electricity; 4, from this last discoy- 
ery to the present time. Of the first period 
little is known. The ancients occasionally ate 
of the raja torpedo on account of its supposed 
curative properties, and 1,000 years ago the 
women of western Africa are said to have 
placed their sick children in pools of water 
containing these fish. Scribonius Largus, a 
physician of the time of the emperor Tiberius, 
employed electric fishes for the cure of gout, 
and Pliny and Dioscorides speak of electricity 
as a therapeutical agent in several diseases. 
It was not till about the middle of the 18th 
century, or a century and a half after the 
observations of Dr. Gilbert of Colchester in 
England, that much was done in the way of 
applying frictional electricity in electro-thera- 
peutics. About this time a German named 
Kratzenstein is said to have restored the use of 
a paralyzed finger by electricity, and experi- 
ments were made in the Vienna hospital under 


334 


the direction of De Haen with considerable 
success. In France Jallabert, Sigaud-Lafond, 
Bertholon, and others became enthusiastic ad- 
vocates of its application; and especially Mau- 
duyt, who made a favorable report to the 
royal society of medicine in 1773. The agent 
was employed in every form then attain- 
able—in baths, in electric jets and streams, 
and in shocks. Cavallo, in his ‘‘ Essay on the 
Theory and Practice of Medical Electricity ” 
(London, 1780), collected all the various ideas 
of his day on the subject, by which it was cred- 
ited with being of service in paralysis of the 
muscles, impaired vision and hearing, chorea, 
epilepsy, chronic rheumatism, scrofulous en- 
largement of the glands, and in reanimating 
the apparently dead. The natural magnet had 
been used by Paracelsus, and its mysterious 


properties were greatly extolled by him; and. 


the use of artificial magnets by Maximilian 
Hell of Vienna drew considerable attention to 
this form of electricity as a curative agent. 
But the magnet, unless employed to induce 
electric currents, is almost inert for this pur- 
pose, and consequently practical men could 
never from this, or from frictional electricity 
alone, derive that degree of benefit commensu- 
rate with the inseparable disadvantages from 
delay, exposure of person, &c., attending their 
use. The discoveries of Galvani and Volta 
gave a new electric force, and the contro- 
versy between their followers revived the in- 
terest of the medical profession and physicians 
generally in electro-therapeutics. In 1797 
Humboldt published his celebrated work, Ue- 
ber die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser, in 
which the power of galvanism to change the 
secretions was shown, as also the dependence 
of nervous sensibility upon external circum- 
stances, such as muscular exertion and diseased 
condition. The book exerted a profound in- 
fluence, not only upon the development of the 
science of medical electricity, but upon the 
progress of physiology. The resuscitation of 
persons inanimate from suffocation or nervous 
derangement attracted about this time much 
attention, and Hufeland and Sémmering made 
a series of experiments with special reference 
to this subject, arriving at the conclusion that 
the phrenic nerve offered the best pathway to 
the galvanic current for restoring suspended 
animation. Pfaff, Reil, Humboldt, and others 
also recommended galvanism as an efficacious 
agent in cases of paralysis of certain organs, 
and Valli proposed it as a test in cases of 
apparent death. The introduction of Volta’s 
pile in 1799, by which the intensity of the 
galvanic current was greatly augmented, gave 
an additional advantage, as by it penetration 
into deeper parts of the body was possible. 
Loder, Bischoff, Lichtenstein, Hers, and others 
directed their attention to its application in 
cases of paralysis of the extremities and nerves 
of special sense. At the same time Prof. 
Schaub in Cassel, and Eschke, director of the 
institution for the deaf and dumb in Berlin, 


MEDICAL ELECTRICITY 


employed it in cases of impaired hearing and 
of deaf mutes. But owing to the frequent 
failures of electricity to realize the hopes of its 
friends, the great body of scientific physicians 
were slow to recognize it as a trustworthy 
therapeutical agent, and it fell into the hands 
of charlatans, who offered the voltaic pile for 
sale as a panacea. The circumstance that mes- 
merism, which had made its appearance some 
time before, was connected in the public mind 
with electricity and magnetism, had the effect 
of discouraging practitioners from making in- 
vestigations in that direction. Faraday’s dis- 
covery of inductive electricity in 1831 was the 
commencement of a new era in the history of 
medical electricity. The construction of mag- 
neto-electric machines by Saxton, Keil, Et- 
tinghausen, and Stdhrer offered facilities for 
the use of electricity in medicine not before 
known; but these machines were costly, and 
Wagner, Rauch, Duchenne, and Du Bois-Rey- 
mond made cheaper voltaic apparatus of con- 
siderable intensity; and physicians and scien- 
tific men generally employed much of their 
time in making experiments. Among the Eng- 
lish who engaged in this pursuit were Marshall 
Hall, Golding Bird, Stokes, Phillips, Graves, 
and Donovan; among the French, Poiseuille, 
Pétrequin, Masson, Duchenne, and A. Becque- 
rel; and among the Germans, Weber, Heiden- 
reich, Richter, Moritz Meyer, Schultz, Erd- 
mann, Baierlacher, Eckhardt, Remak, Althaus, 
and Rosenthal. Pravaz was the first to con- 
ceive the idea of curing aneurism by galvano- 
puncture; the English surgeon Liston was the 
first to apply the method to the human sub- 
ject; the Italian Cinisilli was the first to make 
a successful operation.—The manner of apply- 
ing electricity in therapeutics has been various, 
and at present differs in different cases. The 
earliest method of using the frictional elec- 
tricity of the ordinary machine was to take 
the sparks from the prime conductor, soon 
after which it was the practice to take sparks 
from the patient, who was placed upon an in- 
sulated stool. On the introduction of the Ley- 
den jar, shocks were taken from this appa- 
ratus, but no great degree of system in its ap- 
plication was ever attained. The most remark- 
able and practical successes of electricity have 
perhaps been in the domain of surgery, by 
the employment of electric currents of suffi- 
cient quantity to raise platinum wire to a white 
heat. This mode of employment cannot be 
strictly called therapeutic, as the action is 
simply one of heat, and possesses no intrinsic 
properties beyond those of the ‘actual cautery. 
But it is applied in situations where it would 
be impossible to apply the same degree of heat 
produced in any other manner. Galvano-caus- 
ty, as this operation is called, is employed for 
extirpating and abolishing tumors and diseased 
growths. <A battery of from 16 to 24 of 
Grove’s cells, or an equivalent battery of any 
form, is all that is required to produce the 
current. (See Gatvanism:) Electrodes of 


MEDICAL ELECTRICITY 


platinum wire of different thicknesses, and of 
various forms and lengths, to meet the require- 
ments of different cases, are connected with 
portable conducting wires in such a manner 
as to admit of the most convenient applica- 
tion. In electro-therapeutics two forms of cur- 
rent are used: the direct battery current, and 
the induced, electro-magnetic, magneto-elec- 
tric, or faradic currents. (See ELEcrro-maG- 
NETISM, and MAGNETO-ELEOTRICITY.) When the 
direct current is employed, the operation is 
called simply galvanization; when the induced 
or interrupted current is used, the process is 
called faradization. The direct current may 
be used of such strength and so applied as to 
produce decomposition of the fluids and solids 
of the parts to which it is applied, an opera- 
tion which has received the name of electro- 
lysis. Needles of various forms and sizes are 
employed as electrodes. hey are inserted 
into the diseased parts, and the therapeuti- 
cal results are dependent in a great measure 
upon the fact that diseased parts are more 
readily destroyed by electrolytic action than 
sound parts. Batteries for electrolytic pur- 
poses should be coupled for intensity, as quan- 
tity arrangement produces too much heat, and 
has not sufficient intensity to overcome resis- 
tance. The general effects of electricity upon 
the various parts of the body are as follows: 
When a current from 12 or 16 Grove’s ele- 
ments is passed through the brain, by placing 
one electrode upon some part of the cranium, 
which should be slightly moistened, and the 
other upon some other part of the body, as 
along the spinal column, or in the hands or 
under the feet, flashes of light appear on 
breaking the current, and a metallic taste is 
perceived. M. Erb has demonstrated that 
the skull offers no obstruction to the passage 
of the current. Galvanization of particular 
parts of the brain will excite contractions of 
the muscles. Matteucci showed that electric 
stimulation of the crura cerebri is followed by 
muscular contractions; but the most marked 
effects of electricity are upon the special 
senses. If a metallic plate connected with 
one electrode is placed upon the forehead and 
the other over the infra-orbital nerve, it will 
cause the sensation of a vivid flash of light. 
Galvanic stimulation of that part of the sym- 
pathetic system supplying the iris will pro- 
duce dilatation of the pupil. The sense of 
hearing is also intensified, and favorable re- 
sults have been obtained by repeated applica- 
tions of the continuous current through the 
parts containing the different portions of the 
ear. The olfactory nerve is not affected by 
the induced or faradic current, but a moder- 
ately strong continuous current will produce 
a peculiar odor, which is not to be confounded 
with that of ozone, afforded by the friction 
machine. The sense of taste is easily affected 
by the galvanic current. A simple experiment 
consists in placing a plate of zinc beneath the 
tongue and a plate of a more negative metal, 
543 VOL. XI.—22 


335 


as copper or silver, above it, and bringing the 
edges of the two together, when a flash of 
light and a metallic taste will be perceived. 
Electrization of the motor nerves results in a 
contraction of the muscles which are supplied 
by them, which occurs upon the closing of the 
circuit, ceasing when the current is broken. 
The effect is greatest when the negative elec- 
trode is applied to the nerve and the positive 
to the muscle. Ritter found that when the 
current was applied in the direction of the 
nerve its excitability was diminished, but in 
the other direction the irritability was in- 
creased. If the electrodes are applied to the 
surface of the body, a sense of warmth will be 
felt in the part. A strong current will pro- 
duce a sense of prickling or tingling, which 
may increase to a state of extreme pain. 
With the interrupted or faradic current, if 
the breaks are made slowly, the sensation will 
differ from that which occurs when they are 
very rapid; and this will vary with the part 
operated upon, and with the variety of elec- 
trode employed. A moist sponge may occa- 
sion only a slight disturbance; but a bundle 
of pointed wires may create an intense sensa- 
tion. The amount and distributions of the 
nerves beneath the skin will also be followed 
by a difference of sensation. Remak holds 
that the nearer the nerves are to the brain the 
greater will be the excitability. The applica- 
tion of the continuous current for any great 
length of time will diminish sensibility. Fara- 
dization and static electricity have but little 
influence upon the sympathetic system of 
nerves; but the continuous current from a 
battery of many couples may be passed through 
many parts of it. When the cervical portion 
is electrically insulated, dilatation followed by 
contraction of the pupils occurs, the pulsations 
of the heart are less frequent, and the tension 
of the arterial walls is diminished. That the 
vaso-motor system of nerves may be decided- 
ly affected appears from the fact that galva- 
nization excites the peristaltic action of the 
intestines, and greatly affects the calibre of 
the capillaries and larger blood vessels. The 
stomach and intestines and other abdominal 
organs are readily influenced by applying the 
electrodes at either side of the abdomen, or 
by applying one electrode over the abdomen 
and the other along the spinal column. The 
continuous current sent through the splanch- 
nic nerves increases the peristaltic move- 
ments of the intestines, while faradization 
diminishes them. The details of the practice 
of electro - therapeutics, especially from the 
fact that changes are liable to be made, are 
purposely omitted in this work.—See ‘ Elec- 
tricity in its Relations to Practical Medicine,”* 
by Dr. Moritz Meyer, translated and edited by 
W. A. Hammond, M. D. (New York, 1869) ; 
‘‘ A practical Treatise on the Medical and Sur- 
gical Uses of Electricity,” by George M. Beard, 
M.D., and A. D. Rockwell, M. D. (New York, 
1871); ‘“ Clinical Electro-Therapeutics,” by Al- 


336 


lan McLane Hamilton, M. D. (New York, 1878) ; 
and ‘“‘A Treatise on Medical Electricity,” by 
Julius Althans, M. D. (Philadelphia, 1878). 
MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, called also legal 
or forensic medicine, the employment of the 
principles of medical science in the adminis- 
tration of law. In its relations to jurispru- 
dence, medical learning is a branch of evi- 
dence in which the physician or surgeon is 
called in as an expert. There are traces both 
in the Jewish and Roman systems of the 
recognition of medical science in the applica- 
tion of laws; but forensic medicine cannot 
be said to have attained the dignity of a sci- 
ence until many centuries after the comple- 
tion of the Justinian code, certainly not until 
anatomy was studied in the human subject 
in the 14th century; perhaps not before the 
publication of the Oarolinian criminal code 
in 1552. The Roman law had referred all 
medical questions which arose in legal pro- 
cesses to ‘‘the authority of the learned Hippo- 
crates.”” The code of Charles V. enjoined the 
magistrate, in all cases of doubt respecting 
asserted pregnancy, infanticide, the means of 
homicide, and in other cases of death by vio- 
lence, to consult the opinions of medical men. 
During the latter part of the 16th century and 
the earlier part of the 17th, legal medicine made 
marked progress. Ambroise Paré published 
during that time a treatise upon tardy births. 
Fortunatus Fidelis compiled and published at 
Palermo in 1602 all that was then known of 
medical science. At Rome, about 20 years 
later, Paolo Bacchia, or, as he is usually called, 
Paulus Bacchias, commenced the publication 
of his Questiones Medico-Legales. This work 
appeared in successive volumes between the 
years 1621 and 1650, and deserves the merit 
of first worthily exhibiting legal medicine as 
a science. In France in 1609, wader a patent 
of Henry IV., two surgeons were appointed 
in every considerable town to make examina- 
tions and reports in all cases of wounded or 
murdered persons. The application of the 
so-called hydrostatic test of Galen to cases 
of supposed infanticide, which had been sug- 
gested by Harvey, was discussed in several 
disquisitions by Bartholin (1663), Swammer- 
dam (1677), Jan Schreyer (1682), and toward 
the close of the century by Bohn, in his trea- 
tise De Renunciatione Vulnerum. In a later 
work Bohn treated of the office of the phy- 
sician as expert in judicial tribunals. France 
produced during this time no very celebrated 
works on forensic medicine, but the Doctrine 
des rapports en chirurgie of Blégny (1684), and 
the more useful book of Devaux on the same 
subject, are honorably mentioned in this branch 
of the science. In 1722 Valentini contributed 
to the literature of the science the Pandecte 
Medico-Legales. Between 1725 and 1747 were 
issued at Halle the successive volumes of the 
Systema Jurisprudentiea Medice of Albertini. 
This work was followed by the Jnstitutiones 
Medicine Legalis vel Forensis of Tischmeyer, 


MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE 


which was used for a long time as a handbook 
in the German universities, and formed the 
text of Haller’s lectures, which were published 
after his death in 1782 and 1784. The Hlementa 
of Plenck (1781) and the Systema of Metzger 
(1795) are commended by writers of high au- 
thority. So too is the collection of Metzger’s 
constitutions or opinions, many of which em- 
body the results of his studies in mental disease 
as a branch of legal medicine. The Collectio 
Opusculorum, edited by Schlegel, and embra- 
cing upward of 40 dissertations by German 
authors on various topics, was one of the most 
valuable additions made during the 18th cen- 
tury to the learning of the science. In the 
latter part of the 18th century, infanticide 
was made the subject of elaborate research by 
Daniel and Ploucquet, among others, the latter 
of whom published an essay upon the eviden- 
ces of respiration im new-born infants; and by 
Metzger, Portal, and Camper, of whom the last 
wrote upon the signs of life and birth in new- 
born infants, and upon the causes of infanticide. 
During the same period the eminent French 
surgeon Antoine Louis, both by private dis- 
sertations and by his opinions pronounced be- 
fore the tribunals, contributed to the illustra- 
tion of some of the most difficult topics in 
legal medicine. Among the former are his 
memoirs upon tardy births, on the certain 
signs of death, on drowning, and on the mode 
of distinguishing between suicide and assas- 
sination in the case of a body found hanged. 
But his opinions, many of which are collected 
in the Causes célébres, present perhaps the 
clearest evidences of his genius. A valuable 
memoir upon death from blows or wounds 
was read by Chaussier at Dijon in 1789, and 
the next year he delivered there a course of 
lectures upon legal medicine. Shortly before 
the close of the century Fodéré published Les 
lois éclairées par les sciences physiques, ou 
traité de médecine légale et @hygiéne publique. 
This treatise displays the entire system of the 
science. Dr. Parr published in England in 
1788 the ‘‘ Elements of Medical Jurisprudence.” 
This book was a mere compilation from con- 
tinental authorities, but was at the time the 
only English work upon the subject. In the 
first year of the present century, the first lec- 
tures in Great Britain upon medical jurispru- 
dence were delivered at Edinburgh by Dr. 
Andrew Duncan, and in 1806 the first profes- 
sorship was established in the same city, and con- 
ferred upon Dr. Andrew Duncan the younger. 
The most important accessions to the science 
of legal medicine in recent times are those de- 
rived from studies of mental disease, and the 
application of the knowledge thus obtained to 
determining questions of legal responsibility ; 
and from investigations into the nature and 
effect of poisons, and the mode of detecting 
their presence in the human body. The first 
systematic work of this century is the posthu- 
mous one of Dr. Mahon (1807), professor of 
legal medicine at Paris. In 1808 Mare pub- 


MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE 


lished a translation of the German work of 
Rose on medico-legal dissection, to which he 
added valuable original notes and essays. Fo- 
déré in 1813 issued a second and much enlarg- 
ed edition of his treatise. Of a far higher 
character than any work which had preceded 
it was the Towicologie générale of Orfila, which 
appeared in 1813-’14, and was followed some 
years later by his Legons de médecine légale. 
Orfila rendered the most eminent services to 
the science, and particularly in the depart- 
ment of toxicology. The elaborate treatise 
of Devergie made still further advances alike 
in the theory and practice of legal medicine. 
Briand, Capuron, Biessy, Esquirol, and Mare 
are authors of learned treatises or of disser- 
tations on single subjects. But any sketch of 
the French literature upon thisysubject would 
be incomplete without mention of the Annales 
@ Hygiene publique et de Médecine légale, a 
quarterly journal, which from its first appear- 
ance in 1829 to the present time has been sup- 
ported by the ablest medical men of France, 
and is an invaluable repository of information 
on the various branches of medical jurispru- 
dence. The Germans still maintain their high 
rank in this science. Schmidmiller, Wildberg, 
Gmelin, Remer, Bernt, Henke, and many others 
have made the most various and valuable addi- 
tions to the learning of medical science and 
jurisprudence. The principal Italian authors 
of the present century are Tortosa, Martini, 
and Barzelotti. In 1818 Dr. Male produced 
the first respectable English work on forensic 
medicine. More comprehensive and better in 
many respects than any which had preceded 
it, was the treatise of Dr. John Gordon Smith 
(1821). Two years after appeared the more 
formal and elaborate work, the result of the 
combined labors of a lawyer and a physician, 
Messrs. Paris and Fonblanque. Dr. Christi- 
son’s works on poisons are of the highest ex- 
cellence. Haslam on insanity, Hutchinson on 
infanticide, Watson on homicide, Gavin on 
feigned diseases, Taylor, Guy,. and Traill, are 
authors of high eminence in their various spe- 
cialties. Lectures upon medical jurisprudence 
were first delivered in America in 1804 at 
Columbia college, by Dr. James S. Stringham. 
In 1815 Dr. T. Romeyn Beck was appointed to 
' lecture on the science in the western medical 
college, and not long after Dr. Walter Channing 
received a similar appointment in Harvard col- 
lege. American authors have furnished some 
of the very best works upon this science. The 
well known work of Dr. Beck (12th ed., 1863) 
was pronounced by Dr. Traill of Edinburgh 
the best book on the general subject in the 
English language. American editions of vari- 
ous English works, and the publication of the 
excellent treatises of Wharton and Stillé, .of 
Dr. Ray’s book on insanity, of Elwell on mal- 
practice, of the ‘‘ American Journal of In- 
sanity,” and the “Journal of Psychological 
Medicine,” maintain the high reputation of 
our country in its culture of medical science 


337 


and jurisprudence.—The very general survey 
of legal medicine which is here proposed will 
exclude all notice of medical police or public 
hygiene, and will be exclusively limited to a 
brief review of the more prominent branches 
of the science. Following the division of 
Briand, the subject may be conveniently ar- 
ranged under three heads: the first embracing 
those branches which concern the reproduction 
of the species; the second considering injuries 
to health and life, the different forms of death 
by asphyxia, and the nature and effect of 
poisons; and the third examining mental af- 
fections.—In the male, absolute and incurable 
impotence may arise from total absence, un- 
natural form, or paralysis of the organs of 
generation. Curable conditions may be the 
consequence of disease or sensual excesses, or 
of slight malformation which can be relieved 
by surgery. Accidental and temporary incapa- 
city may be caused by nervous or malignant 
fevers, particularly if they affect the brain and 
are accompanied by great debility, all affections 
of the head and spinal marrow, palsy, apoplexy, 
and the like diseases. This class of causes usu- 
ally comes to be considered upon questions of 
contested paternity; for if it appear that any 
of these existed at the time of the child’s con- 
ception, the presumption is strong against its 
legitimacy. In the female, malformation may 
render intercourse impossible. If it existed at 
the solemnization of the marriage and be incu- 
rable, it is sufficient ground for divorce. Fe- 
male impotence may also be caused by diseases 
which may yield to medical treatment. In 
two instances familiar to the theory of the com- 
mon law, though rare perhaps in its administra- 
tion, medical testimony may be invoked by the 
courts upon the question of pregnancy: first, 
where a widow is thought to feign herself preg- 
nant in order to supply a supposititious heir to 
an estate; and secondly, where a female con- 
demned to death is supposed to be in that con- 
dition, for her execution will be delayed if she 
be quick with child. But in other respects, 
and particularly in relation to abortion and in- 
fanticide, the existence of pregnancy may be 
a significant fact. In respect to the crimes of 
abortion and infanticide, and also with refer- 
ence to civil cases, when questions of heirship 
are involved, it is important to consider the 
signs of a child’s death before or during deliv- 
ery. From the sound health of the woman, 
and the usual signs of a healthy pregnancy, 
nothing can be conclusively presumed respect- 
ing the life of the foetus; and on the other 
hand, though violence and those other causes 
which tend to produce miscarriage may and 
usually do destroy the fcetus, yet infants some- 
times survive all these. The signs of death 
during pregnancy are numerous, and yet equiv- 
ocal. Auscultation is one of the surest means 
of detecting foetal life. After the birth, the 
physician can judge from the appearance of 
the body, from the condition of the flesh, from 
its color, from the condition of the umbilical 


338 


cord, and of the bones, whether the infant 
was dead or alive at delivery. The successive 
stages of foetal life, as they are marked by the 
size, weight, and development of the organs 
and functions of the child, will throw much 
light upon the matter in question. In its latest 
researches science has found that the changes 
in the brain furnish an index of the general 
development. Yet all inferences derived from 
the structure and dimensions of the foetus will 
be modified and controlled by considering the 
age and vigor of the mother, her mode of life, 
and perhaps the climate in which she lives. 
All systems of law contain provisions respect- 
ing newly born infants. To succeed to prop- 
erty, according to the Roman law, the infant 
must be perfectly alive. The English law 
makes a like requirement. By the French 
civil code the child must be viable, or capable 
of life, in order to be capable of inheriting; 
and on the authority of the most eminent sur- 
geons and jurists of France, life, or being born 
alive, means complete and perfect respiration. 
The viability of a child, that is, its capacity of 
life, comes then to be considered in questions 
of property, and of the division of inherit- 
ances; for a child which is declared by medi- 
cal science to have been viable may be pre- 
sumed to have lived, and so to have inherited. 
‘“‘It is now very generally conceded,” says 
Beck, ‘‘ that no infant can be born viable until 
150 days, or five months, after conception. 
The instances of exception to this rule are 
questionable; indeed, the survival of infants 
born at six, seven, or even eight months after 
conception, is by no means frequent.” The 
criminal destruction of the foetus while still in 
the womb, generally described by its conse- 
quences as abortion, is more fitly named fceti- 
cide. (See ABortion.) The duty of the med- 
ical expert in cases of supposed fceticide is 
to determine whether the substance expelled 
from the womb be really the product of con- 
ception, and whether the causes of miscar- 
riage were natural or artificial—Infanticide is 
the murder of a child born alive. Here the 
medical examiner must address his inquiries 
first to the appearance of the body in order to 
determine whether it was born alive. If that 
be clear, he will seek to determine how long it 
lived, and the means by which it came to its 
death. These inquiries will naturally involve 
an examination of the alleged mother. Proof 
that life has existed in the child may be derived 
from the effects of respiration upon some of 
the organs of the body. In a child which has 
breathed completely and fully, the thorax will 
be found expanded and the diaphragm more or 
less depressed by the inflation of the lungs; 
but these signs alone are not of much value. 
Respiration will also have distended the lungs 
and increased their volume, and will have 
changed their color from the brownish tint of 
the foetal lungs to a pale red or scarlet color. 
After respiration the lungs become soft and 
spongy, and they crepitate more or less upon 


MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE 


pressure. The hydrostatic test is often ap- 
plied. Galen had taught that by inspiration 
the lungs are rendered specifically lighter, and 
in modern times the test was first applied by 
Schreyer in 1682 to cases of suspected child 
murder. In the course of experiments it has 
been found that the lungs may float from other 
causes than respiration, as for example from 
putrefaction and the artificial introduction of 
air. But, observing certain precautions, it may 
be certainly known to what cause the buoyancy 
is due. If, says Beck, with such precautions 
it be found that the lungs float in the water, 
as well with the heart attached to them as sep- 
arate from them, and if when cut into pieces 
each fragment floats, then the proof is strong 


that the infant enjoyed perfect respiration. 


Something may also be concluded, though not 
with much certainty, from the character of the 
blood found in the body, but more from the 
changes in the blood-circulating organs which 
are known to be wrought by the establishment 
of respiration, as, for instance, in some of the 
vessels and ducts of the heart, and in the arte- 
ries and veins of the umbilical cord. The 
separation of this cord, in the living child, is 
preceded by several stages of desiccation; and 
if this characteristic be present, its condition 
will afford evidence of the infant’s age. To 
the validity of these indicia, so far as they tend 
to show the fact of life, it has been objected 
that the child may have breathed during de- 
livery, and yet have died before it was fully 
born. It is replied to this, that the fact of 
breathing during birth affords the best pre- 
sumptive evidence that the infant was born 
alive, and that the marks of any accidental 
cause of death will generally be discovered on 
inspection. More than that, respiration in such 
cases is commonly imperfect, and the objection 
will therefore have but little weight where the 
body presents the appearances which are in- 
duced by complete respiration. If the exami- 
nation lead to the conclusion that the child 
was born alive, the means of death must next 
be determined, and whether they were inno- 
cent or criminal. The omission to tie the um- 
bilical cord, permitting fatal hemorrhage by 
its severed vessels, may be a cause of death. 
In such a case the body presents externally a 
singular paleness, and a peculiar waxy appear- 
ance. Internally is observed a loss of color in 
the muscles and viscera, and absence of the 
usual quantity of blood in the heart and blood 
vessels. Exposure to cold immediately after 
birth, want of proper nourishment, the inflic- 
tion of blows and wounds, the thrusting sharp 
instruments into various parts of the body, are 
frequent modes of child murder. In cases of 
strangulation, suffocation, and poisoning, the 
indications of the cause of death are evident, 
and are suggested under the proper divisions 
of this article. It must be remembered also 
that accidental causes attendant upon birth, 
congenital disease, malformations or defects of 
internal structure, may deprive the child of life 


MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE 


or render it incapable of living. The mother 
_ may have been overtaken by the pains of labor 
when alone and unassisted, and then there 
are many chances against the safe delivery 
of the infant. Fainting or convulsions, which 
sometimes attend labor, may render her inca- 
pable of ministering to the first wants of her 
child; unskilful and imperfect ligature of the 
umbilical cord may produce death. An exam- 
ination of the supposed mother has already 
been suggested.—In determining questions of 
legitimacy, the consideration of premature and 
tardy births necessarily arises. The ordinary 
period of gestation, derived from accurate data, 
is fixed at ten lunar months, or 280 days. It 
is admitted on high authority that this time 
may be exceeded, but it has been suggested 
that the apparently exceptional cases may be 
explained by the fact of inaccurate computa- 
tion. Still it is to be remembered that the hu- 
man fetus is ordinarily expelled only when it 
has attained sufficient development, and that, 
as this may be delayed by disease or other 
causes, it is not strange that delivery may be 
for a longer or shorter time deferred. Whether 
a child born before the time expected is to be 
regarded as legitimate, has been already inci- 
dentally discussed. It has been seen that the 
best authorities deny that a perfectly natural 
child can be born in less than seven months 
after conception. The absence or incapacity 
of the husband during this period, and all other 
causes which render intercourse impossible, 
tend strongly to prove illegitimacy of the child. 
Births occurring at 13 and even 14 months 
after an alleged coition have been sometimes 
claimed to be legitimate. This topic of pro- 
tracted gestation has been abundantly discussed 
by medical writers. It must suffice here to 
say that, though the theory seems to be ably 
opposed by many, it is yet favored by a major- 
ity of the authorities, among whom are in- 
cluded Bacchias, Haller, Petit, Fodéré, Capu- 
ron, Orfila, and others of almost equal emi- 
nence. It may be added that, of the cases 
cited in support of this theory, the best au- 
thenticated are those in which the ordinary 
period of gestation was exceeded only by three 
or four weeks.— When a person is found dead 
under circumstances which render the cause of 
death doubtful, the medical expert may be called 
upon for an opinion whether death resulted from 
natural causes, or from violence; and, if by vi- 
olence, whether that was self-inflicted or by the 


hands of an assassin. Under this division of our: 


subject we shall notice some of the more usual 
and characteristic phenomena observed in cases 
of death by blows and wounds; by asphyxia, 
considering here drowning, hanging, and suffo- 
cation; and finally, by poisons. The appear- 
ances in the body which are caused by effusions 
of blood will attract the early attention of the 
examiner. When a blow or contusion is suffi- 
ciently violent to rupture blood vessels, the 
effused blood spreads into the cellular tissues 
and forms ecchymosis. The intensity and grad- 


339 


uation of color in these spots give clear indica- 
tions of their cause, and the freedom of the 
hemorrhage shows that they were produced 
during life. Ecchymosis is named traumatic 
when, as is usually the case, it proceeds from 
external causes, and spontaneous when it is the 
effect of internal violence. From this must 
be distinguished the post-mortem appearances 
caused by suggillation. This is the term applied 
to the determination of the blood, merely as an 
effect of gravitation, into the lower lying por- 
tions of the dead body, and into the capillary 
blood vessels, and not into the cellular tissue. 
Ecchymosis may be imitated on the dead body 
within a short time after life is extinct; but 
very violent blows inflicted then will produce 
only the same effect as slight contusions during 
life. The body may plainly show, or dissection 
may disclose, that death was caused by wounds, 
that is to say, in the language of legal medicine, 
by a lesion of any part of the body. It may be 
remarked in passing that, in law, a wound 
means a breaking of the skin, at least, by the 
application of extreme violence. A division 
of the cuticle alone is not sufficient. The true 
skin must be penetrated, though there be no 
effusion of blood. In surgery, a wound means 
a solution of continuity, or disruption, in the 
fleshy parts. The first inquiries of course will 
be whether the wounds discovered were self- 
inflicted, or resulted from accident, or were 
given by a homicide. The position and direc- 
tion of the injuries will be noted. The pres- 
ence of many wounds argues violence by 
another hand than that of the deceased. The 
suicide generally directs the hurt to a single 
vital point. A wound made by a cylindrical 
and pointed instrument has distinct angles. A 
cut is larger than the cutting edge, and in the 
living body is always accompanied by some 
effusion of blood. A wound by a perforating 
instrument is generally smaller than the instru- 
ment which inflicted it. The entrance made by 
a ball is distinguished by the regular roundness 
and depression of its edges; the exit wound 
is torn and ragged. The former is also larger 
than the latter. The spiral motion of a rifle 
ball causes a more ragged wound than that 
of a ball from a smooth-bored arm. A single 
round wound can be produced by a shot charge 
only when it is fired at a distance of 10 or 12 
inches, and then the injury is not the same as 
that of a ball, but is more extensive and more 
serious. The examination of spots supposed to 
be made by blood may lead to important dis- 
coveries. Blood washed from linen into water 
imparts to it a deep red color; boiling pro- 
duces a muddy brown precipitate which is to 
be subjected to chemical tests. In fresh blood 
the microscope reveals the presence of red 
flattened disks, which are the blood disks, and 
among these, more rarely, the rounded color- 
less lymph globules. These latter may still be 
observed under the microscope in the water in 
which dried blood has been softened ; the blood 
disks are less easily obtained. It is often a 


340 


question for the medical expert, when disease 
has succeeded to the injury, whether death 
resulted from the one cause or the other. If 
malignant or inflammatory symptoms follow 
upon slight wounds, the inference is ordinarily 
not difficult that the injury was not the cause 
of death. The habitual use of intoxicating 
liquors tends to induce a diseased condition 
of the system, and in a state of actual drunk- 
enness the vessels of the body are in that con- 
dition in which an external injury is apt to 
produce rupture, and a less violent blow will 
cause it than would otherwise be required. 
Legal responsibility rests on the clear and 
direct consequences of the injury inflicted. 
This principle must always be borne in mind. 
For disease, though developed in organs far 
from the seat of the wound, may yet be its 
immediate result; as, for example, injuries 
on the head may promote a deposition of pus 
in the lungs, or give rise to abscesses of the 
liver; and on the other hand, death may re- 
sult from improper medical treatment, or from 
the negligence or excesses of the injured par- 
ty himself. (For the subject of malpractice, 
see Surcrery.) Though external marks fail, 
the skilful anatomist may discover upon dis- 
section internal signs of mortal injuries. Blows 
or wounds upon the surface of the body may 
possibly rupture the heart. Ruptures of aneu- 
risms may be produced by the excitement 
of passion, and laceration of the spleen or 
liver by a fall or other sudden external vio- 
lence. Death from starvation is characterized 
by distinctive phenomena. The body is ex- 
tremely emaciated, and, even though death 
were recent, exhales an acrid and fetid odor; 
the eyes are red and open, the tongue and 
throat dry, the stomach and intestines empty, 
and the gall bladder distended with bile; the 
blood vessels and internal organs are compara- 
tively destitute of blood.—When life has been 
destroyed by the inhalation of noxious vapors, 
as for instance of carbonic acid or sulphuretted 
hydrogen gas, the head and face are found to 
be swollen, the eyes protruded, and the tongue 
fixed between the teeth. The face, if observed 
soon after death, may be pale, but generally 
soon becomes livid. The blood vessels of the 
head and lungs and the right vessels of the 
heart are filled with dark fluid blood. Pure 
carbonic acid gas is irrespirable, and inhalation 
of it causes death rather by asphyxia than 
by poisoning. When mixed with atmospheric 
air, 20 per cent. of this gas is very promptly 
fatal to life, and even a smaller proportion 
may produce the same result. Death from 
asphyxia is caused in various ways. When 
respiration is checked by mechanical com- 
pression of the organs which perform that 
function, or when it ceases either from want 
of air, as in cases of suffocation and strangu- 
lation, or from failure of vital air, and the 
inspiration of mephitic or deleterious gases, 
death is caused by asphyxia. Properly speak- 
ing, death ensues in those cases from non-aéra- 


MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE ; 


tion of the blood. It is preceded and accom- 
panied by marked phenomena, more marked 
and evident in proportion to the rapidity with 
which death advances. In a violent struggle for 
breath, the eyes become distended, the veins 
swollen, and the face is fully suffused. On dis- 
section, the pulmonary vessels and the right 
auricle and ventricle of the heart are found 
charged with blood, the liver, spleen, and kid- 
neys are gorged, and the lungs expanded. In 
cases of less violent death, where, for exam- 
ple, it is brought about by inhalation of nox- 
ious gases, these appearances are less strongly 
marked.—Hanging sometimes causes death by 
producing congestive apoplexy, the pressure of 
the cord preventing the return of blood from 


‘the brain, while it does not check the circu- 


lation by the intervertebrals; but more fre- 
quently the destruction of life is due to as- 
phyxia. Luxation or fracture of the cervical 
vertebree speedily causes death. The signs of 
strangulation are a livid depressed circle upon 
the neck, made by the cord; the face is dis- 
torted; the eyes are open and protruded; the 
face, shoulders, and chest swollen. The ec- 
chymosis produced by the cord is an impor- 
tant sign, for, as has been already observed, 
ecchymosis is possible only when contusion 
of the tissues takes place in the living body; 
yet in inferring the mode of death it is to 
be remembered that as death in hanging may 
suddenly result from luxation, the cord may 
have had no time to act on living tissues. The 
condition of the genital organs also affords 
very important proof of death by hanging. 
The color of the countenance is also to be re- 
garded. If the trachea or larynx was alone 
compressed, the face is pale; but when the 
veins of the neck were pressed, as by the cord, 
and the heart continues its action for some 
time, the blood is propelled into the head and 
causes suffusion of the face. The question may 
arise whether, if the deceased came to his death 
by hanging, it was his own work, or the work 
of ahomicide. An examination of cases of sui- 
cide has shown in a large proportion of them 
the absence of ecchymosis; and this because 
from the employment of less violence the con- 
tusion of the neck was less. Fracture of the 
vertebre of the neck is often caused in execu- 
tion by the fall of the body or even by force 
which is sometimes applied by the hangman. 
But luxation is of course not conclusive evi- 
dence of homicide. An examination of the po- 
sition of the body and of the objects which 
surround it, of its elevation above any possible 
support, and any marks which show resistance, 
must be made in all suspected cases. In stran- 
gulation, in its ordinary sense, death results 
not from fracture of the vertebre, but from 
interruption of respiration. This isarare mode 
of suicide, and when appearances indicate that 
it was the means of death they raise a violent 
presumption of assassination. Because death 
ensues from interruption of the breath, the 
mark of the cord must be quite distinct, and is 


MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE 


rather horizontal than oblique. Bruises of pe- 
culiar form around the neck may show that 
strangulation was effected by the hands. It is 
impossible that these should have been made 
by the suicide, because the hands lose their 
power as insensibility advances. But in cases 
of hysteria, apoplexy, or epilepsy, the sufferer 
may in his agony have pressed the hands to the 
throat, and in this way have made the marks 
which give rise to a suspicion of murder.—Ob- 
vious and distinctive marks are, says Dr. Chris- 
tison, rarely present in a case of death by suf- 
focation. They are the less evident as death 
is the more rapidly induced; for if there be no 
time for the accumulation of blood in the ve- 
nous system, there will be no enlargement of 
the pulmonary vessels, no turgescence of the 
veins, and no discoloration of the skin. In the 
cases which occurred in the Champ de Mars in 
Paris in 1837, of suffocation by pressure in the 
crowd, when death was probably caused by 
respiration being incomplete, and was long de- 
ferred, the bodies of the dead exhibited pecu- 
liar appearances. Their faces and necks were 
of a uniform violet tint, spotted with blackish 
ecchymosis, and in some instances blood and 
froth oozed from the mouth and nostrils.—As 
in hanging, so in drowning, life is destroyed by 
different modes, sometimes by suffocation, or 
rather by the asphyxia which that causes. This 
is the most usual form of death by drowning. 
Another form is that of syncopal asphyxia. In 
these cases, the coldness of the water, or per- 
haps intoxication, throws the system into a con- 
dition of nervous inaction, and the body pre- 
sents only the appearance of simple asphyxia, 
paleness of the body, no froth in the trachea 
or bronchi, and but slight disturbance of the in- 
ternal organs. Still another cause of death is 
apoplexy from cerebral congestion. A drowned 
body usually presents general paleness of the 
skin, yet the face will be discolored if death 
was preceded by long-continued struggling. 
It is to be remarked that upon exposure of the 
body to the air, discoloration very speedily en-- 
sues. The eyes may be found half open, at- 
tended by dilatation of the pupils. These signs, 
as also frothing at the mouth, may proceed from 
other violent means, but still are strong proof 
of drowning. Of the internal appearances of 
the body may be mentioned a fulness in greater 
or less degree of the blood vessels of the head 
and of the right side of the heart. The con- 
gested condition of the brain varies with the 
proximate cause of death. If that was apo- 
plexy, it would certainly be present, but rarely 
or not at all in the case of syncopal asphyxia. 
The blood of the drowned is generally found 
fluid. The existence of froth in the bronchi 
is perhaps not a conclusive proof of the mode 
of death; but it is certainly the result of vital 
action, and so may be a valuable sign in con- 
junction with others to prove that life existed 


when the body was immersed. The presence 


of water in the stomach is merely accidental, 
and is not very nearly connected with the cause 


341 


of death. As upon high authority it is asserted 
that water cannot pass into the stomach after 
death, its presence in it may be in certain in- 
stances significant. When death arises from 
obstruction of the breath by water, and not by 
apoplexy, some of the fluid enters the lungs 
with the last efforts of inspiration. Yet neither 
the fact that it is found there, nor its quantity, 
can be regarded as proving conclusively that 
death took place in consequence of immersion; 
for under favorable circumstances water may 
penetrate into the lungs even of a dead body. 
—Fodéré defines poisons as those substances 
which are known by physicians to be capable 
of altering or destroying, in a majority of 
cases, some or all of the functions necessary to 
human life. The intent with which such a 
substance is administered enters of course into 
the legal conception of apoison. Poisons may 
be ranked under the two great divisions of ir- 
ritant and narcotic. To irritant poisons belong 
the corrosive acids and some of their com- 
pounds, the alkalies and their salts, the metallic 
compounds, and the vegetable, animal, and me- 
chanical irritants. The characteristic of these 
poisons is the inflammation which their appli- 
cation excites. Their most notable effects upon 
the human body are heat, irritation, or singu- 
lar dryness in the cesophagus, accompanied by 
a sensation of strangling; pain in the stomach 
and intestines or in the region of the kidneys, 
followed by strangury; evacuations both by 
vomiting and at stool, convulsions, faintings, 
cold sweats, and an irregular thready pulse. 
There is usually a retention of the intellectual 
faculties until the disease approaches a fatal 
termination. Narcotic poisons, on the other 
hand, which include many vegetable substances, 
prussic acid and its compounds, and the nar- 
cotic gases, nitrogen, carbonic acid and oxides, 
oxygen, hydrogen, and others, are distinguished 
by the disorders which they produce in the 
nervous system. They are defined by Orfila 
to be those which cause stupor, drowsiness, 
paralysis, or apoplexy and convulsions. Among 
their usual effects, in the various stages of 
their influence upon the body, may be men- 
tioned numbness, coma, and sometimes delir- . 
ium, cold and fetid perspiration, swelling of 
the neck, face, and sometimes of the whole 

body, dilatation of the veins, protrusion of the 

eyes, general prostration, chilliness and pa- 

ralysis of the extremities, and, just preceding 

death in some instances, pain and convulsions. 

The narcotic-acrid poisons produce combina- 

tions of several of thesesymptoms. The effects 

of poisons differ widely in different persons, 

and are more or less distinctly marked accord- 

ing to the form, whether solid or liquid, in 

which the poisonous substance is administered. 

The symptoms are naturally varied too by the 

condition of the system, particularly of the 

stomach, when the poison is taken. It may be 

added here that the effects of poisons may be 

closely imitated by certain diseases, as for ex- 

ample cholera. Rupture of various intestines, : 


3842 MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE 


of the stomach, the duodenum, or the uterus, 
may produce symptoms similar to those of ir- 
ritant poisons. In seeking for the evidences 
of poison in a dead body, the first inquiry is as 
to the nature of the substance taken. It isa 
distinctive feature of the irritant poisons that 
they excite inflammation, in greater or less de- 
gree, in every part to which they are applied, 
and internally corrosions or perforations where 
the poisonous matter rests longest. The inflam- 
mation varies in extent and intensity. It is 
usually observed in the mouth, throat, and 
stomach, but may reach through the whole 
length of the digestive tube. The membranes 
are of various degrees of redness, sometimes 
accompanied by dark patches of extravasated 
blood, and sometimes also by ulceration. The 
traces of narcotic poisons are not so evident. 
Dr. Christison says even that the marked ap- 
pearances which they leave are insignificant. 
Certainly, itis not characteristic of this class of 
poisons, as is often supposed, that they induce 
putrefaction, or that the blood remains fluid. 
Often, however, the veins of the head are found 
gorged with blood, the lungs bear black and livid 
spots, and their texture islessdense. These same 
changes, both in the brain and in the nature 
of the blood, are produced by the narcotic-acrid 
poisons. For the purpose of charging innocent 
persons with murder, poisons have been in some 
instances injected after death. Orfila found 
that he could not reproduce in the dead body 
the appearances manifested by the living tissues. 
In the latter case, inflammation in graduated 
stages of intensity always attends the injury. 
But in his experiments there was always a per- 
fectly defined line of demarcation between the 
points to which the poison was applied and 
those adjacent. In examination of the stomach, 
it is to be remembered that the vascularity or 
redness of this organ may arise as well from nat- 
ural causes as from the influence of poisons. 
This appearance occurs, says an eminent au- 
thor, in every variety of degree and charac- 
ter, under every circumstance of previous in- 
disposition, and in situations where the most 
healthy aspect of the organ might be fairly 
inferred. Nor are marks of poisons to be 
confounded with those discolorations which 
may be produced by the liver and spleen. Ul- 
cers and perforations have sometimes been 
wrongly attributed to the effects of poison. 
What is called the self-digestion of the stomach 
has often been mistaken for poison. In this 
condition of the organ its coats are rendered 
thinner and transparent, and sometimes the 
destruction of them advances even to perfora- 
tion. These must be distinguished from those 
which are caused by corrosive poisons. The 
latter have clearly defined edges, and thick as 
the thickness of the coats which are pierced. 
These margins, too, are usually of.a peculiar 
color, according to the poison employed; for 
example, yellow with nitric acid, brown or 
black with sulphuric acid and the alkalies, 
and orange with iodine. Finally, in a case of 


MEDICI 


spontaneous erosion, there is generally a re- 
markable whiteness of the inner wall of the 
stomach; but ina case of poisoning there must 
be unequivocal signs of inflammation or of 
irritation.—In reference to the application of 
chemical tests, it may be remarked that poison 
may be absorbed or decomposed, and in such 
cases it may be found by boiling the stomach 
and intestines, and subjecting the fluid to 
proper tests. Poisons which remain in the 
dead body may be affected by the chemical 
changes involved. By the ammonia disen- 
gaged during decay acids may be neutralized ; 
and by the action of the animal matter the 
mineral salts may be decomposed. Soluble 
poisons, as oxalic acid, disappear; arsenic, opi- 
um, cantharides, and strychnia are not essen- 
tially changed. Among the most important of 
the irritant class, or usually arranged in this 
class, are arsenic, the salts of mercury, lead, 
copper, and some other metals; sulphuric, 
nitric, oxalic, and some other acids. Of the 
narcotic class may be mentioned opium, prussic 
acid, strychnia, and the oils of cedar, tanzy, 
and savin; but some of this class also cause 
nervous irritation.—Insanity, in all its forms, 
is an important topic of medical jurisprudence. 
(See Lunaoy.) 

MEDICI, a distinguished family of not well 
authenticated origin, though traced by some 
genealogists to the days of Charlemagne, and 
appearing in Florentine history since the close 
of the 18th century. In 1351 Giovanni de’ Me- 
dici, at the head of only 100 men, relieved the 
fortress of Scarperia by forcing his way through 
a Milanese army then besieging the place. A 


| few years later Salvestro de’ Medici acquired 


great reputation by his firm resistance to the 
tyranny of the nobles. In 1378 he was chosen 
chief magistrate, and effected important re- 
forms in the government in spite of the com- 
motions raised against him by the nobility. 
His son Vieri held also a high rank in the state, 
and was very popular with the common people. 
The family were largely engaged in commerce, 
and accumulated great wealth. The most suc- 
cessful merchant of them all was a second 
Giovanni de’ Medici, who, after serving for 
many years as a member of the seigniory and 
of the council of ten, was in 1421 twice chosen 
gonfaloniere, or chief magistrate, the term of 
the office being then two months. He died 
in 1429, leaving an immense estate to his two 
sons, Cosmo and Lorenzo.—Cosmo I., or Co- 
simo, called the Elder, was born in 13889, and 
even in the lifetime of his father had been 
deeply engaged in commerce, and *had filled 
offices of state, having attained to a seat in the 
seigniory in 1416. The death of his father 
made him the head of the family, and he soon 
became the leading man in the state. His pow- 
er and that of his immediate descendants con- 
sisted in a tacit influence acquiesced in by the 
people, and not in any definite authority. The 
government of the republic continued to be di- 
rected by a council of ten and a gonfaloniere; 


MEDICI 


343 


but the Medici generally either assumed these | by his penetration, courage, and good sense. 


offices, or nominated their friends and parti- 
sans, while paying great deference to popular 
opinion, and avoiding all ostentation of power. 
Cosmo, however, was opposed at the outset by a 
powerful party, headed by the Albizzi family; 
and in 1483 Rinaldo de’ Albizzi carried the 
elections against him, and procured a decree 
banishing Cosmo for ten years and his brother 
Lorenzo for five. At the end of a year the 
party of the Medici again prevailed, repealed 
the sentence of banishment, and exiled Rinaldo 
and his principal adherents. The rest of Cos- 
mo’s life was passed in prosperity, and in the 
promotion of letters and arts and the manage- 
ment of foreign affairs. He continued to the 
last engaged in commerce, which he carried on 
through agents. His mercantile transactions 
seem to have been chiefly with the East through 
Alexandria. The banking houses which the 
Medici maintained in the chief cities of Europe 
were a source of vast profits; and a considerable 
revenue was drawn from their numerous farms 
and mines, especially the mines of alum, of 
which they possessed nearly the monopoly in 
Italy. Cosmo himself lived in a simple style, 
but spent vast sums in erecting splendid public 
edifices. His wealth and influence ranked him 
with the most powerful princes of Italy, any 
of whom would have been glad to intermarry 
with his family; but as such connections might 
have given rise to unfavorable comments, he 
selected wives for his sons among the Floren- 
tine nobles. Cosmo died Aug. 1, 1464. By a 
public decree shortly before his death he re- 
ceived the title pater patriw, which was in- 
scribed on his tomb. His son Giovanni died 
before him.—Pierro I., his successor, born in 
1414, was almost constantly confined to his 
bed from ill health. He was less popular than 
his father, and a powerful party, headed by 
Luca Pitti, the builder of the Pitti palace, and 
by other prominent nobles, was soon formed 
against him. Failing to overthrow the Medici 
by peaceful measures, they attempted in 1466 
to assassinate Pietro, but were baffled by his 
son Lorenzo. The failure of. this conspiracy 
strengthened the Medici, and their principal 
opponents were banished, with the exception 
of Pitti, who abandoned his own party and 
suddenly went over to that of the Medici, who 
now became the almost undisputed masters 
of the state. Pietro had conducted with skill 
and credit several important negotiations du- 
ring his father’s lifetime, and his subsequent 
direction of the affairs of state was marked 
by prudence and judgment. He was a mu- 
nificent patron of letters and arts. He died 
Dec. 3, 1469, leaving two sons, Lorenzo and 
Giuliano.—Lorenzo, surnamed the Magnifi- 
cent, was born Jan. 1, 1448. At an early age 
he displayed extraordinary talent, and the mu- 
nificent disposition which afterward gave him 
a claim to the appellation of Magnificent, He 
had rendered himself conspicuous before he 
arrived at manhood by his poetical talents, and 


He was tall and robust, with a dignified coun- 
tenance and pleasing manners; but his sight 
was weak, his voice harsh, and he was totally 
devoid of the sense of smell. He was educa- 
ted by the first scholars of the age; when 
his studies were completed he visited the va- 
rious courts of Italy, and his correspondence 
with his father during his absence shows that 
the latter had already learned to repose great 
confidence in the judgment of his son in po- 
litical matters. The share taken by Lorenzo 
in defeating the conspiracy headed by Luca 
Pitti, and the magnanimity with which he 
treated the conspirators, extended his repu- 
tation throughout Italy. On June 4, 1469, he 
married Clarice Orsini, of the noble and pow- 
erful Roman family of that name. On the 
day after the death of his father in the same 
year, Lorenzo was waited upon by many emi- 
nent citizens of Florence, who requested that 
he would take upon himself the administration 
and care of the republic in the same man- 
ner as his father and grandfather had done. 
In 1471 he was sent to Rome at the head of a 
splendid embassy to congratulate Sixtus IV. 
on his elevation to the papacy, and was made 
treasurer of the holy see. But Sixtus under- 
took in 1474 the conquest of Citta di Cas- 
tello, on the border of the territory of Flor- 
ence; and as its ruler Niccolé Vitelle was a 
personal friend of Lorenzo, Florence lent some 
assistance to its defence, which, though ulti- 
mately unsuccessful, was so vigorous and pro- 
tracted as to cause the pope great expense and 
vexation, which he attributed chiefly to Lo- 
renzo. He was also incensed by the alliance 
which Lorenzo effected between Florence, 
Venice, and Milan, for the purpose of checking 
the ambitious projects of the pope and protect- 
ing the independence of the minor states of 
Italy. Sixtus thenceforward strove to destroy 
the power of the Medici, and he is even ac- 
cused by many historians of having instigated 
a conspiracy for the assassination of Lorenzo 
and his brother Giuliano. The attempt was 
made during divine service in the church of 
the Reparata, on Sunday, April 26,1478. The 
signal agreed upon was the elevation of the 
host, at which moment Francesco de’ Pazzi and 
another conspiretor named Bandini stabbed 
and instantly killed Giuliano. Two priests at 
the same instant attacked Lorenzo, but only 
succeeded in giving him a slight wound in the 
neck. He defended himself with vigor, and 
was presently surrounded by his friends, who 
escorted him home after putting to death all 
the conspirators present except a few saved 
by the interposition of Lorenzo himself. 
Meantime an unsuccessful attempt had been 
made to seize the government palace by the 
archbishop of Pisa, who was taken prisoner by 
the magistrates, and summarily hanged from 
its windows, together with Francesco and sev- 
eral others of the Pazzi, of which family the 
only one who escaped the popular fury re- 


544 
ceived shelter in the house of Lorenzo. Ban- 
dini took refuge in Constantinople; but the 
sultan ordered him to be sent in chains to 
Florence, because of the respect which he had 
for Lorenzo. The pope issued a bull excom- 
municating Lorenzo and the magistrates, and 
suspending the entire Florentine clergy, on 
account of the execution of the archbishop. 
He also, in conjunction with the king of Na- 
ples, made open war upon the republic, offer- 
ing, however, to conclude peace on condition 
that Lorenzo should be banished from Flor- 
ence, or delivered into their hands. As the 
resources of Florence were inadequate for a 
long contest with two such powerful enemies, 
Lorenzo, perceiving that the war was waged 
against him personally, took the extraordinary 
resolution of going to Naples, where through 
his personal influence, in spite of the utmost 
efforts of the pope, in the course of three 
months he converted the king from an enemy 
to a warm friend, and returned to Florence, 
bringing with him a treaty of alliance with 
Naples. Peace with the pope soon followed. 
Lorenzo now began to take measures for se- 
curing the peace of Italy by establishing a bal- 
ance of power in the peninsula, of which Flor- 
ence was to be the political centre. He also 
persuaded the people to agree to the institution 
of a permanent senate, nominated by himself, 
to govern the republic, instead of the demo- 
cratic councils to whom the supreme power 
had been previously intrusted. A second at- 
tempt to assassinate him was made in a church 
in 1481. The assassins were seized before they 
could execute their purpose, and henceforth 
Lorenzo surrounded himself with a body guard. 
Sixtus IV. died in 1484, and was succeeded by 
Innocent VIII., who was friendly to Lorenzo, 
and in a short time made him his most inti- 
mate confidant, opening to the Medici the 
dignities and emoluments of the church, by 
which the family afterward so much prof- 
ited. The alliance of the pontiff augmented 
still more the influence of Lorenzo in Italy, 
which was now in a more prosperous condition 
than it had been for centuries, while Florence 
itself had reached the highest pitch of power 
and opulence to which it ever attained. Lo- 
renzo’s attention to public affairs had obliged 
him to neglect his own, and he became so in- 
volved by expenditures for political purposes 
that in 1490 the republic granted him an al- 
lowance to pay his debts, so large that, accord- 
ing to Hallam, she “ disgracefully screened the 
bankruptcy of the Medici by her own.” At 
this time he abandoned commerce, which his 
family had pursued for so many generations. 
In the beginning of 1492 he was attacked by a 
strange species of fever which baffled the skill 
of the physicians, and of which he died, April 8. 
He left three sons: Pietro, the eldest; Giovan- 
ni, the second, who became a cardinal at the 
age of 13, and afterward pope as Leo X.; and 
Giuliano, the youngest, who became duke of 
Nemours. Lorenzo was eminent not only asa 


MEDICI 


statesman, but as a poet and scholar. Among 
his intimate friends were the poets Poliziano 
and Pulci. He was a munificcnt patron of 
authors and artists, and spent vast sums in 
erecting public edifices and establishing schools 
and libraries. He reéstablished the university 
of Pisa, and greatly enlarged the famous Lau- 
rentian library at Florence, which derives its 
name from him, and which was founded by his 
grandfather Cosmo.—The Opere di Lorenzo de’ 
Medici, detto il Magnifico, were published un- 
der the auspices of Leopold II., grand duke of 
Tuscany (4 vols., Florence, 1826). See Ros- 
coe, ‘‘ Life of Lorenzo de’ Medici” (2 vols. 4to, 
London, 1796; best ed. in ‘‘ Bohn’s Standard 
Library,” 1851), and Alfred von Reumont, Lo- 
renzo de’ Medici, il Magnifico, und seine Zeit 
(2 vols., Leipsic, 1874).—Pierro II., his son 
and successor, born Feb. 15, 1471, had much 
of the talent without the prudence of his fa- 
ther. His ambition and temerity involved 
Florence in war with Charles VIII. of France, 
and led to his own expulsion from the city in 
1494, and to the occupation of Florence by the 
French army shortly afterward. After an ex- 
ile of ten years, during which he made repeat- 
ed though futile attempts to regain his author- 
ity, he entered the service of France, and per- 
ished at the great defeat of the French army 
by Gonsalvo de Cordova on the banks of the 
Garigliano, Dec. 29, 1503, being drowned in 
the river. By his death his second brother, 
Cardinal Giovanni de’ Medici, became the 
head of the family. In 1512, partly by policy, 
partly by force, he effected the restoration of 
the Medici to Florence, and shortly afterward 
was himself elected pope. (See Leo X.) He 
intrusted the direction of Florentine affairs to 
his younger brother GruL1ano, who, having 
more taste and capacity for literature than for 
politics, soon resigned his authority into the 
hands of his nephew Lorenzo, the son of the 
Pietro who perished in the Garigliano, and re- 
tiring to Rome became commander-in-chief of 
the papal troops. Having married Filiberta of 
Savoy, of the house of Bourbon, he was made 
duke of Nemours by Francis I. of France. He 
died in Florence, March 17, 1516.—Giuliano 
left a natural son, Ippotrro, born in 1511, who 
was expelled with the whole house of Me- 
dici from Florence (1527), on the discomfiture 
of the holy league formed by Pope Clement 
VII. against Charles V. He became a cardinal, 
and his immense revenue enabled him, with- 
out territories and without subjects, to main- 
tain at Bologna a court far more splendid than 
that of any Italian potentate. He was, says 
Roscoe, ‘‘at once the patron, the companion, 
and the rival of all the poets, the musicians, and 
the wits of his time. His associates and at- 
tendants, all of whom could boast of some pe- 
culiar merit or distinction which had entitled 
them to his notice, generally formed a body of 
300 persons.” He was poisoned by a domes-* 
tic, Aug. 8, 15385.—Lorenzo II., born Sept. 
18, 1492, after the resignation of Giuliano, 


MEDICI 


governed Florence for some time under the 
orders of Leo X. He made himself by force 
of arms duke of Urbino in 1516, and in 1518 
married Madeléine de la Tour, of the royal 
house of France. He died April 28, 1519, a 
few days after the birth of his famous daugh- 
ter Catharine de’ Medici. Prior to his mar- 
riage the duke of Urbino had an illegitimate 
son named ALESSANDRO, whose mother was an 
African slave. The paternity of Alessandro 
has also been attributed to Pope Clement VIL., 
who was himself an illegitimate son of Giulia- 
no, the brother of Lorenzo the Magnificent. 
It is certain that Alessandro was in high favor 
with the pontiff, who, on the death of Loren- 
zo II. without legitimate male heir, and the 
consequent failure of the descendants of Cosmo 
the Elder, brought him forward in order to 
prevent the power of the family from passing 
into the hands of a collateral branch descend- 
ed from a brother of Cosmo. He accordingly 
availed himself of the dissensions of the Flor- 
entines, and in 1532, with the assistance of the 
emperor and the king of France, he compelled 
the republic to receive Alessandro as its ruler, 
with the title of duke. He proved, however, to 
be a licentious tyrant, and was assassinated on 
Jan. 6, 1537, by Lorenzino, a member of the 
collateral branch of the family. The citizens 
assembled on this event, and invested Cosmo 
DE’ Mepior, surnamed the Great, the cousin of 
Lorenzino, with the sovereignty under the ti- 
tle of chief of the republic, which he after- 
ward exchanged for that of grand duke. He 
became the progenitor of a line of grand dukes, 
six in number, who ruled Tuscany till 1787, 
when the main line of the Medici family be- 
came extinct. (See Tuscany.) 

MEDI{CI, Catharine de’, See OaTHARINE DE’ 
MeEpict. 

MEDICI, Maria de’ See Marta pe’ Menicr. 

MEDICINE, the science and art of curing dis- 
ease. Some rude appliances to wounds and in- 
juries, some equally rude observances in cases 
of internal disease, are common among the 
most barbarous people. The idea that disease 
is caused by the anger of superior and invisible 
beings placed its treatment in the hands of the 
priests, and the same idea caused that treat- 
ment to consist mainly of superstitious rites. 
In what beyond this consisted the medicine of 
the Egyptians and the Hindoos is a matter of 
conjecture only. In Greece as elsewhere the 
early history of medicine is involved in dark- 
ness, and it is idle to guess how much truth is 
contained in the fables concerning Chiron and 
his pupil Asculapius, or the sons of the latter, 
the Homeric heroes Machaon and Podalirius. 
We know, however, that the temples of Ais- 
culapius were from an early period the resort 
of the sick, who submitted themselves to the 
regulations of the Asclepiade, the priests of the 
temples. It was common among those who 
were cured to deposit in the temple a,votive 
tablet, on which was inscribed some account 
of the case and of the remedies by which it 


MEDICINE 845 


was relieved; but if the tablets which have 
come down to us are fair samples, but little 
information could have been communicated in 
this way. Much more must have been due 
to the education in the temple, to personal 
observation, and to the restless and inquiring 
spirit which animated the early Greeks. But 
the temples of Aisculapius are not the only 
source to which the origin of scientific medi- 
cine is to be traced; in the schools of philo- 
sophy some attention was always paid to the 
healing art as a branch of general education. 
When the school of Pythagoras was broken up, 
and his disciples were dispersed, some of them 
attended to the practice of medicine; and un- 
like the Asclepiade, who confined their con- 
sultations to the temples, the Pythagoreans 
visited the sick at their residences. Of the ex- 
tent of their knowledge or the value of their 
treatment we have no means of forming a 
judgment. Even at this period it seems that 
there was still another class, the charlatans, 
who, without any pretension to education, 


‘offered their nostrums for sale in the market 


place. Besides the temples of Aisculapius and 
the schools of philosophy, the gymnasia un- 
doubtedly contributed to form the earlier phy- 
sicians. The gymnasiarchs directed the regi- 
men of those who resorted to the gymnasia; 
they acquired practical skill in the treatment 
of the injuries to which their pupils were lia- 
ble; they set fractures, reduced dislocations, 
directed frictions, dressings, &c.—In these va- 
rious ways medicine had already made sensible 
progress when Hippocrates (born in Cos about 
460 B.C.) collected. the scattered knowledge 
of his time, and added to it by his own genius 
and observation. Of the numerous works as- 
cribed to Hippocrates, enough are decided to 
be genuine by the unanimous consent of the 
learned to justify the veneration in which he 
has always been held as the father of rational 
medicine. Of anatomy the notions of Hippo- 
crates were crude and limited, and must have 
been derived solely from the inspection of ani- 
mals, since the religious prejudices of the an- 
cients prevented the dissection of the human 
body, until a period long posterior to the one 
of which we speak. His physiology is on 
a level with his anatomy. The glands are 
spongy bodies destined to absorb moisture from 
the neighboring parts, and the brain, the largest 
of the glands, draws the vapors from the whole 
interior of the body. The use of the muscles 
is to cover the bones, &c. (Renouard, Histoire 
de la médecine.) The body itself is composed 
of the four elements differently combined in 
different individuals, and derived from them 
we have the four humors of the body, blood, 
phlegm, bile, and black bile, from which again 
are derived the four temperaments. Disease 
consists in a disordered condition of the flu- 
ids; these are subject to coction, which when 
complete terminates in a critical evacuation, 
the localization of the disease, and the forma- 
tion of a critical abscess, the occurrence of 


346 


erysipelas, &c. When coction could not take 
place the disease was mortal. Crisis was apt 
to occur on certain days, hence termed critical. 
He speaks of a principle which he terms na- 
ture (dborc), which influences every part of the 
human frame, superintends all its actions, pro- 
motes those that are beneficial, and represses 
those that are injurious; the great object of 
the physician was to watch the operation of 
this principle, to aid or restrain it, rarely to 
counteract it. He regarded acute diseases alone 
as the subject of treatment; chronic affections 
were esteemed beyond the resources of art. 
The great merit of Hippocrates lies in his de- 
scriptions of disease, and the sagacity and fidel- 
ity of his observations.—Not long after Hip- 
pocrates, Praxagoras of Cos, the last of the 
Asclepiadee whose name is mentioned in the 
history of medicine, probably belonging him- 
self to the family of Hippocrates, observed the 
relation which exists between the pulse and the 
general condition of the system. None of his 
writings have been preserved. Aristotle was 
the son of a physician, and probably in the 
earlier part of his life practised medicine; his 
knowledge of the structure of the body, de- 
rived entirely from the dissection of animals, 
was far in advance of that of his contempo- 
raries; and he laid so widely the foundations 
of comparative anatomy, that for ages little 
that was new was added to what he had writ- 
ten. He distinguishes between ‘the nutritive, 
the sensitive, the motive, and the intellectual 
faculties. The first is common to plants and 
animals, to everything which lives and dies; 
the last is confined to a very few species of 
animals. The first three faculties reside in 
every part of the body; the intellect alone has 
a special seat. Where this is he nowhere ex- 
pressly says, but it is evident from a variety of 
passages that he placed it in the heart. He 
speaks of the greater size of the brain in man- 
kind, says it is composed of two lobes and of 
the cerebellum, and mentions the ventricles. Of 
the nervous system he was ignorant, confound- 
ing the nerves with the tendons. Of the lungs 
his ‘account is reasonably correct. The blood 
vessels as well as the nerves he derives from 
the heart, which alone contains blood of itself, 
that of the lungs being contained in the vessels 
connected with the heart. The blood is the 
most important of the fluids, and is necessary 
to life; deprived of it to a slight extent, the 
animal faints, to a greater dies, while its at- 
tenuation and alteration give rise to disease.— 
Soon after its foundation, Alexandria, under 
the fostering care of the Ptolemies, became the 
centre of the science and learning of the time. 
This was especially the case with regard to 
medicine; the formation of the Alexandrian 
library at.a time when books were rare and | 
expensive, the personal support of the Ptole- 

mies, the new drugs which commerce brought 

from distant countries, and above all the au- 

thorization of human dissections, gave a great 

impulse to medical science. But the works of 


MEDICINE 


the Alexandrian school have entirely perished, 
and we can only judge of them by the reports 
which are scattered through the writings of 
Areteus, Celsus, Pliny, Galen, &. Of the 
earlier members of the Alexandrian school, 
Herophilus and Erasistratus were the most dis- 
tinguished. The former was familiar with the 
lacteal vessels and their connection with the 
mesenteric glands; the muscles were no long- 
er a mere covering for the bones, but their 
proper office was attributed to them. LErasis- 
tratus was acquainted with the functions of 
the nerves, and is said to have invented the 
catheter ; while Ammonius, another member 
of the Alexandrian school, invented an instru- 
ment for the crushing of stone in the bladder, 
thus perhaps anticipating an improvement of 
our own day. With Herophilus and Erasis- 
tratus the zeal for anatomy seems to have died 
out; between them and himself, a period of 
nearly 500 years, Galen enumerates five or six 
physicians only who occupied themselves with 
human dissections.—Until the rise of the Al- 
exandrian school, dogmatism or rationalism, 
fortified by the authority of Hippocrates, had 
been the prevailing system. The dogmatists 
maintained that in order to treat disease we 
must be acquainted with its occult as well as 
exciting causes, and with the natural actions 
of the body, as concoction, nutrition, &c. To 
this Philinus of Cos and Serapion of Alexan- 
dria replied that the occult causes of the dog- 
matist depended entirely upon hypothetical 
opinions; that the minute motions and changes 
of the internal parts were beyond our obser- 
vation; that even where the cause of a disease 
was known, it by no means followed that such 
knowledge led to a remedy; and that close 
observation of disease and experience of the 
effects of remedies in its treatment were the 
only safe guides to medical practice. The 
new doctrine, or empiricism as it was termed, 
long divided medical opinion with dogmatism, 
though the writings of its advocates have en- 
tirely perished, and we are acquainted with 
their views mainly through the summary given 
by Celsus. About 150 years after the origin 
of empiricism, Asclepiades of Bithynia, at first 
an eminent rhetorician, began to practise med- 
icine at Rome. A philosopher rather than a 
physician, he was a follower of Epicurus; and 
on the theories of his master he founded a 
new medical doctrine which, aided by the 
popularity of the Epicurean philosophy, as 
well as by its novelty and simplicity, soon 
found numerous followers. According to As- 
clepiades, the human body is permeated in 
every direction by pores through which at all 
times atoms varying in form and volume are 
constantly passing. Health consists in the 
symmetry between the pores and the atoms 
which pass through them. Disease is an ob- 
struction of the pores or an irregularity in the 
distribution of the atoms. This theory was 
further developed by Themison of Laodicea, 
a pupil of Asclepiades, who made all diseases 


MEDICINE 


depend upon constriction or relaxation, or 
upon a third and mixed condition, while all 
remedies were divided into astringents and re- 
laxants. Asclepiades, it is said, was the first 
to divide diseases into the two great classes 
of acute and chronic. While the dogmatists 
made the fluids the prime seat of disease, and 
ascribed the origin of all maladies to some 
alteration in them, the methodists on the other 
hand thought the solids were first affected, 
and that the derangement of the humors was 
but secondary; and the dispute about the 
humoral pathology and solidism, thus origi- 
nated, has continued under various forms to 
our own time.—For 600 years, according to 
Pliny, Rome had no physicians; not that no 
attempt was there made to cure diseases, but 
that these attempts consisted mainly in super- 
stitious observances, Thus, according to Livy, 
following the advice of the Sibylline books, 
pestilence was repeatedly stayed at Rome by 
erecting a temple to Apollo or to sculapius, 
by celebrating public games, or by the dictator 
driving a nail into the capitol; and Cato the 
Censor trusted to simples with charms and 
incantations. When intercourse with Greece 
became common, Grecian philosophy and sci- 
ence were transplanted to Rome. Asclepiades 
was the friend of Cicero, and Cesar when he 
was taken by the pirates was accompanied by 
his physician. On attaining supreme power, 
Cesar decreed that all physicians at Rome 
should enjoy the privileges of citizenship. 
After the names of Asclepiades and Themison, 
that of Soranus occurs prominently among 
those practising medicine at Rome; there 
were probably three physicians of this name, 
but the most celebrated was a Greek edu- 
cated at Alexandria and settled at Rome; his 
writings have perished, unless, as some have 
supposed, those of Celius Aurelianus are a 
translation of them. COzlius is said to have 
been a native of Numidia, and probably flour- 
ished in the 2d century. Of numerous works 
of which he was the author, that on acute 
and chronic diseases is alone preserved. It is 
written in barbarous Latin, but in its descrip- 
tion of disease is a great advance on earlier au- 
thors. Ozlius, like Soranus, belonged to the 
methodic sect, and is its principal exponent. 
Of the few Latin medical authors, Celsus is 
the chief. He appears to have lived in the 1st 
century, and to have written voluminous trea- 
tises on architecture, rhetoric, philosophy, &c., 
all of which have perished. His book De 
Medicina is a digest of what was known to 
the ancients on the subject, and shows the 
great progress which medicine had made in 
consequence of the labors of the anatomists 
of Alexandria. Celsus treats of most of the 
great operations of surgery, of the operations 
for stone and hernia, of wounds of the intes- 
tines, of cataract; he gives directions for the 
use of the catheter, speaks of the trephine in 
injuries of the brain, and of the use of the 
ligature in divided or lacerated blood vessels, 


347 


in varices, and in hemorrhoids. The name 
of Andromachus, a native of Crete and phy- 
sician to Nero, has come down to us as the 
inventor of certain polypharmaceutical com- 
pounds, onesof which, the theriac, containing 
the dried flesh of vipers, with 60 other ingre- 
dients, was retained in the pharmacopceias of 
the last century; and he is likewise the first _ 
to whom was given the title of archiater. 
Probably contemporary with Celius Aurelia- 
nus was Areteus of Cappadocia; we know 
nothing of him but his birthplace; he has left 
a treatise on diseases remarkable for accurate 
and spirited description, and which is one of 
the most valuable of the medical works of an- 
tiquity. Galen (born in Pergamus, A. D. 180), 
after Hippocrates, has had a far wider share of 
renown than any other physician; for more 
than 12 centuries his authority reigned supreme 
in the schools; even facts were disputed if 
they were against the authority of Galen. He 
adopted the Hippocratic theory of the four 
elements, the four humors, and the four quali- 
ties, elaborating and refining upon them at 
great length and with great subtlety, and ma- 
king them the groundwork of his doctrines. 
Besides the solids and the fluids, he assumed 
a third principle, the spirits, as entering into 
our composition.’ These spirits were of. three 
kinds: the natural spirits, derived from the 
venous blood; the vital spirits, formed in the 
heart by the action of the air we breathe 
upon the natural spirits, and which are driven 
through the arteries; and the animal spirits, 
formed in the brain from the vital spirits. 
He also supposed the human soul to be com- 
posed of three parts: a vegetative, residing in 
the liver; an irascible, in the heart; and a 
rational, having its seat in the brain. The 
most valuable of the works of Galen are those 
in which he treats of anatomy and physiology. 
He appears to have dissected animals only, 
and he recommends students to visit Alexan- 
dria, where they could study from the human 
skeleton. Considering the narrowness of his 
resources, his descriptions are wonderfully 
correct, and they comprehend all that was 
known of anatomy until the timeof Vesalius. 
Dioscorides, who lived probably in the early 
part of the 2d century, for many centuries 
shared the authority of Galen. He has left a 
work on the materia medica which comprises 
all that was known to the ancients upon the 
subject; its arrangement is bad, and the de- 
scriptions of the articles so vague that many 
of them can no longer be recognized with cer- 
tainty ; yet imperfect as it may be, it was for 
1,400 years a standard treatise.-—From the time 
of Galen medicine began to participate in the 
decline which had already overtaken art and 
literature. Dissections were no longer made; 
the earlier Christians had as great a horror of 
profaning the dead body as the pagans, and 
medical writers, appearing at rare intervals, 
contented themselves mainly with abridging or 
copying the works of Galen. Oribasius in the 


348 


4th century, Aétius about 500, Alexander Tral- 
lianus in the 6th century, and Paulus Agineta 
in the 7th, all wrote in Greek, and were all 
zealous Galenists. It is but just to observe 
that Paulus seems to have been fuller than 
his originals in the description of surgical dis- 
eases and operations. It was only when medi- 
cine already tended toward its decline that it 
became legally organized. In the pagan world 
every one practised at his will, making his 
way by such qualities as he possessed. The 
injury done by quackery and imposture led 
finally to aremedy. Under the Christian em- 
perors every town of a certain size had its 
archiaters (chief physicians), and no one could 
practise medicine without having undergone 
an examination by them. They were paid by 
the state, and in return were bound to attend 
the poor gratuitously. In a number of the 
principal towns medical schools were estab- 
lished, in which the professors and lecturers 
received a regular salary. The archiaters of 
the emperors had the title of count or duke, 
and ranked with the principal officers of state. 
—Hospitals and dispensaries owe their origin 
to Christianity; the pagans appear to have 
had no analogous institutions. The first hos- 
pital seems to have been founded at Caesarea 
by St. Paula toward the end of the 4th cen- 
tury, and the example was soon followed by 
the pious, the powerful, and the wealthy.— 
While the western empire had sunk into bar- 
barism, and the eastern, sadly limited, was 
struggling for existence, medical science found 
refuge among the Arabians. Excepting on 
two points, they contributed little or nothing 
to its advancement; but Rhazes, Ali Abbas, 
Avicenna, Albucasis, with the Spanish Sara- 
cens Avenzoar and Averroes, were all volu- 
minous writers. Their writings consist main- 
ly of compilations from the Greek authors, 
chiefly from Galen, whose subtleties and re- 
finements were suited to their genius; yet the 
‘*Canon” of Avicenna was for several centu- 
ries the received text book in the medical 
schools of both the Arabians and Europeans; 
and all the knowledge Europe had of the 
Greek authors was derived from the transla- 
tions of the Arabs. In two particulars, as 
was mentioned, the writings of the Arabians 
are of high interest: 1. In them we get the 
earliest clear account of the existence of erup- 
tive fevers; these were divided by them into 
two forms, variola (smallpox) and morbilli 
(the little pests), the latter including measles, 
scarlet fever, and probably other non-vesic- 
ular eruptions. 2. Not only do we derive 
from the Arabians a number of our milder 
purgatives, cassia, manna, senna, rhubarb, to- 
gether with tamarinds, camphor, &c., but in 
their pursuit of alchemy they produced dis- 
tilled liquors, some of the metallic salts, and 
many new pharmaceutic preparations, and 
laid the foundations of a science which has 
been of the most essential service to medi- 
cine.—As order began to emerge again from 


MEDICINE 


the chaos of barbarism which succeeded the 
fall of the western Roman empire, monks 
and priests became the principal physicians, 
and a little medicine was taught in some of 
the monasteries; for a long time the Bene- 
dictine monks of Monte Casino enjoyed in 
this respect an extended reputation. From 
the 9th to the 13th century the Jews, acqui- 
ring in their commerce with the Saracens such 
knowledge as was possessed by the latter, be- 
came celebrated as physicians; and as such, 
despite the laws which forbade them to ad- 
minister remedies to Christians, obtained ac- 
cess to courts and even to the palace of the 
Roman pontiffs. One small town affords a 
glimmer of light during the darkness of this 
period. The school of Salerno is said to 
have been founded about the time of the de- 
struction of the Alexandrian library by the 
Saracens. Toward the end of the 8th century 
it had attained reputation, and from the 10th 
to the 13th was at the height of its celebrity. 
The Regimen Sanitatis Salerni, the dietetic 
precepts of the school of Salerno, composed by 
John of Milan for the use of Robert duke of 
Normandy, the son of William the Conqueror, 
has been frequently republished and commen- 
tated (translated by Prof. Ordronnaux, New 
York, 1872). The most celebrated member 
of this school was Constantinus Africanus, 
who, driven from his native country as a 
sorcerer, for a time taught at Salerno. His 
works, which are numerous, are translations 
from the Arabic, written in barbarous Latin. 
In the early part of the 13th century Frede- 
rick II. published an edict that no one should 
practise medicine in the kingdom of Naples 
until he had been examined by the faculty of 
Salerno. The candidate, after completing his 
course of studies, was examined on the Thera- 
peutics of Galen, the first book of Avicenna, 
and the Aphorisms of Hippocrates. He after- 
ward swore to be pure in his life, to be sub- 
missive to the laws, to attend the poor gra- 
tuitously, and not to share the profits of the 
apothecary. He then received a diploma, but 
for the first year was compelled to practise un- 
der the superintendence of an older physician. 
—About the year 1315 Mondino, a professor 
in the university of Bologna, dissected the bod- 
ies of two females; he afterward published an 
anatomical description of the body, which for 
the next 300 years was used as a text book 
in the Italian universities. His merit consists 
mainly in the boldness of his undertaking, as 
his anatomy was not much in advance of that 
of Galen. He did not open the cranium, for 
fear of committing a mortal sin. Before the 
year 1500 human dissections were prosecuted 
at Bologna, Padua, and Pavia. Toward the 
commencement of the 16th century Du Bois, 
or Sylvius, as his name was Latinized, used the 
human body in his demonstrations at Paris as 
often as it could be procured. Galen was still 
looked up to as an indisputable authority; and 
when the results of dissection did not coincide 


MEDICINE 


with his descriptions, they were looked upon 
as exceptions to the general rule, or as evi- 
dence of the degeneracy of the human race. 
Such was the state of things when, about the 
year 1543, Vesalius, professor of anatomy in 
the university of Padua, published his great 
work on anatomy, in which he pointed out the 
errors of Galen, and maintained that his de- 
scriptions were taken, not from human dis- 
sections, but from those of apes. The age 
was one of anatomical discovery, and Colum- 
bus, the successor of Vesalius at Padua, Eusta- 
chius at Rome, and Fallopius, confirmed and 
increased the discoveries of Vesalius. The 
prejudices against human dissection were miti- 
gated, subjects became comparatively abundant, 
and printing and engraving served to spread 
abroad and perpetuate the discoveries that 
were made.—After the fall of Constantinople, 
learned Greeks carried a knowledge of their 
language and literature to the western world. 
Previous to this date the Greek medical wri- 
ters had been read only through the medium of 
faulty Arabic translations; but medical men 
now availed themselves of this new source of 
information, and translations of Galen, Hip- 
pocrates, Dioscorides, and others were made 
directly from the Greek. Thomas Linacre, 
physician to Henry VIII. and to Mary, distin- 
guished himself in this career; he established 
professorships at Oxford and Cambridge for 
illustrating the works of Hippocrates and Ga- 
len, and laid the foundations of the royal col- 
lege of physicians at London. Among those 
distinguished in the same path were Mercuriali, 
Foés, and J. Fernel; and the attention of phy- 
sicians as of the learned throughout Christen- 
dom was directed to rescuing and illustrating 
the remains of antiquity rather than to original 
research.— While medicine was thus recover- 
ing the ground it had lost, surgery also was im- 
proving. Physicians in the middle ages being 
invariably priests, whom a canon of the church 
forbids to shed blood, surgical operations com- 
monly fell into the hands of an inferior and ig- 
norant class of barber surgeons, who frequently 
were itinerants. Gradually matters improved ; 
the clerical physicians occasionally operated, 
while the barber surgeons struggled to raise 
themselves to a higher rank. Guide Chauliac, 
a learned priest who published about the year 
1363 the earliest modern work on surgery, op- 
erated himself; while in the 16th century the 
great anatomists Vesalius, Fallopius, &c., were 
likewise distinguished surgeons. But surgery 
received its greatest impulse from Ambroise 
Paré, who commenced his career as a barber 
surgeon. At that period wounds received from 
firearms were considered poisonous, and it was 
customary on this account to cauterize their 
track with boiling oil. In 1536, on one occa- 
sion, while serving as surgeon with the French 
army in Provence, Paré’s supply of oil failed 
him. He could not sleep for anxiety, but in 
the morning he found that those who had not 
been cauterized were doing better than those 


349 


who had, and this soon led to a revolution in 
practice. The application of the ligature in- 
stead of the actual cautery to restrain hemor- 
rhage after amputations was another of his 
discoveries.—While the authority of Galen 
was disputed by the anatomists on matters of 
fact, his opinions were attacked by a new 
school of physicians, who were the offshoot of 
the prevailing study of alchemy. Of this school 
Paracelsus obtained the greatest notoriety. He 
publicly burned the works of Galen and Avi- 
cenna at Basel, but had nothing to substitute 
for them but wild and incoherent speculations. 
Perhaps it was partly owing to the growing 
spirit of independent observation that we first 
hear during the 15th century of a number of 
new diseases. Whooping cough, scurvy, the 
sweating sickness, and syphilis were now first 
described. Of scurvy we must believe that the 
causes which produce it at present must have 
produced it from all time; and that if it sel- 
dom occurred in ancient times, it must have 
been because of the different modes of living 
and the short duration of the voyages. With 
syphilis the case is different; the theory of the 
American origin of the disease is now shown 
to be unfounded, and whether it had existed 
obscurely for a long time, or whether it arose, 
as some think, from a degeneration of the lep- 
rosy so prevalent in the middle ages, its sudden 
explosion at Naples at the end of the 15th cen- 
tury and its rapid spread throughout Europe 
are equally unaccountable.—The great anato- 
rhists of the 16th century had paved the way 
for the discovery of the circulation of the blood. 
Ceesalpinus, in his Speculum Artis Medice Hip- 
pocraticum, had shown a knowledge of the 
system of the circulation of the blood. Servetus 
had proclaimed the lesser circulation through 
the lungs; the valves of the heart, of the aorta, 
and of the veins were known; it was proved 
by experiments on living animals that when 
an artery was tied the blood no longer flowed, 
and the pulse ceased on the side most distant 
from the heart; that when a vein was tied it 
swelled below the ligature, while it became 
empty on the side toward the heart. And yet 
the last step was not made. Atlength William 
Harvey, after having for about 10 years taught 
the circulation of the blood in his lectures, in 
1628 published his doctrine to the world; and 
though meeting at first with opposition from 
some of the older members of the profession, 
it made rapid progress and was universally 
adopted during the lifetime of its discoverer. 
In 1661 Malpighi by the aid of the microscope 
showed the course of the globules of the blood 
in the smaller vessels, and 80 years later Leeu- 
wenhoek was able to follow the circulation into 
the minutest capillaries. The true theory of 
respiration soon followed the discovery of the 
circulation. The ancients taught that the minute 
bronchial tubes inosculated with the pulmonary 
veins, and that the air thus found its way into 
the heart. In 1661 Malpighi demonstrated the 
vesicular substance of the lungs, and about the 


350 


same time Borelli and others showed the mech- 
anism by which respiration is accomplished. 
In 1622 Gaspard Asselli, professor of anatomy 
at Milan, discovered the lacteal vessels; and 
about 80 years later Jean Pecquet demonstra- 
ted the reservoir which bears his name, toge- 
ther with the thoracic duct from its commence- 
ment to its termination in the left subclavian. 
The lymphatic system, the nerves, the brain, 
and the organs of special sense were all stud- 
ied with care. In 1747 Haller published his Pri- 
me Linee Physiologie, and 10 years later his 
Elementa Physiologie Corporis Humani ; and 
from this period physiology had a distinct ex- 
istence as a science.—In the mean time the 
materia medica had been enriched by a num- 
ber of new articles. The chemists had intro- 
duced a variety of metallic and alkaline salts, 
and the new world had yielded guaiacum, sar- 
saparilla, ipecacuanha, &c.; but two remedies 
from their importance require a more special 
notice. On the first appearance of syphilis the 
surgeons had attacked it by means of mercu- 
rial frictions, and with success; but their em- 
ployment in numerous instances was attended 
by such terrible consequences, that they grad- 
ually fell into disuse. Paracelsus had employed 
mercury internally, but in the hands of such a 
practitioner it could rarely be productive of 
other than mischief; the Galenists condemned 
its use, and the chemical physicians gave it 
rarely and secretly. Gradually it again came 
into favor, and in 1750 Van Swieten, the phy- 
sician of Maria Theresa, directed all the cases 
of syphilis in the military and civil hospitals 
of the Austrian empire to be treated with 
small doses of corrosive sublimate in solution, 
and the practice soon became common through- 
out Europe. The ancients, with whom mala- 
rious diseases were common, had no specific 
means of arresting their attack; even mild in- 
termittents often continued for an indefinite 
time, and finally induced organic changes and 
dropsy. In 1639 Peruvian bark is said to have 
been introduced into Spain by the countess of 
Cinchon; and though the extravagance of its 
price, the adulterations it sometimes met with, 
and its nauseousness were obstacles to its suc- 
cess, its use soon became common throughout 
Europe.—As chemistry, from vain search after 
the philosopher’s stone or the elixir vite, began 
to assume the aspect of a science, it influenced 
more markedly the prevailing medical doctrines. 
Francis de le Boé or Sylvius, a Fleming called 
to the professorship of practical medicine in 
1658, was the first to present a chemical theory 
of the actions of the animal economy. Ac- 
cording to this theory, digestion and nutrition 
were the consequence of specific fermenta- 
tions, in which the saliva, the pancreatic juice, 
and the bile take part. Fevers were produced 
by other fermentations caused by a vicious bile 
orlymph. Certain of the humors were natu- 
rally acid, others alkaline; in a state of health 
these were in equilibrium, but disease was con- 
sequent upon the predominance of one or the 


MEDICINE 


other. This doctrine, more or less modified, 
had many followers, and for a time was preva- 
lent both on the continent and in England. 
Willis and Thomas Sydenham may be ranked 
among the iatro-chemists; but Sydenham is 
much the more remarkable for the careful and 
conscientious manner in which, uninfluenced 
by theory, he gave himself up to the observa- 
tion of disease.-—While the chemical school 
was taking form at the north, in Italy the 
progress of physical science was turning the 
attention of theoretic physicians in a new 
direction. Alfonso Borelli, a profound mathe- 
matician, was the originator of what has been 
termed the iatro-mathematical school. In the 
first part of his work De Motu Animalium he 
applies the received principles of physics to 
the subject of muscular action, treats of- the 
various attitudes and modes of progression of 
men and animals, of walking, running, leap- 
ing, flying, swimming, and enters into learned 
and curious calculations of the amount of force 
which is expended in particular acts. In the 
second part he treats of the internal move- 
ments, of those of the heart, of the blood in 
the vessels, and of the action of the intestinal 
canal; the whole body was regarded as a ma- 
chine, and the laws of mechanics, of hydraulics 
and hydrostatics, were rigidly applied to it. As 
an instance of the futile but elaborate calcula- 
tions into which the mathematical physicians 
were led, Borelli calculates that the heart at 
each contraction overcomes a weight of 180,- 
000 Ibs. The physiology of the mathematical 
school had its influence upon their pathology; 
and the terms derivation, revulsion, lentor, ob- 
struction, resolution, &c., all founded on phys- 
ical principles, were universally used. The 
mathematical school had many and eminent 
followers throughout Europe: in Great Brit- 
ain, Pitcairn, Freind the historian of medicine, 
and Mead; in Holland and Germany, Boer- 
haave and John Bernoulli; in France, Sau- 
vages, the eminent and learned nosologist, and 
Senac, the physician of Louis XIV. Hermann 
Boerhaave, professor of medicine at Leyden, 
had great talent and immense learning, and 
was an accurate observer and a sagacious prac- 
titioner. He was one of the first to devote 
himself to clinical teaching, and he was fortu- 
nate in the devotion of such pupils as Van 
Swieten and Haller. Unfortunately for his 
permanent reputation, he lived in an age of 
transition, and his system, generally received 
during his lifetime, scarcely survived its author. 
Jean Senac, another of the mathematical phy- 
sicians, to whom Morgagni applies the epithet 
of ‘‘ great,” published a book on diseases of the 
heart, which has only been rendered obsolete 
by the introduction of the new methods of aus- 
cultation and percussion.—While the chemical 
and mathematical physicians were reducing the 
actions of the living body to the laws which 
govern inert matter, a wholly opposite tenden- 
cy manifested itself in Germany. Previously 
indeed Van Helmont, a mystic and alchemist 


MEDICINE 


rather than a physician, in accounting for the 
vital operations, had introduced what he termed 
the archeus, now a chemical ferment and now 
an intelligent being, as a controlling power ; 
but his opinions found no followers, and only 
influenced indirectly the progress of medicine. 
Georg Ernest Stahl, a great chemist as well as 
physician, appointed professor of medicine in 
the university of Halle in 1694, was the author 
of the new system. According to Stahl, the 
anima (soul) is the great motor and directing 
principle of the human body. It exercises a 
recuperative and superintending influence, and 
guards against injuries, or when they occur 
takes the best means of repairing them; it is 
the common source of all motion, of all secre- 
tion, of all the vital actions. In showing the 
insufficiency of the known chemical or phys- 
ical forces to account for the vital actions, 
Stahl is happy and ingenious; but in his sub- 
tle disquisitions on his own agent, he becomes 
confused and unintelligible. He has the merit 
of showing much more clearly than had hith- 
erto been done the influence which the mind 
exerts over the body. Stahl’s opinions, con- 
trary to most theories, exerted a controlling 
influence over his medical practice, reducing 
the office of the physician to that of watching 
and forwarding the operations that nature un- 
dertakes for her own relief; while his doc- 
trines, set forth with great logical subtlety, at 
a time when metaphysical speculations were in 
vogue, though they found few direct follow- 
ers, yet had a large influence on the minds of 
the profession. Friedrich Hoffmann, a fellow 
professor with Stahl at Halle, was a volumi- 
nous writer, whose reputation has extended to 
our own time. He attributed to the nervous 
system most of the functions and influences 
which Stahl ascribed to the anima. In speak- 
ing of the animal fibre, he ascribes to it a cer- 
tain natural “tone,” which may be increased 
into “ spasm” or diminished to ‘“‘atony;” and 
connected with both these hypotheses, while 
admitting the fluids to be sometimes primarily 
diseased, in the majority of cases he thought 
the solids were first affected.— As early as 1752 
Boissier de Sauvages of Montpellier published 
his methodic nosology, in which he endeavors 
to class and distinguish diseases in the same 
manner as the vegetable kingdom is classed 
and described by the botanists. His work was 
of great use in the advancement of medicine, 
and remained the standard treatise on the sub- 
ject until the publication in 1772 of the nosol- 
ogy of Cullen. This author, a professor first in 
the university of Glasgow and afterward in that 
of Edinburgh, contributed greatly to raise the 
latter school to the high rank which it has since 
enjoyed. His teachings and writings exercised 
a wide influence, and their effects can still be 
traced in English medicine in our own day; his 
descriptions of disease in particular are remark- 
able for their force and conciseness, but, the 
progress of science has shown the fallacy of the 
views on which his system was founded. A 
544 VOL. x1.—23 


351, 


contemporary and rival of Cullen, John Brown, 
a man of genius but of wayward and ill regula- 
ted character, was likewise the author of a sys- 
tem which enjoyed a temporary, popularity, 
and which, somewhat modified, found eminent 
followers in Italy within a recent period.—The 
end of the last century witnessed the most im- 
portant practical discovery ever made in medi- 
cine. Up to that period smallpox annually 
committed the most fearful ravages; the deaths 
from it in Europe alone were estimated to 
amount to 400,000 a year, while it left many 
blind or disfigured. The practice of inocula- 
tion, brought from Oonstantinople by Lady 
Mary Wortley Montagu, had indeed diminished 
the evil, but the remedy itself was attended 
with great inconvenience, and was not desti- 
tute of danger. The discovery of Jenner, an- 
nounced in his ‘Inquiry into the Causes and 
Effects of the Variole Vaccine” (London, 
1798), has placed the disease completely under 
our control; and if it still commits occasional 
ravages, it is owing to the laxity of the laws 
and the carelessness of individuals. Another 
great improvement in practical medicine, the 
use of lemon juice, sour krout, &., in the 
dietary of seamen, by which scurvy, which 
formerly committed fearful havoc on both the 
naval and mercantile marine, has become almost 
unknown, is due to the naval surgeons of the 
last century.—In the present century practical 
medicine has made greater advances than in any 
other similar period. This may be attributed: 
1, to the brilliant discoveries which have ren- 
dered chemistry a new science, by the aid of 
which we are now able to comprehend much 
more clearly than before the processes of nutri- 
tion, respiration, calorification, secretion, and 
excretion; 2, to the increased attention paid 
to microscopy, by which the mode of devel- 
opment of the germ, the organization and 
growth of the different tissues, the process of 
repair and that of inflammation, and other 
morbid processes, have been investigated; 3, 
to the rapid progress of experimental physi- 
ology, aided by chemistry and. microscopy; 4, 
to the increased cultivation of comparative 
anatomy and physiology ; 5, to the cultivation 
of morbid anatomy not only in relation to the 
symptoms of disease during life, but to the 
various degrees of morbid developments, and 
to the relation which those developments bear 
to each other; 6, to the new and more perfect 
methods of investigating disease, by which its 
diagnosis has become more certain. Under 
the last head two discoveries are prominent, 
which have changed the whole face of medi- 
cine, giving it a degree of certainty which at 
one time seemed hopeless: that by Laennec of 
auscultation and percussion, and that by Bright 
of the disease of the kidney which bears his 
name. The development and perfecting of 
each of these discoveries has employed and is 
employing the lives and founding the reputa- 
tion of a vast number of learned, zealous, and 
able men. 7% The discovery by pharmaceuti- 


352 MEDILL 


cal chemists of the active principles of various 
drugs, has not only rendered those drugs more 
certain and less nauseous, but has enabled us 
to exhibit necessary doses which the stomach 
otherwise would be unable to retain. 8. Not 
only has the materia medica been benefited in 
the manner above mentioned, but by the dis- 
covery of various other remedies, by which 
diseases hitherto rebellious have been render- 
ed more amenable to the resources of art, and 
by that of aneesthetics.—Eotrotic MEpIcINE is 
a term used to designate a school of medicine 
whose distinctive doctrines are the selection 
of whatever may be thought the best prac- 
tice of other schools, and the employment of 
“‘snecific medication.” These “specifics” are 
not directed to symptoms merely, but are de- 
signed to obviate particular pathological con- 
ditions. Thus, a certain class of diseases gen- 
erate similar morbid products, and remedies 
calculated to remove these through the various 
excretory organs are termed by the eclectics 
specific remedies. Dr. Benjamin Thompson 
of Concord, N. H., the founder of what was 
at one time known as the botanic or Thomp- 
sonian practice in America, was one of the 
older members of the school, and also Dr. 
Wooster Beach, who many years ago founded 
in New York the ‘‘ Reformed Medical Col- 
lege,” which was soon relinquished. Another 
was established at Worthington, Ohio, which, 
at the end of 10 or 12 years was also discontin- 
ued, and another at Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1845, 
under the name of the ‘‘ Eclectic Medical Insti- 
tute.” This is regarded as the parent school 
of eclecticism, and has matriculated 5,875 and 
graduated 1,804 students. The doctrine of spe- 
cific medication is of recent introduction by 
Prof. John M. Scudder, the present professor 
of practice and pathology in the Cincinnati 
institution.—See ‘‘ American Eclectic Practice 
of Medicine,” by J. G. Jones, M. D., and Wil- 
liam Sherwood, M. D. (Cincinnati, 1857) ; 
‘Chronic Diseases,” by Prof. John King 
(1867); and ‘‘ American Dispensatory,” by 
the same (1874). (See Homaoparny, Hypro- 
PpATHY, Mepioau Exzorriciry, and Surgery.) 
MEDILL, Joseph, an American journalist, born 
in New Brunswick, near the border of Maine, 
April 6, 1823. His parents, who were Scotch- 
Irish, removed to Massillon, O., in 1832, where 
Joseph passed the next 12 years on his father’s 
farm. He studied and practised law, and in 
1849 established the ‘ Republican’ at Coshoc- 
ton, O., as a free-soil whig paper. In 1852 he 
sold this journal, and founded the “ Forest 
City ” in Cleveland, O., advocating the election 
of Winfield Scott as president, but repudiating 
the Baltimore platform. In 1853 his paper 
was merged in the ‘ Leader,” and in 1854 he 
was one of the 12 who formed the republican 
party in Cleveland. In that year he removed 
to Chicago, and with John C. Vaughan and 
Dr. O. H. Ray purchased the ‘“ Tribune,” with 
which he has been connected since May, 1855. 
In 1870 he was elected to the state constitu- 


MEDINA 


tional convention, and was the author of the 
minority-representation clause. In 1871 he 
was a member of the United States civil ser- 
vice commission, which post he resigned on 
being elected mayor of Chicago. In Septem- 
ber, 1873, he resigned the mayoralty and went 
to Europe. In November, 1874, he returned 
and purchased a controlling interest in the 
‘ Tribune,” becoming editor-in-chief. 

MEDINA. I. AS. W. county of Texas, bound- 
ed N. E. by the Medina river; area, 1,175 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 2,078, of whom 92 were 
colored. The surface is rolling and in some 
parts hilly. Timber and water are. scarce. 
Stock raising is the leading industry. In 1870 
there were 42,561 cattle. Capital, Castroville. 
Ii, A N. E. county of Ohio, drained by Black 
and Rocky rivers; area, 425 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 20,092. The surface is uneven and the 
soil fertile. The Atlantic and Great Western 
railroad passes along the 8. border. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 304,908 bushels of 
wheat, 393,696 of Indian corn, 537,217 of oats, 
148,911 of potatoes, 18,605 of flax seed, 302,- 
702 lbs. of flax, 226,595 of maple sugar, 408,- 
890 of wool, 975,938 of butter, 416,958 of 
cheese, and 48,619 tons of hay. There were 
7,588 horses, 24,329 cattle, 69,742 sheep, and 
10,719 swine; 5 manufactories of agricultural 
implements, 12 of cheese, 1 of lead and zine, 3 
of woollen goods, 19 saw mills, 1 planing mill, 
and 2 flour mills. Capital, Medina. 

MEDINA (Arab. Medinet en-Nebi, “city of 
the prophet”), a city of Arabia, in the prov- 
ince of Hedjaz, situated on the vast plateau of 
high land which forms central Arabia, about 
250 m. N. of Mecca, in lat. 24° 50’ N., lon. 39° 
50’ E.; pop. about 17,000. It is the second in 
sanctity of the three holy cities of the Moham- 
medans. The sacred area is embraced within 
an imaginary line forming an irregular circle, 
of which the town is the centre, and of which 
the diameter is about 12 m. Medina consists 
of three parts, a town, a fort, and suburbs. 
The town proper is walled and has four gates. 
The streets are narrow and dark, and imper- 
fectly paved, and the town has a general ap- 
pearance of decay. The houses are of brick, 
basalt, and palm wood; the best of them en- 
close spacious courtyards and small gardens 
with wells. The castle joins on to the N. W. 
angle of the city. The suburbs are 8. and 
W. of the town, and between it and them 
is the plain of Al-Munakhah. They contain 
five mosques and the governor’s house. The 
mosque of the prophet is at the eastern ex- 
tremity of the city. A saying of Mohammed 
is cited to the effect that one prayer in it is 
more efficacious than 1,000 in other places, ex- 
cepting Mecca. The present building, occupy- 
ing the site of a smaller one existing in the time 
of Mohammed, is a parallelogram about 420 ft. 
long by 340 broad. It has a spacious central 
area open to the sky, surrounded by a peristyle 
with numerous rows of pillars, surmounted by 
small domes, and having five gates and five 


MEDINA SIDONIA 


minarets. In the centre of the court is a piece 
of ground about 80 ft. square enclosed by a 
wooden railing, and called the garden of Fati- 
ma, the prophet’s daughter. Near this enclo- 
sure is the well of the prophet. In the cov- 
ered part of the mosque are the tombs of Mo- 
hammed and of the caliphs Abubekr and Omar. 
They are concealed by a curtain of silk, and 
have never been seen by a Christian, and the 
Mohammedan accounts of them are contradic- 
tory. At present even Mohammedans are not 
allowed to see them; the persons in charge 
declare that whoever should look upon them 
would be blinded by supernatural light. This 
mosque has been many times destroyed and 
rebuilt, the last time in 1710. The town has 
little commerce, and what trade exists is in 
grain, cloth, and provisions, and is carried on 
through the harbor of Yembo, on the Red 
sea, about 110 m. from Medina. The climate, 
though hot in summer, is severely cold in win- 


MEDITERRANEAN SEA 553 


vents, two nunneries, ten schools, and hospi- 
tals for the sick and for orphans and found- 
lings. The surrounding country produces ex- 
cellent fruits. There are brick and pottery 
works, and manufactories of coarse cloth. 
Medina Sidonia gives the title of duke to the 

descendants of Guzman the Good. 
MEDITERRANEAN SEA, the great midland sea 
separating the southern shores of Europe from 
the north coast of Africa, and bounded E. by 
part of Asia. It was not known to the an- 
cients by its present name. It is called the 
Great sea in the Scriptures, “the sea within 
the columns” by Strabo. By the Romans 
it was called mare internum or mare nostrum. 
The Mediterranean forms a deep gulf which 
communicates with the Atlantic through the 
narrow strait of Gibraltar; it is separated 
from the Red sea by the isthmus of Suez, 
now pierced by a canal, and penetrates deep- 
ly inland through the Adriatic, and still more 
so through the Black 


sea and sea of Azov.— 


The N. and S. shores of 


the Mediterranean pre- 


sent a strong contrast ; 
the former is greatly 


diversified by bays and 


peninsulas, sinuosities, 


and islands, while the 


latter is comparatively 
uniform. The main 
body of the sea is di- 


= iD 
= =} 


vided into two princi- 
pal basins, each with 
numerous subdivisions. 
The western is the 


smaller, and extends 


= Sal 


from Gibraltar to the 


p) 
c Fs 
ogee g 
GHA ea 


ein 


an 
Se, eof 
Fae ao EN 


ter, owing to the elevation above the sea. The 
people are proud and indolent, and live in 
great part upon the revenues of the mosque, 
which has estates in almost all parts of the 
Mohammedan world. Thirty public schools 
still remain in this once famous seat of learn- 
ing.—Medina was anciently called Jathrippa, 
and by the Arabs before Mohammed’s time 
Yathreb. It is the place to which the prophet 
fled from persecution at Mecca, and where he 
died. For about 40 years after his death it 
was the seat of the caliphate—See Burton’s 
‘“‘ Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to EI- 
Medinah and Mecca” (1856). 

MEDINA SIDONIA, atown of Andalusia, Spain, 
in the province and 22 m. E. S. E. of the city 
of Cadiz; pop. about 11,000. It stands on a 
hill in the midst. of an extensive plateau, and 
is laid out in the form of an amphitheatre. 
The parish church, Santa Maria la Coronada, 
is a fine Gothic building. There are five con- 


strait between Sicily 
and the coast of Tunis, 
the shallowest part of. 
which is called the 
Adventure bank. The 
eastern and greater ex- 
tends from this to the coast of Syria. The sub- 
divisions of these basins have received differ- 
ent names. The westernmost, reaching from 
Gibraltar to the islands of Corsica and Sar- 
dinia, is sometimes called the Balearic sea, or 
sea of Majorca or of Valencia; by some it is 
divided into the Iberic, Sardic, and Gallic seas, 
the last including the gulf of Lyons. The 
body of water between the above named islands 
and Italy is known as the Tyrrhenian sea, also 
called the Ligurian, Tuscan, or Italian. The 
Sicilian sea washes the island of Sicily on the 
south, and joins the Ionian sea, embraced be- 
tween south Italy and Greece, and communi- 
cating through the strait of Otranto with the 
Adriatic. On the opposite side the African 
coast is indented by the gulf of Libya, with the 
Greater and Lesser Syrtis of the ancients. Be- 
tween Greece and Asia Minor lies the Agean 
sea or Archipelago, the White sea of the Turks, 
whence the Hellespont or strait of the Darda- 


354 


nelles leads into the sea of Marmora (the Pro- 
pontis of the ancients), which communicates 
through the Bosporus or strait of Constantino- 
ple with the Black sea or Euxine, the latter in 
its turn communicating through the strait of 
Yenikale or Kertch (the Cimmerian Bosporus 
of the ancients) with the sea of Azov. The 
eastern part of the Mediterranean bears among 
sailors the general name of the Levant; it was 
formerly subdivided into the Pamphylian, Sy- 
rian, and Phoenician seas.—Five large islands 
and a great number of smaller ones are scat- 
tered through the Mediterranean. The former 
are Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Candia or Crete, 
and Oyprus. They are all mountainous, the 
summits rising to considerable heights. The 
principal of the smaller islands are the Baleares 
with Iviza and Formentera, the Tuscan islands 
between Corsica and the Italian mainland, the 
Lipari or AZolian islands, Malta and its smaller 
neighbors, the Ionian islands, the Dalmatian 
islands in the Adriatic, and the islands of the 
Archipelago (the Cyclades and Sporades of the 
ancients), the largest of which are Negropont 
(Eubcea), Rhodes, and Samos. Volcanic phe- 
nomena are well developed in southern Ita- 
ly and Sicily, where Vesuvius and Etna are 
frequently active, and Stromboli in constant 
eruption. In the Archipelago the island of 
Santorin is a partly submerged volcano, occa- 
sionally active and forming new islets. (See 
GRAHAM Is~tAND.) Only four rivers of impor- 
tance empty into the Mediterranean : the Ebro, 
Rhone, and Po on the N. shore, and the Nile 
in Egypt. Besides these may be mentioned 
the Guadalaviar, Tiber, Adige, Maritza, Mean- 
der, and Orontes.—The Mediterranean is no- 
ted for its bright and deep blue color, when 
undisturbed, though probably it does not differ 
much from the ocean in that respect. Prof. 
Tyndall attributes this tint to minute particles 
in suspension, the existence of which he proved 
by optical experiment. Carpenter found by 
filtration that these particles were inorganic, 
and much more abundant than in the Atlantic. 
According to Admiral Smyth, a greenish tinge 
is prevalent in the Adriatic; it borders on pur- 
ple in the Levant basin, while the Black sea 
often has the dark aspect from which it derives 
its name.—The eastern basin is very deep; S. 
E. of Candia 1,600 fathoms have been sounded, 
and in a line from Candia to Malta the greatest 
depth is about 2,000 fathoms.. The alluvium 
of the Nile forms a submarine promontory in 
front of the delta. In the Archipelago the 
islands rise steeply out of deep water, as much 
as 600 fathoms being found between them. 
The Adriatic is shallow in its northern part, but 
in the south has a depression of 500 fathoms. 
The bottom of the Sicilian sea forms a plateau 
of less than 500 fathoms, with several shoals. 
The depth of the Tyrrhenian sea is probably 
great, though not known in much detail. The 
Balearic sea reaches 2,000 fathoms in its deep- 
est parts, the bottom rising toward the strait of 
Gibraltar, which measures a little more than 


MEDITERRANEAN SEA 


900 fathoms in its deepest part.—Although 
the Mediterranean is usually said to be tide- 
less, this is not strictly true; tidal motions 
are noticed in several localities, though small 
and irregular, and modified by the force and 
direction of the wind. The Atlantic tide wave 
can be directly followed but a short distance 
along the coast of Spain; on the coasts of 
France and Italy a small rise and fail occurs, 
though not regular enough to be formulated 
in the absence of accurate observations. In 
the strait of Messina the tidal current, accord- 
ing to Admiral Smyth, runs alternately six 
hours north and six hours south, though the 
vertical rise and fall is only a few inches. In 
the Adriatic the tide is felt sensibly at Venice, 
but is exceedingly weak in the southern part. 
On the coast of Africa, Admiral Smyth has 
observed tides fairly developed in the Lesser 
Syrtis. A connected study of the tides of the 
whole basin by means of good instruments, 
such as modern self-registering tide gauges, is 
still a desideratum. The local currents of the 
Mediterranean are partly tidal, and partly due - 
to the winds. At the strait of Gibraltar, how- 
ever, a strong and constant current runs in 
from the Atlantic, which cannot be attributed 
to either of those causes, which merely modify 
it. This current occupies the middle of the 
channel, and has a mean velocity of 3 or 4 m. 
an hour. On either side of it a tidal current 
is observed, which runs alternately with and 
against the main current. The true cause of 
the latter has given rise to much speculation 
among physicists. That it is due to the evap- 
oration in the Mediterranean being in excess 
of the river supply has been generally admit- 
ted; but this would imply a constant increase 
of. salinity, unless this increase were kept in 
check. An undercurrent carrying out the den- 
ser water had to be almost necessarily admit- 
ted, but its actual existence was not proved un- 
til the experiments of Prof. Carpenter, in the 
cruise of the Porcupine, showed it conclusive- 
ly. This physicist has observed that the water 
of the Mediterranean contains more salt than 
that of the Atlantic, that this excess of salinity 
is greater in bottom water than at the surface, 
and that in the strait of Gibraltar this denser 
water flows out into the Atlantic, thus resto- 
ring the equilibrium of density between the two 
seas. Observations in the Hellespont and Bos- 
porus have shown that a surface current flows 
out of the Black sea, and an undercurrent in. 
The relation of densities is here reversed, the 
Black sea having the least ; but the evaporation 
being less in proportion to the river supply, 
the current is due less to a restoration of level 
than to the difference of densities—The pre- 
vailing winds are mostly from the north and 
west. Some of them are known by specific 
names, such as the mistral, a cold wind blow- 
ing from the Alps along the valley of the 
Rhone to the sea; its opposite, the sirocco, a 
scorching hot wind carrying the dry heat of 
the African deserts over Sicily and all Italy; 


MEDITERRANEAN SEA 


and the bora (Boreas of the ancients), a north 
wind usually accompanied by terrible thunder- 
storms. These winds, with waterspouts, which 
are very frequent, especially in the western 
basin, render the navigation of the Mediterra- 
nean rather dangerous during certain seasons. 
One of the peculiarities of the Mediterranean 
is the frequent occurrence of remarkable elec- 
trical phenomena, known as the St. Elmo’s fire, 
being balls of fire playing in mid air around 
the masts of ships, and called by the ancients 
Castor and Pollux.—The diminution of the 
temperature of the water with the depth fol- 
lows entirely different rules in the Mediterra- 
nean from those found in the open ocean. Dr. 
Carpenter’s observations have shown that the 
surface temperature, variable according to the 
seasons, and sometimes reaching 78° in sum- 
mer, falls gradually to 54° or 55° at a depth of 
100 fathoms; below this depth no further di- 
minution is observed down to the greatest 
depths at which observations were made (1,748 
fathoms). This represents the constant tem- 
perature of the great body of water occupying 
the Mediterranean basin, the upper 100 fath- 
oms alone being influenced by the sun’s rays. 
In the ocean the cold influx from the polar 
regions underlies the warmer strata, and re- 
duces the bottom temperature to about 36° 
even under the tropics. To this influx a bar- 
rier is opposed by the comparatively shallow 
ridge in the strait of Gibraltar. The uniform 
temperature of so large a mass of water in a 
nearly closed basin implies an almost entire 
absence of circulation and probably of aéra- 
tion; hence a great scarcity of organized life 
on the bottom in great depths, in fact an al- 
most entire absence of it when compared with 
the ocean. (See ATLANTIO Ocean, and Drepe- 
Ing, DEEP Sra.) The dredging of the Porcu- 
pine showed that, except near the coast, the 
bottom consists of a tenacious mud, composed 
of fine yellowish sand mixed with a bluish 
clay, the proportions varying according to lo- 
calities. It yielded nothing but fragments of 
shells and a few foraminifera. On the gener- 
ally rocky bottom nearer shore the dredge 
brought up richer harvests.—The fauna of the 
Mediterranean presents a number of northern 
types whose occurrence has been attributed 
to a former direct communication between it 
and the bay of Biscay, which geology shows 
to have been closed since the eocene period. 
A few cetaceans and one species of seal in- 
habit this sea, but are of no commercial im- 
portance; the same remark applies to the log- 
gerhead and leather turtles. The tunny, the 
sardine, and the anchovy among fishes form 
important articles of trade. Of the lower an- 
imals, mollusks, crustacea, and even radiates, 
all that are possibly eatable are used as arti- 
cles of food by the inhabitants of southern 
Europe. The red coral is found in deep wa- 
ter in most parts of this sea, but the prin- 
cipal fisheries are carried on along the coasts 
of Algeria, Tunis, and Sicily. The pink vari- 


MEDLAR 35 


ety comes chiefly from that region, while the 
deep red coral is more prevalent on the east 
coast of Spain. The finest variety of sponge 
(the so-called Turkey sponge) is obtained chief- 
ly in the Archipelago and in the Adriatic. In 
the latter the Austrian government has recent- 
ly tried its artificial propagation with success. 
—The shores of the Mediterranean have been 
the nursery of civilization, the cradle of which 
was further east. The nations that early es- 
tablished themselves on its borders, particularly 
on the indented and diversified northern ones, 
founded there centres sufficiently isolated to 
foster national feelings, and at the same time 
near enough to their neighbors for frequent 
and easy intercourse. Thus commercial rela- 
tions were early established between Egypt, 
Pheenicia, Greece, and Rome, carrying with 
them arts and literature, and developing these 
very early to a standard which still serves us 
as a model. The Roman empire brought the 
entire coast of this sea under its sway, render- 
ing it thus an open channel for the spread of 
Christianity from the land of its origin toward 
the west, where it was to receive its highest 
development. Afterward the Mohammedan 
religion overspread the eastern and southern 
shores, and ultimately covered them with com- 
parative darkness, into which the light of 
modern progress is but slowly beginning to 
penetrate at a few points. 

MEDJIDIEH, a new town of European Turkey, 
in the Dobrudja, 23 m. W. by N. of Kustendji, 
on the railway connecting Kustendji with the 
Danube; pop. about 25,000. Before 1860 the 
place was only a village; it owes its rapid 
growth to the immigration of Tartars from 
Russia. Some hundreds of them came to Kus- 
tendji after the Crimean war. They were em- 
ployed upon the railway then in process of 
construction, and afterward, by the care of the 
English engineers, received free transportation 
to Medjidieh. The geographical advantages of 
the place soon attracted a large immigration, 
and in 1862 there were living in the town and 
its vicinity from 40,000 to 50,000 Tartars, 
greatly outnumbering the Turkish population, 
and distinguished for the number and excel- 
lence of their cattle, while they also raised 
great quantities of wheat for export. Medji- - 
dieh, named after the sultan Abdu] Medjid, be- 
came the Tartar metropolis of the province. 

MEDLAR, a fruit-bearing tree of the order 
rosacee, common in the wild state in most 
parts of Europe, some of the finer varieties 
of which are cultivated. In most works the 
medlar is placed in a separate genus as mespi- 
lus Germanica, but Hooker and Bentham in 
their new Genera Plantarum unite it with 
pyrus, from which it only differs botanically 
in having hard and bony carpels to the fruit. 
The medlar is a large shrub or small tree, 
usually with very crooked branches, simple | 
leaves, and flowers resembling those of the 
pear; the fruit in the cultivated kinds is about 
14 in. in diameter and broader than long; at 


356 MEDOO 

the top of the fruit is a broad hairy disk, sur- 
rounded by the calyx lobes, which remain 
green and leafy until the fruit is nearly mature; 
when ripe the skin of the fruit is brown, and 
the flesh firm and austere; the fruit is only 
eatable after having been kept until the first 
stage of decay, called bletting, has thoroughly 
softened the flesh to a pulp; in this state the 
medlar is highly prized by some, who are fond 
of its rich subacid flavor, but it is not regarded 
as a popular fruit. Of the varieties, that called 
the large Dutch is preferred; the trees are 
propagated by grafting upon seedling medlars 
or upon the pear and thorn. The plant has 
been used for hedges, and it is sometimes set 
as an ornamental tree where the effect of rus- 
ticity is desired. It is very seldom cultivated 
in this country.—The Japan medlar (eriobotrya 
Japonica of most authors, but by Hooker and 
Bentham reduced to Photinia), also known 
by the Chinese name of loquat, is a favorite 
ornamental tree in our warmer states. It is 
largely cultivated in Japan and China, and was 


Medlar. 


introduced into Europe nearly a century ago. 
In its native country it forms a large tree; its 
large evergreen leaves are rough, bright green 
above, and downy beneath; the flowers, pro- 
duced in autumn, are in large terminal spikes, 
and pleasantly fragrant; the fruit, which! ri- 
pens the following spring, is of the size of a 
small apple, oval, pale orange with a blush of 
red, and an orange-colored subacid pulp re- 
sembling an apple in flavor. The tree does 
not produce fruit in the north of Georgia, but 
has done so in Louisiana; wherever it will en- 
dure the winter, it is a valuable tree both on 
account of its handsome foliage and its late 
season of blooming. 

MEDOC. See France, WINES oF. 

MEDUSA, in mythology. See Gorcons. 

MEDUSA, in zoédlogy. See Jerry Fisu. 

MEDWAY (anc. Vaga), a river of England, 
which rises in the 8. E. part of Surrey, trav- 
erses Kent, flowing mainly E. and N., and falls 
into the estuary of the Thames at Sheerness 
near its mouth. It is about 60 m. long, and 
navigable to Penshurst, 40 m. In its lower 
course it expands into a broad, deep tidal inlet, 


MEERSCHAUM 


and a little above its embouchure it sends off a. 
navigable branch on the right called the East 
Swale, which cuts off from the mainland the 
isle of Sheppey. The Medway is one of the 
most important havens for the British navy, 
and on its banks are two large government 
dockyards, Sheerness and Chatham. Ships of 
the line can anchor in the channel as far up 
as Maidstone. 

MEEK, Alexander Beanfort, an American au- 
thor, born in Columbia, 8. C., July 17, 1814, 
died in Columbus, Miss., Nov. 30, 1865. He 
graduated at the university of Alabama, was 
admitted to the bar in 1835, and in the same 
year became editor of a newspaper at Tusca- 
loosa. He served as a lieutenant of volunteers 
against the Seminoles in 1836, and at the close 
of the campaign was appointed attorney gen- 
eral of the state, but soon resigned this post and 
resumed his practice. He was judge of the 
county court from 1842 to 1844, during which 
time he prepared a supplement to Aiken’s 
“Digest of Alabama.” From 1848 to 1852 he 
was associate editor of the ‘‘ Mobile Register.” , 
He was elected to the legislature in 1853, and 
secured the establishment of a free school sys- 
tem in the state. He was a presidential elector 
on the democratit ticket in 1856, was again 
elected to the legislature in 1859, and was cho- 
sen speaker. He published “‘ Romantic Pas- 
sages in Southwestern History,” and ‘Songs 
and Poems of the South” (New York, 1857), 
and left an unfinished ‘‘ History of Alabama,” 

MEEK, Fielding Bradford. See supplement. 

MEEKER, a S. central county of Minnesota, 
watered by Crow river, and containing nu- 
merous small lakes; area, 558 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 6,090. The surface is rolling, consisting 
mostly of fertile prairies. It is traversed by 
the St. Paul and Pacific railroad. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 135,147 bushels of 
wheat, 28,974 of Indian corn, 92,532 of oats, 
10,492 of barley, 39,913 of potatoes, 142,771 
lbs. of butter,-and 15,329 tons of hay. There 
were 963 horses, 1,871 milch cows, 3,837 other 
cattle, 2,936 sheep, and 2,687 swine; 4 flour 
mills, and 4 saw mills. Capital, Litchfield. 

MEERANE, a town of Saxony, in the circle and 
9m. N. by W. of the city of Zwickau ; pop. in 
1871, 19,187. In 1858 the population was 11,- 
147. The increase is due to the progress in the 
production of woollen and semi-woollen goods. 
The town contains upward of 100 manufacto- 
ries of such goods, the exports of which are 
valued at about 15,000,000 thalers annually. 
Plush, dyestuffs, and other articles are also 
made here. It once belonged to Bohemia, and 
became part of Saxony in 1779. 

MEERSCHAUM (Ger., sea foam, so called from 
its lightness and whitish appearance), or Mag- 
nesite, a hydrous silicate of magnesia, of com- 
position represented by the formula MgO, 
SiO;+2HO. It is a mineral of soft earthy 
texture somewhat resembling chalk, of hard- 
ness 2°5, and of variable specific gravity. It 
is found in Spain and several countries at the 


MEERUT 


head of the Mediterranean, occurring in the 
form of veins in serpentine, and also in tertiary 
deposits. Dr. J. Lawrence Smith found it in 
Asia Minor in alluvium, apparently the result 
of the decomposition of carbonate of magnesia 
belonging to neighboring serpentine rocks. It 
is largely collected there for the manufacture 
of pipes and cigar tubes, the town of Konieh 
furnishing the principal supplies. It is rough- 
ly shaped into blocks, or sometimes into rude 
forms of pipes, for exportation, and freed as 
far as practicable from the associated minerals, 
which impair its quality by interfering with 
the carving and smoothing of its surface. It 
is fashioned into finished pipes, which are 
often highly ornamented, in different cities 
of Europe. Pesth and Vienna are famous for 
this manufacture. To produce the yellow and 
brown colors, which are much admired in the 
pipes, and which are brought out only after 
long smoking, the blocks are kept for some 
time in a mixture of wax and fatty matters. 
A portion of these is absorbed, and, being 
subsequently acted upon by the heat and the 
tobacco fumes, assumes various shades of col- 
or. 
producing the best pipes; and the heaviest are 
rejected from suspicion of their being arti- 
ficial products. These artificial preparations 
are from the parings of the genuine material, 
which, being reduced to fine powder, are boiled 
in water and moulded into blocks, sometimes 
with the addition of clay. After drying and 
contracting, they are ready for carving. This 
kind is known by the name of Massaképfe or 
massa bowls. The artificial meerschaums can- 
not easily be distinguished from the real; but 
they are generally heavier, and are more free 
from blemishes, some of which, arising from 
the presence of foreign minerals, are often seen 
in the genuine meerschaums, 

MEERUT. I. A district of British India, in 
the Northwest Provinces, forming part of the 
Doab, and bounded E. by the Ganges and W. 
by the Jumna; area, 2,332 sq. m.; pop. in 
1871, 1,271,454, of whom about 900,000 were 
Hindoos. <A ridge of low hills traverses the 
district from N.to §., separating the valleys 
of the Ganges and Jumna, but the surface is 
generally remarkably level. The soil is abun- 
dantly watered by the Ganges and Jumna, and 
by the Ganges canal, about 50 m. of which lies 
in the district. The vegetation of the tropics 
alternates here with that of more northern 
latitudes, wheat being cultivated in the cool 
season, and sugar cane, indigo, and cotton in 
the wet. Apples, peaches, mangoes, and straw- 
berries abound. The climate is one of the 
finest in India. II. A city, capital of the dis- 
trict, on the river Kalee Nuddee, nearly equi- 
distant from the Ganges and the Jumna, 820 
m. N. W. of Calcutta, and 40 m. N. E. of Del- 
hi; pop. about 30,000. The streets are narrow 
and dirty, and the native part of the town 
is wretchedly built, though it contains some 
ruined mosques and pagodas of considerable 


The lightest qualities are too porous for’ 


MEGALONYX 357 


architectural interest. It is an important mili- 
tary station, having an extensive cantonment 
about 2m. distant. The English church, which 
is capable of holding 8,000 people, is one of 
the finest in India. In the beginning of the 
sepoy rebellion, one of the most serious out- 
breaks occurred at Meerut. The town con- 
tained at that time about 4,500 troops, nearly 
half of whom were Europeans. The native sol- 
diers showed insubordination as early as April, 
1857; and on May 9, 85 troopers were im- 
prisoned for refusing to receive the new car- 
tridges. On.the next day, Sunday, the com- 
rades of these men and the sepoys of the 20th 
native infantry rushed from their lines on a 
given signal and proceeded to the quarters of 


the 11th native infantry, whose colonel fell 


riddled with balls while endeavoring to per- 
suade them to return to duty. The 11th now 
joined the rebels, the imprisoned troopers were 
released, 1,200 ruffians were let loose from the 
jail, and the mutineers and the rabble set fire 
to the cantonment and murdered every Euro- 
pean who fell in their way. The English troops 
were badly managed, and the rebels escaped 
them and marched to Delhi. 

MEGALONYX (Gr. péyac, peyddov, great, and 
dvvé, claw), an extinct genus of giant edentates, 
allied to the sloths, established in 1797 by 
Thomas Jefferson, in a communication to the 
American philosophical society of Philadelphia, 
in whose ‘‘ Transactions” the bones were de- 
scribed by Dr. Caspar Wistar, who first sug- 
gested the affinity of the animal to the recent 
sloths. The first bones were discovered in a 
limestone cavern in western Virginia, and were 
referred by Mr. Jefferson, from the large size 
of the claws, to some carnivorous animal; the 
original specimens of this, the I. Jeffersonit 
(Harlan), are in the cabinet of the academy of 
natural sciences at Philadelphia. These, and 
other bones found in Tennessee, Kentucky, Mis- 
sissippi, and Alabama, form the materials of 
the most complete monograph on the subject, 
that of Prof. Joseph Leidy, in vol. vii. of the 
‘Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge” 
(1855). The skull is about 14 in. long, with 
the upper outline nearly horizontal, depressed 
forehead, and convex nose; the sagittal crest 
prominent and rugged; zygomatic process 
strong, and temporal fossa rough for the attach- 
ment of muscular fibres; the mastoid process 
strongly marked; the orbital cavity shallow; 
the hard palate between the three posterior 
molars 14 lines wide, with a median convexity 
nearly as prominent as the teeth, becoming al- 
most plane in advance of the third molars, and 
varying in width from 24 to 4 in., perforated 
by large foramina and by a large incisive fora- 
men between the first molars; the occipital fo- 
ramen circular, 16 lines in diameter, the surface 
of the foraminal bone being rough for the at- 
tachment of powerful muscles; orifice of nose 
irregularly circular, about 3 in. in diameter; 
lower jaw about 18 in. long. The teeth are. 
long, without fangs, sub-elliptical, of nearly uni- 


858 MEGALOPOLIS 


form diameter, with the crown hollowed in the 
middle, and projecting border; as in other eden- 
tates, they are deeply excavated from the bot- 
tom for the persistent dental pulp; they have 
no enamel, being composed of very porous 
dentine in the centre, surrounded by a harder 
layer of the same which is enclosed by a thin- 
ner crust of cementum; the formula is 5-3, the 
anterior tooth being considerably in advance of 
the others, in form and position like a canine; 
they vary in diameter from 8 lines to an inch; 
the rami of the lower jaw are widely separated, 
and the symphysis narrow. The bones of the 
skeleton are strong, though less so than in the 
allied megatherium; the scapula is about 14 
ft. long, the humerus 20 in.; the thigh bones 
are relatively shorter and broader than in the 
sloths and about 21 in. long; the tibie rela- 


tively very much shorter than in the sloths, but 


of greater relative length than in the mylodon; 
the shaft of the humerus suddenly expands 
toward the lower extremity, and is pierced 
by a large foramen; the astragalus like that 
of recent sloths, 54 by 3% in.; the heel bone 
developed in an extraordinary manner, being 
long, compressed, and high; the phalanges 
large and narrow, and armed with powerful 
claws; the tibia and fibula distinct, and the 
foot articulated obliquely, the last leading Mr. 
Lund to the opinion that the animal was a 
climber; the anterior limbs a little longer than 
the posterior; the tail strong and solid. From 
the study of the toes Cuvier pronounced the 
animal an edentate; the well marked ridge in 
the middle of the articulating surface of the 
last phalanx indicates a more restricted motion 
than in carnivora, to which Mr. Jefferson re- 
ferred it; the upper edge extends further back 
than the lower, preventing the claws from be- 
ing raised above a horizontal line, but permit- 
ting complete flexion below, asin sloths; their 
form and proportions are also those of eden- 
tates; the middle and third fingers are large, 
with very strong claws, the index being smaller 
with a less strong claw, and the thumb and 
little finger rudimentary. This animal was 
less heavy in form than the megatherium, 
which it doubtless resembled in its habits; it 
was probably of the size of alarge ox. The 
bones are found in the pleistocene or drift for- 
mations of America, contemporaneous with the 
elephant and mastodon, and perhaps surviving 
them; bones of another species are found in 
Brazil. (See MecatTuerium.) 

MEGALOPOLIS, a city of ancient Greece, ori- 
ginally capital of the Arcadian confederation, 
on the river Helisson. It was founded at the 
suggestion of Epaminondas, after the battle of 
Leuctra (871 B. C.), and was designed by him 
as a check to Sparta. Forty townships fur- 
nished inhabitants for the new city, which was 
6 m. in circumference, and had a larger domain 
allotted to it than that possessed by any Ar- 
cadian state. But it never attained the im- 
portance anticipated for it, and was too large 
for its population, that of its entire territory 


MEGALOSAURUS 


being but 65,000. Apprehension of Sparta 
afterward drove the Megalopolitans into alli- 
ance with the Macedonians, and held them aloof 
from the coalition formed in Greece on the 
death of Alexander for the recovery of inde- 
pendence. They at length fell under the do- 
minion of tyrants, the last of whom, Lydiades, 
resigned in 234, and united Megalopolis to 
the Achean league. In 222 Cleomenes IIL, 
king of Sparta, captured it by surprise, and de- 
stroyed the greater part of it; but after his de- 
feat at the battle of Sellasia (221) the Megalo- 
politans who had fled returned under the con- 
duct of Philopcemen, and rebuilt the city on 
the original scale; but it never regained its 
former prosperity, and rapidly sank into insig- 
nificance. It contained no acropolis, owing to 
its flat situation, but a magnificent agora, colos- 
sal statues, and famous temples. Little re- 
mains of this great city, which used to be called 
the great desert, owing to its magnificent. dis- 
tances, excepting the well preserved ruins of 
the theatre, which Pausanias regarded as the 
largest in Greece; and they are still visible 
amid the thickets and corn fields which cover 


‘the site of the city near the village of Sinano. 


MEGALOSAURUS (Gr. péyac, great, and cavpoc, 
lizard), a gigantic fossil reptile of the family 
of dinosaurians, which includes the iguanodon, 
previously described. This family, entirely ex- 
tinct, was remarkable for great size and for 
certain mammalian characters; the long bones 
have a medullary cavity, the feet are short 
and pachyderm-like, the sacrum composed of at 
least five anchylosed vertebra, the ribs doubly 
articulated to the spine, the vertebral lamins 
greatly developed, and the lower jaw capable 
of a horizontal triturating motion; but the 


Megalosaurus (restored). 


teeth, scapular arch, and most of the skeleton 
resemble those of lizards. The genus megalo- 
saurus (Buckland) was discovered by Dr. Buck- 
land in the Stonesfield odlite near Oxford, Eng. ; 
remains have also been found in the Wealden 


and Jurassic formations. The M. Buckland2 


MEGANTIO 


(Ouv.), the best known species, had probably a 
straight muzzle, thin, and laterally compressed ; 
the teeth were flat, pointed, curved backward 
like a pruning knife, with the enamel of the 
posterior edge serrated to the base, and for a 
short distance from the point also on the ante- 
rior; the structure of these teeth, calculated to 
lacerate flesh and to hold a prey once seized, 
shows that the animal was highly carnivorous, 
The teeth; some of them 3 in. long, were im- 
planted in distinct sockets formed by partitions 
running across from the higher external to the 
lower internal border of the jaw, combining 
crocodilian and lizard characters. This animal 
must have attained a length of 30 or 40 ft.; it 
was terrestrial, and probably preyed upon the 
smaller reptiles and the young of the larger. 
(See HyLtaosauRvs.) 

MEGANTIC, a S. E. county of Quebec, Canada, 
watered by the Bécancour river; area, 743 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1871, 18,879, of whom 12,074 were 
of French, 4,444 of Irish, 1,802 of Scotch, and 
963 of English origin or descent. It contains 
Lakes Joseph and William, and is traversed by 
the Grand Trunk railway. Capital, Leeds. 

MEGAPHONE. See supplement. 

MEGARA, a city of ancient Greece, capital of 
Megaris, about 1 m. from the Saronic gulf, op- 
posite the island of Salamis, 20 m. W. by N. of 
Athens. It consisted of a double acropolis and 
the city proper. The more ancient acropolis 
is said to have been built by Car, son of Pho- 
roneus; the other, together with the city, by 
Alcathous, son of Pelops. Subsequently a 
Dorian colony, under Alethes and Athemenes, 
took possession of the city, and enlarged it. 
Its original name appears to have been Po- 
lichne. In the 8th and 7th centuries B. OC. 
Megara was opulent and powerful, and found- 
ed the colonies of Megara Hyblea in Sicily, 
Astacus in Bithynia, and Chalcedon and By- 
zantium on the Bosporus. In the time of 
Solon it entered into a contest with Athens 
for the island of Salamis, but without success. 
In the Persian war it contributed 3,000 heavy- 
armed troops and 20 ships to the confederate 
forces. After that struggle Megara left the 
Peloponnesian confederacy for that of Athens, 
to which ere long it became virtually subject; 
and the Athenians, to secure their supremacy 
over it, built the long walls which connected 
Megara with its port Niswa. The Athenian 
garrison, however, was expelled by the aid of 
Peloponnesian troops in 445. The Athenians 
retaliated by excluding the Megarians from 
their markets and harbors, which decree ope- 
rated so injuriously to the interests of the lat- 
ter that its enforcement was one of the pre- 
texts of the Spartans and their allies for the 
Peloponnesian war. During that war Megara 
suffered severely from siege and famine, the 
Athenians being still in possession of Nissa; 
and subsequently, though it partly recovered 
its prosperity, it ceased to be prominent in 
history. It was celebrated for its philosophi- 
cal school, founded by Euclid, the disciple of 


MEGATHERIUM 359 
Socrates. It contained noted public buildings, 
of which few traces remain. The present little 
town of Megara, which is the capital of the 
nomarchy of Attica and Beeotia, is dilapidated. 
A ferry connects it with Salamis. 

MEGARIS, a district of ancient Greece, bounded 
N. by Beeotia, E. by Attica, 8. by the Saronic 
gulf, and W. by Corinth and the Corinthian 
gulf; area, about 143 sq.m. It is in general 
rugged and hilly. The principal mountains 
are Mt. Cithsron, which separates it from 
Beotia, and the Geranean chain, which ex- 
tends E. and W. across its 8. part from sea to 
sea. Through this chain are three passes: one, 
the Scironian pass, runs by the Saronic gulf, 
and formed the direct road from Corinth to 
Athens; another, which runs along the Corin- 
thian gulf, was the great thoroughfare between 
Beotia and the Peloponnesus; and a third 
crosses the centre of the mountains. The 
territory of Megaris contains no plain except 
that of its metropolis. The earliest inhabi- 
tants were Alolians and Ionians, and it origi- 
nally constituted part of Attica. The present 
eparchy of Megaris (pop. about 12,000) forms 
part of the nomarchy of Attica and Beotia. 

MEGASTHENES (Gr. pvéyac, great, and obévoc, 
strength), a name given by Dana to one of the 
grand divisions of the non-marsupial or higher 
mammals, as indicating a superior type, based 
on a larger and more powerful plan of structure. 
This division includes the monkeys, carnivora, 
herbivora, and cetaceans. He has given the 
name of microsthenes (uxpéc, small, and cbévoc, 
strength) to the inferior, based on a weak type 
of structure; this division includes the bats, 
insectivora, rodents, and edentates. The mar- 
supials and monotremes constitute the still 
lower division of semi-oviparans or odtocoids; 
and man forms alone the highest or fourth 
division, the archonts. The parallelism be- 
tween the megasthenes and microsthenes is, 
according to him, complete; the bats in the 
latter represent the monkeys in the former; 
the insectivora represent the carnivora, the 
rodents the herbivora, and the edentates the 
cetaceans. 

MEGATHERIUM (Gr. péyac, great, and @npior, 
animal), an extinct edentate animal, of gigantic 
size, coming in many respects near to the sloth 
family, and with its allies, the megalonyx and 
mylodon, seeming to form the transition from 
the edentates to the proboscidians. Pictet calls 
the family gravigrades, placing them between 
the sloths and the armadillos; in all the molars 
are hollow: cylinders of dentine and cement ° 
without enamel, the tube of dentine being 
filled with a porous substance; the form of 
the head, which is short and truncated, the 
large descending zygomatic process, and many 
parts of the skeleton (as the union of the 
acromion and coracoid processes of the sca- 
pula), resemble those of the sloths; the teeth 
consist only of molars, the canines of the sloths 
being absent; in their heavy forms, nearly 
equal limbs, and long and strong tail, they 


360 


come nearer the armadillos and ant-eaters. 
The genus megatherium (Cuv.) is the first 
described of the family, the first skeleton hav- 
ing been sent in 1789 from the vicinity of 
Buenos Ayres to Madrid, where it now re- 
mains; since then other skeletons and frag- 


Megatherium (restored). 


ments have been discovered in Peru, Paraguay, 
and other parts of South America; another 
species is described by Dr. Leidy in North 
America. This genus is distinguished from 
the other megatherioids by the quadrangular 
prismatic form of the teeth and the marked 
transverse ridge on the crown; the dental for- 
mula is $—%; the anterior limbs have four fin- 
gers, the posterior only three, the two outer 
being without nails, the others with large claws. 
The well known South American species, J/. 
Cuvieri (Desm.), is intermediate in size between 


Re pe» 
» afi 
HH} i ! < 


\ sa ges 


\ 


if 


4 


(AR A iy 
Wt ht } 


SS 


Megatherium (skeleton). 


the elephant and the rhinoceros; the skull is 
relatively longer than in sloths, and the large 
foramina for the passage of nerves and vessels 
indicate that the animal had very thick lips; 


MEGATHERIUM 


upper fit into the depressions of the lower; 
the lower jaw is large and heavy; the vertebra 
are 7 cervical, 16 dorsal, 3 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 
15 caudal, of medium size in the anterior por- 
tions of the body; those of the tail are enor- 
mous, the largest measuring 18 in. from one 
end of the transverse process to the other; 
the V-shaped bones are also greatly developed, 
the tail serving as a means of support and per- 
haps of defence; the ribs are short and thick, 
and roughened for muscular attachments. The 
anterior limbs are remarkable for the strength 
of the shoulder, the clavicle being massive and 
curved like the letter 8, and the acromion and 
coracoid processes united; the humerus is much 
enlarged at the lower portion to support a wide 
ulna and a radius freely turning around it, as 
in the monkeys and sloths; the large processes 
indicate immense force of rotation; the fore 
feet were strong, and armed with powerful 
claws. The pelvis is very large and solid, 
measuring 44 ft. from hip to hip, considerably 
more than in the largest elephant; the cotyloid 
cavity is directed downward, so that the thigh 
bones support the body without obliquity, se- 
curing great strength and solidity at the ex- 
pense of rapidity of motion; the thigh bones 
are at least three times as thick as in the lar- 
gest elephants, and the length is only double the 
width; the tibia and fibula are very thick, and 
united at the top; the heel bone is almost as 
long as all the rest of the foot, and the nail of 
the middle toe enormous. These details suffice 
to show that the megatherium was very large 
and powerful; the entire fore foot being about 
a yard long and the claws set on obliquely to 
the ground, it may be inferred that the ante- 
rior limbs were principally used for digging; 
the great size of the pelvis and hind legs, and 
strength of the tail, were necessary to sustain 
so heavy an animal in an upright position while 
using its fore feet in digging around the trees 
which it afterward prostrated by the weight 
of its body. The teeth show that it was her- 
bivorous, feeding on the stems and roots of 
trees and succulent fruits. Their size and 
structure indicate that they did not burrow 
under ground like the mole, nor climb trees 
like the sloth, nor dig up roots or ant hills like 
the armadillos and ant-eaters, but loosened and 
cut the roots of trees with their powerful 
claws, and then, supported on the hind limbs 
and tail, pulled them down with the fore limbs 
aided by the great weight of the body. Like 
the living sloths, this species was limited in 
geographical distribution to South America, in 
the alluvial deposits of which, on the pampas, 
their bones have principally been found. Dr. 
Leidy, in vol. vii. of the ‘Smithsonian Con- 
tributions to Knowledge” (1855), describes a 
North American megatherium (JZ. mirabile, 
Leidy), discovered in the maritime portion of 
Georgia and on the shores of Ashley river, 
South Carolina, in connection with bones of 


the teeth, from 7 to 9 in. long, are implanted | the elephant, mastodon, horse, and ox; it is 


deeply in firm alveoli, and the ridges of the 


now preserved in Washington and Philadel- 


MEGERLE 


phia. (See Mytopon for comparative measure- 
ment and other interesting points.) 

MEGERLE, Ulrich von. See AsBranam A 
Sanora CLARA. 

MEHADIA (anc. Therme LHerculis), a small 
town of Hungary, in the Banat, 6 m. W. of the 
Roumanian frontier, and 12 m. N. of Orsova; 
pop. about 1,800. It is finely situated, and has 
been celebrated as a watering place since the 
times of the Romans. The springs are sulphu- 
rous, and are very beneficial in gout and other 
diseases. There is accommodation for 1,000 
visitors. The season begins in June. 

- MEHEMET ALI, or Mohammed Ali, pasha of 
Egypt, born at Kavala, Macedonia, in 1769, 
died in Cairo, Aug. 2, 1849. He lost his father 
at an early age, and was brought up by the 
governor of ‘the town. Soon after reaching 
manhood he was made a collector of taxes, and 
buluk bashi, or commander of a body of infan- 
try, and received a rich relation of the governor 
in marriage. He next became a tobacco mer- 
chant, and had acquired considerable prop- 
erty when in 1799 he was sent to Egypt as 
second in command of the contingent of 300 
men furnished by his native place to the Tur- 
kish army, despatched to carry on the war 
against the French expedition commanded by 
Bonaparte. Soon after his arrival he succeed- 
ed to the principal command of his corps, with 
the rank of bim bashi or commander of 1,000 
men. His ability attracted the notice of the 
pasha and of the soldiers, and he soon became 
one of the most distinguished and popular mil- 
itary chiefs in Egypt. After the expulsion of 
the French a civil war broke out between the 
Turks and the Mamelukes, in which Mehe- 
met Ali took an active part. The Albanians 
in the service of the pasha revolted because 
they could not get their pay, and after several 
conflicts in Cairo they became masters of the 
city, under the direction of Mehemet Ali. A 
long and confused struggle now ensued be- 
tween various factions, the result of which was 
that in May, 1805, Mehemet Ali was invest- 
ed with the supreme authority by the prin- 
cipal inhabitants of Cairo, as the only man ca- 
pable of restoring order; and shortly afterward 
his elevation was confirmed and made legal by 
a firman from the sultan. But although he 
possessed the title of pasha of Egypt, his au- 
thority did not actually extend beyond the walls 
of Cairo, as everywhere in the country the 
Mameluke beys were still in rebellion. Some 
time afterward a considerable body of the beys, 
who with their followers had encamped not 
far from Cairo, were enticed into making an 
attempt to seize upon the city. They forced an 
entrance by a gate purposely left undefended, 
and marched triumphantly through the streets 
until they were suddenly surrounded by the 
troops of the pasha, who slaughtered them 
without mercy, a few only breaking through 
and escaping. The rest of the Mamelukes fled 
to Upper Egypt, whither Mehemet Ali pur- 
sued them with a considerable force. 


He had | 


MEHEMET ALI 361 


defeated them near Sioot when the arrival of 
a British expedition at Alexandria, March 17, 
1807, consisting of 5,000 men under Gen. Fraser, 
led him to conclude a truce with the beys, and 
to promise to comply with all their demands 
if they would codperate against the invaders. 
Most of them agreed to his proposals, and were 
marching against the British, when Gen. Fraser, 
who had been already several times defeated 
by the pasha’s troops and had lost about 1,000 
men, retreated and left the country, Sept. 14. 
Many of the beys now took up their abode in 
Cairo, and for three or four years Egypt was 
comparatively tranquil, notwithstanding occa- 
sional battles between the Mamelukes and the 
pasha’s troops, in one of which the latter was 
signally beaten. At length, on March 1, 1811, 
Mehemet Ali enticed all the Mamelukes in 
Cairo into the citadel on pretence of witness- 
ing the ceremony of investing his son Tusun 
with the command of an army to be sent 
against the Wahabees in Arabia. The gates of 
the fortress were then closed upon them, and 
they were killed to the number of 470. Im- 
mediately afterward the pasha’s officers and 
soldiers throughout Egypt massacred all the 
Mamelukes within their reach. The few who 
escaped fled to Nubia, where they dwindled 
away till the corps became extinct. These 
energetic proceedings established the power 
of Mehemet Ali, and gave to Egypt an internal 
tranquillity unknown for ages, and which has 
lasted to the present time. Tusun Pasha was 
now sent with 8,000 men against the Waha- 
bees, from whom he recaptured the sacred cities . 
of Mecca and Medina, and whose leader he 
took prisoner. He subsequently met with dis- 
asters, and in 1813 Mehemet himself went to 
Arabia to conduct the war. He was success- 
ful, and in 1815 returned to Egypt after con- 
cluding a treaty with the Wahabee chiefs. He 
now made an attempt to introduce European 
discipline into his army; but aformidable mu- 
tiny breaking out in consequence, he tempora- 
rily abandoned his design. The Wahabees not 
having fulfilled the conditions of the late 
treaty, he sent his son Ibrahim against them 
in 1816, with an army composed in part of the 
recent mutineers. The expedition succeeded 
in capturing El-Derayeh, the Wahabee capital 
(1818), and in suppressing all armed opposition 
in Arabia to the sultan’s power. -Mehemet Ali 
now turned his attention to the improvement 
of manufactures in Egypt, and to the revival 
of the commerce of the country. He also 
caused the construction, at an enormous sacri- 
fice of the laborers from sickness and want, of 
a great canal from Alexandria to the Nile. In 
1820 his youngest son Ismail was sent with 
an army to conquer Sennaar, and to collect 
captives to be sent to Cairo with the view 
of forming them into an army in the Euro- 
pean manner. Sennaar, Dongola, and Kor- 
dofan were subdued: and although in 1822 
Ismail was surprised and with his retinue 
burned alive by a native chieftain, these prov- 


! 


362 MEHEMET ALI 


inces have since remained subject to Egypt. 
The captives taken in Sennaar and Kordofan 
were trained by French officers, and in 1823 the 
army thus organized amounted to 24,000 men. 
In 1824 Ibrahim Pasha was sent with a power- 
ful fleet to assist the Turks in suppressing the 
Greek insurrection. The fleet was engaged 
at Navarino (1827), and Ibrahim supported 
the contest till in 1828 the European powers 
compelled him to evacuate the Morea. In 
1831 Mehemet Ali sent an army of 38,000 
men into Syria under command of Ibrahim. 
This step brought him into immediate con- 
flict with his suzerain the sultan, to whom 
he still professed allegiance. Ibrahim took 
Acre after a long siege, and rapidly overran 
Syria, defeating the Turks in a great battle at 
Homs in July, 1832. He then advanced into 


Asia Minor, and at Konieh encountered the 


grand vizier Reshid Pasha with 60,000 men, his 
own army being less than 30,000. The Turks 
were routed, Reshid was made prisoner, and 
Ibrahim was within six days’ march of Con- 
stantinople, when the European powers inter- 
vened and compelled Mehemet Ali, in May, 
1833, to accept a treaty by which the whole of 
Syria and the district of Adana in Asia Minor 
were ceded to him, besides the island of Can- 
dia, which he had formerly received for his ser- 
vices in Greece. The sultan was not disposed to 
submit quietly to the losses inflicted by his re- 
bellious vassal; and in June, 1839, after long 
preparation, the Turkish fleet sailed for Egypt, 
and an army of 80,000 men commanded by 
Hafiz Pasha invaded Syria. It was met by 
Ibrahim with 46,000 men at Nizib, June 24, and 
utterly routed in less than two hours. Hardly 
had the news of this triumph reached Alexan- 
dria when the Egyptian fleet entered that 
port, bringing with it the whole Turkish fleet, 
which had through treachery surrendered with- 
out a battle. The Turkish empire was again 
preserved from destruction by the interven- 
tion in 1840 of Great Britain, Russia, Austria, 
and Prussia, although France, under the short 
ministry of Thiers, strongly favored Mehemet 
Ali. Alexandria was blockaded, and a Brit- 
ish fleet bombarded and captured Beyrout and 
Acre. Terrified by these vigorous demonstra- 
tions, Mehemet Ali early in 1841 accepted 
terms of peace dictated by the allies, by which 
the pashalic of Egypt was secured to him and 
his descendants, on condition of paying one 
quarter of his clear revenues to the sultan 
as tribute, restoring to him his fleet and the 
Syrian provinces, and limiting his own army 
to 18,000 men. Henceforth Mehemet Ali de- 
voted himself to the internal improvement of 
Egypt. The administration of the government 
was reformed on European models and under 
European advice. With few exceptions all 
former usages were destroyed, and an entirely 
new system of government was formed. Cot- 
ton was largely cultivated, and many exten- 
sive manufactures were created. In 1847 Me- 
hemet Ali for the first time visited Constan- 


MEIGGS 


tinople, where he was well received, and had 
the rank of vizier conferred upon him. In 
1848 he became imbecile from age, and his son 
Ibrahim was appointed viceroy in his stead; 
but the latter died two months afterward while 
his father yet lived, and was succeeded by his 
nephew Abbas Pasha. 

MEHUL, Etienne Henri, a French composer, 
born at Givet in the Ardennes, June 24, 1763, 
died in Paris, Oct. 18, 1817. He was of hum- 
ble extraction, and having shown a strong taste 
for music was taken to Paris at the age of 16, 
and instructed by Gluck. He wrote three or 
four entire operas, but did not appear before 
the public as a composer until 1790, when his 
EHuphrosine et Coradin, for which Hoffmann 
wrote the text, was produced with great success, 
His Stratonice (1792) established his reputation, 
and his national hymn, Le chant du départ, af- 
ter Chénier’s text, gave him a wide popularity, 
and was followed by similar songs. Critics 
complained of a lack of graceful melodies in his 
operas, and of a dryness and monotony in the 
harmony and accompaniments. In his opera 
Uthal (1806), a work of great vigor written 
upon an Ossianic subject, he excluded the vio- 
lins from the orchestra, substituting the vio- 
las. In his masterpiece, Joseph (1807), he vin- 
dicated his claim to be ranked among great 
composers, and it has frequently been per- 
formed in England as an oratorio. He com- 
posed in all 42 operas, besides ballet music and 
instrumental pieces, including the Ouverture 
du jeune Henri, an admirable specimen of de- 
scriptive music. He was a member of the in- 
stitute, an inspector of the conservatory, and 
professor of composition at the royal school of 
music and declamation. 

MEIGGS, Henry, an American merchant, born 
in Catskill, N. Y., in 1811, died in Peru in Oc- 
tober, 1877. He became a contractor in Bos- 
ton, removed to New York, made a fortune in 
the lumber business, and lost it in 1837, but re- 
covered from bankruptcy in two years. In 
1848 he sailed in a vessel loaded with lumber 
for San Francisco, where he sold the cargo fot 
20 times its cost. He next built a wharf and 
a saw mill on the bay, and sent 500 men into 
the woods to fell trees. His immense business 
was prostrated by the panic of 1854, and to 
save himself he resorted to irregular proceed- 
ings, in consequence of which he departed 
secretly by sea with his family, Oct. 5. He 
was next heard of as builder of bridges on the 
Valparaiso and Santiago railroad in Chili. In 
1858 he contracted with the Chilian govern- 
ment to complete the road in four years, for 
$12,000,000. He finished it in two years, and 
his net profits were $1,326,000. In 1867 he 
contracted to build a railway from Mollendo 
to Arequipa, Peru, which he completed on Jan. 
1, 1871, making an enormous profit. He cele- 
brated the event with a dinner which cost 
$200,000, and distributed $550,000 worth of 
gold and silver medals. In 1870 he contracted 
to build six other railways in Peru for $125- 


MEIGS 


000,000, which were nearly completed at the 
time of his death. All his liabilities in Cali- 
fornia were paid with interest, and the legisla- 
ture invited him to return. 

MEIGS. I. A S. E. county of Tennessee, 
bounded N. W. by the Tennessee river; area, 
215 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 4,511, of whom 436 
were colored. The surface is hilly and the 
soil fertile. The chief productions in 1870 
were 29,603 bushels of wheat, 176,733 of In- 
dian corn, 18,776 of oats, 47,101 lbs. of butter, 
and 456 bales of cotton. There were 996 
horses, 1,069 milch cows, 1,719 other cattle, 
4,392 sheep, and 8,098 swine. Capital, Deca- 
tur. IE AS. E. county of Ohio, bordering on 
West Virginia, and bounded E. by the Ohio 
river; area, 425 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 31,465. 
It has a broken surface and clayey soil. There 
are mines of coal along the river, and large 
salt works. The chief productions in 1870 
were 140,267 bushels of wheat, 479,933 of In- 
dian corn, 102,980 of oats, 163,132 of pota- 
toes, 91,034 lbs. of wool, 489,087 of butter, and 
19,464 tons of hay. There were 4,929 horses, 
5,360 milch cows, 8,968 other cattle, 28,444 
sheep, and 13,253 swine; 6 manufactories of 
furniture, 1 of forged and rolled iron, 1 of 
nails and spikes, 2 of iron castings, 2 of engines 
and boilers, 10 of salt, 1 of woollen goods, 6 
tanneries, 12 saw mills, 1 planing mill, 7 flour 
mills, and 1 ship yard. Capital, Pomeroy. 

MEIGS, James Atkins, an American physician, 
born in Philadelphia, July 31, 1829. He grad- 
uated at Jefferson medical college in 1851, be- 
came professor of the institutes of medicine 
in the Philadelphia college of medicine in 1857, 
and in 1859 was transferred to the same chair 
in the medical department of Pennsylvania col- 
lege, and in 1868 to Jefferson medical college. 
He edited Kirke’s ‘‘ Manual of Physiology,” 
contributed to Nott and Gliddon’s “‘ Indigenous 
Races of the Earth” an article on ‘“‘The Cra- 
nial Characteristics of the Races of Men,” and 
has published various other scientific papers. 

MEIGS, Return Jonathan, an American soldier, 
born in Middletown, Conn., in December, 1740, 
died at the Cherokee agency, Georgia, Jan. 28, 
1823. At the commencement of the revolu- 
tionary war he raised a company and marched 
to Cambridge, and subsequently accompanied 
Arnold to Quebec, where he was taken prison- 
er. After being exchanged in 1776 he raised 
a regiment and was appointed its colonel. He 
distinguished himself at Sag Harbor, for which 
he received the thanks of congress and a 
sword, and at the capture of Stony Point. In 
1788 he settled at Marietta, O. In 1801 he 
was appointed Indian agent of the Cherokees, 
among whom he passed the remainder of his 
life. His journal of the expedition to Quebec, 
inserted in the ‘‘ American Remembrancer ” 
for 1776, was published with an introduction 
and notes by C. T. Bushnell (New York, 1864). 

MEINERS, Christoph, a German historian, 
born in a village of Hanover in 1747, died in 
Gottingen, May 1, 1810. He was educated at 


MEISSNER 863 
the university of Géttingen, where in 1772 he 
was appointed professor of philosophy, and 
subsequently vice rector. He was charged by 
the czar Alexander with the task of selecting 
professors of science and literature for the 
Russian colleges. Of his numerous works, 
the most. important are devoted to the history 
of religion, philosophy, and science. 

MEININGEN, a town of Germany, capital of 
the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, situated in a 
narrow valley on the right bank of the Werra, 
and on the Werra railway, 40 m. S. W. of Er- 
furt; pop. in 1871, 8,876. The Jews, who are 
numerous, have built a fine quarter, and the 
town was prosperous until the autumn of 1874, 
when four fifths of the houses were burned, the 
quaint old town hall and other public buildings 
being swept away. The ducal palace (Elisa- 
bethenburg), with a park, and a modern Gothic 
chapel and works of art and a library of 80,000 
volumes, escaped the flames. Near Meiningen 
is the village of Bauerbach, where Schiller re- 
sided in 1782-"8. (See SaxEe-MEININGEN.) 

MEISSEN, a town of Saxony, on the Elbe, 12 
m. N. W. of Dresden; pop. in 1871, 11,455. 
It contains a castle founded by Henry the 
Fowler, and a fine Gothic cathedral, said to 
have been built by the emperor Otho I. The 
town is noted for its manufactures of porcelain, 
known as Dresden china. It also produces 
carved ivory ware and other similar articles, 
and has a considerable trade in wine and fruits. 
In the middle ages it was the capital of the 
margraves of Meissen (or Misnia, which inclu- 
ded Dresden, Bautzen, and other towns) until 
their removal to Dresden, after which it con- 
tinued to be the residence of the burgraves and 
the bishops until the reformation. It suffered 
much during the thirty years’ war; the bridge 
over the Elbe was partially destroyed by the 
French in 1813, and again in 1866, during the 
war between Prussia and Austria.—The mar- 
graviate, which arose under Henry the Fowler 
and his son Otho I., was ruled by members of 
various families till the close of the 11th cen- 
tury, when it fell to the house of Wettin, in 
which it soon after became hereditary. Un- 
der this house the margraviate rose to consid- 
erable power, and in 1423 Frederick the War- 
like, in reward for services in the Hussite 
war, received from the emperor Sigismund 
the duchy of Saxony with the dignity of elec- 
tor. In the division of the Saxon dominions 
in 1485, Meissen fell to the younger or Alber- 
tine line. (See Saxony.) 

MEISSNER, Alfred, a German poet, born at 
Teplitz, Oct. 15, 1822. He is a grandson of 
the voluminous miscellaneous author August 
Gottlieb Meissner (1753-1807). He studied 
medicine, taking his degree at Prague in 1846. 
To elude the Austrian censorship, he published 
in the same year at Leipsic his famous epic 
poem Ziska (10th ed., 1867). He long resided 
chiefly in Paris, and returned to Prague in 
1850, where he and Moritz Hartmann were the 
principal representatives of the liberal schowl 


/ 


364 MEISSONIER 


of German poetry in Bohemia, a 10th edition 
of his Gedichte appearing in 1867. Some of 
his effusions, especially Der Sohn des Atta Troll 
(1850), abound with the peculiar sarcasm and 
pathos in which Heine excelled, and he pub- 
lished Erinnerungen an Heine (1854). Among 
his novels are Zwischen First und Volk (8 
vols., 2d ed., 1861), illustrating the revolution 
of 1848; Zur Hhre Gottes (2 vols., 1861); and 
Schwaregelb (8 vols., Berlin, 1864; popular 
edition, 1 vol., 1866). His other writings in- 
clude Charaktermasken (8 vols., Leipsic, 1861- 
3); Novellen (2 vols., Leipsic, 1864); Die 
Kinder Rom’s (4 vols., Berlin, 1870); and 
Rococo-Bilder (Gumbinnen, 1871). 

MEISSONIER, Jean Louis Ernest, a French 
painter, born in Lyons about 1813. He stud- 
ied his art in Paris under Léon Cogniet, exhib- 
ited in 1836 his “‘ Little Messenger,” and soon 
acquired a reputation as a painter of minia- 
ture subjects of exquisite finish and delicacy. 
Among his best known pictures are ‘ The 
Chess Players,” ‘‘The Reader,” ‘‘ A Game of 
Piquet,” and ‘‘The Skittle Players.” Among 
his larger pictures are ‘“‘ A Charge of Cavalry ” 
(1867), which was sold for 150,000 francs, and 
is in a private gallery in Cincinnati, and “ The 
Emperor at Solferino” (1864). He has made 
designs for Balzac’s Comédie humaine, ‘ Paul 
and Virginia,” and other works. His pictures 
bring great prices, and there are several of 
them in the United States.—Jzan CHARtgs, his 
son and pupil, has attained distinction as a 
painter, particularly for his portraits. 

MEJERDA (anc. Bagradas), a river of north- 
ern Africa, formed by several streams which 
rise in the Atlas mountains in Algeria, and run- 
ning N. and N. E. to the gulf of Tunis, into 
which it falls, 24 m. N. of the city of that name. 
Its whole course is about 200 m., and it is the 
only considerable river of Tunis. Toward the 
sea it enters a wide plain whose numerous 
lakes or ponds seem to have been formed by. 
inundations of the river. Its waters are deep- 
ly colored by the soil, and the sediment which 
it bears down has enlarged its delta and made 
alterations in the coast line. Its whole lower 
course has changed, the ruins of Utica now 
standing close to its left bank. In ancient 
times it flowed nearer to Carthage. 

MEJIA, Tomas, a Mexican soldier, born about 
1812, executed in Querétaro, June 19, 1867. 
He was of pure Indian blood and of humble 
origin; but he acquired such influence among 
the natives of the Sierra Gorda of Guanajuato 
as to be styled the “king of the mountains,” 


and for nearly 20 years he was conspicuous in’ 


the Mexican revolutions. He bore an honor- 
able part in the war with the United States in 
1847-8, and in 1849 was sent to suppress an 
insurrection in his native state, headed by Mar- 
quez. In 1855 he “pronounced” against Co- 
monfort, but soon submitted. The next year 
he headed an insurrection in the interest of the 
church party, and took Querétaro. In 1857 
he was second in command of the revolution- 


MEKHITAR 


ary forces in San Luis Potosi, but was defeat- 
ed in several actions, and obliged to capitulate. 
In 1858 he drove Juarez and his government 
successively from Querétaro and Guanajuato, 
and during the ensuing three years maintained 
the Sierra for Zuloaga and Miramon. After 
the triumph of Juarez in 1861, Mejia still kept 
up a guerilla warfare for a considerable time. 
He was a firm supporter of Maximilian, from 
whom he received high honors. Captured 
with him at Querétaro, May 15, 1867, he was 
tried, condemned, and executed. 

MEKHITAR, or Mechitar, the founder of a con- 
gregation of Armenian monks, called after him 
Mekhitarists, born in Sebaste (Sivas) in Asia 
Minor, Feb. 7, 1676, died April 29,1749. The 
name Mekhitar, signifying ‘‘ comforter,” was 
given him on entering a convent of the An- 
tonian monks; his original name was Manuk. 
He founded a new religious congregation at 
Constantinople in 1701; but their persecution 
by the Armenian patriarch, on account of 
their union with Rome, induced him to send 
a number of his disciples to the Morea, at that 
time belonging to the republic of Venice, 
from which the congregation received in 1703 
permission to build a church and convent at 
Modon. In 1715, during a war between Ven- 
ice and Turkey, Mekhitar went with 11 dis- 
ciples to Venice, whither the rest of the 
congregation, about 70 in number, followed 
him in 1717, after the capture of Modon 
and the destruction of the buildings by the 
Turks. The government of Venice gave to 
the congregation possession of the island San 
Lazaro, near Venice, ‘‘for all future times,” 
where it became very prosperous. The Me- 
khitarists take the usual monastic vows, and 
pledge themselves to go wherever their supe- 
riors may send them, and to labor especially 
for the advancement of a Christian Armenian 
literature. They have furnished the best edi- 
tions of classic Armenian writers, and transla- 
ted standard European works into Armenian. 
Not only Catholic literature, but even works 
like Ranke’s ‘‘ History of Germany during the 
Reformation,” are included in their publica- 
tions. Among the most valuable of their ori- 
ginal works are a “‘ History of Armenia,” by 
Father Tchamtchean (died 1823), in 3 vols. ; 
and a ‘History of Armenian Literature,” by 
Father Somal, abbot of San Lazaro (Venice, 
1829). From San Lazaro the congregation 
have spread to all countries in which Arme- 
nians reside, in particular over Italy, Austria, 
Turkey, Russia, and Persia. Next to San La- 
zaro, their most important establishment is 
that of Vienna, founded in 1811, which has 
devoted itself to the publication of German 
Catholic books. It has a branch at Munich, 
with schools there and in Vienna. A legacy 
of a rich Armenian in Madras enabled them 
to establish a learned institution in Padua for 
the education of laymen, as that of San La- 
zaro serves mostly for clergymen. In 1846 
they founded a college in Paris, which has a 


MEKONG 


high reputation.—See Boné’s Couvent de St. 
Lazaro a Venise (Paris, 1837). 

MEKONG, or Cambodia, the chief river of the 
Indo-Chinese peninsula (Further India), rises 
near the E. extremity of the main range of the 
Himalaya mountains, in the S. E. portion of 
Thibet, flows S. E. through the Chinese prov- 
ince of Yunnan, the E. part of Burmah, Laos, 
Siam, Oambodia, and French Cochin-China, 
and empties through several channels into the 
China sea near Cape St. Jacques; length, about 
1,800 m. In the early part of its course, in 
Thibet and China, it is called the Lan-tsang; 
the Burmese call it Kin-lung; while the name 
Mekong, which has now become its most com- 
mon designation among Europeans, is locally 
applied to that longest portion lying in Siamese 
and Oambodian territory. For about 1,000 
m. from its source the Mekong flows through 
mountainous regions and among some of the 
most remarkable of the Indian ranges, begin- 
ning with the Himalaya proper, and ending 
with the long chain that extends N. W. and §. 
E. through the peninsula of Further India. 
Leaving the main ridge of the latter chain in 
Laos, in about lat. 18° N., and diverging E. 
and §. E., it flows through the great central 
plain of the southern peninsula, irrigating it 
thoroughly by annual overflows which take 


place between September and November, and’ 


rendering it a region of the greatest fertility. 
The navigation of the upper river is difficult 
and dangerous, its bed, even in the widest 
parts, being obstructed with shifting bars or 
projecting reefs. Excepting in the lower por- 
tion of its course, rapids are frequent. The 
scenery along the upper Mekong is of the wild- 
est and most rugged character, the stream often 
flowing through very deep gorges in the moun- 
tains, and in some places tunnelling the cliffs 
into fantastic forms. For some distance from 
its mouth, however, the river is navigable even 
for large vessels, and Panomping, the capi- 
tal of Cambodia, is easily reached by shipping 
from the coast.—In 1866-’8 the Mekong was 
explored as far as the borders of Burmah by a 
French government commission, which made 
an elaborate report upon the river and its val- 
ley. See ‘‘ Travelsin Indo-China and the Chi- 
nese Empire,” translated from the French of 
Louis de Carné (London, 1872), and the report 
of the commission, publiszed in Paris in 1873. 

MELA, Pomponias, a Roman geographer in the 
time of the emperor Claudius. He was a na- 
tive of Spain, and is said to have been the first 
Roman author of a methodical treatise on ge- 
ography. His work is entitled De Situ Orbis, 
and consists of three books, which give a brief 
description of the whole world as known to 
the Romans. The text is corrupt, but the style 
is simple and the Latinity pure. The editio 
princeps appeared at Milan in 1471; the best 
editions are by Tzschucke (7 vols., Leipsic, 
1807) and Parthey (Berlin, 1867). 

MELAMPUS, in Grecian mythology, son of 
Amythaon by Idomene, Aglaia, or Rhodope, 


berg and Tiibingen. 4 
cocious, graduated as master of arts in 1514, #1. "~ 


MELANCHTHON 265 


esteemed the first mortal who was endowed 
with the gift of prophecy, and who practised 
the medical art. Heis said to have introduced 
the worship of Bacchus into Greece. 
MELANCHOLIA. See Insanity. 
MELANCHTHON, Philipp, the second leader of 
the Lutheran reformation, born at Bretten, in 
the present grand duchy of Baden, Feb. 16, 
1497, died in Wittenberg, April 19, 1560. His 
family name was Schwarzerd (black earth), but 
his uncle, the celebrated scholar Reuchlin, trans- 
lated it into the corresponding Greek Melanch- 
thon. He was educated at the Latin school of 
Pforzheim, and at the universities of Heidel- 
He was uncommonly pre- 


began to lecture at Tibingen, and published a 
Greek grammar, an edition of Terence, and pro- 
jected a new edition of Aristotle’s writings, as a 
means of reviving the true philosophy. He took 
rank at once among the very first Greek and 
Latin scholars of the age. In 1516 Erasmus 
said of him: ‘‘ My God! what expectations does 
Philipp Melanchthon excite, who is yet a youth, 
yea, we may say a mere boy, and has already 
attained to equal eminence in the Greek and 
Latin literature. What acumen in demonstra- | 
tion, what purity and elegance of style, what | 
comprehensive reading, what tenderness and 
refinement of his extraordinary genius!’ With | 
his classical studies he combined a careful study 
of the Bible in the original. This, in connec- 
tion with the influence of Reuchlin, predis- 
posed him favorably to the great movement of 
the reformation, which commenced during his 
residence at Tiibingen with the controversy 
between Luther and Tetzel in 1517. On the 
recommendation of Reuchlin he was called to 
the professorship of Greek at the rising uni- 
versity of Wittenberg in 1518, and thus be- 
came the colleague of Luther. Although he . 
was subsequently called to other prominent 
positions in Nuremberg, Tibingen, Heidelberg, 
and even France and England, he preferred 
remaining at Wittenberg to the close of his 
life. He was the most popular teacher of the 
university, and attracted students from every 
direction. At first he lectured on classical 
literature, but in 1519 he graduated as bachelor 
of divinity, and thenceforward devoted him- 
self mainly to theology. Yet he was never | 
ordained, nor would he ever accept the title 
D. D., and in a discourse in 1533 uttered a 
warning against conferring it too frequently. 
He never ascended the pulpit, although he © 
frequently wrote sermons for others, and de- 
livered in his house practical lectures on the 
Gospels in Latin, which were taken down 
by some hearers and published as sermons | 
(Postilla). He was therefore a lay theologian ; 
but as such he wielded a powerful influence 
in that great ecclesiastical movement which 
makes the 16th century one of the most im- 
portant periods in church history. He acted a 
prominent part in the German reformation, 
and is inferior only to Luther and Calvin among 


366 


the reformers. His modesty, gentleness, and 
peacefulness stand in strange contrast with the 
furious contest into which he was reluctantly 
drawn. But, while Luther had to brace up 
his courage and to arm himself for the conflict, 
Melanchthon was admirably adapted to mode- 
rate the fiery zeal of his colleague, and to aid 
him with his superior learning. In 1519 he 
attended the Leipsic disputation, and defended 
Luther with his pen against Dr. Eck, the cham- 
pion of the church of Rome. In 1521 he pub- 
lished the Loct Communes, the first system of 
evangelical Protestant theology, which passed 
through more than 50 editions during his life- 
time, and was used long after his death as a 
text book in the Lutheran universities. At 
first it was but a fresh effusion of the vigorous 
evangelical faith in the Scriptures and the all- 
sufficient grace of God in Christ; but subse- 
quently it was greatly enlarged and improved, 
although it never attained the philosophical 
depth, logical order, and precision of Calvin’s 
‘“‘ Institutes.” In 1522 and the following years 
he wrote several commentaries which attracted 
much attention, but were overshadowed after- 
ward by some of Luther’s and especially by 
Calvin’s commentaries. He also lent valuable 
aid to Luther in the translation of the Bible, 
which was commenced in 1522 and completed 
in 1534. In 1529 he accompanied his prince 
to the diet of Spire, and helped to draw up 
the famous protest of the evangelical minority 
against the Catholic majority of the diet, which 
gave rise to the name Protestants. In thé 
same year he attended the unsuccessful theo- 
logical conference with the Zwinglians at Mar- 
burg. At that time he agreed with Luther’s 
view on the Lord’s supper. In 1530 he spent 
several months at Augsburg during the ses- 
sion of the diet, and wrote his most impor- 
tant official work, the ‘“‘ Augsburg Confession,” 
which was signed by the Lutheran princes, 
publicly read before the diet, and became by 
general consent the principal symbolical book 
of the Lutheran church. Soon afterward 
he replied to the “ Refutation” of the Catho- 
lic divines by the “ Apology of the Confes- 
sion,” a work of great theological merit, and 
likewise of symbolical authority in the Lu- 
theran church, though it is far less used and 
quoted than the Confession. Subsequently he 
made considerable modifications and alterations 
in the Confession, with the view to improve 
and to adapt it to the Reformed churches. 
Hence the difference between the “ Altered” 
Augsburg Confession of 1540 and the ‘“ Un- 
altered”? of 1530. The principal change refers 
to article X. on the Lord’s supper, and the 
omission of all those words which favored the 
view of the corporeal presence and an oral 
fruition of the body and blood of Christ by 
all communicants. The changes were at first 
passed by or acquiesced in, but subsequently 
gave rise to violent controversies. In 1536 he 
endeavored, with Bucer, to bring about a doc- 
trinal compromise between the Lutheran and 


MELANCHTHON 


Zwinglian views on the Lord’s supper. In 
1537 he signed the ‘ Articles of Smalcald,” 
drawn up by Luther, but added the singular 
proviso that he would acknowledge the supreme 
authority of the pope jure humano, if he would 
tolerate the freedom of the gospel; 7. ¢., he 
was willing to become a semi-Catholic, if the 
pope would become a semi-Protestant. In all 
the conferences with the Roman Catholics, at 
Worms (1540), and at Ratisbon (1541), he was 
the delegate of the Lutheran party. In these 
conferences, and especially in the adiaphoristic 
controversy concerning the Augsburg and the 
Leipsic Interim (1548), he incurred the censure 
of the more determined Protestants. His mo- 


tives were always disinterested ; yet his timid- © 
ity, modesty, love of peace, and the hope of | 


an ultimate reconciliation of Catholicism and 


' Protestantism, which he probably cherished to 


the end of his life, led him to make many con- 
cessions, and to agree to compromises which 
satisfied neither party and were soon broken 
up. This compromising disposition, and his 
doctrinal changes on the Lord’s supper and 
other articles, together with various personal 
causes, disturbed his relations with Luther; 
yet their friendship was never entirely dis- 
solved. Luther, though often dissatisfied with 
Melanchthon’s timidity and vacillation, never 
openly took ground against him ; and Melanch- 
thon, in his funeral oration on Luther, called 
him the Protestant Elijah, and lamented his 


death as a great calamity for the church of 


Christ. From Luther’s decease in 1546 to 
his own death in 1560 Melanchthon was the 
acknowledged leader of the German reforma- 
tion, and was consulted by princes and univer- 
sities on all important events and measures. 
In the mean time the Lutheran divines became 
more and more divided between two schools, 
the strict old Lutherans, headed by Flacius, 
Amsdorf, Hessus, and other violent polemics 
against Roman Catholics as well as Calvin- 
ists, and the more moderate, conciliatory, and 
progressive Melanchthonians, or Philippists, as 
they were generally called, after the Christian 
name of their leader. Melanchthon bore the 
violent abuse of his former friends and pupils 
with patience and meekness. What he lost in 
the opinion of the zealots for exclusive Lu- 
theranism he gained in esteem and confidence 
with the Reformed churches in and out of 
Germany. He stood in friendly correspon- 
dence with Calvin to the last, and was invited 
to England. In 1551 he set out for the coun- 
cil of Trent as delegate from Saxony, when 
Maurice suddenly changed the aspect of affairs 
by his famous military movement against the 
emperor, and dispersed the council. The peace 
of Augsburg in 1555 materially improved the 
political condition of the Lutherans, and se- 
cured to them liberty of worship within the 
empire. In 1557 he attended, at the request 
of the emperor, the last theological confer- 
ence with the Roman Catholics at Worms. 
He was received with great honor, but the 


ee 


MELANCHTHON 


conference ended in a complete failure, and 
the hope of reconciliation utterly vanished. 
This, in connection with the violent eucha- 
ristic or crypto-Calvinistic and other doctri- 
nal controversies in the Protestant party, the 
unsparing attacks of the strict Lutheran par- 
ty, and various domestic afflictions, greatly 


- embittered the last years of his life, and broke 


down his weak physical frame, already ex- 
hausted by incessant study and application. 
Nevertheless he continued to write responsa et 
oota to the last. A few days before his de- 
cease he wrote in Latin the reasons which 
made death welcome to him, viz.: on the left 
side, deliverance from sin and from the acri- 
mony and fury of theologians; on the right 
side, the light of eternity, the vision of God 
and his Son, and the full knowledge of those 
wonderful mysteries of faith which we can 
but imperfectly understand in this life. On 
a journey to Leipsic in March, 1560, he con- 
tracted a cold which proved fatal. His last 
and greatest care and sorrow was the dis- 
tracted condition of the church; his last and 
most fervent prayer was for the unity of be- 
lievers. When Peucer, his son-in-law, asked 
him whether he desired anything, he replied: 
‘“‘Nothing but heaven;” and soon afterward 
he breathed his last. He was buried in the 
principal church of Wittenberg, by the side of 
Liuther.—As a reformer, Melanchthon was ad- 
mirably adapted to assist Luther, and to supple- 
ment him. He was better suited for the quiet 
study than the commotion of public life. In- 
ferior to Luther in strength of intellect and 
will, he surpassed him in scholarship and mod- 
eration of spirit. The one was the hero, the 
other the theologian of the German refor- 
mation. He reduced the new ideas to order 
and system, and commended them to literary 
men, while Luther powerfully impressed them 
upon the people. Melanchthon was of small 
stature and delicate frame, but had fine blue 
eyes and anoble forehead. He married in 1520 
the daughter of the burgomaster of Witten- 
berg, and lived happily with her till her death 


'in 1557. He called his nursery the “little 


church” (ecclesiola Dei), and was occasionally 
seen rocking the cradle with one hand and 
holding a book in the other. He cared little 
or nothing for money, was extremely good-na- 
tured and benevolent, and unblemished in all 
his moral relations. The otherwise beautiful 
symmetry of his character is marred by but one 
serious error (and this he shared with Luther), 
the qualified countenance reluctantly given to 
the double marriage of Philip, landgrave of 
Hesse.—The works of Melanchthon embrace 
a Greek and Latin grammar, editions of and 
commentaries on several classics and the Sep- 
tuagint, Biblical commentaries, doctrinal and 
ethical works, official documents, declamations, 
dissertations, responses, and a very extensive 
correspondence. The first edition of his col- 
lected works appeared at Basel, in 5 vols. fol., 
in 1541; the second, under the editorial care 
545 VOL. X1—24 


MELBOURNE 367 
of Peucer, at Wittenberg, in 1562—’4; but both 
are incomplete. The most valuable edition 
is that of Bretschneider and Bindseil in the 
Corpus Reformatorum (28 vols. fol., 1884—60). 
The life of Melanchthon has been written by 
Camerarius (1566), Niemeyer, Kéthe, Ledder- 
hose (Heidelberg, 1847; translated into Eng- 
lish by Krotel), Galle (1840), Matthes (1841), 
Wohlfahrt (1858), Planck (Melanchthon, Pre- 
ceptor Germania, 1860; new ed., 1866), and 
Schmidt (1861).—On April 19, 1860, the tri- 
centennial anniversary of Melanchthon’s death 
was celebrated with great enthusiasm through- 
out Protestant Germany. At Wittenberg, 
where “he lived, taught, and died” (as the 
inscription on his house reads), the corner 
stone was laid of a monument to his memory, — 
to be erected beside that of Luther. The fes-° 
tival oration was delivered by Dr. Nitzsch of 
Berlin, the last surviving professor of the once 
famous university of Wittenberg. At the same 
hour the foundation of a similar monument 
was laid at Bretten, his birthplace. 
MELANESIA. See Micronesia. 
MELANOSIS (Gr. eAdvecv, to blacken), a mor- 
bid growth on the human body, characterized 
by the deposit of a black pigment. For a long 
time this was looked upon as a distinct disease, 


_ and melanotic tumors formed a class by them- 


selves; but it is now believed that melanosis 
may occur in any of the textures, natural or 
morbid. It is found in the lungs, in the bron- 
chial and mesenteric glands, and in the sympa- 
thetic ganglia, mixed with new deposit as can- 
cer and tubercle. The coloring matter is gen- 
erally thought to be derived from the hema- 
tine of the blood. The black deposit. in the 
air cells of miners is a mere accumulation of 
carbonaceous dust. 
MFLAZZO. See Mivazzo. 
MELBOURNE, a city of 8. E. Australia, capi- 
tal of the colony of Victoria, on the banks of 
the Yarra-Yarra river, about 9 m. from its 
mouth, at the upper end of the large estuary 
of Port Phillip, 450 m. 8. W. of Sydney ; lat. 
87° 48’S., lon. 144° 58’ E.; pop. in 1841, about 
4,000; in 1846, 10,000; in 1851, 23,000; in 
1854, 76,000; in 1857, 100,000; in 1869, 170,- 
000; in 1871, 191,254. The principal part of 
the town is on the N. side of the river, but 
some wards lie on the south, where South 
Melbourne, Sandridge, St. Kilda, and the W. 
part of South Yarra are comprised within the 
city boundary. North and South Melbourne 
are connected by a bridge. On the N. side 
the chief part of the town lies in a valley with 
its extremities carried over two hills. The §. 
side is flat and swampy, excepting the sandy 
margin of Hobson’s bay, where Sandridge 
stands. The streets of Melbourne are mostly 
laid out at right angles, wide, straight, and 
running the whole length or breadth of the 
town. They are macadamized in the middle, 


well drained, mostly flagged at the sides, and | 


lighted with gas. In the original plan of the 
city lanes alternating with the main streets 


368 


were left, to afford back entrances to the 
houses; but as the value of property increased 
these lanes were occupied by merchants and 
tradesmen, became independent streets, and 
now form a very unsightly feature in the older 
part of Melbourne. The town is generally 
well built of brick and stone. Melbourne be- 
came the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop in 
1847, and of an Anglican bishop in 1848; in 
April, 1874, the Catholic diocese was erected 
into an archbishopric. The most numerous 
churches are those of the church of England, 
Wesleyans, and Roman Catholics, and there 
are also places of worship for Independents, 
Lutherans, Baptists, and other Protestant de- 
nominations, as well as for Jews. The Wes- 
leyan church opened in August, 1858, is said 
to be one of the handsomest church edifices 
belonging to that denomination in the world. 
Among the prominent buildings are the two 
houses of parliament, the custom house, the 
treasury, the post office, the free library with 
a@ museum of art and a reading room, several 
theatres, and an elegant club house. The uni- 
versity of Melbourne was opened in April, 
1855. It occupies a beautiful site N. of the 
city, and has 40 acres of land, which form part 
of extensive pleasure grounds. The buildings 
are arranged in a parallelogram. The institu- 
tion has departments of law, civil engineering, 
and arts, and enjoys an annual government 
appropriation of £9,000. A public museum of 
natural history, manufactures, and mining is 
attached to it, and also a gallery of fine arts, a 
botanic garden, and a bureau of statistics, with 
a fine observatory. The city has a well ap- 
pointed public library, and there are numerous 


The Post Office, Melbourne. 


scientific and literary institutions. The Yan 
Yean water works, opened Dec. 31, 1857, sup- 
ply the city from an artificial lake formed in 
the valley of the Plentey river, 18 m. distant. 
There are several pleasure grounds in the im- 


MELBOURNE 


mediate neighborhood of the city, the chief of 
which are the royal park and the Carlton and 
Fitzroy gardens. Collingwood, Brighton, Rich- 
mond, St. Kilda, and other suburbs of Mel- 
bourne are studded with beautiful villas and 
terraces. Melbourne has regular steam mail 
service with England via the isthmus of Suez, 
and there are steamers to all the neighboring 
ports. Four railways radiate from the city, 
besides a short one connecting it with the 
harbor, and there are good roads to all the 
principal gold fields. The climate is on the 
whole cooler than is generally experienced in 
the same latitude N. The mean temperature 
of January (midsummer) is 66°, the highest 
101°, and the lowest 48°; while the average 
daily variation of the month is 19°. There is 
a great proportion of dry sunny weather. The 
annual fall of rain, taken from the mean of 
five years, gives 32°63 inches. The wettest 
months are from April to November inclusive. 
—In commerce Melbourne ranks as the first 
port in the British colonies, an importance due 
to the gold discoveries in 1851. Besides gold, 
the chief exports are wool, tallow, hides, and 
other kinds of raw produce. The imports in 
1872 amounted to $66,628,819 and the exports 
to $67,504,170, the latter including $25,000,000 
gold and $21,000,000 wool. The principal trade 
is with England, and that with the United States 
is not inconsiderable. The customs duties in 
1872 amounted to $6,913,183. The Melbourne 
manufactories of mining machinery and other 
articles are steadily increasing. Ships drawing 
24 ft. of water can come up Port Phillip as far 
as Hobson’s bay at the mouth of the Yarra- 
Yarra; but vessels requiring more than 9 ft. 
cannot get over the bars. 
Although the distance to 
the bay by the course of 
the river is 9 m., it is not 
quite 2 m, by land, and a 
railway with an extensive 
jetty at its lower termi- 
nus has been made, con- 
necting Melbourne with 
Port Phillip at Sandridge. 
There is another railway 
to Williamstown, on the 
opposite side of Hobson’s 
bay, which, though con- 
siderably longer, has the 
advantage of better shel- 
ter for ships lying’ at the 
jetty. A ship railway has 
been constructed here ca- 
pable of taking up very 
large vessels. From the 
anchorage in Hobson’s 
bay to the Heads of Port 
Phillip the distance is 
about 35 m., and the channels are obstruct- 
ed part of the way by sand banks which 
render the assistance of experienced pilots 
necessary. The Heads, or the opening con- 
necting Port Phillip with Bass strait, is about 


MELBOURNE 


2 m. across, but this is occupied by foul 


ground on either side, which leaves a channel 
little more than a mile broad. Through this 
narrow passage the ebb and flood tides sweep 
over the uneven bottom with great force, and 
raise a sea which, when there is a strong wind 
from the opposite direction, is often fatal to 
small craft. Strong fortifications occupy the 
points of land at either side of the entrance. 
The rise and fall of the tide is about 3 ft. 
Melbourne has steam flour mills, tallow-boiling 
and meat-preserving establishments, brass and 
iron founderies, breweries, distilleries, and 
manufactories of clothing and woollen blankets. 
—The site of Melbourne was selected and oc- 
cupied by asmall colonizing party from Tasma- 
nia in 1835. Two years afterward the town 
was officially recognized and named in honor 
of Lord Melbourne, the British prime minister, 
by the government of New South Wales, to 
which Melbourne, together with the surround- 
ing country, then called the Port Phillip dis- 
trict, belonged until the formation of a separate 
colony in 1851 under the name of Victoria. 
MELBOURNE. I. William Lamb, viscount, a 
British statesman, born in London in 1779, 
died there, Nov. 24, 1848. He was the eldest 
son of the first Viscount Melbourne, and after 
an education at Trinity: college, Cambridge, 
and the university of Glasgow, was in 1804 
called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn. In 1805 he 
entered parliament as a supporter of Fox and 
the whigs, but later he served under Canning 
as secretary for Ireland. In 1828 he succeed- 
ed to his title, and two years later he entered 
the cabinet of Earl Grey as home secretary. 
Upon the retirement of the latter in 1834 he 
became first lord of the treasury and prime 
minister, in which office he remained, with 
the exception of a brief period in 18345, 
when Sir Robert Peel temporarily assumed 
the premiership, till 1841, when he was again 
succeeded by Peel. His administration was 
distinguished by no important political event, 
but was rendered popular by the tact and per- 
sonal qualities of the premier. IZ. Caroline 
(PonsonBy), known as Lady Caroline Lamb, 
wife of the preceding, born Noy. 18, 1785, 
died in London, Jan. 26, 1828. She was the 
only daughter of the third earl of Bessbor- 
ough, and at 20 years of age was married to 
the future premier. Having tastes congenial 
with those of her husband, she shared with 
him the classical studies in which they were 
both proficient, and also made herself mistress 
of several of the modern languages. In 1816 
she published ‘‘Glenarvon,” a novel of which 
the hero was supposed to shadow forth the 
character and sentiments of Lord Byron, for 
whom about 1813 she had conceived a roman- 
tic attachment. Byron severed his relations 
with her in the well known lines to her writ- 
ten a short time before his departure from 
England ; notwithstanding which she still 
cherished a regard for him, and it is related 
that, coming suddenly upon the hearse which 


MELEAGER 369 


was conveying the remains of Byron to the 
grave, she fainted and was for some time pros- 
trated by a severe illness. For many years 
she lived in seclusion in Brocket hall, and 
three years before her death was separated 
from her husband. She published two other 
novels, “‘Graham Hamilton” and ‘‘ Ada Reis.” 

MELCHIZEDEK, or Melchisedee (‘king of 
righteousness”), according to Gen. xiv. 18, a 
‘‘priest of the most high God” and “king of 
Salem,” who went forth to meet Abraham on 
his return from the pursuit of King Chedorla- 
omer, brought bread and wine for the war- 
riors, and blessed Abraham, who in return 
gave him a tenth of the spoils. One of the 
Psalms (cx. 4) contains the words, “a priest 
for ever after the order of Melchizedek;” and 
the Epistle to the Hebrews (vi. 20, vii. 1-21) 
represents him as a type of Christ, and his 
office as superior to the Aaronic priesthood. 
The opinions of theologians as to the person 
of Melchizedek and the nature of his priest- 
hood have at all times greatly varied. With 
regard to his residence, they are now gener- 
ally agreed that Salem was a poetical name 
for Jerusalem. In the ancient church, a sect, 
called Melchizedekites, regarded Melchizedek 
as an incarnation of a divine power, and as 
superior to Christ. 

MELCHTHAL, Arnold vom, a Swiss patriot, 
born in Unterwalden in the latter part of the 
18th century. His real name was Arnold von 
der Halden, but he assumed the name of his 
native village. The Austrian bailiff Landen- 
berg having ordered the seizure of a yoke 
of oxen belonging to Arnold’s father, the 
young man knocked down the menial and 
fled. His father refused to disclose his place 
of refuge, and was blinded by order of the 
bailiff. This cruel deed, which has been dram- 
atized in Schiller’s ‘‘ William Tell,” became 
the signal of revolution. Young Melchthal, 
in his retreat on the Gritli, was joined by 
First and Stauffacher, with whom and 80 other 
patriots, one night in November, 1807, he took 
an oath to devote his life to Swiss indepen- 
dence. This was achieved in January, 1308, 
by the expulsion of the Austrians from the 
cantons of Unterwalden, Uri, and Schwytz, 
and the destruction of their castles, without 
bloodshed. The authenticity of the whole 
story, however, which is given in the Chroni- 
con Helveticum of AXgidius Tschudi (died in 
1572), has been questioned in more recent 
times, as well as the story of William Tell. 

MELCOMBE, Lord. See Dopineron. 

MELEAGER. I. A mythical hero of Greece. 
The legends respecting him are discordant. 
According to one, he was the son of Mars 
and Althea, and to others, of Gineus and Al- 
thea. The prevailing legend is, that while 
Meleager was at Calydon, in Aitolia, the king 
once neglected to offer up a sacrifice to Diana, 
whereupon the angry goddess sent a mon- 
strous boar to ravage the fields. Finally Me- 
leager, with sevéral companions, went out to 


370 MELEGNANO 

hunt the boar, which was killed by him. This 
expedition is known as the Calydonian hunt. 
It was a favorite subject with ancient artists. 
Meleager is usually represented as a robust 
hunter, with curly hair, wearing the Aitolian 
chlamys, and carrying a boar’s head. Il A 
Macedonian general who served under Alexan- 
der the Great. At the battle of the Granicus, 
334 B. C., he commanded one of the divisions 
of the phalanx; and in almost all the Asiatic 
campaigns he appears to have held the same 
office. On the death of Alexander (823) he 
was co-regent with Perdiccas, and was put to 
death by order of his colleague. Hl. A Greek 
epigrammatist, who flourished about the middle 
of the 1st century B. C. He was a native of 
Gadara in eastern Palestine, and made a collec- 
tion of epigrams, entitled Urégavog ’Emtypappa- 
twv, from more than 40 authors. This work 
has perished, but 131 of his own epigrams are 
still extant, and have been collected and pub- 
lished by Manso (Jena, 1798), and most com- 
pletely by Grafe (Leipsic, 1811). 

MELEGNANO, Marignano, or Marignan, a town 
of Italy, on the Lambro, in the province and 
10 m. 8.-E. of the city of Milan; pop. about 
4,000. It was destroyed by the emperor Fred- 
erick II. in 1239; and the Guelphs and Ghi- 
bellines signed a treaty of peace here in 1279. 
In September, 1515, it was the scene of a fa- 
mous victory won by Francis I. of France over 
the Swiss in the service of the duke of Milan, 
which was called, from its obstinacy and the 
superior character of the troops on both sides, 
the “battle of the giants.” Another French 
victory was gained here, June 8, 1859, four 
days after the battle of Magenta. 

MELENDEZ VALDEZ, Juan Antonio, a Spanish 
poet, born at Ribera del Fresno, March 11, 
1754, died in Montpellier, France, May 24, 
1817. He was educated at Salamanca, where 
he became professor of belles-lettres. In 1780 
he obtained a prize offered by the Spanish 
academy for the best eclogue. He was after- 
ward employed in judicial and civil service 
in Saragossa, Valladolid, and Madrid, but was 
banished in 1792, after the downfall of Jove- 
llanos. After some years he was permitted to 
return to Salamanca, and in 1808 attached him- 
self to the French party, sharing in its misfor- 
tunes. Once he was led out to be shot by the 
populace of Oviedo, whither he had been sent 
as a commissioner. Finally he fled to the 
south of France, where he lived for four years 
in misery, and his death was hastened by des- 
titution. His poems embrace odes, eclogues, 
idyls, and pastoral dramas, of which the most 
popular is ‘‘Camacho’s Wedding.” His col- 
lected works, with a life by Quintana, were 
published at Madrid in 1820. 

MELETIUS, or Melitius, author of the Mele- 
tian schism, born in Egypt about 260, died at 
Lycopolis, in the Thebais, in 326. He was 
made bishop of Lycopolis about 300, and du- 
ring the persecution became the head of the 
extreme party who refused to admit the laps 


MELETIUS 


to fellowship. Peter, bishop of Alexandria, 
who entertained more moderate opinions, hay- 
ing concealed himself in 805, Meletius, who 
had been condemned to death by the persecu- 
tors, escaped from prison, and, being second 
metropolitan of Egypt, undertook to set aside 
the authority of the absent Peter and of his 
vicars. He persisted in exercising full episco- 
pal jurisdiction in Alexandria in spite of the 
remonstrances of the other bishops, and for 
this was excommunicated and deposed in a 
synod held there about 306. He resisted the 
action of the synod, and, calling his own party 
the pure church of the martyrs, created a schism 
in Egypt, which continued even after the mar- 
tyrdom of Bishop Peter in 311. The council 
of Nice in 325 condemned the conduct of Me- 
letius, and, while allowing him to retain the 
episcopal rank because he had suffered for the 
faith, forbade him to exercise any jurisdiction. 
But at that time 29 bishops had embraced his 
views, and four priests with three deacons in 
the city of Alexandria held out for him. Af- 
ter apparently submitting to the Nicene de- 
cision, he resumed his episcopal functions, con- 
secrated a schismatic bishop, and a few days 
before his death appointed one of his own fol- 
lowers to be his successor. The Meletian party, 
without professing Arian doctrines, sided with 
the Arians against Athanasius. This schism 
disappeared early in the 5th century. 
MELETIUS, Saint, bishop of Antioch, born at 
Melitene, near the Euphrates, about 310, died in 
Constantinople in 881. In 357 he was elected 
to succeed Eustathius, the deposed bishop of 
Sebaste, but soon resigned in consequence of 
the bitter opposition of the partisans of Eusta- 
thius. He then led a monastic life at Berwa 
till about 861, when he was chosen bishop of 
Antioch in place of the Arian bishop Eudoxius, 
transferred to the see of Constantinople. The 
election took place in a large synod of Arian 
and orthodox bishops, who hoped by this 
choice to end the schism begun in 330 by the 
banishment of St. Eustathius. His inaugural 
discourse gave great offence to the Arian party 
supported by the emperor Constantius; they 
petitioned for his removal, and after holding 
the see of Antioch only 30 days, he was ban- 
ished to Armenia. Thus two orthodox parties 
came to exist side by side in Antioch, the Eus- 
tathians, who since 330 had held no fellowship 
with the Ariuns and Semi-Arians, and the 
great mass of the people, who now remained 
attached to the exiled Meletius. The bishop 
Euzoius, chosen by the Arians in place of Me- 
letius, was at the head of the heterodox party. 
The Meletians asked the Eustathians to unite 
with them against the heretics, but were re- 
pulsed as infected with Arianism. Meletius 
was permitted to return to his flock in 362; 
but Lucifer of Cagliari, commissioned to ex- 
amine into this charge and heal the schism be- 
tween the Eustathians and Meletians, openly 
took part with the former, and consecrated 
their leader Paulinus as their bishop. Mean- 


MELI 


while Julian, intending to make Antioch the 
central seat of restored paganism, was opposed 
by Meletius, whom he banished again. He was 
recalled in 868, and held a council in which 
Acacius of Cesarea and his adherents adopted 
the Nicene creed. In 364 Meletius was exiled 
a third time by the Arians, and was only re- 
called in 878. The Eustathians during the in- 
terval had been losing ground, the orthodoxy 
of Meletius became better known at Rome and 
Alexandria, and he himself found supporters 
and advocates in Basil the Great, Gregory of 
Nyssa, and Gregory Nazianzen. In 3879 he 
convened in Antioch a council of 144 bishops, 
who condemned the Apollinarian heresy; and 
in 381 he presided at the first general council 
of Constantinople. He died soon after, and 
his remains were taken to Antioch and buried 
in the church of St. Babylas. John Chrysos- 
tom pronounced over his tomb an eloquent 
panegyric, Feb. 12, 886, on which day Mele- 
tius was honored as a saint by the eastern 
churches; his name was inserted by Baronius 
in the Roman martyrology for the same date. 

MELI, Giovanni, an Italian poet, born in Pa- 
lermo in 1740, died there, Dec. 20, 1815. He 
was professor of chemistry at Palermo. His 
compositions have procured him the titles of 
‘the Sicilian Anacreon” and “the modern 
Theocritus.” A small pension was granted 
him, and a mausoleum was erected in his 
honor. He employed the Sicilian dialect, and 
his love songs especially are extremely popular 
in Sicily. An edition of his poetical works 
appeared at Palermo in 1814~26, and a new 
edition of his works, in 8 vols., in 1830-89. 

‘MELIKOFF. See Loris-Mrxixorr, in supple- 
ment. 

MELITA. See Matra. 

MELLEN, Grenville, an American poet, born 
in Biddeford, Me., June 19, 1799, died in New 
York, Sept. 5, 1841. He graduated at Harvard 
college in 1818, studied law in Portland, and 
removed in 1823 to North Yarmouth, where 
he engaged in practice. In 1826 he pronounced 
in Portland before the peace society of Maine 
a poem on “The Rest of Empires.” In 1827 
he published a satire entitled ‘‘ Our Chronicle 
of Twenty-Six;” in 1828 delivered a poem 
before a society of Bowdoin college on the 
“Tight of Letters ;’ and in 1829 issued a vol- 
ume of prose entitled ‘‘Glad Tales and Sad 
Tales.” ‘‘The Martyr’s Triumph, Buried Val- 
ley, and other Poems” was published at Bos- 
ton in 1888. He resided about five years in 
Boston, and in New York in 18389 he began 
a ‘“* Monthly Miscellany,” which was discon- 
tinued after a few numbers. His health was 
always feeble, and he died of consumption 
after a voyage to Cuba in 1840. 

MELLIN, Gustaf Henrik, a Swedish author, born 
at Revolax, Finland, April 23,1803. He stud- 
ied theology at Upsal, and acquired celebrity 
by numerous historical novels, most of which 
have been translated into German. He is also 
the author of many historical and biographical 


MELO 371 


works, including Fuderlandets Historia, which 
has had several editions, and a history of Swe- 
dish literature (1864). 

MELLONI, Macedonio, an Italian physicist, born 
in Parma in 1801, died in Portici, near Naples, 
Aug. 11, 1853. He was professor of natural 
philosophy in the university of Parma from 
1824 to 1831, when political events compelled 
him to take refuge in France. Through the 
efforts of Arago he was appointed a professor 
in the college of Dole, in the department of 
the Jura. Going thence to Geneva, he availed 
himself of the scientific instruments of Prévost 
and De la Rive to make several important dis- 
coveries respecting the radiation of heat, which 
he presented in 1833 to the French academy 
of sciences. His communication was received 
coldly, but the discoveries which it embraced 
subsequently procured him the Rumford med- 
al from the royal society of London. He was 
enabled through the influence of Arago and 
Humboldt to return to Italy, and in 1889 was 
appointed director of the meteorological obser- 
vatory then building on Mt. Vesuvius. There 
he made the discovery of heat in lunar light, 
which led to the determination of the analogy 
of radiant heat to light. For his presumed 
sympathy with liberal principles he was eject- 
ed from his post in 1849, and retired to a villa 
near Portici. In 1850 he published the first 
volume of La termocrasi, o la colorazione ca- 
lorifica, containing an account of his theory of 
the “coloration of light,” and of his experi- 
ments on the diffusion of heat by radiation, and 
particularly of its transmission through trans- 
parent media. A month before his death he 
communicated to A. de la Rive the result of 
his researches in electrical induction. 

MELMOTH. I. William, an English author, 
born in London in 1666, died there, April 6, 
1748. He was called to the bar in 1698, and 
appears to have been treasurer of Lincoln’s 
Inn in 1780. He is known as the author of 
“The Great Importance of a Religious Life 
Considered,” of which 100,000 copies were 
sold. A new edition was privately printed in 
London in 1849, and presented to the benchers 
of Lincoln’s Inn. Il. William, son of the pre- 
ceding, born in London in 1710, died in Bath, 
March 15,1799. He was educated for the bar, 
but lived chiefly in retirement, and published 
‘Letters on Several Subjects” (2 vols., 1742). 

MELO, or Mello, Francisco Manuel de, a Portu- 
guese historian and poet (who wrote in Span- 
ish), born in Lisbon, Novy. 238, 1611, died there, 
Oct. 13, 1665. He early became familiar with 
literature, but entered the army and attained 
the rank of colonel. When the insurrection 
against Philip IV. broke out in Catalonia he 
was sent thither, and at the request of the 
king he wrote Historia de los movimientos, 
separacion y guerra de Catalufia (Lisbon, 1645 ; 
2 vols., Paris, 1832), which ranks as a classic. 
After the separation of Portugal from Spain, 
he entered the service of his native country, 
but was imprisoned under a false accusation of 


372 MELODEON 

murder, and was for years an exile in Brazil. 
Many of his works are unpublished, but more 
than 100 volumes have been printed. His 
most popular poems are embraced in Las tres 
musas del Melodino (Lisbon, 1649). 

MELODEON (Gr. weAwdia, melody), the name, 
at different times, of two or more unlike forms 
of musical instruments, but now appropriated 
to one of recent date, and so far excelling 
those before it as to be substantially a new in- 
vention. In this, externally resembling the 
piano, the tones are produced by touching 
the keys of a finger-board; each key, lifting a 
valve, allows a current of air from a bellows, 
worked meanwhile by the foot on a pedal, to 
agitate the corresponding one of a series of 
metallic free reeds; the compass is five to seven 
octaves. The rocking melodeon, known in 
America since about 1825, was unsightly, tardy 
in sounding, and of harsh tone. Jeremiah 
Carhart improved the plan of acting on the 
reeds by suction instead of blowing, and intro- 
duced other improvements, inventing the pres- 
ent instrument in 1836. The art of voicing 
the reeds, the most important: improvement 
in such instruments, was invented by Emmons 
Hamlin in 1848. (See Rezp INsTRUMENTS.) 
In 1859, 22,000 melodeons were manufactured 
in the United States. But few are now made, 
this instrument having been almost entirely 
superseded by the cabinet or parlor organ, 
nearly 30,000 of which were manufactured in 
the United States in 1872. : 

MELODRAMA. See Drama, vol. vi., p. 247. 

MELODY. See Musio. 

MELON, the common name for fruits of vines 
of the cucurbitacee or gourd family. In Eng- 
Jand, where but one kind is cultivated, the 
name melon applies solely to the fruit of cu- 
cumis melo ; but in this country we have also 
the fruit of a very distinct plant, citrullus 
vulgaris, and the distinction is made of musk- 
melon for the one and watermelon for the 
other. The same uncertainty surrounds the 
origin of the muskmelon that attaches to many 
of our cultivated plants; it is quite doubtful 
whether it has ever been found in a truly wild 
state, but it is supposed to have originated in 
India, and to have been brought thence by 


Muskmelon Vine. 


way of Persia. As with other cultivated plants 
of the family, the tendency to vary is great, 
and the forms or varieties in cultivation are 
numerous. The plant is a running vine, ex- 
tending from 4 to 8 ft. or more, bearing large, 
generally heart-shaped and angled leaves, rough 


MELON 


on both sides; the tendrils are simple; the flow- 
ers moncecious, the sterile in small clusters and 
the pistillate ones solitary in the axils of the 
leaves; the fruit, which is variable in size, has 
a thick and fleshy pericarp, usually ribbed ex- 
teriorly ; when ripe, the watery and stringy 
placente only partly fill the cavity, and are re- 
jected with the seeds when the fruit is eaten. 
The melon reaches its greatest perfection in 
warm climates, but so readily does it adapt it- 


self to cultivation that several varieties come 


to maturity in the short summers of New Eng- 
land. In England melons cannot be raised 
with any certainty except under glass, but in 
this country they are almost entirely cultivated 
in the open air. The soil can hardly be made 
too rich, and it is the custom to sow the seeds 
in hills which have been especially prepared 
with an abundance of well decomposed manure. 
As the young plants are attacked by various 
insects, a great abundance of seed is sown, and 
when they are large enough to run, all the 
plants but two or three are removed from 
the hills, which are made 6 or 8 ft. apart each 
way. In field culture no other care is given 
than to protect the young plants from insects 
by dusting with lime or ashes, but in gardens 
the vines are sometimes pinched at the ends 
to induce branching, and the fruit is turned to 
insure its ripening evenly; when thoroughly 
ripe the stem separates from its attachment 
to the fruit by a well defined line, and a prac- 
tised eye can judge by this alone of the matu- 
rity of the fruit. Great numbers of melons 
are shipped from southern ports to northern 
cities; these are picked before they are fully 
mature, and come into condition for eating by 
the time they reach the consumer. The varie- 
ties, if grown near one another, are very diffi- 
cult to keep pure,.and it is the custom with 
those who raise melons for market to have 
but one variety, and to take great care in the 
selection of plants for seed; and each grower 
generally has his own particular “strain.” In 
size the’varieties range from the pocket mel- 
on, no larger than an orange, to the large 
Persian kinds weighing 12 or 15 lbs.; in form 
they are globular, oblate, or oval. In no re- 
spect is the difference greater than in the 
quality of the flesh; the common muskmel- 
on, still found in some country gardens, with 
its name corrupted not inappropriately into 
mushmelon, with its dry, mealy, and nearly 
tasteless fruit, is so inferior to the rich, melt- 
ing improved varieties, that one can hardly 
believe them to have had the same origin. 
Melons from seed brought from Armenia by 
missionaries were cultivated over three cen- 
turies ago at Canteluppi, a villa near Rome, and 
thence introduced to other parts of Europe as 
canteloupes; the name is still in use in some 
parts of Europe for a class of depressed-spheri- 
cal, deeply ribbed, yellow-fleshed varieties, but 
in this country it is of very indefinite applica- 
tion, and has almost entirely passed out of use. 
The surface in some varieties is quite smooth, 


MELON 


but generally it is roughened with corky pro- 


373 


large netted muskmelon is very productive and 


tuberances in the form of a network, and the | sweet, but inferior to those already named. 


abundance of this netting is in many sorts a 
mark of purity. It is very difficult to make 


There are several varieties known as Persian 
melons, which have a remarkably thin rind 


a classification of the varieties other than by | and extremely tender thick flesh; these re- 


the color of their flesh, which in some is green 


Green Citron Melon. 


and in others orange or scarlet. The green- 
fleshed varieties are the most highly esteemed, 
and among these the most generally cultivated 
is the green citron, which is somewhat flat- 
tened at the ends, 6 in. or more in diameter, 
deeply and regularly ribbed; skin green, turn- 
ing yellowish, and thickly netted; the flesh 
green, thick, and juicy, and of a highly sugary 
and rich flavor. This in some of its forms is 
the great market melon, of which immense 
quantities are sent from the south early in the 
season, and later from the market gardens near 
cities; by selection it has been increased in 
size, and specimens a foot or more in diameter 
are sometimes seen. The nutmeg is a slightly 
oval variety, and when pure is highly per- 
fumed and one of the best. Related varieties 
are the Christiana, valued chiefly for its earli- 
ness, Skillman’s fine netted, and Ward’s nectar, 


Large Muskmelon. 


all of which are better suited for private gar- 
dens than for market. A comparatively recent 
introduction is the white Japan, a small fruit 
with a cream-white skin, smooth or slightly 
netted, and an unusually thick flesh in pfropor- 
tion to its size, and excellent in quality. The 


quire a longer season than the ordinary kinds, 
and are not so well adapted to northern locali- 
ties; one of the most successful of these is the 
Cassaba, which is a great favorite near Phil- 
adelphia and southward; the Ispahan is re- 
garded as the finest of all, and the most dif- 
ficult to cultivate. Some of the Persian melons 
can be preserved for a long time after they 
are removed from the vines by suspending 
them in a warm room; the dumpsha is of 
this class, and is much cultivated in the south 
of Europe. The varieties so much cultivated 
in England under glass are little known in 
this country. The melon is a most popular 
fruit, but does not agree with delicate stom- 
achs; and it is the custom with many to eat 


Watermelon Vine. 


it with the addition of salt and pepper to 
render it more digestible-—The watermelon 
(citrullus vulgaris) is of Asiatic, or as some 
say of African origin, and is believed to be 
the melon referred to in Numbers xi. 5. It 
is largely cultivated in all warm countries, 
and presents almost as many varieties as the 
muskmelon. The vine is a rampant runner, 
extending from 10 to 18 ft.; the leaves are 
deeply three- to five-lobed, with the divisions 
themselves lobed, and of a bluish green; the 
tendrils are two- or three-forked; both kinds 
of flowers are solitary in the axils of the leaves, 
and pale yellow; fruit with a smooth rind, 
roundish or oblong, of a uniform green or 
variegated with several shades of that color; 
in ripening the placente# in which the seeds 
are imbedded, as well as the pericarp proper, 
become fleshy and edible; the seeds are white, 


|! brown, or black. The cultivation of the wa- 


termelon is essentially the same as that of the 


374. MELON 


muskmelon, except that the hills are made fur- 
ther apart; the young plants are less liable to 
the attacks of insects than those of the ordinary 
melon. The variety first seen in the northern 
markets is the Carolina or mountain sprout, of 
which large quantities are brought each season 


Carolina Watermelon. 


from the southern states; it is large, elonga- 
ted, and often enlarged toward the blossom 
end; the skin is dark green, variegated with 
longitudinal mottled stripes of lighter color or 
white; the red flesh is of fair quality, and the 
seeds are black. One of the best varieties is 
the ice-cream, which when pure is nearly round, 
pale green, with white flesh and seeds; this is 
one of the earliest varieties and best suited to 
northern localities. The black Spanish is one 
of the sweetest of all, and has a flesh of the 
darkest red; it is somewhat oblong, slightly 
ribbed, with a skin of dark blackish green. 
Joe Johnston and Souter are popular southern 
varieties. The orange watermelon is remark- 
able for its keeping qualities, as well as for the 
readiness with which the flesh parts from the 
rind... The apple-seeded, so called from the 
size, shape, and color of its seeds, is another 
long-keeping kind. New varieties are added 
to the list each year, and old ones are dropped. 
The seeds of the watermelon have been used, 
together with those of the cucumber and other 
cucurbitacee, in the form of an emulsion, for 
diseases of the urinary organs. A few years 
ago a company was formed in California for 
the purpose of making sugar from watermel- 
ons, but apparently without practical results. 
—The citron water- 
melon is small, nearly 
spherical, handsomely 
marbled with different 
shades of green, with 
a white, solid, tough, 
and seedy flesh, which 
is quite unpalatable. 
This is exclusively 
used for making sweet- 
meats; the flesh is 
cut into convenient 
pieces, often into fan- 
cy shapes, and cooked 
in sirup, becoming semi-transparent; the pre- 
serve has a slight but peculiar and distinct fla- 
vor of its own; it is often prepared with fresh 
ginger in imitation of the imported preserved 
ginger. 


Citron Watermelon. 


MELROSE ABBEY 


MELOS (the ancient name, now restored), 
or Milo, an island in the Grecian archipelago, 
one of the Cyclades, belonging to the kingdom 
of Greece, lying about 65 m. E. of the coast 
of the Peloponnesus, in lat. 36° 40’ N., lon. 24° 
23’ E.; length 13 m., greatest breadth 8 m.; 
area, 65 sq. m.; pop. about 3,500. On the N. 
coast is a deep bay which forms one of the best 
harbors in the Levant, and on this was once 
the flourishing town of Melos. The island is 
of volcanic origin, and is rugged and moun- 
tainous, and in parts naked and sterile. Mt. 
Calamos is still a semi-active volcano, emitting 
smoke and sulphurous vapors; and hot springs 
and mines of sulphur and alum are found in 
various places. Mt. St. Elias, in the S. W. part, 
is 2,538 ft. above the sea. The valleys and low 
grounds are very fertile, and when cultivated 
produce corn, wine, oil, cotton, and fruits in 
abundance; but the lowlands are malarious 
and the water brackish, and the island is now 
almost depopulated. Extensive ruins mark 
the site of ancient Melos. It is overlooked by 
Castron, a village on a rocky height above the 
N. entrance of the bay, which is now the seat 
of the local government.—Melos was first col- 
onized by the Pheenicians, and afterward by 
the Lacedseemonians. It was rich and popu- 
lous, but was ruined by the Peloponnesian 
war, during which the capital was captured by 
the Athenians, its adult males were put to 
death, and its women and children carried off 
as slaves, 416 B. C. The principal relics of 
antiquity are tombs and subterranean vaults, 
some of which contain 15 or more sarcophagi. 
The celebrated statue of the Venus of Milo 
was found in 1820 in the vicinity of Melos, to- 
gether with three statues of Hermes.—Anti- 
Melos, a small mountainous island 6 m. N. W. 
of Melos, is uninhabited save by wild goats. 
With this and some other islands, Melos forms 
an eparchy of the Cyclades. 

MELPOMENE, in Greek mythology, the muse 
who presided over tragedy. She was a daugh- 
ter of Zeus and Mnemosyne, and is generally 
represented as a young woman of grave coun- 
tenance, arrayed in splendid garments, wearing 
the cothurnus, with a wreath of vine leaves on 
her head, a sword or the club of Hercules in 
one hand, and a crown or sceptre in the other. 

MELROSE ABBEY, a celebrated ruin in the 
town of Melrose, Roxburghshire, Scotland, 
near the Tweed, 31 m. S. E. of Edinburgh. 
It was founded in 1186 by David I., completed 
in 1146, and dedicated to the Virgin Mary. 
The first occupants were Cistercian monks 
from Yorkshire, England. In 1322 it was de- 
stroyed by the English army of Edward ILI., 
but was soon rebuilt by Robert Bruce substan- 
tially after the present design, and in a style 
of magnificence which ranks it among the 
most perfect ecclesiastical structures of the 
best age of Gothic architecture. In 1385 and 
again in 1545 it suffered severely at the hands 
of English armies; and during the reforma- 
tion its choicest sculptures were mutilated. 


MELTON-MOWBRAY 


In later times it has been despoiled of many of 
its stones to furnish materials for other build- 
ings; yet at the end of five centuries the 


MELVILLE B1D 


Normans, and on several occasions by the 
English, who were finally expelled. At the 


beginning of the 12th century Abélard, though 
very young, opened a 


— school of philosophy in 


eS this town, which was 


at that time a favorite 


resort of the French 


Melrose Abbey. 


court. 


MELVILLE, Andrew, a 
Scottish religious re- 
former, born at Baldo- 
vy, Forfarshire, Aug. 
1, 1545, died in Sedan, 
France, in 1622. He 
was educated at the 
university of St. An- 
drews, and passed sev- 
eral years at Paris, 
Poitiers, and Geneva, 
alternately studying 
and teaching. In 157 
he returned to Scot- 
land, and was appoint- 
ed principal of Glas- 
gow college. He took 
a prominent part in 
the theological contro- 


church, which is the only part of the ancient | versies of his age, and in the establishment 


monastery remaining, is one of the best pre- 
served specimens of Gothic architecture. 
MELTON-MOWBRAY, a town of Leicestershire, 
England, on the Midland railway, 15 m. N. E. 
of Leicester; pop. in 1871, 5,033. It has much 
improved of late years, and the parish church 
was thoroughly restored in 1867. There are a 
Roman Catholic and various Protestant chap- 
els, a mechanics’ institute, two large free 
schools, and several charitable institutions. 
Stilton cheese and pork pies are largely pro- 
duced; and there are manufactures of bobbi- 
net lace, breweries, and tanneries. The Melton 
hunt attracts hither many sporting men. 
MELUN (anc. Melodunum), a town of France, 
capital of the department of Seine-et-Marne, 
on the Seine, 25 m. S. E. of Paris; pop. in 
1866, 11,408. Part of the town is built on an 
island in the Seine. The most important por- 
tion, on the right bank, rises in the form of an 
amphitheatre, and contains a large square and 
several fine promenades. The church of Notre 
Dame has two Romanesque towers, and that 
of St. Aspais is a lofty edifice of the 15th cen- 
tury, with double aisles, an elaborate vault, 
and some fine painted glass windows. The 
central prison is adapted for 1,200 persons; 
the prefecture occupies an ancient Benedictine 
abbey; and there are a communal college, a 
primary normal school, and a public library. 
Cloth, woollen, and cotton goods, earthenware, 
and other articles are manufactured. In the 
neighborhood, which is remarkable for its fine 
scenery, is Fouquet’s chateau of Vaux-Praslin, 
where the brilliant financier was arrested in 
the midst of a fAte which he gave in honor of 
Louis XIV.—The town was besieged by the 


of Presbyterianism in Scotland. Toward the 
close of 1580 he was made principal of St. 
Mary’s college in the university of St. An- 
drews, and lecturer on theology and the orien- 
tal languages. In 1582 Melville opened an ex- 
traordinary meeting of the Presbyterian gene- 
ral assembly with a sermon, in which he vigor- 
ously opposed the absolute authority assumed 
by the court in ecclesiastical affairs. He as- 
sisted in drawing up the remonstrance against 
the policy of the court, subsequently presented 
to the king at Perth by a deputation of which 
he was the head. The earl of Arran, one of 
the council, being irritated at the bold tone 
of this document, asked fiercely: ‘‘ Who dares 
subscribe these treasonable articles?” ‘We 
dare,” replied Melville, and immediately seiz- 
ing a pen, affixed his name to it. This was 
imitated by all his colleagues, and the coun- 
cil suffered them to depart uncensured. But 
within two years Melville was summoned be- 
fore the privy council on a charge of treason 
for words uttered in the pulpit, and Arran ex- 
erted himself for his conviction. The accusa- 
tion could not be proved, and he was sentenced 
to imprisonment on the charge of irreverence 
toward the council; but he escaped to London, 
and returned to Scotland, on the fall of Arran, 
in November, 1585. In 1587, 1589, and 1594 
he was chosen moderator of the general assem- 
bly; in 1590 he became rector of the uni- 
versity; and in 1595 he delivered at the coro- 
nation of the queen a Latin poem entitled 
Stephaniskion, which, being printed at the so- 
licitation of James VI., was read with admira- 
tion throughout Europe. He was accustomed 
to address the king with the utmost plainness 


316 MELVILLE 


upon his foibles and vanity; and being a mem- 
ber of a commission appointed in 1596 to re- 
monstrate with regard to certain measures in- 
imical to religion, he chided James so severely 
as to excite him to great anger, but finally sub- 
dued him and obtained every concession de- 
manded. James after his accession to the 
English throne continued his efforts to obtain 
control of the Scottish church, in which he had 
hitherto been thwarted in great part by Mel- 
ville. In May, 1606, he and other leading Pres- 
byterians were summoned to London under 
pretence of being consulted by the king upon 
Scotch ecclesiastical affairs. They obeyed, but 
soon discovered that they were not free agents; 
and Melville, for having indited a Latin epi- 
gram expressive of his contempt for certain 
ceremonies he had witnessed at the royal 
chapel, was brought before the privy council, 
found guilty of scandalum magnatum, and 
committed to the tower, where he remained 
till 1611, when, at the solicitation of the duke 
de Bouillon, he was liberated on condition 
that he should expatriate himself. Retiring 
to Sedan, then belonging to the dukes of Bou- 
illon, he was appointed professor of theology 
at the university of that city. His earliest pro- 
duction was a volume of Latin poems (Basel, 
1574). There is a MS. commentary by. him 
on the Epistle of Paul to the Romans, still ex- 
tant.—See the “ Life of Andrew Melville,” by 
Dr. McCrie (2 vols., 1819). 

MELVILLE, Herman, an American author, born 
in New York, Aug. 1, 1819. At the age of 18 
he shipped before the mast on a vessel bound 
for Liverpool, and in 1841 he embarked for the 
Pacific, as a sailor, on a whaling vessel, in 
which he cruised for 18 months; but, unable 
to endure the harsh conduct of the captain, he 
deserted with a comrade at Nukahiva, one of 
the Marquesas islands. Losing his way, he 
wandered into the Typee valley, where the 
warlike people who take their name from the 
valley held him four months in an indulgent 
captivity. At the end of that time he was 
taken off by a boat from an Australian whaler, 
which conveyed him to Tahiti. He passed 
some time in the Society and Sandwich islands, 
and in 1843 shipped on board the frigate Uni- 
ted States at Honolulu, and arrived in Boston 
in October, 1844. “Typee,” a narrative of 
his adventures in Nukahiva, appeared in 1846 
in New York and London, and achieved an 
immediate success. It was followed in 1847 
by ‘“‘OQmoo, a Narrative of Adventures in the 
South Seas,” which recounts his escape from 
Typee and subsequent voyage. ‘ Mardi and a 
Voyage Thither,” a philosophical romance 
which was less admired, and ‘“Redburn,” 
founded on the incidents of his first voyage, 
appeared in the same year. He married in 
1847 a daughter of Chief Justice Shaw of Mas- 
sachusetts, and resided for a few years in New 
York. He removed to Pittsfield, Mass., in 
1850, and afterward returned to New York. 
His remaining works are: ‘‘ White Jacket, or 


“MELVILLE SOUND 


the World in a Man-of-War” (1850); ‘‘ Moby 
Dick, or the White Whale” (1851); ‘‘ Pierre, 
or the Ambiguities” (1852); ‘Israel Potter” 
(1855 ); ‘‘ The Piazza Tales” (1856); ‘‘ The Con- 
fidence Man” (1857); and ‘“ Battle Pieces and 
Aspects of the War,” a volume of poems (1866). 

MELVILLE, Sir James, a Scottish soldier, born 
at Raith, Fifeshire, about 1535, died at Hal- 
hill, in the same county, in November, 1607. At 
the age of 14 he went to the continent, where 
he was taken into the service of the constable 
Montmorency, and made several campaigns in 
France and Flanders. In 1557 he took part in 
the battle of St. Quentin, where he was wound- 
ed and taken prisoner. In 1559 he went on 
a secret mission to Scotland, and after the fall 
of Montmorency he went to Germany and en- 
tered the service of the elector palatine, with 
whose son he visited France in 1561. After 
his return to Scotland he entered the ser- 
vice of the queen, who sent him twice on a 
mission to Elizabeth. After the murder of 
Darnley he remonstrated with her on her par- 
tiality for Bothwell, whereupon he lost favor, 
but nevertheless adhered to her until she was 
imprisoned in Lochleven castle. On the ac- 
cession of James he was made a gentleman of 
the bedchamber and a member of the privy 
council, and was even pressed by the king to 
accompany him to London when he went to 
take possession of the throne of England. He 
declined this invitation, and devoted his latter 
days to his ‘‘ Memoirs of Sir James Melville of 
Hal-hill, containing an Impartial Account of 
the most remarkable Affairs of State during 
the last Age.” The earliest edition is London, 
1683; the best, Edinburgh, 1827. 

MELVILLE, Lord. See Dunpas, Henry and 
RoBeErt. 

MELVILLE ISLAND. I. In polar America. 
See Metvittz Sounp. IE. An island lying off 
the N. W. coast of Australia, between lat. 11° 
8’ and 11° 56’ S., and lon. 130° 20’ and 131° 34’ 
E.; area, about 1,800 sq.m. It is separated 
from the mainland on the east by Dundas strait, 
which is 15 m. wide, and on the south by Clar- 
ence strait and Van Diemen’s gulf; while on 
the west it is severed from Bathurst island by 
Apsley strait. The N. and W. coast is low, 
and indented with shallow bays, but elsewhere 
the coast is high and precipitous. .In the cen- 
tre the island rises from 130 to 200 ft. Vege- 
tation is luxuriant. Several species of euca- 
lyptus are among the most abundant forest 
trees. The cabbage tree is common, and gin- 
ger grows wild. The fauna is identical with 
that of Australia. Alligators and turtles abound 
on the coast. The climate from October to 
May, owing to the great heat and humidity of 
the atmosphere, is unhealthy, but from May 
to October it is salubrious. The natives are 
chiefly hunters, and are more athletic and en- 
terprising than those of Australia. 

MELVILLE SOUND, or Parry Sound, a body of 
water in the north polar regions of America, 
lying between lat. 72° and 75° N., and lon. 


MEMBERTOU 


100° and 115° W., enclosed between the Parry 
islands (Melville, Byam Martin, Bathurst, &c.), 
on the N., Prince of Wales Land on the S. E., 
Prince Albert Land on the 8. W., and Baring 
island or Banks Land on the W.; length E. and 
W. about 300 m.; breadth N. and 8. 200 m. 
Byam Martin channel opens into it on the N.; 
Banks strait connects it with the Arctic ocean 
on the N. W.; on the S. an opening discovered 
by Capt. Allen Young of McClintock’s expe- 
dition in 1859, and since named McClintock 
channel, leads between Prince Albert and Vic- 
toria Lands and Prince of Wales Land into 
Victoria channel; and on the E. it commu- 
nicates through Barrow strait and Lancaster 
sound with Baffin bay.—Metvitte IsLanp, 
which lies N. W. of the sound, is irregular in 
form, and measures about 230 m. from E. to 
W. and 130 in greatest breadth. Its coast line 
is broken by several deep gulfs, and it has nu- 
merous peninsulas, the chief of which are Sa- 
bine and Dundas. It is separated from Bath- 
urst and Byam Martin islands by Byam Martin 
channel, and from Prince Patrick and Eglinton 
islands by Fitz William and Kellet straits. 
The geological formation of its N. part is car- 
boniferous limestone, and of the rest lower 
carboniferous sandstone with beds of coal.— 
MeELvitLe Penrnsvta is a projection of the N. 
coast of the American continent, bounded N. 
by Fury and Hecla strait, which separates it 
from Cockburn island, E. by Fox channel, S. 
by Frozen strait and Rowe’s Welcome, and W. 
by Committee bay, at the head of the gulf of 
Boothia. It is connected with the mainland 
by Rae isthmus at the 8. W. It lies between 
lat. 66° 10’ and 69° 50’ N., and lon. 81° and 
87° W., and measures about 280 m. from N. to 
S. and 150 m. from E. to W. 

MEMBERTOU, Henry, a Micmac sagamore and 
medicine man, born about 1500, died in 1611. 
He is said to have seen Cartier in his youth; 
he received De Monts and his colonists, on 
their arrival in Acadia in 1604, with a friend- 
ship that never changed, and by his influence 
aided them greatly, being the most powerful 
chief on the coast. He was tall, strongly 
built, and bearded like a Frenchman. He at 
once gathered 400 of his tribe in a palisaded 
village near the French post, and in 1607 led a 
large Micmac force against the Armouchiquois 
Indians, near the Merrimack, whom he defeat- 
ed. Lescarbot commemorated his victory in a 
French poem. He was hastily baptized, with 
his wife and three sons and 16 others, June 
24, 1610, and seemed to endeavor to live a 
Christian life, though his excessive zeal led 
him to wish to make war on all tribes that 
refused to embrace Christianity. In the au- 
tumn of the following year he was brought in 
a dying condition to Port Royal, and, though 
carefully attended by the missionaries, soon 
expired, at the reputed age of 110. 

MEMBRANE, a general term applied to thin 
layers of tissue, more or less elastic, whitish or 
reddish, lining either closed cavities or canals 


MEMBRANE 87% 


opening externally, absorbing or secreting 
fluids, and enveloping various organs. The 
simple membranes are either mucous, serous, 
or fibrous—The mucous membranes are so 
called from the peculiar fluid or mucus which 
they secrete; they line the passages of the 
body which communicate externally, and by 
which foreign substances are taken in or the 
secretions and excrementitious matter carried 
off; they are continuous with the skin, per- 
form many of its offices internally, and at the 
points of contact, as in the lips, can hardly be 
separated by a distinct demarcation. Soft and 
smooth or velvety, reddish and very vascular, 
attached to muscle, cartilage, or even perios- 
teum, their free surface is lined with a layer 
of epithelial cells covering the vascular parts. 
They present papille upon the tongue, villosi- 
ties and folds in the alimentary canal, and de- 
pressions for glands almost everywhere. The 
three divisions of the mucous membranes are 
those lining the digestive, respiratory, and 
genito-urinary passages. The digestive mu- 
cous membrane begins in the mouth, extends 
through the cesophagus to the stomach, and 
through the intestinal canal to the anus, send- 
ing prolongations into the ducts of the salivary 
glands, liver, pancreas, and gall bladder. The 
respiratory mucous membrane lines the nose 
and the cavities and sinuses connected there- 
with, the eyelids, middle ear, larynx, trachea, 
and the bronchial ramifications. The genito- 
urinary mucous membrane extends externally 
from the uriniferous tubes of the kidney, and 
into and through the reproductive organs. In 
each of these tracts the membranes present 
some slight modifications adapted for special 
functions. Mucous membranes are generally 
endowed with keen sensibility at their points 
of origin from the skin, as on the lids, lips, 
&c., but gradually become less sensitive and 
finally almost insensible, in a healthy state, in 
the interior of the organs. Besides being the 
seat of various secretions and absorptions, they 
assist in the functions of digestion, respiration, 
and reproduction. (See Epiruerium, GLanp, 
and INTESTINE.)—Serous membranes are form- 
ed of fibro-cellular tissue, covered with epithe- 
lial cells; they are very thin, smooth, trans- 
parent, and extensible, not having the folds, 
papille, and glands of mucous membrane; they 
are closed sacs, and are found wherever inter- 
nal organs come in contact with each other, or 
lie in cavities where more or less motion is re- 
quired; they consist of two layers, the first 
surrounding the organ itself, and the second 
reflected upon the parts with which it is in 
contact and on which it moves; the cavity is 
lubricated by a serous fluid, exuded from the 
surface of the membrane. They are of two 
kinds: those which line the visceral cavities, 
as the peritoneum in the abdomen, the pleura 
and pericardium in the chest, and the arachnoid 
of the brain and spinal cord; and the synovial 
membranes, which line the joints, sheaths of 
tendons and ligaments, and burs interposed 


378 MEMBRE 
between muscles and points of bone over 
which they glide. They are all shut sacs, ex- 
cept where the Fallopian tubes in most verte- 
brates open into the abdominal cavity. Se- 
rous and synovial membranes by their polished 
and well lubricated surfaces secure the free 
movement of contiguous organs, as in the in- 
testines, lungs, and joints; in health their fluid 
is only sufficient for this purpose, but in a 
state of inflammation the amount is largely in- 
creased, as in the dropsical effusions of perito- 
nitis, pleurisy, pericarditis, hydrocephalus, and 
synovitis; their sensibility in the normal state 
is nothing, but in diseased conditions may be- 
come acute, as in pleurisy and peritonitis,— 
Bichat gives the name of fibrous membranes 
to the aponeuroses of muscles, the capsules of 
the joints, the sheaths of the tendons, the pe- 
riosteum, the dura mater of the brain, the 
sclerotic coat of the eye, &c.; these are never 
free, but are in contact with and adherent to 
the parts surrounding, and not moistened by 
secreted fluid; they are whitish, of a pearly 
and often shining lustre, and may form sacs, 
sheaths, or extended layers of thin tissue; 
possessing elastic and inelastic fibrous tissue, 
they afford strength to organs, retain the 
muscles and tendons in place, give the shape 
to the limbs, favor the movements of the skin 
and superficial muscles, and assist the venous 
circulation.—Membranes, especially the serous, 
may be formed as the accidental products of 
disease, as in cysts in various parts of the body. 
False membranes are layers of coagulated fib- 
rine or lymph exuded upon inflamed surfaces, 
presenting the external form of true mem- 
branes, but destitute of organization; under 
the influence of violent or special inflamma- 
tions they may endanger life by closing pas- 
sages, as in the false membrane thrown out in 
croup. (See Lympn.) ‘lhe membranes of the 
foetus are alluded to under EmBryotoey, and 
several other membranes under the names of 
the organs to which they specially belong. — 
MEMBRE, Zenobius, a Franciscan missionary, 
born at Bapaume, France, in 1645, killed in 
Texas about 1687. He was the first novice in 
the Recollect province of St. Anthony, and 
was sent to Canada in 1675. Three years later 
he accompanied La Salle’s expedition to the 
west, remained at Fort Crévecceur with Tonty, 
and aided him in mediating between the Iro- 
quois and Illinois. He subsequently descended 
the Mississippi with La Salle, and wrote a 
narrative which was published by his cousin, 
Father Christian Le Clercq, in his “tablisse- 
ment dela for. He returned to France in 1682, 
and became warden of a convent at Bapaume. 
He accompanied La Salle on his expedition to 
the mouth of the Mississippi, and was left by 
him in the fort in Texas, where with the rest 
he was massacred by the Indians. Membré was 
esteemed for his mildness and virtues. His 
narrative was claimed by Hennepin, and is by 
some even at the present time supposed to have 
been written by La Salle. 


MEMMI 


MEMEL, the northernmost town of Prussia, 
in the province of East Prussia, on the Baltic 
sea near the Russian frontier, at the N. end of 
the Kurisches. Haff, and at the mouth of the 
river Dange, 72 m. N. N. E. of Konigsberg; 
pop. in 1871, 19,019. It is fortified and well 
built, has several churches, an excellent naval 
school, a gymnasium, a high school for girls, 
and various charitable institutions. The har- 
bor is commodious and safe, and its entrance 
from 13 to 15 ft. deep. A fort was built on 
the N. end of the Kurische Nehrung in 1866. 
A considerable part of the trade between Rus- 
sia and Germany passes through the town. It 
is the centre of the Baltic timber trade. The 
other principal exports are grain, linseed, 
hemp, flax, hides, and tallow, most of which 
are received from Russia and Poland. The 
chief imports are salt, coal, colonial produce, 
herrings, and manufactured goods. The im- 
portant manufactures are articles of amber, 
soap, and brandy. There are iron founderies, 
chain factories, and about 60 saw mills, and 
the ship building is considerable-—Memel was 
built in the middle of the 18th century by the 
Teutonic knights. In the 17th century it was 
for some time in the possession of the Swedes, 
and in 1757 it was taken by the Russians. In 
1854 the town was nearly destroyed by fire. 

MEMEL RIVER. See Niemen. 

MEMLING, or Hemling, Hans, a Flemish painter, 
born probably near Bruges about 1425, sup- 
posed to have died in Spain in the beginning 
of the 16th century. He was a pupil of Roger 
of Bruges, and was one of the best artists of 
the school of Van Eyck. He visited Italy and 
Germany in middle life, and is said to have 
served Charles the Bold of Burgundy in the 
twofold capacity of painter and soldier. After 
the battles of Granson and Morat (1476), he 
gained admittance into the hospital of St. John 
in Bruges, penniless and disabled by wounds, 
and painted for the institution some of his 
finest works. Two of these, altarpieces with 
wings, are inscribed with his name and the 
date of the year, 1479. In the chapel of the 
hospital is also the celebrated reliquary of St. 
Ursula, a shrine about 4 ft. long, with the his- 
tory of the saint on the longer sides in six com- 
partments. These pictures are among the most 
interesting productions of the Flemish school. 

MEMMI, Simone, or more properly SIMONE DI 
Martino, an Italian painter, born in Siena 
about 1288, died in Avignon about 1345. He 
is said to have been a pupil of Giotto, and was 
one of the first to modify the severity and 
hardness of the Byzantine manner by imitating 
the softer style of his master. After the death 
of the latter he was invited to the papal court 
at Avignon, where he is said to have painted 
the portrait of Laura de Sade, on account of 
which he is mentioned in two of Petrarch’s 
sonnets. At Avignon he also executed a min- 
iature illumination for a manuscript Virgil, 
once owned by Petrarch and now preserved 
in the Ambrosian library at Milan. 


MEMMINGEN 


MEMMINGEN, a walled town of Bavaria, in 
the district of Swabia and Neuburg, on the 
Aach, 41 m. 8. W. of Augsburg; pop. in 1871, 
7,215. It has six churches, a handsome town 
house, grammar and industrial schools, a hospi- 
tal, an orphan asylum, manufactures of chintz, 
calico, wax cloth, ribbons, tobacco, copper, and 
iron, a bell foundery, bleach fields, and glue 
works. It was a free imperial city till 1802. 
Here on Oct. 13, 1805, 4,000 Austrians sur- 
rendered to the French under Soult. 

MEMMINGER, Charles Gustavus, an American 
politician, born in Wirtemberg, Germany, Jan. 
7, 1803. His mother, a widow, emigrated to 
Charleston, 5S. C., when he was an infant, and 
soon died. He was placed in an orphan asy- 
lum, but at the age of nine was adopted by 
Gov. Thomas Bennett. He graduated at the 
South Carolina college in 1820, began to prac- 
tise law in Charleston in 1825, and was a leader 
of the Union party during the nullification 
excitement. He published ‘‘ The Book of Nul- 
lification ” (1832-’3), satirizing the advocates of 
the doctrine in Biblical style. In 1836 he was 
elected to the legislature, where he opposed 
the suspension of specie payments by the banks 
in 1839. He assisted the attorney general in 
the prosecution of the principal case, which 
resulted in a decision that the banks had for- 
feited their charters. For nearly 20 years he 
was at the head of the finance committee in 
the lower house of the legislature, from which 
he retired in 1852. He was again returned in 
1854, having become particularly interested in 
the reformation of the public school system. In 
1859 he was a commissioner from South Caro- 
lina to Virginia, to secure coéperation against 
the movements of abolitionists. He was ap- 
pointed secretary of the treasury of the Con- 
federate States in February, 1861, and resigned 
in June, 1864. 

MEMNON, a hero of the Trojan war, son of 
Tithonus and Eos or Aurora. Homer in the 
Odyssey describes him as the handsome son of 
Eos who brought a force of Ethiopians to as- 
sist in the defence of Troy against the Greeks. 
Hesiod calls him king of the Ethiopians. He 
was slain by Achilles. The Greeks in later 
ages confounded him with the Egyptian king 
Amenophis (Amen-hotep) III., whose colossal 
statue near Thebes excited their wonder by its 
vocal powers. It is the northernmost of two 
colossal sitting figures of black stone, in the 
approach to a temple now ruined, in the quar- 
ter of western Thebes called Memnonia by the 
Greeks. The height of each of these statues 
is 47 ft., and they rest upon pedestals about 
12 ft. high. The upper half of the vocal Mem- 
non was broken off and thrown down, but was 
afterward restored. On the lower part are 72 
inscriptions in Greek and Latin (the earliest 
being dated A. D. 62), by the emperor Hadrian, 
the empress Sabina, and by several governors 
of Egypt and other travellers, official and pri- 
vate, testifying that they have visited the Mem- 
non and heard his voice. The sound is said to 


MEMPHIS 379 


have resembled the twanging of a harp string 
or the striking of brass, and it occurred at sun- 
rise or soon after. Strabo, who visited it with 
fflius Gallus, the governor of Egypt, says he 
heard the sound, but could “ not afttirm whether 
it proceeded from the pedestal or the statue it- 
self, or even from some of those who stood near 
its base.” He does not mention the name of 
Memnon, and it was not till after his time ap- 
parently that the Romans began to suppose the 
statue to be that of the son of Tithonus. The 
stone in the lap of the statue, when struck with 
a hammer, rings with a metallic sound; and as 
there is a square hole in the body just behind 
this, it is conjectured that the sound was pro- 
duced by a person concealed therein. Another 
theory is that the sound was the effect of the 
expansion of this stone by the sun’s rays, as a 
similar sound has been thus produced from one 
of the roof stones of the temple at Karnak. 
MEMPHIS, a city, port of delivery, and the 
capital of Shelby co., Tennessee, situated in 
the S. W. corner of the state, on the Missis- 
Sippi river, just below the mouth of Wolf 
river, on the fourth Chickasaw bluff, 780 m. 
above New Orleans, 420 m. below St. Louis, 
and 190 m. S. W. of Nashville; pop. in 1840, 
3,360; in 1850, 8,841; in 1860, 22,623; in 
1870, 40,226, of whom 15,471 were colored 
and 6,780 foreigners; in 1874, including sub- 
urbs, estimated by local authorities at 65,000. 
The bluff on which the city is built is about 35 
ft. above the highest floods. The streets are 
broad and regular, and lined with handsome 
buildings. Many of the residences on the 
avenues leading from the river are surrounded 
with beautiful lawns. The city extends over 
three square miles. In the centre there is a 
handsome park, filled with trees, and contain- 
ing a bust of Andrew Jackson. There are 
two theatres seating 800 and 1,000 persons re- 
spectively, and a building for the United States 
custom house is soon to be commenced. The 
principal of the six cemeteries is Elmwood, on 
the 8. E. border of the city. Memphis is 
lighted with gas, is supplied with water on the 
Holly system, and has about 20 m. of street 
railways. It is the largest city of Tennessee, 
and the principal place on the Mississippi be- 
tween St. Louis and New Orleans, and has a 
very extensive trade with Arkansas, Mississippi, 
W. Tennessee, and N. Alabama. Railroad 
facilities are afforded by the Memphis and 
Charleston, Mississippi and Tennessee, Louis- 
ville and Nashville and Great Southern, Mem- 
phis and Little Rock, and Memphis and Raleigh 
lines, while the Memphis and Paducah railroad 
is completed for 40 m. The Memphis and Lit: 
tle Rock line terminates at Hopefield on the 
Arkansas side of the Mississippi, whence a 
powerful transfer boat conveys an entire train 
at once to Memphis. ‘Lines of steamers run 
to St. Louis, Cincinnati, Vicksburg, Napoleon, 
Ark., and to the Arkansas, White, and St. Fran- 
cis rivers. The receipts of cotton in 1870-71 
were 511,482 bales; in 1871-’2, 380,938; in 


580 


1872-8, 415,255; in 1873-4, 429,327. The 
yearly sales of actual cotton in the Memphis 
market rank it second in importance in the Uni- 
ted States. The annual value of the trade of 
the city is about $63,000,000, viz.: cotton, $32,- 
000,000; groceries and western produce, $12,- 
500,000; dry goods, clothing, boots and shoes, 
and miscellaneous merchandise, $15,000,000 ; 
home manufactures, $3,500,000. The principal 
manufactories are five large founderies and ma- 
chine shops, with several smaller ones, exten- 
sive wood works, a tobacco factory, a furni- 
ture factory, and three of the largest oil mills 
in the United States, consuming about 500,000 
sacks of cotton seed annually, and producing 
nearly $1,000,000 worth of cotton-seed oil, oi] 
cake, and reginned cotton. The number of 
vessels belonging to the port on June 30, 1873, 


MEMPHIS 


There are 10 banks, with an aggregate paid-up 
capital of $2,500,000, and average deposits of 
$3,500,000 to $4,000,000. Ten insurance com- 
panies chartered by the state have their head- 
quarters in Memphis, and about 30 companies 
of other states and countries have agencies 
there. The city is divided into ten wards, ‘and 
is governed by a mayor, with a board of alder- 
men of one member and a common council of 
two members from each ward. It has an effi- 
cient police force and a good fire department. 
The assessed valuation in 1860 was $18,212,- 
861; in 1870, $24,783,190; in 1874, $29,801,- 
592. The rate of taxation is $1 80 on $100, 
and the city debt amounts to about $4,000,000. 
The United States courts for the W. district of 
Tennessee are held here. The principal chari- 
table institutions are the Leath orphan asylum, 


was 32, with an aggregate tonnage of 5,788.1 St. Peter’s orphan asylum, church orphans’ 


Memphis, Tenn. 


home, the colored orphan asylum, and the city 
hospital. There are 67 public schools, with an 
average attendance of 2,918 white and 1,565 
colored pupils; they are graded, and include a 
male and a female high school. Four of the 
Catholic parochial schools are also free, and 
have a daily attendance of 650 white children. 
Christian Brothers’ college (Roman Catholic), 
established in 1871, in 18734 had 12 profes- 
sors and instructors, and 122 preparatory and 
37 collegiate students. The Memphis female 
college is in the city, and the state female col- 
lege near by. There are 32 private schools and 
academies. The Memphis library association 
has 9,000 volumes. Five daily, one tri-week- 
ly, nine weekly (one German) newspapers and 
two monthly periodicals are published. There 
are 48 churches, viz.: 11 Baptist (8 colored), 2 
Christian (1 colored), 2 Congregational (1 col- 
ored), 8 Cumberland Presbyterian, 5 Episco- 


pal, 2 Jewish, 1 Lutheran, 12 Methodist (4 
Southern and 6 colored), 6 Presbyterian (1 
German), and 4 Roman Catholic (1 German). 
—Memphis was laid out in 1820, and incor- 
porated as a city in 1831. During the civil 
war, after a naval encounter in which the 
confederate flotilla was nearly destroyed, the 
city was taken possession of by the Union 
forces, June 6, 1862, and was never afterward 
held by the confederates. In August, 1864, a 
cavalry raid was made upon it by Gen. For- 
rest, who entered the town, made several hun- 
dred prisoners, and then departed. 

MEMPHIS (Coptic, Menji or Menofre, ‘good 
abode” or ‘‘the abode of the good one,” sup- 
posed to refer to Osiris; in hieroglyphic in- 
scriptions, according to some, Ma-en-Ptah, 
abode of Ptah; in Scripture, Voph or Mophy), 
an ancient capital of Egypt, on the W. bank 
of the Nile, 10 m. S. of the modern city of 


MEMPHREMAGOG 


Cairo. Its foundation is ascribed to Menes, 
the first king of Egypt; it was certainly very 
ancient, and was the first capital of the united 
kingdom of Upper and Lower Egypt. Its sit- 
uation commanded the 8. entrance to the del- 
ta, and it was protected by a dike from the 
inundations of the Nile. According to Dio- 
dorus, Memphis was about 17 m. in circuit, 
but probably this included much open ground. 
It was remarkable for its fine climate and the 
beauty of the view from its walls. It con- 
trolled the inland trade of Egypt, ascending 
or descending the Nile. It was the chief seat 
of learning and of religion, the principal place 
of the worship of the god Ptah, and the cho- 
sen residence of the sacred bull Apis, whose 
temple here was celebrated for its colonnades 
through which the great processions were con- 
ducted. The other great temples were: that 
of Isis, commenced at a very early period, and 
completed by Amasis, 564 B. C.; the temple 
of Serapis, to which was attached a Nilome- 
ter, in the western quarter of the city; the 
temple of Phra or the sun; and the temple of 
Ptah, the most ancient of all, and the largest 
and most superb.—Memphis was the seat of 
successive dynasties, the 3d, 4th, 5th, 7th, and 
8th of Egyptian history, who (according to 
Mariette) reigned, with one interval of 203 
years, from 4449 to 8358 B.C. By the 4th 
dynasty the great pyramids were built. It was 
also the capital during the supremacy of the 
shepherd kings. It suffered severely from the 
Persians, who avenged the murder of their her- 
- ald by the Memphians. They made it the head- 
quarters of a Persian garrison; and Cambyses 
compelled Psammetik III., the last of the Pha- 
raohs, to kill himself, slew the sacred Apis with 
his own hand, massacred the priests, and pro- 
faned the temple of Ptah. The Persians made 
it the metropolis of their African possessions, 
and it continued to be the chief city of Egypt 
until the foundation of Alexandria, after which 
it gradually declined, and in the course of ages 
sunk into such utter decay that its very site, 
overwhelmed with drifted sand, was a matter 
of dispute among antiquaries. Modern re- 
searches have proved that the village of Mitra- 
henny or Mitranieh, 8. of Gizeh, marks the site 
of Memphis. Its remains extend over many 
hundred acres of ground, and include ruins of 
temples and of palaces, and statues, bass re- 
liefs, and inscriptions, to the number of sev- 
eral thousand. 

MEMPHREMAGOG, Lake, a body of water, 
about 35 m. long from N. to S. and from 
2 to 5 m. wide, situated partly in Vermont 
and partly in Quebec, Canada. It discharges 
through Magog river into the St. Francis, and 
thence into the St. Lawrence. The surround- 
ing scenery is picturesque. Along the W. 
shore are several mountains, prominent among 
which are Owl’s Head, Elephantis, and the 
Sugar Loaf; the E. shore presents a pleasing 
contrast. The lake is studded with islands, 
and abounds in fine fish. Near its head is the 


MENANDER 381 


village of Newport, and at its outlet Magog, 
between which a steamer plies in summer, 
accommodating the numerous visitors. 

MENAGE, Gilles, a French author,. born in 
Angers, Aug. 15, 1613, died in Paris, July 23, 
1692. After practising law for a short time 
he became a priest, and lived for a while with 
Cardinal de Retz, but finally established him- 
self in a house in the cloister of Notre Dame, 
where on Wednesdays he entertained numbers 
of wits and scholars. His wit and erudition 
became celebrated; his quarrels, his social rela- 
tions, and the epigrams and witticisms which 
they called forth, are prominent in the literary 
history of the 17th century. He wrote, among 
other works, Origines de la langue frangaise 
(1650), enlarged and published as Dictionnaire 
étymologique de la langue frangaise (1694); 
Poemata Latina, Gallica, Graca et Italica 
(1658); and Anti-Baillet (1685). After his 
death his friends published, under the title of 
Menagiana, a collection of his witticisms and 
table talk. The best edition is that by La 
Monnoye (2 vols., 1693-4). The second part 
of his Histoire de Sablé (1st part, 1686) was 
edited from the manuscript and published by 
J. B. Haureau in 1873. 

MENAI STRAIT, a narrow channel of Wales, 
which separates the island of Anglesea from 
Carnarvonshire. Its direction is nearly S. W. 
and N. E., its length about 13 m., and its 
breadth from 200 yards to2m. ‘The naviga- 
tion of this strait in some places is difficult and 
hazardous; but as the passage saves time and 
distance, vessels of 100 tons, and sometimes 
larger, pass through it. The first and last por- 
tions of each ebb and flow run in contrary 
directions in this strait, and the tides are very 
high, at the equinox sometimes rising to 30 
ft: The Menai channel is crossed by two 
bridges about a mile apart, the Menai suspen- 
sion bridge and the Britannia bridge. (See 
Brine, vol. iii., pp. 274, 275.) 

MENANDER, an Athenian dramatic poet, born 
in 342 B. C., died in 291. Alexis, the comic 
poet, was his paternal uncle, Theophrastus his 
preceptor, and Epicurus his intimate friend. 
Little is known of his life. His comedies 
gained him the patronage of Demetrius Pha- 
lereus, and of the first Ptolemy, who invited 
him to his court at Alexandria; this invitation 
he declined. His intimacy with Demetrius 
Phalereus involved him in danger after the 
expulsion of that statesman from Athens by 
Demetrius Poliorcetes; and he would have 
been put to death but for the intercession of 
Telesphorus, son-in-law of the latter. He is 
said to have been drowned while swimming in 
the harbor of Pireus. The Athenians raised 
a monument to his memory beside that of Eu- 
ripides, and placed his statue in the theatre. 
Menander was the greatest poet of the new 
comedy, which he purified from the coarseness 
and buffoonery of the old. His comedies, which 
were very numerous, maintained their place on 
the stage for some centuries, and were models 


382 MENARD 


for both Greeks and Romans. Of his imitators 
Terence was the most unscrupulous, his plays 
being almost entirely translations or aggrega- 
tions of those of his Hellenic master. The 
editio princeps of the fragments of Menander 
is that of Morellius (Paris, 1553) ; the best edi- 
tion is that of Meineke in his Fragmenta Comi- 
corum Grecorum (Berlin, 1841).—See Benoit, 
Essai historique et littéraire sur la comédie de 
Ménandre (Paris, 1854), and Guillaume Guizot, 
Ménandre, étude historique et littéraire (1855). 

MENARD. I. A W. county of Texas, inter- 
sected by San Saba river; area, 870 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1870, 667, of whom 372 were colored. 
The soil is fertile, and there is fine water pow- 
er. Silver mines are known to exist. In 
1870 there were 17,876 cattle. Capital, Me- 
nardville. If. A central county of Illinois, 
bounded N. partly by the Sangamon river, 
which intersectsit; area, 302 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 11,735. It has a level surface and pro- 
ductive soil. The Jacksonville division of the 
Chicago and Alton railroad passes through it. 
The chief productions in 1870 were 81,945 
bushels of wheat, 1,973,880 of Indian corn, 
235,091 of oats, 41,456 of potatoes, 37,551 Ibs. 
of wool, 237,575 of butter, and 13,323 tons of 
hay. There were 6,840 horses, 8,341 milch 
cows, 10,032 other cattle, 11,113 sheep, and 
26,942 swine; 7 manufactories of carriages, 8 
of brick, 6 of furniture, 5 of saddlery and har- 
ness, 1 of woollen goods, 4 flour mills, and 5 
saw mills. Capital, Petersburg. 

MENARD, René, a French missionary, born in 
Paris in 1604, died near Lake Superior in Au- 
gust, 1661. He entered the society of Jesus 
in 1624, and was the spiritual guide of the Dail- 
leboust family, prominent in the settlement of 
Montreal. Menard himself went thither in 
1640. He was soon after sent to the Nipis- 
sings in Upper Canada; after laboring among 
them and other Algonquin tribes till the Iro- 
quois completely overthrew the Hurons, he 
was stationed at Three Rivers. When a mis- 
sion was begun among the Iroquois, he was 
sent to Cayuga in 1656, and subsequently to 
Oneida, and labored with success, though at 
the risk of his life, and often subjected to per- 
sonal violence. After the breaking up of the 
Iroquois missions in 1658 and 1660, he was 
sent to the Ottawas on Lake Superior to begin 
a, mission in the far west. He suffered greatly 
from the brutality of the Indians, but reached 
their country and began a mission at St. Te- 
resa’s on Keweenaw bay. In the summer of 
1661 he-yielded to the appeal of some fugitive 
Hurons on the Black river, and while toiling 
to reach them was lost or cut off by Indians. 

MENASSEH BEN ISRAEL (properly Manassen 
BEN JOSEPH BEN IsRAEL), a Jewish rabbi, born 
in Portugal about 1604, died in Middelburg, 
Zealand, Nov. 20, 1657. His father fled from 
the inquisition to Holland, and settled at Am- 
sterdam, where the son was placed under the 
tuition of Rabbi Isaac Uziel. At the age of 18 
he succeeded his master in the office of preach- 


MENDELSSOHN 


er and expounder of the Talmud. He estab- 
lished a press in his own house, at which he 
printed three editions of the Bible, and several 
rabbinical books in the Hebrew and Spanish 
languages. When he was 35 years of age the 
family property was confiscated by the inqui- 
sition, and he resorted to commerce to retrieve 
his fortune. During the protectorate he wag 
favorably received by Cromwell, before whom 
he pleaded for the readmission of his coreli- 
gionists into England, writing for that purpose. 
his *‘ Defence of the Jews” (London, 1656), 
He was the author of #7 conciliador del Pen- 
tateucho (Amsterdam, 1632); Spes Israelis, in 
Latin and Spanish (London, 1650); and other 
works in Hebrew, Portuguese, and Spanish. 


-His “‘ Defence of the Jews”’ was translated into 


German by Mendelssohn. His life has been 
written by the Rev. Thomas Pococke (1709). 
MENCIUS, Meng-tse, or Mang-tsze. See Cuma, 
vol. iv., p. 478. 
MENDEANS. See CuristrAns or St. Jon. 
MENDANA ISLANDS. See Marquesas. 
MENDELSSOHN, Moses, a German philosopher, 
born in Dessau, Sept. 6, 1729, died Jan. 4, 1786. 
His father was a Jewish transcriber of the Pen- 
tateuch and master of a Hebrew day school. 
He was early sent to the public Talmud school, 
where he was taught the Mishnah and Gemara, 
and at the age of seven was usually called up 
at 3 or 4 o’clock in the morning to proceed to 
the severe tasks of the school. Even at that 
age he manifested a spirit of thorough inquiry, 
and mastered the Hebrew language, so that he 
could write it with purity and elegance. He 
subsequently conceived an enthusiastic love 
for the ‘‘Guide of the Perplexed” (Moreh 
nebukhim) of Maimonides, and his severe study 
of it laid the foundation at once of his men- 
tal culture and of a chronic nervous disease. 
About 1745 he followed his friend and teacher 
Rabbi Frankel to Berlin, and he lived there 
several years in extreme poverty. He be- 
came intimate with the mathematician Israel 
Moses, under whom he studied Euclid in a 
Hebrew translation, and with whom he dis- 
cussed what he read in Latin and German. 
Through other friends he obtained elemen- 
tary instruction in the French and English lan- 
guages. It had been his custom whenever he 
purchased a loaf to notch it according to his 
pecuniary prospects into so many meals, never 
eating according to his appetite, but to his 
finances. In 1750 he became acquainted with 
an opulent Jewish manufacturer named Bern- 
hard, and was admitted into his family at first 
as tutor to his children. In 1754 he became his 
bookkeeper. He now made the acquaintance 
of Lessing, and the latter pages of the Morgen- 
stunden record their enduring mutual affec- 
tion. Their recognized intimacy, and the ac- 
cession of Nicolai and Abbt to the circle, con- 
tributed much to overthrow the Judawophobia 
then so prevalent in Germany. In 1755 he 
published a treatise Ueber die Empfindungen, a 
profound disquisition on problems of esthetics. 


MENDELSSOHN BARTHOLDY 088 


This was followed by other short treatises, 
which were collected under the title of Philo- 
sophische Schriften (Berlin, 1761). He was 
one of the most active contributors to the Bi- 
bliothek der schénen Wissenschaften, and to the 
Briefe, die neueste Literatur betreffend. In 
1768 the royal academy of Berlin awarded him 
the prize for a memoir on the question: ‘ Are 
metaphysics susceptible of mathematical de- 
monstration?” though Kant was one of his 
competitors. The death of his first child in 
the same year was the occasion of his defend- 
ing Spalding against Abbt in their controversy 
on human destiny; and subsequently, imitating 
Plato’s ‘ Pheedo,” and adding all the arguments 
for the immortality of the soul suggested by the 
philosophy of later periods, he produced his 
Phedon, oder tiber die Unsterblichkeit der Seele 
(Berlin, 1767), which was soon translated into 
almost all European languages, as well as into 
Hebrew. Mendelssohn’s fame was at its height 
when he received a public challenge from La- 
vater either to refute Bonnet’s arguments in 
support of Christianity or to renounce Judaism. 
He answered the challenge with an adroitness 
and candor that drew from Lavater an apolo- 
gy and retraction of his peremptory address. 
The agitation caused by this matter induced 
a long and dangerous illness. Mendelssohn 
exerted an immense influence by his efforts 
for the elevation of his coreligionists. His 
German translation of the Pentateuch and met- 
rical version of the Psalms are admirable for 
elegance and perspicuity; and their publica- 
tion, accompanied by Scriptural comments in 
Hebrew by himself and a circle of friends, 
marks an epoch in the history of modern Ju- 
daism. In defence of the rights of his Jew- 
ish brethren he wrote the introduction to his 
translation of Rabbi Menasseh ben Israel’s 
“Defence of the Jews” (Berlin, 1782). In 
1783 appeared his Jerusalem, oder tiber religiése 
Macht und Judenthum, a vindication both of 
religious tolerance and of Judaism, and still 
one of the best books on those topics. He 
published in 1785 Morgenstunden, consisting of 
lectures on the existence of God. It contains 
an affectionate memorial of Lessing, and was 
the occasion of Jacobi’s letters to him Ueber 
die Lehre des Spinoza, in which Lessing was 
charged with being a Spinozist. Mendelssohn 
immediately answered in: a dissertation ad- 
dressed An die Freunde Lessings. His health 
was seriously injured by the excitement attend- 
ing this effort, and a slight cold terminated 
fatally. The most complete edition of his 
works appeared under the care of his grand- 
son G. B. Mendelssohn (7 vols., Leipsic, 1843- 
5). His life has been written, among others, 
by Samuels (2d ed., London, 1822) and Kay- 
serling (Berlin, 1862). 
MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY, Felix, a German 
composer, born in Hamburg, Feb. 3, 1809, died 
in Leipsic, Nov. 4, 1847. He was a grandson 
of Moses Mendelssohn. His father, Abraham 
Mendelssohn, had added the name of Bartholdy 
546 VOL. x1.—25 


to his own, out of regard to his wife, a lady of 
the Bartholdy family. He became a convert 
to Christianity, and Felix was brought up in 
the Lutheran faith in Berlin, where his father 
had founded with his brother Joseph the bank- 
ing firm of Mendelssohn and co., still contin- 
ued by the brothers of Felix. Goethe was 
foremost among the many distinguished per- 
sons who became interested in his precocious 
genius. He was not six years old when he dis- 
played his skill on the piano. Zelter became his 
instructor in composition, the concert master 
Hemming on the violin, and Ludwig Berger on 
the piano. In his ninth year he gave his first 
public concert in Berlin, and a year afterward 
he gave one in Paris. From that time he be- 
gan to write compositions for the piano, violin, 
viola, and violoncello; and three of his quar- 
tets published in 1824 still hold a place among 
classical musical works. In 1825 he made a 
second journey to Paris with his father, who 
at length determined to let his son devote him- 
self exclusively to music. He gave successful 
concerts in Paris in company with Baillot, and 
after his return to Berlin produced in 1827 his 
first opera, Die Hochzeit des Gamacho, in which 
the principal characters of Cervantes’s ‘‘ Don 
Quixote” are introduced. But the music met 
with acold reception, and the opera was im- 
mediately withdrawn. He now travelled sev- 
eral years in England, France, and Italy. His 
overture to Shakespeare’s ‘‘ Midsummer Night’s 
Dream,” composed in 1826, was received with 
unbounded admiration. The rest of the music 
for that play was written by him afterward as an 
accompaniment to its performance. He spent 
some time in Edinburgh, and immortalized the 
popular music of the Scotch bagpipers by his 
symphony in A minor, since called the Scottish 
symphony, which was first performed under 
his own direction by the London philharmonic 
society. Many other reminiscences of his tour 
through the highlands are to be found in his 
compositions and his orchestral pieces. His 
overture Die Hebriden reproduces the impres- 
sions which the wild shores of the Hebrides had 
made upon him. He endeavored to establish, 
in concert with Immermann, musical and dra- 
matic entertainments at Diisseldorf, to consist 
solely of the most select productions. This en- 
terprise failed, but increased his reputation as 
a conscientious artist. His residence at Berlin 
was embittered by the intrigues of his oppo- 
nents, and in 1835 he accepted the directorship 
of the famous Leipsic Gewandhaus concerts, 
which under his care attained to an unprece- 
dented degree of perfection. He wasmore ap- 
preciated in England than in his own country, 
chiefly on account of his compositions of sacred 
music. His:oratorio “St. Paul,” after being 
produced at Diisseldorf and Leipsic, was per- 
formed under his own direction at the Bir- 
mingham festival of Sept. 20, 1837, where it 
was received with great enthusiasm. His fame 
rests in a great measure upon this oratorio and 
upon that of “Elijah,” which was written for 


8384 MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY 


the Birmingham festival, the first performance 
taking place there Aug. 26, 1846. Mendels- 
sohn had been engaged for nine years upon 
this composition, and had resigned the post of 
inspector of music in Berlin in order to super- 
intend its performance in England; and short- 
ly before his death he was again in London to 
attend the sacred harmonic society’s concert at 
Exeter Hall. He had resumed his place at 
Leipsic since 1845; and shortly after his return 
there from his visit to England in 1847, his 
health was impaired by grief at the sudden 
death of his beloved sister Fanny Hensel. A 
tour to Switzerland for the recovery of his 
strength brought only temporary relief; a re- 
lapse took place soon after his return to Leip- 
sic, and he died in the prime of his manhood 
from an affection of the brain. Many of his 
posthumous compositions have been published, 
including a fragment of an oratorio entitled 
‘“‘ Christus,” some scenes of ‘ Loreley,” a ro- 
mantic opera, the trumpet overture, the 8th 
book of his ‘‘Songs without Words,” and the 
“Reformation”? symphony. Among the most 
famous of his many published works are his 
music for Goethe’s “ Walpurgis Night,” the 
‘‘ Antigone” and ‘* dipus” of Sophocles, and 
Racine’s Athalie, organ compositions, his sym- 
phonies, and a great number of admirable sona- 
tas, concertos, trios, &c. In his “Songs with- 
out Words” for the pianoforte, Mendelssohn 
opened a new vein of beauty, and produced an 
indispensable work for pianists by throwing 
aside language and replacing it with musical 
sentiment, at the same time keeping in view 
the scope and character of the instrument, and 
inventing charming traits of accompaniment. 
Mendelssohn’s appreciation of dramatic effect, 
so remarkably displayed in his music to the 
‘Midsummer Night’s Dream,” led his friends 
to expect from him important contributions 
to the lyrical drama; but his admiration for 
Bach and Handel and the difficulty that his 
fastidious taste found in obtaining a satisfac- 
tory libretto led him to devote himself to oth- 
er branches of musical composition. In his 
oratorios he had the tact to write dramatically, 
and with freedom from too constant a use of 
fugue and from antiquated formalisms. Men- 
delssohn was as much beloved for the beauty 
of his character as for his genius. His life was 
comparatively free from struggles and cares, 
and from his earliest childhood he was per- 
mitted to indulge his tastes without hindrance. 
Ne devoted himself exclusively to his profes- 
sion, with severe study and a serene and dis- 
passionate mind.—His life has been written 
by W. A. Lampadius (Leipsic, 1848; English 
translation, New York, 1865). See also “‘ Rec- 
ollections of F. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,” by 
Edward Devrient (English translation, London, 
1869); Goethe und Mendelssohn, by Karl Men- 
delssohn (English translation, London, 1872) ; 
and Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Briefe und Erin- 
nerungen, by Ferdinand Hiller (Cologne, 1874; 
English translation, London, 1874). 


MENDEZ PINTO 


MENDES, a city of ancient Egypt, situated in 
the delta, near the point where the Mendesian 
arm of the Nile flows into the lake of Tanis. 
It was a considerable place under the Pha- 
raohs, was one of the homes assigned to that 
division of the native army called by Herodotus 
Calasiries, and was celebrated for the manufac- 
ture of a perfume known as the Mendesium 
unguentum. It was in ruins in the first cen- 
tury B. C.; its remains are seen in the mounds 
of Ashmoun on the canal leading to Menzaleh. 
It was the seat of the worship of a deity rep- 
resented under the form of a goat, whom the 
Greek writers on Egypt call Pan, but who was 
probably Khem, one of the great gods of Egypt, 
and the symbol of the generative principle. 

MENDEZ PINTO, Fernam, a Portuguese adven- 
turer, born near Coimbra about 1510, died near 
Lisbon, July 8, 1583. At an early age he went 
to the East Indies, and in 1537 embarked as a 
volunteer against the Turks in the Indian ocean 
and Red sea. After various adventures he was 
captured by the Turks near the strait of Bab- 
el-Mandeb, carried to Mocha, sold as a slave, 
and ransomed by the Portuguese governor of 
Ormuz, who furnished him with the means of 
returning to India. He was afterward em- 
ployed in several expeditions, was again en- 
slaved and ransomed, and was involved in ship- 
wrecks and conflicts with pirates. In May, 
1542, he and some other Portuguese were per- 
suaded by a Chinese pirate to undertake an 
expedition to the island of Calempui, not far 
from Peking, where, as they were led to be- 
lieve, were the tombs of 17 Chinese kings, con- 
taining vast treasures. Their attempt to plun- 
der these tombs was only partially successful, 
and they fled terrified at the alarm raised by 
the guardians of the treasures.. Shortly after- 
ward they were again shipwrecked on the Chi- 
nese coast. Pinto with a few others got on 
shore; but they were apprehended as thieves 
and set to work in repairing the great wall. 
In a few months they were delivered by an in- 
road of Tartars, who carried them to assist in 
the siege of Peking, and then took them to 
Tartary. After a short residence in that coun- 
try Pinto went in the train of an ambassador 
to Cochin-China, and from there made his way 
to Macao. Here he enlisted in the service of 
a Chinese pirate, whose vessel was driven by 
a gale to the coast, of Japan, which had not 
then been visited by Europeans. Pinto was 
well received by the Japanese, and after a con- 
siderable stay in their country he sailed back 
to Ningpo (then called Liampo) with the Chi- 
nese pirate. His report of the discovery of 
Japan and its great wealth and magnificence 
created such an excitement among the Portu- 
guese at Ningpo, that in 15 days nine hastily 
equipped ships were despatched for the new 
Eldorado. Eight of them foundered, and the 
one in which Pinto sailed was driven to the 
Loo Choo islands, then first seen by Europeans, 
and wrecked there. After many fresh adven- 
tures Pinto found his way back to China. He 


MENDICANTS 


next visited Pegu, Siam, Java, and some of the 
neighboring countries, and in 1547 he made 
a second voyage to Japan. Soon after his ar- 
rival there a civil war broke out, in which 


Pinto took part for a while; and having re- 


turned to Malacca, he met St. Francis Xavier, 
‘**the apostle of the Indies,”’ with whom in the 
course of a few months he made a third visit 
to Japan, arriving there in August, 1548. By 
these voyages Pinto acquired great wealth, and 
in 1553 he was at Goa, preparing to return to 
Portugal, when the arrival there of the body 
of Xavier, and his conferences with the Jesu- 
its, so excited his religious enthusiasm, that he 
devoted his whole fortune, except 2,000 crowns 
which he sent to his poor relations in Portu- 
gal, to the foundation of a seminary for propa- 
gating the faith in Japan. He was then ap- 
pointed ambassador from the Portuguese vice- 
roy of India to the prince of Bungo in Japan. 
Before setting out he took the vows as a Jes- 
uit; but on his arrival in Japan his zeal evapo- 
rated, and he was released from his vows. He 
returned to Lisbon, where he arrived Sept. 
22, 1558, bearing to the queen regent a letter 
from the viceroy at Goa, recommending him 
warmly to the favor of the government. He 
spent afew years in attendance on the court, 
which brought him nothing but promises, and 
which he says were more tedious and harassing 
than his 21 years of service in the East, where 
he had been 13 times taken by the enemy, and 
17 times sold asa slave. The first extant ac- 
count of his travels and adventures is given in 
a collection of Jesuits’ letters published in Ital- 
ian at Venice in 1565. He wrote a full narra- 
tive of his life, which was published by Fran- 
cisco de Andrada under the title of Peregri- 
nacgao de Kernam Mendez Pinto (4to, Lisbon, 
1614), A Spanish translation by Francisco de 
Herrera, in which great liberties were taken 
with the original, appeared in 1620; a French 
translation was made by Bernard Figuier, of 
which three editions have been printed (Paris, 
1628, 1645, and 1830), and an English transla- 
tion by H. Cogan, of which there have been 
two editions (London, 1663 and 1692). Pin- 
to’s reputation has suffered greatly by an oft 
quoted line in Congreve’s ‘‘ Love for Love: ” 
‘Ferdinand Mendez Pinto was but a type of 
thee, thou liar of the first magnitude!” But 
it is now admitted that his general veracity 
cannot be disputed. 

MENDICANTS, or Begging Friars. 
GIous ORDERS. 

MENDIZABAL, Juan Alvarez y, a Spanish finan- 
cier, born in Cadiz about 1790, died in Madrid, 
Noy. 8, 1858. He was the son of a trader of 
Jewish descent named Mendez, and in 1808 ob- 
tained employment in the victualling depart- 
ment of the French army in Spain. In 1819 
he took part in the secret movements which 
culminated in the revolution of the following 
year, and subsequently aided the constitutienal 
government in the negotiation of loans. Flee- 
ing to England on the suppression of the rev- 


See ReEtt- 


MENDOZA 385 


olution, he was imprisoned at the instance of 
English capitalists whom he had induced to 
take parts of aloan. After the recovery of his 
liberty he founded in London a commercial 
establishment with the aid of funds deposited 
with him by a friend. He formed the acquain- 
tance of an agent of Dom Pedro of Portugal, 
and in 1827 negotiated a loan for him. This 
and other operations gave him an extensive 
reputation both in England and Spain, which 
in June, 1835, led to his appointment as minis- 
ter of finance in the cabinet of Toreno; but he 
continued to reside in London, where in Au- 
gust he negotiated a loan for the Spanish gov- 
ernment. On his return to Madrid he became 
president of the council. The cortes placed 
100,000 men at his disposal, and gave him full 
authority to bring the civil war to a close. 
But he injured the credit of the government 
by jobbing transactions, increased the public 
debt, dissolved the cortes (Jan. 27, 1836), in- 
sulted the French ambassador, who opposed 
his influence, and was compelled to resign (May 
15). His reappointment as minister of finance 
(Sept. 11) caused great indignation, and on 
Aug. 10, 1837, he withdrew from office. In 
1841, under Espartero, he was once more min- 
ister of finance, but shared his fall in July, 
1848. He afterward lived in great splendor 
for several years in Paris. 

MENDOCINO, a N. W. county of California, 
bordering on the Pacific, and drained by the 
head waters of Eel and Russian rivers, and by 
numerous other streams; area, 3,816 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1870, 7,545, of whom 129 were Chi- 
nese. The interior is mountainous, but gener- 
ally adapted to agriculture or grazing. Along 
the coast the mountain sides are covered with 
forests of redwood. The chief productions in 
1870 were 95,639 bushels of wheat, 129,971 of 
oats, 64,670 of barley, 83,473 of potatoes, 178,- 
493 lbs. of wool, 62,692 of butter, 59,400 of 
hops, and 10,116 tons of hay. There were 
4,405 horses, 3,431 milch cows, 7,906 other 
cattle, 49,839 sheep, and 18,109 swine; 2 flour 
mills, 15 saw mills, and 6 manufactories of 
saddlery and harness. Capital, Ukiah. 

MENDOZA. I. AS. W. province of the Ar- 
gentine Republic, bounded N. by San Juan, E. 
by San Luis, 8. by the unsettled districts W. 
of Buenos Ayres, and W. by Chili, from which 
it is separated by the Andes; area, 65,000 
sq. m.; pop. in 1869, including inhabitants 
of foreign birth, 65,413. The entire western 
portion of the province is mountainous, being 
covered by the main chain and detached spurs 
of the Andes; while to the east is a ridge ex- 
tending southward from the province of San 
Juan and forming the dividing line with San 
Luis, being a continuation of the Famatina 
mountains of La Rioja. In the vicinity of 
the capital rises the Paramillos chain, whose 
maximum elevation is about 10,000 ft., and 
near these lies the lofty valley of Uspallata, 
with a mean elevation of 6,000 ft. Among 
the peaks skirting this part of the republic 


386 


are some of the highest in the Andes, in- 
cluding Aconcagua, the culminating point of 
America; and at the extreme south are the 
Nevada and Payen systems, the former attain- 
ing to a height of 15,000 ft. Nearly all the 
mountains here referred to are volcanoes, some 
of which are in continual eruption. The prin- 
cipal rivers are the Mendoza and the Tunuyan, 
the first descending from Aconcagua, and each 
forming several lagoons from which extend 
natural canals very useful for irrigation. 
Agates, amethysts, carnelians, and sapphires 
are found. Several gold mines were formerly 
worked; in the Uspallata valley are mines of 
argentiferous lead; copper, iron, lime, chalk, 
pumice stone, coal, pitch, petroleum, and beau- 
tiful marbles are very abundant. Mineral 
springs are common in the west; and there 
are thermal springs celebrated for their me- 
dicinal properties, and for a copious yield of 
boracic acid. The climate is salubrious, and 
the soil is generally fertile, save in the south, 
where it is naturally sterile, but improved by 
irrigation and manuring. The chief products 
of the forests are white and black poplar; ce- 
reals of all kinds are abundant, as are also the 
grape and a great variety of other fruits; and 
cotton, tobacco, and hemp grow well. Cotton 
and woollen stuffs are manufactured, and several 
sorts of fruit are preserved; but there is great 
lack of means of transport to the sea. Most of 
the products are sent across the Andes by the 
paso del Portillo into Chili. There are numer- 
ous schools; but of 17,216 children between 
6 and 14 years in 1869, only 2,132 attended 
school; and 55,395 persons out of the whole 
population could neither read nor write. Men- 
doza is divided into twelve departments. It 
formed a part of the captaincy general of Chili 
till 1776, when it was annexed to the viceroy- 
alty of La Plata, Il. A city, capital of the prov- 
ince, 610 m. W. N. W. of Buenos Ayres; pop. 
in 1869, 8,124. It is surrounded by several 
canals, one of which traverses the town, and the 
banks of all of which are fringed with poplars. 
Every available spot of land in the vicinity is 
highly cultivated. The chief occupations are 
agriculture, wine making, and fruit preserving. 
It was almost totally destroyed by an earth- 
quake in 1861, but is in rapid course of recon- 
struction. In 1776 Mendoza was made the seat 
of government of the viceroyalty of La Plata. 

MENDOZA, a family of Spain, several of whose 
members have been distinguished. I. Ifigo 
Lopez de, marquis de Santillana, born at Carrion 
de los Condes in 1398, died in Guadalajara, 
March 26, 1458. He inherited vast estates 
from his father, the grand admiral of Castile. 
He was successful against the Aragonese in the 
battle of Araviana and the defence of Alcala, 
and as commander of the army sent against the 
Moors, whom he repeatedly overthrew; for all 
which exploits he obtained the titles of count 
and marquis. He afterward went to court, 
and took part in the internecine struggles of 
the kingdom. He cultivated letters, and was 


MENDOZA 


the friend and protector of the learned of his 
time. The peculiarly Italian form of the son- 
net was introduced by him into Spain. His 
chief production is the Comedieta de Ponza, 
founded on the story of a naval combat near 
the island of Ponza in 1485; his most popular 
is the Refranes, “‘ Proverbs,” sometimes called 
the Centiloguio, as it comprises 100 rhymed 
sentences. His other productions embrace 
sonnets, a Canto funebre on the death of En- 
rique de Villena, critical and historical disser- 
tations, and poems. If. Pedro Gonzales de, son 
of the preceding, born in Castile in May, 1428, 
died in Guadalajara, Jan. 11, 1495. Before 
1473 he was archbishop of Seville, and in that 
year he became cardinal of Spain. He distin- 
guished himself in the battle of Toro, March 
1, 1476, and shortly afterward accompanied 
Queen Isabella to put down the rebellion at 
Segovia. . In 1479 he showed much favor to 
the persecuted Jews. He was translated to 
the archbishopric of Toledo in 1482, and ap- 
pointed grand guardian of the Alhambra in 
1492. From his great influence at the court 
of Ferdinand and Isabella, he was usually 
called rea tertius, ‘the third king.” TL. Diego 
Hurtado de, son of the count Tendilla, and 
grandnephew of the marquis de Santillana, 
born in Granada about 1503, died in Madrid in 
April, 1575. He was educated at the univer- 
sity of Salamanca, and learned Arabic at Gra- 
nada, where he wrote his Lazarillo de Tormes 
(Antwerp and Burgos, 1554). This is a satiri- 
cal romance, and became the foundation for 
the whole class of Spanish fictions in the género 
prcaresco, which the Gil Blas of Le Sage sub- 
sequently made famous throughout Europe. 
The Lazarillo was attributed by a conscien- 
tious authority to José de Sigiienza. (See 
Nicolas Antonio’s Bibliotheca Nova, vol. i., p. 
291.) <A Paris edition was published in 1620, 
and a French translation (including a second 
part from another pen, very inferior to Men- 
doza’s) in the same year. The first part was 
prohibited by the inquisition. After leaving 
the university he served in the Spanish armies 
in Italy, where he profited by the teaching of 
the professors at Bologna, Padua, and Rome. 
Charles V. sent him as ambassador to the re- 
public of Venice in 1538, and there he exerted 
himself for the collection of Greek manu- 
scripts. He was charged with the imperial in- 
terests in the council of Trent, whence he was 
withdrawn in 1547, to command the Spanish 
garrison at Siena. Having been expelled from 
Siena by the inhabitants, he set out immediate- 
ly as special plenipotentiary to Rome. For six 
years he was regarded as the head of the im- 
perial party throughout Italy. He returned to 
Spain when the emperor changed his policy 
before abdication. Philip IJ. banished him 
from court in 1567, and he retired to Granada. 
Toward the end of 1574 he was permitted to 
return to Madrid; but he soon died. His 
poems display the old Castilian national tone 
of sentiment and reflection, modified by his 


MENELAUS 


familiarity with the classical and Italian poets. 
His epistle to Boscan and hymn to Espinosa 
attest at once great genius and vast classical 
erudition. There is but one edition of his 
poems (4to, Madrid, 1610). His principal his- 
torical work is the Guerra contra los Moriscos, 
a record of the Moorish insurrection. The 
author is so impartial with respect to the ene- 
mies of his faith and people that the book 
could not be published till long after his death 
(Valencia, 1776). His life by Antonio is con- 
tained in the Libliotheca Nova. IV. Antonio de, 
brother of the preceding, born in Granada 
about 1495, died in Lima, July 21, 1552. On 
April 17, 15385, he was appointed viceroy of 
New Spain, where he arrived in October, in- 
vested with full power to act in opposition 
to previous royal orders. His administration 
was distinguished by many wise reforms, espe- 
cially in matters concerning the Indians, whose 
sufferings were materially alleviated by his 
efforts. In 1536 he introduced into the city 
of Mexico the printing press, the first brought 
to the new world, and the first coining, in the 
same year, was done by his orders; he also 
founded the first college there (1537). In 
1551 he was transferred to the viceroyalty of 
Peru. He was the first. of a series of 64 vice- 
roys in New Spain, and his administration was 
the longest and most illustrious of them all. 
MENELAUS, one of the Homeric heroes, king 
of Lacedemon, son of Atreus and younger 
brother of Agamemnon, and husband of Helen. 
After his wife had eloped with Paris, he and 
Ulysses proceeded to Troy to demand her res- 
titution. In the war which followed the re- 
fusal he repeatedly distinguished himself, slay- 
ing many Trojans in single combat. He also 
engaged Paris, and would have killed him had 
not Venus interfered and enabled her favorite 
to escape. Menelaus was one of the warriors 
concealed in the famous wooden horse. On 
recovering Helen he embarked for home; but 
when he arrived off Cape Malea Jupiter sent a 
storm which scattered his fleet, and drove his 
ship as far as Egypt. With the exception of 
Ulysses, he was the last of the Hellenic heroes 
that reached Greece. He is said to have been 
the father of several children by Helen. 
MENENDEZ DE AVILES, Pedro, a Spanish ad- 
miral, colonizer of Florida, born at Aviles in 
1519, died in Santander, Sept. 17, 1574. He 
cruised for many years against French cor- 
sairs, on his own account and under commis- 
sion from Charles V., with great success. 
Philip II. appointed him captain general of 
the India fleets, and his councillor. He con- 
veyed Philip from Corunna to England to 
marry Queen Mary. Returning to Spain, he 
engaged some pirates on the way, took com- 
mand of the India fleet, and, running across, 
returned with a valuable fleet long before he 
could have been expected. He next swept 
away the piratical vessels hovering on ‘the 
coast of Spain: then with only four vessels he 
earried to the Low Countries money and reén- 


MENENDEZ DE AVILES 387 


forcements that enabled Philip to win the bat- 
tle of St. Quentin. He was constantly em- 
ployed during the war, and toward the close 
he crossed France in disguise, to fit out a fleet 
to convey Philip back to Spain. He landed 
the king and court with his usual celerity. 
He was next made general of the India fleet, 
and did not return to Spain till July, 1560. 
In 1565 he was appointed adelantado of Flor- 
ida, with orders to plant a colony. While 
preparations were on foot, tidings came that 
French Huguenots, under the auspices of Co- 
ligni, had settled in Florida. The desire of 
breaking up this colony led to increasing the 
force of Menendez. His fleet of 84 vessels 
carried 2,646 persons, including cultivators, 
mechanics, priests, and soldiers. He sailed 
from Cadiz June 29, 1565, and vessels for his 
colony sailed about the same time from other 
ports of Spain. On reaching Porto Rico in 
August, with a small part of his force, Me- 
nendez heard that Ribault had reénforced the 
French, and that a Spanish vessel had been 
captured. He ran into the St. John’s river, 
and announced to the French his name and 
his purpose of exterminating them. He then 
returned to St. Augustine, which he discov- 
ered and named. Ribault followed and at- 
tempted to invest him; but he was driven off 
by a storm, and Menendez resolved to proceed 
overland and surprise the French fort, and 
carried out his plans amid great difficulties. 
Fort Caroline was captured, and nearly all the 
colonists of both sexes were put to the sword; 
some escaped with Laudonniére to the French 
ships, and about 70 were spared. Menendez 
garrisoned the fort, called it San Mateo, and 
returned to St. Augustine. Meanwhile Ribault 
had been wrecked on the coast, and after 
much suffering from hunger he and his fol- 
lowers surrendered on promise of mercy from 
Menendez. With atrocious perfidy and cruelty 
they were nearly all put to death. (See Ri- 
BAULT.) Menendez then pushed on his works 
at St. Augustine, and established Fort Santa 
Lucia at Cape Carnaveral, and Santa Elena at 
Port Royal harbor, §. C. The next year San- 
cho de Arciniega brought out 1,500 more set- 
tlers with supplies. Menendez sent up to ex- 
plore the coast as far as St. Mary’s, now Ches- 
apeake bay. He then returned to Spain to 
report what he had effected. During his ab- 
sence Dominique de Gourgues, a French ad- 
venturer, captured San Mateo and avenged the 
massacre of the French. (See Goureves.) In 
1570 Menendez sent a vessel with a colony 
of Jesuits ‘to begin a mission on the Rappa- 
hannock. An Indian chief, who had been in 
Mexico and Spain and become a Christian, 
was their guide, but he turned traitor, and the 
whole party were massacred. Menendez on 
his return from Spain in 1572, hearing of the 
destruction of the colony, at once sailed up 
the Potomac and avenged the massacre. He 
then explored the whole coast, and was devo- 
ting himself to the increase of his colony when 


888 MENES 


MENHADEN 


the king appointed him to command a fleet | ductions in 1870 were 1,760 bushels of wheat, 


destined against the Low Countries. While 
pushing forward the preparations he died. 

MENES. See Eeypt, vol. vi., p. 459. 

MENGS, Anton Rafael, a German painter, born 
at Aussig, Bohemia, March 12, 1728, died in 
Rome, June 29, 1779. His father, a minia- 
ture painter, took him when a child to Dres- 
den, and compelled him to pursue his art stud- 
ies without relaxation. Young Mengs throve 
so well under this severe treatment, that in 
his eighth year he designed a subject from the 
AMneid, and at 14 was a skilful painter. In 
1741 his father took him to Rome, and com- 
pelled him to devote nearly his whole time 
to the study of the works of Raphael and the 
old masters in the Vatican, of which he made 
several copies in miniature for Augustus III. 
of Poland and Saxony. Returning to Dresden 
at the end of three years, he was appointed 
court painter, with permission to return to 
Rome, where he established his reputation by 
a holy family, the figure of the Virgin in 
which was painted from a beautiful peasant 
girl, whom he subsequently married. In 1749 
he was again in Dresden, but in 1751 obtained 
the permission of the elector to return to 
Rome. Here he undertook the direction of 
the new academy of art. Among the works 
which he executed in the next few years were 
a copy of Raphael’s ‘School of Athens” for 
Lord Percy, afterward duke of Northumber- 
land, the frescoes in the church of San Euse- 
bio (1757), and those of ‘‘ Apollo and the Mu- 
ses on Parnassus” in the villa Albani, which 
were engraved by Raphael Morghen. The 
king of Naples, on succeeding to the throne of 
Spain as Charles III., invited him in 1761 to 
Madrid, where he executed a number of works 
in the royal palace, including his ‘‘ Aurora.” 
In 1770 he again went to Italy, where he 
executed a great allegorical screen painting. 
After three years he returned to Madrid, and 
produced several works, including his master- 
piece, the ‘“‘ Apotheosis of Trajan.” On a 
visit to Monaco he painted his picture of the 
“‘ Nativity.” In 1776 he returned to Rome for 
the last time. His merits have been much ex- 
aggerated by his friends, and quite as much 
underrated by others. As a theorist and wri- 
ter on art he is still a standard authority, and 
his remarks on the antique and criticisms of 
the works of the old masters were highly es- 
teemed by the artists of his own age as well 
as by Winckelmann, Lanzi, and other eminent 
critics and historians of art. His writings 
were published under the title Opere di An- 
tonio Raffaelle Mengs (Parma, 1780), and have 
been translated into Spanish, German, Eng- 
lish, and French. 

MENIFEE, an E. county of Kentucky, bound- 
ed N. E. by Licking river and 8. by Red river, 
a tributary of the Kentucky; area, about 450 
sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 1,986, of whom 16 were 
colored. The surface is hilly and broken; the 
soil ig generally productive. The chief pro- 


ous, but abounded in jests and sarcasms. 


73,725 of Indian corn, 10,662 of oats, and 
4,111 of potatoes. There were 384 horses, 
467 milch cows, 667 other cattle, 2,116 sheep, 
and 2,180 swine. Capital, Frenchburg. 

MENINGITIS. See Brain, DISEASES OF THE, 
vol. iii., p. 200. 

MENIPPUS, a cynic philosopher, originally a 
slave, a native of Gadara in Syria, lived toward 
the close of the 4th, or, according to others, 
about the middle of the 1st century B. C. He 
amassed great wealth by usury, but was cheat- 
ed out of it, and committed suicide in despair. 
He was the author of 18 treatises, all of which 
are lost. His works contained nothing ols 

u- 
cian, in his ‘Dialogues of the Dead,” makes 
Diogenes describe him as an old bald-headed 
man in a tattered cloak, incessantly ridiculing 
the pedantry of his brother philosophers. 

MENHADEN, a North American fish of the 
herring family, and genus alosa (Cuv.), which 
differs from the herrings (clwpea) in having a 
deep notch in the centre of the upper jaw. 
This fish’ (A. menhaden, Storer), called also 


Menhaden (Alosa menhaden), 


hardhead and mossbunker by fishermen, varies 
in length from 8 to 14 in.; the color above is 
greenish brown, darkest on the top of the 
head and at the snout; upper part of sides 
roseate with indistinct bluish mottlings, disap- 
pearing after death; abdomen silvery, gill 
covers cupreous, a black spot upon the shoul- 
ders, and the whole surface iridescent. The 
body is elongated and compressed, the gill 
covers very large, eyes moderate, gape large, 
and lower jaw the shorter. This species 
comes into Massachusetts bay in May, and de- 
parts in November; great quantities are taken 
in nets around the outer islands of Boston 
harbor during the night; sometimes 100 bar- 
rels are taken at one haul, and such as are not 
ground up for bait are sold for food at about 
half a cent each; being rather oily, they are 
not very palatable, but make excellent ma- 
nure. A single menhaden of common size is 
considered equal in richness to a shovelful of 
barnyard manure; in some parts of Cape Cod 
they are sold at $1 a thousand, and 2,500 are 
considered sufficient for an acre of land; the 
odor arising from their decomposing bodies is 
almost unendurable. They are found from 
the British provinces to the coast of New Jer- 
sey, Swimming in countless numbers near the 
surface, and attended by sharks, bluefish, gulls, 
and other predaceous species. They are never 


MENNONITES 


found in fresh water.—Menhaden oil is of val- 
ue, being used principally in leather dressing, 
but also to some extent in rope making and 
for painting. The scrap or refuse, after ex- 
tracting the oil from the boiled fish, is used in 
the manufacture of fertilizers. The business 
of catching menhaden for oil and guano has 
within 15 years assumed extensive propor- 
tions. It is carried on from Maine to New 
Jersey, and is especially prominent in the E. 
portion of Long Island. They are caught 
chiefly in purse nets as far out as 30 m. from 
land, but also in shore seines and other nets. 
Those taken on the Maine coast yield more oil 
than those caught further south. In 1878 there 
were 62 factories in operation on the coast of 
New York and New England, employing 383 
sailing vessels and 20 steamers, with 2,306 
men on shore and at sea; capital invested, 
$2,388,000; total catch, 1,193,100 barrels (250 
fish to a barrel), yielding 2,214,800 gallons of 
oil and 36,299 tons of guano; value of prod- 
ucts, about $1,600,000. 

MENNONITES, a denomination of Protestants 
who reject infant baptism and baptize adult 
persons only on a profession of faith, and prac- 
tise non-resistance and abstinence from oaths. 
They thus combine some of the leading prin- 
ciples of the Baptists with some of the distinc- 
tive views of the Friends, though historically 
they preceded both. Originally they were 
called by their opponents Anabaptists, while 
they called themselves in Switzerland and 
south Germany Jéufer, i. e., baptizers; in the 
Netherlands Doopsgezinde, 7. e., persons hold- 
ing special views as to baptism. They were 
called Mennonites because they were reorgan- 
ized and more fully indoctrinated by Menno 
Symons. The chief points in their history are 
the following. In January, 1525, at Zurich, 
two young scholars, Conrad Grebel and Felix 
Manz, and a former monk, George Blaurock, 
organized the first church which professed all 
the leading principles of the body. They rap- 
idly spread in Switzerland, being most numer- 
ous at St. Gall. Persecution soon drove many 
of them to southern Germany, where Augsburg 
and Strasburg became their strongholds. Here 
also persecution broke out, and more than 
3,000 of them suffered martyrdom in Swabia, 
Bavaria, Austria, and Tyrol. They found ref- 
uge in Moravia, where they greatly increased, 
until the thirty years’ war drove them away. 
About 1545 a confession of faith was published 
by them in Moravia (republished, Berlin, 1869), 
which distinctly enjoins pouring as the mode 
of baptism. When in 1527 and 1528 various 
leaders of the Anabaptists had perished at the 
stake, enthusiasts rose in their places. The 
chief among these was Melchior Hoffmann, a 
Swabian, through whom the principles of the 
Anabaptists, mixed with his chiliastic views, 
were first disseminated in the Netherlands. 
His fanatical follower, John Matthias of Haar- 
lem, in 1588 inaugurated the atrocities of Min- 
ster in Westphalia, which, though committed 


B89 


by men who had deviated from the original 
principles of the sect, were charged to the 
whole body. The history of the Dutch Men- 
nonites, as after the accession of Menno Sy- 
mons the Anabaptists were called, is written 
in blood. About 6,000 of them suffered mar- 
tyrdom under the rule of Philip II. of Spain. 
When the Netherlands rose for their indepen- 
dence, William of Orange favored them, but 
other leaders of the reformed party opposed 
them, and it was not till 1651 that toleration 
was secured to them by a general law. Besides 
oppression, internal dissensions greatly checked 
their growth. In 1557 they were divided into 
two parties, the more rigid being called the 
Frisians, the more moderate the Flemings, to 
which a third party, the Waterlanders, was 
soon added. The points of difference between 
these parties related only to church order and 
discipline. About the middle of the 17th cen- 
tury doctrinal dissensions brought about new 
divisions. All Mennonites agreed in doctrine 
with the Remonstrants or Arminians of Hol- 
land; but when some of them, with a large 
part of the Remonstrants, adopted Socinian 
views, the other Mennonite churches opposed 
them. It was not till 1801 that all Dutch 
Mennonites were reunited in one body and 
founded a theological seminary at Amsterdam. 
At present they enjoy full religious liberty, 
and are highly respected; many of them are 
among the richest men in the country; but 
their number has decreased from 160,000 in 
1700 to fewer than 20,000 in 1873.—In Switz- 
erland the Mennonites, up to the middle of the 
present century, were oppressed in many ways, 
one of which was, that their infants were for- 
cibly taken from them to be christened. In 
consequence of this, large numbers emigrated 
to Alsace and the Palatinate. At present they 
number in Switzerland and southern Germany 
about 8,000 communicants, and in East Fries- 
land, the province of West Prussia, and other 
parts of northern Germany, about the same 
number. They are more numerous in southern 
Russia, whither they began to emigrate from 
West Prussia in 1783, settling first on the 
banks of the Dnieper, and later near the sea of 
Azov. Here they acquired considerable wealth, 
and in 1870 formed a population of about 40,- 
000. By special decrees of the emperors they 
were exempted from military duty. In 1871, 
however, this privilege was abolished, and no 
alternative was left them except conscription 
or emigration, the privilege of emigration be- 
ing confined to the period from 1871 to 1880. 
This measure caused thousands to emigrate to 
the United States. The first colonies, arriving 
in 1878, settled in Minnesota and Kansas. The 
emperor subsequently modified the decree rel- 
ative to conscription with a view of arresting 
the movement.—The emigration of Mennonites 
to the United States began with the settlement 
of New York, some of them having been among 
the first Dutch settlers. The first church was 
organized in 1683 at Germantown near Phila- 


390 MENNONITES 

delphia, and consisted mainly of Hollanders; 
the first meeting house, built in 1708, still 
stands. In 1709 began a much larger emigra- 
tion from Switzerland and the Palatinate. 
These settled in Lancaster co., Pa. <As their 
religious views then were but little known, 
they republished the confession of faith 
adopted at Dort in 1627, which is still adhered 
to by all Mennonites in America. In the be- 
ginning of the 19th century they began to spread 
from Pennsylvania and Maryland to the west- 
ern states and Upper Canada. As few of 
them keep lists of membership or minutes of 
their annual conferences, it is impossible to 
ascertain their exact number. According to 
the most recent estimates, the number of their 
communicants in America is about 60,000, 
with 500 meeting houses, those in Canada con- 
stituting one eighth of the whole. They are 
most numerous in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indi- 
ana, and Canada. Their principal divisions 
are: 1. The Old Mennonites, by far the largest 
body, having a publishing office at Elkhart, 
Ind. 2. The Reformed Mennonites (in Ger- 
man Herrn-Leute), founded in 1811 by John 
Herr, who returned to the rigor of the ancient 
Frisian Mennonites, prohibiting all religious 
intercourse with other Christians, even at fu- 
nerals and family prayers. They are very strict 
in the reception of members and in the sepa- 
ration from the excommunicated. 3. The New 
Mennonites, organized in 1847 by J. H. Ober- 
holtzer, have introduced various reforms, and 
founded a theological seminary at Wadsworth, 
Ohio. Their publishing office is at Milford 
Square, Pa. 4. The Evangelical Mennonites 
separated from the preceding party in 1856, 
because they held it to be a duty of all Chris- 
tians to hold stated meetings for prayer. 5. 
The Amish Mennonites, usually called Omish, 
next to the Old Mennonites, are the most nu- 
merous body in America. They first rose in 
1693 in Alsace. Their founder, Jacob Am- 
man, after whom they were named, enjoined 
on his adherents strict separation from the ex- 
communicated, feet washing, and greater plain- 
ness in dress. They discarded the use of but- 
tons on their clothing, and hence were called 
Hiftler or Hooker Mennonites, while the oth- 
ers were known as Anépfler or Buttonites.— 
In their general doctrines the Mennonites 
agree with the great body of evangelical Chris- 
tians. In church government they are in Eu- 
rope Independents, while in America they 
somewhat resemble Presbyterians, inasmuch 
as the resolutions of their annual conferences 
are binding on the churches. They have bish- 
ops, preachers, and deacons; but the only dif- 
ference between the bishop and the preacher 
is that the former is ordained, the latter only 
licensed to preach. Baptism is administered 
to almost all children of Mennonites when 
they arrive at a certain age, in Germany in 
their 14th year, in Holland and America about 
their 18th. The mode, except among the 
Evangelical and some of the New Mennonites, 


MENNO SYMONS 


is always pouring. The Lord’s supper is cele- 
brated twice a year, preceded in America in 
a large majority of churches by feet washing. 
All Mennonites consider honesty, industry, and 
plainness of dress and manners to be promi- 
nent Christian duties. They do not assume 
public offices, which would make it necessary 
for them to take an oath or to inflict punish- 
ments. They never goto law. On this conti- 
nent, asin most parts of Europe, they are nearly 
all farmers.—Almost the entire Mennonite lit- 
erature is in Dutch and German. The princi- 
pal works are: T. J. van Braght, Het bloedige 
tooneel der Doopsgezinde en weereloze Chris- 
tenen (Dort, 1660; Amsterdam, 1685); Her- 
mann Schyn, Historia Christianorum, qui in 
Belgio Federato Mennonite appellantur (Am- 
sterdam, 1725 and 1729); Blaupot ten Cate, 
Geschiedenis der Doopsgezinden in Friesland, 
Holland, Zeeland, &c. (Amsterdam, 1837-’50) ; 
J. A. Starck, Geschichte der Taufe und der 
Taufgesinnten (Leipsic, 1789); Hunzinger, Das 
religiése Kirchen- und Schulwesen der Menno- 
niten (Spire, 1831); and Cornelius, Geschichte 
des Minsterischen Aufruhrs (Leipsic, 1855). 
MENNO SYMONS (commonly written Menno 
Srvonts, and defined as ‘‘ Menno, son of Si- 
mon;” but Symons was his surname), a re- 
ligious reformer, born at Witmarsum in West 
Friesland about 1496, died at Wistenfelde, 
Holstein, Jan. 13, 1561. In 1524 he became 
a vicar at Pingjum, where he studied the 
Bible and preached repentance. In 1531, in 
the neighboring city of Leeuwarden, Sicke 
Snyder, an Anabaptist, was beheaded. This 
led Menno to examine the question of infant 
baptism, which he thereafter considered un- 
scriptural. Yet he accepted a call as curate of 
Witmarsum, and while he resided there a 
band of Anabaptists seized and fortified a 
cloister in the vicinity, but were captured 
and put to death (February, 1535). Menno’s 
brother was among the slain, and he re- 
proached himself for not having joined these 
brethren, in order to teach them better. Re- 
nouncing the Roman Catholic church and the 
priesthood, and accepting a call to be the pas- 
tor of a few Anabaptists who never had been 
connected with the fanatical party, Menno be- 
gan the life of an itinerant preacher, and with 


‘others organized numerous churches, princi- 


pally in West Friesland. In 1548 persecution 
became so severe that he had to leave his 
native province. He first went to Cologne, 
where a flourishing church was gathered. 
Driven from there in 1546, he travelled in 
Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Livonia, preaching 
and organizing churches. The last years of 
his life were embittered by dissensions among 
his adherents on the nature of ecclesiastical 
excommunication. The stricter party, led by 
Bouwens, insisted on total separation from an 
excommunicated person, even on the part of 
the wife. The milder party objected to this. 
Menno, to avoid excommunication, sided with 
the stricter party, a step which he afterward 


MENOBRANOHUS 


regretted. At Wistenfelde, where he died, he 
had liberty to print his books. His principal 
work is the ‘‘ Fundamental Book on the sa- 
ving Doctrine of Christ” (1539). His writings, 
all in Dutch, were first collected in 1600, then 
in 1646; the last and most complete edition 
was printed at Amsterdam in 1681. While 
he agreed with the Swiss Anabaptists on non- 
resistance and the unlawfulness of oaths, he 
held Luther’s views on justification. From 
both he differed in believing that Christ did 


not take his flesh from Mary, but that a heav- 


enly human nature passed through her as a 
channel. Feet washing as an ordinance was 
never taught by Menno. The mode of bap- 
tism is mentioned in his writings only once, 
and in such a way that it appears that he prac- 
tised pouring. The best biography of Menno 
is Het leven en de verrichtingen van Menno 
Symons, by A. M. Cramer (Amsterdam, 1837). 
(See ANABAPTISTS, and MENNONITES.) 
MENOBRANCHUS, Proteus of the Lakes, or Fish 


Lizard, a batrachian of the order amphipneusta, 


and of the division of perennibranchiate am- 
phibia, so called because the gills are persistent 
and external; the order includes also the pro- 
teus of Europe, the axolotl, amphiuma or Con- 
go snake, menopoma or hellbender, and siren 
or mud eel of the United States. In the genus 
menobranchus (Harlan) or necturus (Raf.), the 
head and mouth are large; the upper jaw with 
a series of small sharp-pointed teeth, the palate 
also similarly armed; neck contracted, with 
three branchial tufts on each side; tail com- 
pressed laterally and fringed with a delicate 
membrane; limbs four, each four-toed; eyes 
small and without lids; the lips thick and 
fleshy; the tongue large, entire in front, and 
movable only at the tip and anterior edges; 
nostrils small and near the margin of the upper 
lip; the body elongated and sub-cylindrical, 
covered with a smooth skin; toes without 
nails. The best known species is the spotted 
menobranch (Jf. maculatus, Barnes), about 12 
in. long, of a cinereous dusky gray, with sub- 
circular darker spots, and a brown stripe ex- 
tending from the snout over the eyes; it is 


Menobranchus lateralis. 


found in the great lakes of North America 
and in Lake Champlain, and in the streams 
opening into them. In WM. lateralis (Say) the 
color is dusky brown above, with a dark band 
from the nostrils through the eye and along 
the sides to the tail, and dirty flesh-colored 


MENOMINEE 391 


below; the form is more slender than in the 
other species; it is found only in the western 
waters running into the Mississippi, especially 
if not entirely on its eastern side, from Penn- 
sylvania to Tennessee; it is often called mud 
puppy. In many specimens kept alive by the 
writer, some of them for three or four years, 
obtained from Portage lake, the gills, three on 
each side, were provided with an immense 
number of very delicate fringes, deep red when 
the animal was actively breathing, which were 
kept waving to and fro in a most graceful 
manner during respiration; the four limbs, 
about an inch long, were set almost at a right 
angle, and the gait was consequently very awk- 
ward; the movements executed by the tail are 
rapid and graceful; the vent is longitudinal; 
the general aspect of the head is snaky and 
forbidding, and the Indians erroneously con- 
sider them venomous. The specimens above 
mentioned were very tenacious of life, having 
been imprisoned under ice half an inch thick 
every night for three months without apparent 
injury, and ate nothing for six months except 
what they obtained from the water. They 
often came to the surface to swallow air, which 
is emitted at the gill opening in bubbles accom- 
panied by a faint squeak. Generally sluggish 
in their motions, and avoiding the sunlight, 
they seize living worms eagerly, sucking them 
down if small at a single gulp, or, if large, by 
repeated efforts; the sight is not very good, 
and they rarely snap at their prey unless it 
touches their mouth. They are sometimes 
taken on hooks by persons angling for mud 
fish; they are most active at night, moving 
rapidly at this time, and often throwing them- 
selves nearly out of water; they feed on 
insects, worms, small crustaceans, and other 
living prey. The gills when inactive shrink, 
and become of a slaty gray color; they are 
cleansed from impurities by means of the fore 
feet. When the branchial fringes are lost by 
accident, the animals do not appear to suffer. 
They have rudimentary lungs or pulmonary 
sacs, which assist in respiration by means of 
the swallowed air; but these are not sufficient 
of themselves to support life, as the animals 
die out of water in about four hours; with the 
cutaneous respiration, active in all amphibians, 
the air sacs are able to purify the blood. These 
animals, having both lungs and gills, though 
the former are insufficient to prolong life ex- 
cept for an hour or two, probably come as 
near as any to the fabulous amphibians able to 
live in water or air. There is no evidence that 
this animal, like the axolotl, is developed into 


any terrestrial salamander. (See AxoLott.) 


MENOMINEE, a S. W. county of the upper 
peninsula of Michigan, bordering on Green 
bay, separated from Wisconsin by the Meno- 
minee river, and watered by several streams; 
area, about 1,300 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 1,791. 
The surface is broken and hilly, and the soil 
moderately fertile. There are extensive for- 
ests. It is traversed by the Peninsular divi- 


392 MENOMONEES 


sion of the Chicago and Northwestern rail- 
road. There were 4 saw mills in operation in 
1870, producing lumber to the value of $599,- 
000. Capital, Menominee. 

MENOMONEES, or Menominees, a tribe of Amer- 
ican Indians, belonging to the Algonquin fam- 
ily, and from their first discovery to the pres- 
ent century residing on the Menominee river, 
which empties into Green bay, Wis. Their 
traditions point to an emigration from the 
east, but as early as 1640 they were known to 
the French as residing near Green bay, their 
name being that of the wild rice on which they 
in great part subsisted. Missions were es- 
tablished among them as early as 1670 by the 
Jesuits Allouez and André. They were light- 
er in complexion than the neighboring tribes, 


and remarkably well formed. They continued | 


friendly to the French till the troubles caused 
by La Salle’s monopoly, when they are said to 
have instigated the murder of some men em- 
ployed at the Jesuit mission; but they made 
reparation, and when the Foxes made war on 
the French, the Menomonees marched to the 
relief of Detroit in 1712, and subsequently 
drove the Foxes from the bay. In the opera- 
tions against the English they were frequently 
in the field from 1712 to 1763, some of their 
braves figuring in Braddock’s defeat and the 
battles of Fort William Henry and the Plains 
of Abraham. When the American revolution 
began, they, under their chief Chakauchokama, 
or Old King, adhered to the English side, and 
a part of the warriors went to Montreal; but 
Clarke’s success in Illinois checked all opera- 
tions on their part in the west till 1780, when 
they served in the expedition against the Span- 
yards at St. Louis. After the close of the war 
they remained friendly till the second war with 
Great Britain, when they were again won over 
by English officers, and under Thomas Car- 
ron helped to capture Mackinaw in July, 1812, 
fought under their chief Souligny with Tecum- 
seh at Fort Meigs in 1813, and under Carron 
and Grisly Bear were repulsed by Croghan 
at Sandusky. They were also at the battle of 
Mackinaw in 1814, and probably in the capture 
of Prairie du Chien. On March 80, 1817, To- 
wanapee and other chiefs made a treaty with 
Clarke, Edwards, and Chouteau, ratifying land 
grants of the French, English, and Spanish gov- 
ernments, and giving up prisoners. The treaty 
of 1825 recognized their territory as bounded 
N. by the Chippewa country, E. by Green bay 
and Lake Michigan, south by the Milwaukee 
river, and W. by the Black. The treaty of 1827 
settled the line between them and the Chip- 
pewas. That of Feb. 5, 1831, began the ces- 
sion of their lands and the payment of money. 
That of Sept. 3, 1836, ceded a large tract for 
$620,110. In the mean time they served the 
United States in the Sac and Fox war. In 
1862 and 1868 the official reports give half or 
two thirds of the tribe as Catholic, the rest be- 
ing pagan. Schools have been maintained with 
great regularity, but irnfconsiderable effect on 


MENOPOMA 


the tribe, very few acquiring English. After 
the cession of their lands their reservation was 
between the Wisconsin, Wolf, and Fox, and the 
Chippewa country. By a treaty in 1848 they 
were to remove west of the Mississippi; but 
the nation repudiated the treaty. In Novem- 
ber, 1852, they were placed on the Upper Wolf 
and Oconto rivers, Wisconsin, 50 m. from Green 
Bay, and the reservation was secured to them 
by treaty in 1854. It consists of 230,400 acres 
of very poor land. Oshkosh, grandson of Old 
King, was at this time the head chief, and re- 
mained so till his death in 1858. They refused 
to join the Sioux in their outbreak in 1861, 
and several of the warriors served as volun- 
teers in the United States army during the civil 
war. They have declined rapidly in numbers, 
In 1822 they were estimated at 3,900, and in 
1872 were reported at 1,480. Disease, and es- 
pecially intoxication, which seems ineradicable, 
are steadily destroying the tribe. Their lan- 
guage is a very peculiar Algonquin dialect, with 
strange guttural sounds and accents, and dif- 
fers from the other dialects in the inflection of 
the verbs and other parts of speech. 
MENOPOMA, a North American tailed batra- 
chian reptile, one of the series of animals 
which seem to connect the perennibranchiate 
amphibians with the salamanders. The genus 
menopoma was established by Harlan in 1825, 
though Leuckhardt had formed the genus cryp- 
tobranchus in 1821. The generic characters 
are: large and flat head; upper jaw with two 
concentric series of minute teeth, the inner 
the less extensive, lower jaw with a single se- 
ries; a single branchial orifice on each side; 
branchiw# rudimentary and evanescent; ex- 
tremities four, the anterior with four fingers, 
the posterior with five, short and palmated; 
skin loose and folded on the sides of the body. 
The common menopoma (JZ. Alleghaniense, 
Harlan) attains a length of about 15 in., of 


Menopoma Alleghaniense.—1. Head. 2. Mouth. 


which the head is 14 and the body 9; the 
large mouth is provided with thick lips, and 
the snout is full and rounded; the nostrils an- 
terior and very small, the eyes minute and 
black; no cutaneous fold at the throat; body 
stout and thick, the vent a circular fringed 


MENOPOMA 


orifice; tail large, much compressed laterally, 
with arayless cutaneous fin along the upper 
border. The color is said by De Kay to be 
pale slate, mottled with dusky. It lives in 
fresh water, and is carnivorous and voracious, 
feeding on fish, worms, and mollusks; it is 
found in the Alleghany river and its tributa- 
ries, and many of the branches of the Ohio 
and Mississippi; its most common name is 
‘‘hellbender.” Dr. Holbrook describes an- 


other species (JZ. fuscum), from western South 


Carolina, brownish above and yellowish white 
below; both species have the limbs fringed 
posteriorly.—Van der Hoeven places the gi- 
gantic salamander of Japan in the genus eryp- 
tobranchus, under the name of C. Japonicus. 
This animal, the largest of the known naked 
amphibia, growing to a length of more than 
3 ft. and to a weight of nearly 20 Ibs., was 
discovered by Siebold, who had several speci- 
mens alive, and kept one for many years in 
Europe. The form is robust; the tail occu- 
pies about one third of the length, and consti- 
tutes the principal organ of locomotion, as- 
sisted by a loose fold of skin extending from 
the head along the sides to the origin of the 
tail; the lips are not very distinct, and the 
tongue is small; the occiput is separated from 
the neck by two wide protuberances formed 
by the muscles of the jaws; the skin above is 
covered with numerous rough prominences, 
which give it a very forbidding appearance ; 
the color is dark brown, with wide black- 
ish spots. Van der Hoeven maintains that 
this is not distinguished from menopoma by 
any generic character; it resembles the latter 
in form, habits, bones of the skull, number 
of vertebree (20 in the trunk and 24 in the 
tail), sternum, pelvis, ribs, and extremities ; 
the bones present cavities opening externally ; 
there is no gill aperture, and the branchia 
disappear early. It is slow in its movements, 
remaining quiet at the bottom of the water, 
rising to the surface every five or ten minutes 
to breathe air both by the nostrils and the 
mouth, but able to remain half an hour under 
water without renewing the contents of the 
lungs; generally inoffensive, it will bite se- 
verely when irritated; it is voracious, feeding 
upon fish, frogs, insects, and even its own 
species, which it seizes with a sudden move- 
ment of the head; after eating, it generally 
fasts a week or two, and it is less voracious 
in winter than in summer; it is able to endure 
extremes of heat and cold, and has a remark- 
able power of reproducing lost parts; on land 
its motions are very awkward and slow. This 
species is confined to the lakes and streams 
of the high mountains of Niphon, between 
lat. 84° and 36° N., and to some other parts 
of Japan and parts of China; it is employed 
by the native physicians, in the form of food, 
as a preservative against contagious diseases 
and as a remedy in pulmonary complaints. 
There has been for some years a living speci- 
men in the zoélogical gardens in London. The 


MENSHIKOFF 393 


remains of the gigantic salamander found in 
the tertiary fresh-water formations of Oenin- 
gen, formerly regarded as fossil human bones, 
the homo diluvii testis of Scheuchzer, are re- 
ferred to this genus by Van der Hoeven, under 
the name of (C. primigenius; in size, form, 
and structure it comes near to the Japanese 
species, and is one of the most interesting of 
the antediluvian animals which inhabited the 
fresh waters of Europe. The famous foot- 
prints of Hildburghausen, Germany, on which 
was established the cheirotherium of Dr. Kaup, 
have also been referred to a similar salaman- 
droid batrachian. (See LapyrinrHopon.) 

MENSES. See CaTAMENIA. 

MENSHIKOFF. I. Alexander Danilovitch, prince, 
a Russian statesman, born in Moscow about 
1672, died in Berezov, Siberia, Nov. 2, 1729. 
The son of poor parents, he was brought up 
without education, and apprenticed to a baker; 
but having entered the service of Peter the 
Great, he commended himself to his patron’s 
favor by discovering a conspiracy among his 
guards. He served in the campaign of Azov, 
accompanied the czar to Holland and England, 
and on the death of Lefort became his princi- 
pal adviser, being equally active in preparing 
or executing the great schemes of national re- 
form, and in the warlike and diplomatic opera- 
tions against Charles XII. He distinguished 
himself at the siege of Schlisselburg in 1702, 
and was made major general and governor of 
Ingria in 1704. During the campaign of 1706 
he gained the decisive battle of Kalisz over the 
Swedes. He was made a prince both of the 
German empire in 1706, and of Russia in 1707. 
In 1709 he greatly contributed to the victory 
of Poltava, and was made a field marshal; in 
1710 he commanded the Russian forces in the 
north, and took Riga; in 1711 he occupied 
Courland, and was made governor of St. Pe- 
tersburg; in 1712 he occupied Pomerania, and 
in 17138 took Stettin. His cupidity led him 
to commit numerous arbitrary acts, for which 
he was finally court-martialled and sentenced 
to death, but escaped with a heavy fine. He 
regained his influence under Catharine I. 
(1725-7), of whose accession to the throne 
he was the principal instrument, and till her 
death exercised full sway over Russia. He 
was still more powerful at the beginning of the 
reign of the young Peter IJ., whose father-in- 
law he was about to become when he was sud- 
denly arrested through the influence of Dolgo- 
ruki (September, 1727), and banished with his 
family to Siberia. He at first bore his misfor- 
tunes with great firmness, but the loss of his 
wife and eldest daughter broke his spirit and 
hastened his death. The remaining members 
of the family were recalled in 1730 by the em- 
press Anna. II. Alexander Sergeyeviteh, prince, 
a Russian soldier, great-grandson of the pre- 
ceding, born in 1789, died May 3, 1869. He 
entered the imperial service in 1805, was for 
some time attached to the embassy at Vienna, 
accompanied Alexander I. as aide-de-camp du- 


394 


ring the campaigns of 1812-14, and was pro- 
moted to the rank of general, but resigned in 
1823, when the czar abandoned the cause of 
the Greeks. Under Nicholas he served as 
ambassador in Persia, as well as in the war 
with that country which broke out on his 
return, and soon after in the Turkish war 
of 1828-9. He took Anapa, was seriously 
wounded before Varna, and subsequently de- 
voted. himself to the restoration and develop- 
ment of the Russian navy, being appointed 
governor general of Finland in 1831, admiral 
in 1834, and minister of marine in 1836. In 
1853 he was sent to Constantinople, to urge 
the claims of Nicholas in the affairs of Turkey. 
His extravagant behavior promoted a speedy 
rupture; he returned to Russia, and war was 
declared. The first victory of the Russians 
over the Turkish fleet at Sinope is attributed 
in part to Menshikoff’s previous reconnoitrings 
in Turkey. Commanding both the land and 
naval forces in the Crimea, he lost the battle 
of the Alma, but strengthened the fortifications 
of Sebastopol, sacrificed a part of the fleet to 
bar the entrance of the harbor, and, though he 
lost another battle at Inkerman, distinguished 
himself by the utmost energy in defence of the 
fortress. He fell ill and was superseded by 
Gortchakoff in March, 1855, and was appointed 
by Alexander IJ. commander of Cronstadt, 
whence he was recalled to St. Petersburg in 
April, 1856. He was among the stanchest 
members of the national or old Russian party, 
‘and was opposed to all reforms. 
MENSURATION, the art of measuring things 
which occupy space. This is the art which 
led to the formation of the science of geom- 
etry; and some schools of philosophy at the 
present day are inclined to limit the whole do- 
main of mathematics to the field of mensura- 
tion, while extending this field so as to include 
time as well as space. The art is partly me- 
chanical as well as mathematical, and even in 
its mathematical part is but the application 
or illustration of sciences that in their purity 
have no connection with material things.— 
There are three kinds of quantity in space, 
viz., length, surface, and solidity; and there 
are three distinct modes of measurement, viz., 
mechanical measurement, geometrical construc- 
tion, and algebraical calculation. For the last 
two modes arithmetical computation is a neces- 
sary adjunct; for the ratio to a unit quantity 
can be definitely stated in particular cases only 
as a numerical ratio. Lengths are measured 
on lines, and the measure of the length of a 
line is the numerical ratio which the line bears 
to a recognized unit of length, the inch, foot, 
or mile, determined in England and in this 
country by reference to metallic rods three feet 
long, kept by the governments as standards. 
The mechanical mode of determining lengths 
is called direct measurement. Rods are direct- 
ly compared with the standard, and accurately 
made of the same length, and these rods, 
“‘ynles,” or yard sticks, or else tapes and chains 


MENSURATION 


accurately graduated by direct comparison with 
such rules, are stretched side by side with the 
line to be measured, and the ratio observed. 
When the line is long and the rule is applied 
many times consecutively, the slight errors 
arising at the joining of the successive posi- 
tions of the rod, being multiplied, become of 
serious practical importance. In geodesy, 
therefore, when base lines several miles long 
are to be accurately determined by direct mea- 
surement, an apparatus is used in which bars 
of different metals counteract each other’s ex- 
pansion and contraction. When the line is 
long, or when it is inaccessible, the length is 
usually measured by the second or third mode. 
—The measurement of a line by geometrical 
construction is effected by the direct measure- 


ment of accessible lines and angles in a figure 


of which the line to be measured forms a com- 
ponent part, and then drawing this figure upon 
paper, on a definite scale of a certain number 
of feet to the inch. The direct measurement 
of the unknown side upon the paper will evi- 
dently give the length of the line represented 
by it. Thus, if one ship has sailed 50 miles 
E.; and another from the same port 100 miles 
30° E. of S., and we wish to know their dis- 
tance apart, we may draw a line one inch long 
and a line half an inch long, making an angle 
of 60° with each other, and we shall find their 
extremities separated by 866 of an inch, show- 
ing the ships to be 86°6 miles asunder. We do 
not include angles among quantities in space. 
Strictly an angle is a quantity, since it can be 
measured, and its measurement is necessary at 
times for the measurement of other quantities. 
But the measurement of angles is not, in the 
general use of language, included among the 
direct objects of mensuration. The measure- 
ment of a line by algebraic computation is 
effected as in geometrical construction, except 
that instead of drawing the figure we calculate 
the length of the unknown side from the 
known relations of the sides and angles of 
figures, and from tables giving numerical val- 
ues for those relations in right triangles, into 
which all plane figures can be divided at plea- 
sure. In practice, it is easier to measure an- 
gles with great accuracy than long lines, and 
hence in geodesy only one base line is actually 
measured, while all the other distances of the 
survey are computed from the measurement 
of the angles in a network of triangles.—The 
second kind of quantity to be measured is sur- 
face. The area of a surface is its numerical 
ratio to a square surface whose side is a linear 
unit, that is, to a square foot, square inch, &c. 
This sort of measurement is never done direct- 
ly or mechanically, but always by the measure- 
ment of lines, and generally by the use of the 
geometrical propositions, that all surfaces may 
be resolved into triangles; that all triangles 
are equivalent to the halves of rectangles hav- 
ing the same base and altitude; and that the 
area of a rectangle may be found by multiply- 
ing the number of units in its length by that 


MENSURATION 


in its breadth. The reduction of all surfaces 
to subjection to these propositions requires 
sometimes so much labor, that in surfaces of a 
more intricate form use is made of algebraical 
laws and of the differential calculus, according 
to the fundamental idea of fluxions, that a sur- 
face is generated by a moving line which con- 
stitutes, in two positions, two of the boun- 
daries of the surface. Thus a circle may geo- 
metrically be considered as composed of an 
unlimited number of triangles with their bases 
on the circumference and their vertices in the 
centre; or it may be considered algebraically 
as generated by a chord sweeping across it, 
beginning of no length, swelling to a diameter 
through the centre, and contracting again to 
zero. Either of these modes of viewing it 
leads to the same area of the circle, viz., the 
product of its circumference by half its radius, 
or, what is the same thing, *78539 of the square 
enclosing it.—The third species of quantity is 
solidity. The unit of measurement is here 
either a cube whose edge is a linear unit, or 
else it is an arbitrary number of cubic inches 
selected as a unit, such as the bushel of 2,150 
inches, or the gallon of 231 inches. The direct 
or mechanical measurement of solidity is ap- 
plied to liquids, or to solids separated into 
parts so small as to be handled somewhat in 
the manner of a liquid, as corn, for example, is 
poured from a basket. This direct measure- 
ment consists then in filling a vessel of known 
capacity with the article to be measured, re- 
peatedly, until all is measured. The geometri- 
cal and algebraical modes of measuring solidity 
will be understood from the analogous modes 
of measuring lines and areas. They are prin- 
cipally based on the doctrines, that the solidity 
of aright parallelopiped is found by multiply- 
ing the area of its base by its altitude; that a 
pyramid has one third the solidity of a paral- 
lelopiped of the same base and altitude; and 
that every solidity can be divided into pyra- 
mids and parallelopipeds. But in intricate 
cases it is easier to use fluxions, and consider 
the solid generated by the motion of a surface 
through it; a hemisphere, for example, might 
be considered as an unlimited number of pyra- 
mids with their apices at the centre, or as gen- 
erated by the circular plane of its base, dimin- 
ishing as it rose to the summit of the hemi- 
sphere, and there becoming a point. Mechan- 
ics use arithmetical rules or formulas derived 
from considerations such as we have here pre- 
sented. The cask or barrel, for example, is 
treated as though one of several varieties of 
geometrical solids, and rules are given for dis- 
covering its solidity on those suppositions. The 
gauge rod is marked with the number of gal- 
lons which a cask of certain form would have 
if its diagonal distance from the centre of the 
bung to the inner end of the staves were the 
same as from the end of the rod to the spot 
where that number is engraved; and thus by 
thrusting the rod diagonally into the bung 
hole of an ordinary cask, the number of gal- 


MENTONE 395 


lons it contains is readily determined. The 
tonnage of ships is computed in the same way 
by assuming the figure of the ship to be of a 
certain model, and the tonnage is under- or 
over-estimated according to its departure from 
this average form. Many works have been 
published containing only practical rules with- 
out explanation, all essentially alike. In par- 
ticular cases, ingenuity may devise particular 
modes for measuring the solidity or the area of 
very complicated figures; the earliest example 
is that of Archimedes determining the solidity 
of Hiero’s crown by plunging it into water to 
discover how much of the fluid it displaced. 
Another example is Galileo’s determination of 
the area included between a cycloid and its 
base by describing the cycloid upon a plate of 
metal, cutting it out, and comparing its weight 
with that of the generating circle cut out of a 
similar plate. 

MENTCHIKOFF. See MensniKorr. 

MENTONE (Fr. Menton), a town of France, 
in the department of Alpes-Maritimes, on the 
gulf of Genoa, 12 m. N. E. of Nice; pop. 
about 10,000. It is on two small bays, called 
respectively the East and the West bay, which 
are separated by a point of land, and is shut in 
on the land side by a semicircular range of 
mountains from 3,000 to 4,000 ft. high. Men- 
tone has one of the mildest climates on the 
Ligurian seaboard, and is a place of much 
resort in winter, especially by consumptives. 
Ample provision is made for the accommoda- 
tion of visitors. The old town, situated chiefly 
on the point dividing the bays, is well built 
and clean; it contains a castle and a communal 
college. In the suburbs are elegant villas, and 
the lower hills in the background are covered 
with olive groves and plantations of oranges 
and lemons. In the middle ages Mentone 
formed a part of the principality of Monaco, 
whose rulers were feudatories of Piedmont. 
Though swept away by the French revolution, 
the princes of Monaco were recognized at the 
congress of Vienna. In 1848 the inhabitants 
of Mentone and the neighboring Roccabruna 
rebelled, and annexed their places to Sardinia. 
Prince Florestan protested, but after the cession 
of Nice to France in 1860 renounced his rights 
for a pecuniary compensation (Feb. 2, 1861).— 
At the E, extremity of the East bay are the 
celebrated bone caves of Mentone, which have 
furnished an abundance of interesting organic 
and other prehistoric remains. These caves, 
which are about 88 ft. above the Mediterra- 
nean, are natural rifts in the Roches Rouges, 
the mountain over which the Cornice road 
passes. On March 26, 1872, a fossil human 
skeleton was exhumed in one of them, at a 
depth of 214 ft. from the surface. It lay on 
its left side in a natural posture, as if death 
had overtaken the man during sleep. The 
skull is ornamented with a number of shells, 
and with 22 canine teeth of the stag, all of 
which are perforated and form a kind of net- 
work about the head. The skeleton, which is 


396 MENTOR MENTZ 


nearly perfect, and indicates great strength, | prevailed, and there are several handsome 
was placed in the museum of natural history | squares. The Gutenberg-Platz contains a mon- 
in Paris. It is supposed to belong to the palew- | ument to Gutenberg, who was born and died 
olithic age. The cranium is fractured behind | in Mentz, with a statue by Thorwaldsen, and 

the Schiller-Platz has a 


Zz 


There are 11 churches, 
Pity including the church of 
St. Ignatius, the ceiling 
of which is adorned with 
paintings from the life 
of the saint; and the ca- 
thedral, founded in the 
10th century and rebuilt 
in the 14th, of little 
architectural merit, but 
having fine painted win- 
dows and a beautiful pul- 
pit. It suffered greatly 
during the siege of 1793, 
and of its treasures and 
famous library nothing 
is left; but it contains 
the monuments of sev- 
eral of the archbishop- 
electors of Mentz. The 
‘: J old electoral palace, re- 
The Bone Caves near Mentone. stored in 1844, contains 
the town library of 120,- 
and in front, so as to prevent perfect measure- | 000 volumes, a picture gallery, and a fine 
ment. It is dolichocephalous, arched at the | museum of Roman antiquities. There are 
summit, and the sutures are all consolidated. | Roman remains in and near Mentz, which 
The facial angle is nearly 85°. The height of 
the man is estimated to have been six feet. 
MENTOR, in Homer’s Odyssey, the son of 
Alcimus, and friend of Ulysses, who intrusted 
to him the charge of his house on his departure 
from Ithaca. To him fell the care of young 
Telemachus, and Minerva assumed his form 
in accompanying the latter on the journey in 
search of his father, acting the part of a wise 
counsellor. On the return of Ulysses, Mentor 
assisted him in the contest with the suitors, 
and brought about a reconciliation between 
him and his people. The name is applied 
metaphorically to any sage adviser or monitor. 
MENTZ (Ger. Mainz; Fr. Mayence ; anc. Mo- 
guntiacum), a fortified city of Germany, capi- 
tal of Rhenish Hesse, on the left bank of the 
Rhine, nearly opposite its junction with the 
Main, 20m. W.S. W. of Frankfort, with which 
it is connected by railway, and within a few 
miles of Wiesbaden; pop. in 1871, inclusive of 
the garrison, 53,918. <A bridge of boats 1,700 
ft. long connects it with the village of Castel 
on the opposite bank of the Rhine, and a cost- 
ly railway bridge, erected in 1862, connects it 
with the opposite side of the Main. The sys- 
tem of fortification is extensive and elaborate, 
controlling both sides of the Rhine, and consist- 
ing of a double line of wall, with bastions and = 
outworks, and citadel in the centre. The town Cathedral of Mentz. 
rises from the river in the form of an amphi- 
theatre. The houses are generally lofty, and | was a Roman camp under Drusus; among 
many of the streets are narrow and confined. | them are the Eichelstein, a great stone on one 
Of late years a better system of building has | of the bastions of the citadel, which has been 


T0008 gay, /ZAIN bronze statue of the poet. 
t Gl, has ) ( I 


i 
\ 
b 
fe 
ee, 


MENTZ 


thought to be a monument of Drusus, and 
the pillars of an aqueduct and the piers of a 
bridge supposed to have been built by him. 
A remarkable fragment of Roman statuary 
was found here in March, 1874. The site of 
the house of Gutenberg is occupied by the ca- 
sino, or reading room, and the rooms of a lit- 
erary association. The house in which he was 
born is still standing, and that also which 
contained his first printing press. The trade 
up and down the Rhine and the Main, and by 
the railway, is increasing continually. The 
manufactures are not very important; they 
consist mostly of leather, tobacco, soap, piano- 
fortes, hats, glue, and vinegar.—The city was a 
place of importance under the Romans, and 
was destroyed by the barbarians in 406. It was 
rebuilt by the Frankish kings, and enlarged by 
Charlemagne. Under St. Boniface it became 
the seat of an archbishop. Under the German 
empire the archbishop of Mentz ranked first 
among the three ecclesiastical electors, and 
held the dignity of arch-chancellor. The elec- 
torate, which originally did not embrace the 
city of Mentz, had extensive possessions on 
both sides of the Rhine, eventually including 
Erfurt and Eichfeld. In the 18th century 
Mentz stood at the head of the league of the 
Rhenish towns. Through Gutenberg it be- 
came the centre of bookmaking. In 1486 it 
was annexed to the electorate. During the 
thirty years’ war, it was taken by the Swedes 
in 1631, by the imperialists in 1635, and by the 
French in 1644. After the peace of Westphalia 
it was restored to the elector John Philip, who 
strengthened the fortifications; but it was 
again taken by the French in 1688, and retaken 
by the Saxons and Bavarians in 1689. It was 
betrayed to the French general Custine in 1792, 
but was reduced by the Prussians under Kalk- 
reuth in 1793. By the peace of Lunéville 
(1801), which dissolved the electorate (see 
Datpere), Mentz was allotted to France, but 
by the congress of Vienna (1814) to the grand 
duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, as a fortress of the 
German confederation, to be garrisoned by a 
mixed force of Austrians, Prussians, and Hes- 
sians, the offices being divided between Austria 
and Prussia. In the spring of 1848 distur- 
bances among the people led to a riotous and 
bloody strife, May 21, between the citizens and 
the Prussian soldiers; but the difficulties were 
adjusted by a commission from the German na- 
tional assembly. On Noy. 18, 1857, a military 
magazine blew up, destroying an entire street, 
with many lives and much property. On the 
outbreak of the Austro-Prussian war in 1866, 
the Austrians and Prussians left the fortress, 
which was garrisoned by the Hessian troops 
alone. After the conclusion of peace the Prus- 
sians returned, and secured the sole right of 
garrison. In 1871 it became one of the fortress- 
es of the German empire. It has a garrison of 


8,000 men. In February, 1873, it was proposed. 


to remodel the fortifications. Mentz is one of 
the chief centres of the Catholic societies of 


MENZEL 397 


Germany, and in June, 1874, it was made the 
permanent seat of the Catholic association, 
whose object is the support of the pope and 
the bishops against the imperial government. 

MENU, or Manu. See BranMa. 

MENZEL, Adolf Friedrich Erdmann, a German 
painter, born in Breslau, Dec. 8, 1815. He 
assisted his father as a lithographer, illus- 
trated Kugler’s popular history of Frederick 
the Great (1839-’42), and prepared designs 
for Frederick’s writings (184657). In 1850 
he exhibited his first oil painting, “ Frede- 
rick the Great and his Friends.” In 1865 he 
finished his ‘‘Coronation of King William I. 
at Konigsberg.” Many of his genre pictures 
appeared in 1870, and also his ‘ Departure of 
the King for the Seat of War in France.” 

MENZEL, Karl Adolf, a German historian, 
born in Grinberg, Silesia, Dec. 7, 1784, died in 
Breslau, Aug. 19, 1855. He studied at Breslau 
and Halle, and officiated for many years as pro- 
fessor at Breslau. He wrote Yopographische 
Chronik von Breslau (2 vols., Breslau, 1805-’7) ; 
Geschichte Schlesiens (8 vols., 1807-10); Die 
Geschichte der Deutschen (8 vols., 1815-28) ; 
Geschichte unserer Zeit seit dem Tode Fried- 
richs IT. (2 vols., 18245); Neuere Geschichte 
der Deutschen von der Reformation bis zur 
Bundesacte (16 vols., 1826-56); and Staats- 
und Religions-Geschichte der Konigreiche Is- 
rael und Juda (Breslau, 1858). 

MENZEL, Wolfgang, a German author, born at 
Waldenburg, Silesia, June 21, 1798, died in 
Stuttgart, April 23, 1873. He began his stud- 
ies at Breslau, served as a volunteer in the war 
of 1815, and subsequently studied at Jena and 
Bonn. In 1820 he went to Switzerland, and 
engaged in teaching. About this time he be- 
came known as a writer of poems and literary 
criticisms. His first publication was his Streck- 
verse (Heidelberg, 1823). In 1825 he estab- 
lished himself at Stuttgart. After the revolu- 
tion of 1880 he zealously opposed French po- 
litical and literary influence in Germany, and 
was repeatedly elected to the Wiirtemberg diet. 
Borne satirized him in his Menzel der Fran- 
zosenfresser. He edited for many years the 
Literaturblatt of Stuttgart, gave it up in 1848, 
but revived it in 1852, and made it an or- 
gan of reactionary policy in civil and eccle- 
siastical affairs. Besides the writings men- 
tioned above, he published (Geschichte der 
Deutschen (3 vols., Zirich, 1824-’5 ; translated 
into English by G. Horrocks, London, 1849) ; 
Die deutsche Literatur (Stuttgart, 1828; trans- 
lated into English by OC. C. Felton, in Rip- 
ley’s ‘Specimens of Foreign Literature,” Bos- 
ton, 1840); Riidbezahl (1829); Narcissus (1830) ; 
Reise nach Oesterreich (1831); Reise nach Ita- 
lien (1835); Taschenbuch der neuesten Geschich- 
te (5 vols., 1829-83); Geist der Geschichte 
(1885); Huropa im Jahre 1840 (1839); Mytho- 
logische Forschungen und Sammlungen (1842) ; 
Die Gesinge der Volker (1851); Furore, a novel 
descriptive of scenes of the thirty years’ war 
(Leipsic, 1851); Geschichte Kuropas von 1789- 


398 MEPHISTOPHELES 


1815 (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1853); Geschichte der 
leteten 40 Jahre (2 vols., 3d ed., 1865); Preus- 
sen und Oesterreich im Jahre 1866 (1866); Ge- 
schichte des franzdsischen Krieges von 1870 
(1871); Rom’s Unrecht (1871); Geschichte der 
neuesten Jesuitenumtriebe in Deutschland 1870 
—72 (1878); and Ivritik des modernen Zeitbe- 
wusstseins (2d ed., 1874). His library was pur- 
chased by the German government in 1874 
for the university of Strasburg. 

MEPHISTOPHELES, in old popular legends, 
the familiar spirit of the magician Faust, the 
second of the fallen archangels, and the most 
powerful chief of the infernal legions after 
Satan. The name is by some derived from 
the Greek yf, not, dé¢, light, and ¢iAoc, lov- 
ing. He is chiefly known as the malignant, 
scoffing fiend of Goethe’s “* Faust.” 

MEQUINEZ, or Miknas, a city of Morocco, in 
the province of Fez, near the Seboo, 36 m. W. 
S. W. of Fez; pop. about 70,000. It is situ- 
ated in a valley of a mountainous district, and 
is surrounded with triple walls. Most of the 
houses are one story high, but are neat and sub- 
stantial. The principal buildings are several 
mosques, a castle founded in 1674 by Sultan 
Muley Ismail, and a palace which is occasional- 
ly the residence of the sovereign, adorned with 
marble columns, fountains, and fine gardens. 
There are manufactures of painted crockery and 
leather. In the vicinity are large plantations 
of olives. There is an extensive trade at Me- 
quinez in most of the products of the country. 

MERCADANTE, Saverio, an Italian composer, 
born in Altamura in 1797, died in Naples, Dec. 
18, 1870. At the age of 12 he entered the 
royal college of music at Naples, and studied 
the violin and flute, but soon devoted himself 
to the study of dramatic art and to composing 
for the voice. In 1818 a cantata of his com- 
position was performed at the theatre Del Fon- 
do, and for 25 years he wrote opera after opera 
with great rapidity, many of them meeting with 
no success. In 1833 he became chapelmaster at 
the cathedral of Novara. In 1836 his opera 
I Briganti was brought out at Paris, but failed 
even with such great singers as Rubini, Tambu- 
rini, Lablache, and Grisi. In 1840 he became di- 
rector of the royal conservatory at Naples, but 
his sight failed him, so that in 1862 he became 
completely blind, and was obliged to dictate 
whatever he composed. Of his 40 odd operas 
Li giuramento is now best known. 

MERCATOR, Gerard, a Flemish geographer, 
born at Rupelmonde, March 5, 1512, died in 
Duisburg, Dec. 2, 1594. He learned engraving, 
and Charles V. employed him on maps. In 
1559 he was appointed cosmographer to the 
duke of Juliers and Cleves. He published de- 
scriptions and maps of Europe, France, Ger- 
many, the British isles, and the world. His 
method of laying down charts and maps, by a 
projection of the surface of the earth in plano, 
is stillin use. The mostimportant of his works 
are: Chronologia a Mundi Hxuordio ad 1568 
(Cologne, 1569); Tabule Geographice ad Men- 


MERCER 


tem Ptolemai restitute (1578); De Creatione 
ac Fabrica Mundi, a treatise prefixed to the 
uniform edition of his maps (1594); and Aélas, 
sive Geographice Meditationes de Fabrica Mun- 
di et fabricati Figura (Duisburg, 1595). 
MERCED, a central county of California, in- 
tersected by the San Joaquin river, and wa- 
tered by the Merced and Mariposa, its tributa- 
ries; area, 1,975 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 2,807, 
of whom 186 were Chinese. It is bounded 
W. by the Coast range. The soil is very fer- 
tile. It is traversed by the Visalia division 
of the Central Pacific railroad. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 218,162 bushels of 
wheat, 14,456 of Indian corn, 142,486 of bar- 
ley, 13,830 of Irish and 11,330 of sweet pota- 
toes, 231,072 lbs. of wool, 232,530 of butter, 
229,298 of cheese, and 8,195 tons of hay. 
There were 2,362 horses, 49,531 cattle, 46,525 
sheep, and 9,054 swine. Capital, Snelling. 
MERCER, the name of counties in eight of the 
United States. I. A W. county of New Jersey, 
bordering on Delaware river; area, 260 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1870, 46,386. The surface is uneven, 
and somewhat elevated toward the N., and the 
soil is fertile. It is traversed by the New Jer- 
sey, the Camden and Amboy, the Belvidere and 
Delaware, and the Mercer and Somerset rail- 
roads, and the Delaware and Raritan canal. 
The chief productions in 1870 were 149,238 
bushels of wheat, 545,547 of Indian corn, 428,- 
143 of oats, 222,207 of potatoes, 17,516 lbs. of 
tobacco, 25,425 of wool, 500,342 of butter, and 
28,767 tons of hay. There were 4,464 horses, 
6,801 milch cows, 8,529 other cattle, 9,384 
sheep, and 6,738 swine; 4 manufactories of 
agricultural implements, 1 of freight and pas- 
senger cars, 21 of men’s clothing, 4 of ground 
coffee and spices, 1 of cotton goods, 3 of wool- 
len goods, 1 of drugs and chemicals, 65 of 
wagon materials, 3 of India-rubber and elastic 
goods, 5 of forged and rolled iron, 2 of nails 
and spikes, 6 of iron castings, 7 of machinery, 
1 of lead and zine, 9 of sash, doors, and blinds, 
14 of stone and earthen ware, 1 of wire work, 8 
saw mills, and 15 flour mills. Capital, Tren- 
ton. Il. A W. county of Pennsylvania, bor- 
dering on Ohio, drained by the Shenango and 
several smaller creeks; area, 624 sq. m.; pop. 
in 1870, 49,977. The surface is undulating 
and the soil fertile. Extensive coal mines are 
found, also iron and limestone. It is traversed 
by the Atlantic and Great Western railroad, 
the Erie and Pittsburgh, the Shenango and 
Allegheny, and the Franklin division of the 
Lake Shore; also by the Beaver and Erie canal. 
The chief productions in 1870 were 341,922 
bushels of wheat, 24,850 of rye, 639,748 of 
Indian corn, 883,965 of oats, 68,625 of buck- 
wheat, 149,124 of potatoes, 618,422 lbs. of flax, 
246,639 of wool, 1,516,067 of butter, 101,530 
of cheese, and 58,422 tons of hay. There were 
11,890 horses, 15,570 milch cows, 18,489 oth- 
er cattle, 68,038 sheep, and 15,414 swine; 38 
manufactories of carriages and wagons, 1 of 
| dressed flax, 83 of forged and rolled iron, 2 of 


MERCER 


nails and spikes, 15 of iron castings, 9 of ma- 
chinery, 13 tanneries, 38 breweries, 52 saw mills, 
9 planing mills, 20 flour mills, and 5 woollen 
mills. Capital, Mercer. III. A S. county of 
West Virginia, bordering on Virginia, bounded 
E. by the Kanawha and intersected by Blue- 
stone river; area, 540 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
7,064, of whom 894 were colored. <A range of 
the Alleghanies extends along the N. W. bor- 
der. The chief productions in 1870 were 25,- 
756 bushels of wheat, 5,597 of rye, 114,746 of 
Indian corn, 43,184 of oats, 10,867 of potatoes, 
117,429 lbs. of tobacco, 18,713 of wool, 109,- 
355 of butter, and 2,517 tons of hay. There 
were 1,667 horses, 2,722 milch cows, 3,195 oth- 
er cattle, 8,293 sheep, and 6,854 swine. Cap- 
ital, Princeton. IV. A central county of Ken- 
tucky, bounded N. E. by Kentucky river, and 
E. by Dick’s river, and drained by the head 
waters of Salt river; area, 240 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 13,144, of whom 3,310 were colored. 
The surface is undulating and the soil fertile. 
The chief productions in 1870 were 146,534 
bushels of wheat, 23,941 of rye, 495,775 of 
Indian corn, 66,001 of oats, 14,551 of potatoes, 
33,584 lbs. of wool, 123,042 of butter, and 2,992 
tons of hay. There were 3,733 horses, 2,220 
milch cows, 8,753 other cattle, 7,694 sheep, 
and 18,349 swine; 3 manufactories of carriages 
and wagons, 2 of woollen goods, 1 saw mill, 
and 2 flour mills. Capital, Harrodsburg. V. 
A W. county of Ohio, bordering on Indiana, 
drained by the St. Mary’s and Wabash rivers 
and branches; area 576 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
17,254. It has a level surface heavily timbered, 
and a fertile soil. The chief productions in 
1870 were 838,189 bushels of wheat, 341,775 
of Indian corn, 244,289 of oats, 84,298 of po- 
tatoes, 12,589 of flax seed, 94,742 lbs. of wool, 
373,956 of butter, and 16,527 tons of hay. 
There were 5,518 horses, 5,816 milch cows, 
6,765 other cattle, 26,669 sheep, and 24,496 
swine. Capital, Celina. VI. A N. W. county 
of Illinois, separated from Iowa by the Missis- 
sippi; area, 550 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 18,768. 
There are extensive prairies in the county, and 
it is heavily timbered along the banks of the 
Mississippi; the soil is fertile. The Galva and 
Keithsburg branch of the Chicago, Burlington, 
and Quincy railroad passes through it. The 
chief productions in 1870 were 302,494 bushels 
of wheat, 40,778 of rye, 2,054,962 of Indian 
corn, 452,889 of oats, 94,241 of potatoes, 52,- 
088 Ibs. of wool, 376,727 of butter, and 28,180 
tons of hay. There were 10,984 horses, 7,655 
milch cows, 15,552 other cattle, 11,278 sheep, 
and 41,663 swine; 13 manufactories of car- 
riages, 7 of saddlery and harness, 9 flour mills, 
and 1 saw mill. Capital, Aledo. VIL A N. 
county of Missouri, bordering on Iowa, and 
drained by Weldonriver; area, 530 sq.m.; pop. 
in 1870, 11,557, of whom 93 were colored. It 
has an undulating surface and fertile soil. Itis 
traversed by the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pa- 
cific railroad. The chief productions in 1870 
were 69,068 bushels of wheat, 472,730 of Indian 


547 VOL. xI.—26 


MERCERSBURG 399 


corn, 160,081 of oats, 42,969 of potatoes, 17,550 
Ibs. of tobacco, 57,000 of wool, 284,074 of but- 
ter, and 11,662 tons of hay. There were 5,153 
horses, 4,416 milch cows, 8,342 other cattle, 
25,441 sheep, and 19,627 swine. Capital, Prince- 
ton. VIE. AN. W. county of Dakota, bounded 
N. and E. by Missouri river; area, about 900 
sq.m. It is intersected by the Big Knife and 
other affluents of the Missouri. It has been re- 
cently formed, and is not included in the cen- 
sus of 1870. The surface is rolling, and the 
soil moderately fertile. 

MERCER, Hugh, an American revolutionary 
soldier, born in Scotland about 1720, died near 
Princeton, N. J., Jan. 12, 1777. He was edu- 
cated as a physician, and served as a surgeon’s 
assistant in the army of the young pretender 
at Culloden. He soon after settled in Virginia, 
and in 1755 served in the French and Indian 
war and volunteered in the expedition led by 
Braddock to Fort Duquesne. At the battle of 
Monongahela, July 9, he was wounded in the 
shoulder, and wandered alone through the 
wilderness to Fort Cumberland, 100 m. distant. 
He returned to his practice, and was residing 
in Fredericksburg at the outbreak of the revo- 
lution, when he was commissioned colonel of 
one of the regiments authorized in 1775 by the 
Virginia convention, and through the influence 
of Washington obtained the rank of brigadier 
general with the command of the flying camp 
organized in the spring of 1776. He accom- 
panied Washington on his retreat through New 
Jersey, and rendered valuable assistance at the 
battle of Trenton. In the succeeding action at 
Princeton he led the vanguard, composed prin- 
cipally of militia. His men beginning to waver 
before the attack of the enemy, he made an 
energetic attempt to rally them, and was felled 
to the ground by a blow from the butt end of 
a musket. Though surrounded by British sol- 
diers, he rose and defended himself with his 
sword, refusing quarter, and after a brief 
struggle, in which he was repeatedly bayo- 
neted, was left for dead upon the field. He 
was removed soon after the battle to a house 
in the neighborhood, where about a week. after- 
ward he died. His corpse was followed to the 
grave in Philadelphia by upward of 30,000 
people. In November, 1840, a monument to 
his memory was dedicated at the Laurel Hill 
cemetery. Provision was made by congress 
for the education of his youngest son. 

MERCERSBURG, a borough of Franklin co., 
Pennsylvania, at the terminus of a branch of 
the Cumberland Valley railroad, 15 m. S. W. 
of Chambersburg and. 62 m. 8. W. of Harris- 
burg; pop. in 1870, 971. It is the seat of 
Mercersburg college (Reformed), organized in 
1865, and having in 1878-’4 6 professors, 3 
tutors, 50 preparatory, 45 collegiate, and 6 
theological students, and a library of 2,000 
volumes. The theological department was or- 
ganized in 1872. Marshall college and the 
theological seminary of the Reformed church, 
formerly situated here, have been removed to 


400 MERCHANT 


Lancaster, the former in 1853 and the latter 
in 1871. The college was merged with Frank- 
lin college, and is now known as Franklin and 
Marshall college. 

MERCHANT, Commission. See Factor. 

MERCIA, the largest kingdom of the Saxon 
heptarchy in the island of Britain. The name 
is derived from mark, meaning frontier, as this 
was the most western of the three kingdoms 
of the Angles. It was situated inland, being 
bounded N. by Cambria and Northumbria, E. 
by East Anglia and Essex, S. by Wessex, and 
W. by Wales, and included the modern coun- 
ties of Chester, Derby, Nottingham, Lincoln, 
Salop, Stafford, Leicester, Rutland, Northamp- 
ton, Huntingdon, Hereford, Worcester, War- 
wick, Gloucester, Oxford, and Buckingham, 
and parts of Hertford and Bedford. It was 
founded by Crida, an Angle, about 585, was 
subject for a time to the Northumbrians, and 
afterward subdued East Anglia and Kent. Its 
more important kings were Penda, Ethelred, 
Kenred, and Wiglef, who was finally conquered 
by Egbert, king of Wessex, in 827. 

MERCK, Johann Heinrich, a German scholar, 
born in Darmstadt, April 11, 1741, died June 
27,1791. He officiated in various public func- 
tions in his native town, translated Addison’s 
‘‘Oato” and other works from the English, 
codperated with Lavater in the publication of 
his work on physiognomy, and took an active 
part in the Frankfurter gelehrte Anzeigen, 
Deutscher Merkur, and other leading periodi- 
cals, and in various other literary enterprises. 
His select works were edited long after his 
death by Stahr, and published in Oldenburg in 
1840. He is chiefly remembered in German 
literature on account of his intimate association 
with Goethe, Herder, and other eminent men, 
upon whose intellectual development he ex- 
erted a great influence by his literary criticism. 
The latter part of Merck’s life was saddened 
by domestic and pecuniary misfortunes, which 
led him to shoot himself. The letters ad- 
dressed to him by Goethe, Herder, Wieland, 
and others, were published by Wagner (Darm- 
stadt, 1835); and another edition of his cor- 
respondence, including both letters received 
and written by him, appeared in 18388. 

MERCURY, or Quicksilver, a metal of the 
color and lustre of silver, and fluid at ordinary 
temperatures, whence its ancient name of ar- 
gentum vivum, and that by which it was called 
by Aristotle and Theophrastus, who made the 
earliest mention of it, dpyupo¢ yuréc, fluid silver. 
It was also known as hydrargyrum, and from 
this its chemical symbol, Hg, is derived. The 
equivalent of the metal is 200; and its specific 
gravity, which varies somewhat with the tem- 
perature, is given by Kopp as 13°557 at 62°6° 
F, At 39° or 40° below zero F. the metal be- 
comes solid and crystallizes in regular octahe- 
drons, contracting in bulk and assuming the 
density of 14; the mass is malleable, and re- 
sembles lead. Its boiling point is 662° F., at 
which it forms an invisible, transparent vapor, 


MERCURY 


the density of which is 6,976, air being 1,000. 
Before assuming, this form, if exposed to the 
air at high temperatures, it absorbs oxygen 
and is converted into the red oxide, which is 
decomposed at the boiling point. Above 40° 
F. mercury is somewhat volatile, as may be 
shown by holding an iodized daguerreotype 
plate, that has been submitted to the action of 
light in the camera, over a bath of mercury, 
when the picture will be brought out by the 
vapor. Gold leaf is also affected by the vapor 
when suspended in a vial containing mercury 
and kept at ordinary temperatures. Strong 
nitric-acid dissolves mercury; but hydrochloric 
acid, hot or cold, does not affect it. It is 
oxidized by heated concentrated sulphuric acid, 
and is soluble in a solution of common salt. 
Exposed for a long time to the air, mercury 
gathers a film of gray oxide upon its surface, 
which adheres to the glass in which the metal 
is contained; glycerine is employed to prevent 
the formation of this film. When mercury 
contains dissolved in it lead, zinc, or other 
extraneous oxidizable metals, these may be 
removed by covering the surface of the metal, 
placed in a shallow vessel, with dilute nitric 
acid, and stirring frequently. The acid attacks 
and takes up the foreign matters, and may also 
form a crust of nitrate with a small portion of 
the mercury. This is a more efficient method 
of purification than that of distillation when 
zinc is present, as this is distilled over with 
the mercury. Impurities mechanically mixed 
with mercury may often be removed by strain- 
ing the metal through paper perforated with a 
very small hole, or squeezing it through wash 
leather. But if a film of oxide still adheres to 
the mercury, this may be removed by agitating 
it violently in a bottle in which some powdered 
white sugar has been introduced, then blowing 
air into the bottle, repeating the shaking and 
blowing several times, and then filtering. Mer- 
cury unites with various metals, as gold, sil- 
ver, tin, lead, zinc, and bismuth, forming com- 
pounds which are noticed under the head of 
AmataamM. In some cases the cheapest of the 
metals named have been used to adulterate 
mercury. The effect of this mixture is to 
produce an amalgam, the presence of which is 
easily detected by the fluid, when poured upon 
a plate of glass or porcelain, not flowing freely, 
but leaving a trace behind it.—Mercury occurs 
native in globules scattered through masses of 
rocks or ore, and also (rarely) in the form of a 
silver amalgam; but chiefly as a sulphide of 
mercury. (See CrnnaBar.) It seldom if ever 
occurs in fissure veins, though sometimes it im- 
pregnates or constitutes well defined deposits. 
It is found in geological formations of almost 
all ages, and particularly in talcose and argil- 
laceous slates. The most important deposit in 
the world is that of Almaden in Spain, from 
which, according to Pliny, the Romans annually 
obtained about 700,000 lbs. of cinnabar. The 
matrix of the ore consists of quartz and quartz- 
ose sandstone, intermixed with cinnabar in 


MERCURY 


beds or intercalated veins, enclosed in slates 
and quartzites of upper Silurian age. A mass 
of ore nearly 100 ft. wide, called el Rosario, 
constitutes the largest development. The Span- 
ish government holds the title and has leased 
the mines to the Rothschilds. The average 
yield of all the ore is about 7°85 per cent. 
(See AtmapEN.) The annual production of 
the Spanish mines was estimated in 1867 at 
about 2,500,000 lbs. At Idria, in Illyria, cin- 
nabar occurs impregnating beds of limestone 
of uncertain age. (See Ipria.) These mines 
are controlled by the government, and the 
product in 1871 was 750,400 Ibs., and about 
123,200 lbs. of artiticial cinnabar. The material 
is very soft, sometimes contains globules of 
mercury, and gives off mercurial fumes which 
injure the health of the workmen. In the 
Palatinate quicksilver ores are found at mode- 
rate depths distributed in the fissures of the 
rock apparently by sublimation. At Ripa, in 
Modena, cinnabar impregnates micaceous and 
talcose slates. At Vall’ Alta, in Venetia, it 
occurs in the calcareous schists and in quartz- 
ose porphyry. Native mercury is found at 
Montpellier in France, disseminated through 
tertiary marls and calcareous conglomerate, 
In Chili cinnabar is found in granitic rocks, 
and in Peru in sandstone associated with coal. 
The great Peruvian mines of Huancavelica were 
worked as early as 1566. The product down 
to 1845 was about 1,100,000 quintals of mer- 
cury (101°60 Ibs. each). Of this only 66,000 
quintals were produced after 1789, up to which 
time Humboldt gives the production as 1,040,- 
469 quintals, worth at the government price 
$75,954,287. The present annual production 
of Peru probably does not exceed 200,000 Ibs. 
Mercury is found at many localities in Mexico, 
but is not extracted at present on a large scale. 
The great consumption of this metal in the 
patio process at the haciendas or metallurgical 
works of Mexico is supplied by importations 
from Spain and California.—The deposits of 
New Almaden, 12 m. from San José, in Santa 
Clara co., California, occur in the Coast range, 
in a belt of altered cretaceous slates, between 
beds of serpentine on either side. The ore is 
found in a series of irregular cavities occurring 
without apparent connection or order. The 
average yield of the ore worked in 1873 at New 
Almaden was 7°86 per cent. quicksilver ; alarge 
amount (something more than one half) of the 
material reduced in that year was tierras or 
poor earthy screenings, yielding 2 per cent. 
This reduced the general average to 4°87 per 
cent. The product of this property for 214 
years, ending Dec. 31, 1873, was as follows: 


573,150 flasks, or 49,945,975 Ibs. 
10571 “ ‘or 808,681 * 


583,721 flasks, or 44,654,656 Ibs. 


(A flask contains 764 lbs.) The deposit at New 
Almaden was first found by Indians, who used 
the material as a paint, and excavated openings 
50 or 60 ft. into the mountain in search of it. 


New Almaden mine........ 
Enriquita e 


eoerrese 


401 


In 1824 and afterward the Spaniards attempted 
to work it for silver. In 1845 it was worked 
first for mercury by Capt. Castillero. Opera- 
tions were suspended during the war, and re- 
commenced in 1848, and a company of Mexi- 
cans and English held the mine from 1850 to 
1858, when they were enjoined, pending litiga- 
tion as to title. The value of the product up 
to this time had amounted, according to legal 
papers, to over $8,000,000, and was estimated 
at $1,000,000 annually. The total value of the 
New Almaden property was rated by the 
United States attorney general at $15,000,- 
000. In the same neighborhood the Enri- 
quita, Providencia, and Guadalupe mines have 
been worked. In Fresno county the New Idria 
series of mines, including the San Carlos, Au- 
rora, Idria, Molino, Washington, Benada, and 
Victorener mines, contain cinnabar in sand- 
stone and slate. The Panoche Grande, in this 
county, is famous in the records of litigation 
and legislation as the McGarrahan claim. The 
Redington mine in Lake county is similar in 
formation to the New Almaden. The decrease 
of late years in the production of quicksilver 
in California, and the consequent rise in price, 
have led to numerous discoveries and new open- 
ings of mines in that state. The producing 
mines in 1873 are given as follows: New Al- 
maden, 11,042 flasks; New Idria, 7,600; Red- 
ington, 4,200; Great Western, 651; Manhat- 
tan, 621; Summit, 75; American, 128; Napa, 
199; California, 995; Phoenix, 880; Wash- 
ington, 197. As the price of quicksilver had 
risen by the end of the year to $1 20 per pound, 
and had averaged during the year something 
over $1 per pound, the product of California 
in 1873 may be valued at more than $2,000,000. 
In quantity the production was les$ than that 
of previous years. California yielded in 1867, 
according to the reports of the Paris exposi- 
tion, 3,960,000 lbs., out of a total for all coun- 
tries of 7,083,120 lbs.—The methods employed 
in mining quicksilver ores present no peculiar 
features, except those which are incident to the 
great irregularity of the deposits. The theory 
of the reduction of the ores is simple. Pure 
cinnabar contains 13°79 parts of sulphur to 
86°21 of quicksilver. The general average of 
the ores extracted is, however, less than 10 per 
cent. of quicksilver; in the majority of the 
deposits in California not over 2 per cent. 
Even much poorer ore than this is worked in 
other parts of the world. The difference in 
the grade of ore depends upon the proportion 
of intermixed gangue or sterile rock. The cin- 
nabar itself is usually nearly pure. In treating 
it, the sulphur must first be separated from 


| the quicksilver, and then, since in this process 


the quicksilver is vaporized, its metallic fumes 
must be recondensed. Two systems are em- 
ployed. By the first the powdered ore is heated 
in retorts with 50 per cent. of its weight of lime 


or iron filings. The sulphur combines with the 


lime or iron, forming a non-volatile sulphide, 
setting free the mercury, the fumes of which 


402 


are then passed into condensers. By the sec- 
ond system the ore is burned in furnaces, where 
the sulphur is converted into sulphurous acid 
gas by the admission of air, and the quicksilver 
is set free as avapor. All the vapors and gases 
from this combustion pass into condensing 
chambers, where the quicksilver is condensed, 
while the gases escape to the chimney. The 
retort system, although less wasteful in quick- 
silver, involves so much additional expense 
that it is not advantageous in practice. The 
roasting of cinnabar in furnaces is now uni- 
versal. The furnaces used are of two gene- 
ral classes, intermittent and perpetual. In the 
former, a large charge is introduced, burned, 
and withdrawn when it has become cool, leav- 
ing the furnace ready for another. In a per- 
petual furnace small charges are continually 
introduced at stated intervals, and the burned 
ore is withdrawn without interrupting the pro- 
cess. Intermittent furnaces of different varie- 
ties are used at Almaden, Idria, and some points 
in California. A Spanish furnace at Almaden 
is peculiar in its system of condensation, by 
which the quicksilver is distilled in large num- 
bers of clay crucibles joined together like pipes. 
The condensing chambers contain 528 of these 
in 12 rows of 44 each. Each Aludel, so called, 
is about 18 in. long, 10 in. wide in the middle, 
and 6 in. wide at each end, where it fits into 
the next. A small hole in each allows the con- 
densed quicksilver to flow out into a gutter 
leading to a central channel. The furnace con- 
sists of a cylindrical shaft about 6 ft. in diame* 
ter and 25 ft. high, divided by perforated arches, 
9 or 10 ft. from the top, into two compart- 
ments, the upper being for ore and the lower 
for fuel. The process of burning and distilling 
quicksilver lasts three days. On the fourth 
day the furnace is recharged, and the Aludeln 
are taken up, emptied, and rearranged. The 
furnace used at Idria has a series of brick 
chambers separated by partition walls for con- 
densing the quicksilver. The intermittent fur- 
naces of California are also provided with brick 
condensers. The power which bricks have of 
retaining heat is one of the greatest objections 
to their use; another is the inevitable loss of 
quicksilver, which forces its way even through 
the best made bottoms of condensing cham- 
bers, and through imperceptible cracks in the 
walls. The furnaces of California are built 
upon arches, and near the bottom of these 
arches pieces of sheet iron are placed in the 
masonry, which catch the quicksilver as it 
filters through, and conduct it to a basin. The 
merit of brick condensers as compared with 
iron lies in their ease of construction and re- 
pair, and in their indifference to the sulphuric 
acid which is formed with the sulphurous acid 
gases in contact with steam and oxygen. The 
intermittent furnaces at New Almaden are 
40 ft. long, 8 ft. wide, and 10 ft. high, each 
being divided into compartments, the fire oc- 
cupying one at the end, and the heat passing 
through the ores into flues. A charge of 15,000 


MERCURY 


Ibs. is worked in 60 hours with wood fuel. A 
flue from the furnace passes upward to the 
first condensation chamber, which is 8 ft. long, 
4 ft. broad, and 5 ft. high. The chambers are 
covered with cast-iron plates luted down. After 
passing through eight chambers the remaining 
vapors are conducted into a tank, where they 
are sprinkled with water, and thence escape by 
wooden chimneys. The ore is usually so mixed 
for treatment as to present a uniform low per- 
centage. The finer fragments are worked up 
with the soft loamy portion, and the mass is 
kneaded with water and moulded into bricks, 
which being dried in the sun are worked like 
the rest. <A great saving of fuel may be effect- 
ed by the use of perpetual furnaces, or of kilns 


‘such as are employed for roasting iron ore or 


lime. Of this class are the Alberti furnace, 
which is a reverberatory, and hence suitable 
for small-sized pieces only; the Hihner, Pult, 
and Vall’ Alta, which are shaft furnaces em- 
ployed in Europe; and the furnaces of Riotte, 
Knox, and Pershbacker, which are California 
improvements. Cast-iron, wooden, or wooden 
and sheet-iron tanks, or iron tubes, are em- 
ployed as condensers. Draft is obtained by 
means of suction fans. From 20 to 24 tons 
of ore is passed through a perpetual furnace 
daily, every ton remaining in the furnace nine 
hours above the fire bridge, and an additional 
time of three to four hours below the fire 
bridge in the hottest portion of the furnace, 
where the last particles of quicksilver are ex- 
pelled. The great subtilty with which the 
vapors of this metal penetrate through the 
minutest openings is well known to workmen 
at quicksilver furnaces. Beneath the old fur- 
naces at New Almaden 2,000 flasks were re- 
covered by washing out the ground to a depth 
of 80 ft. The men and animals employed about 
the smelting works are subject to salivation and 
other injurious effects; and the same is true of 
mines where, as at Idria, native mercury occurs 
in the ores, and the atmosphere is contaminated 
with mercurial fumes. At New Almaden there 
has been little or no complaint among the 
miners.—Metallic mercury in its usual form 
has no action upon the human system; it has 
been taken with impunity in quantities of a 
pound weight; but in vaporit acts energetically, 
producing its constitutional effects. Poisoning 
occasionally results from exposure to the vapor 
of mercury, as from the breaking of packages 
in the hold of a ship, or in various processes in 
the arts, as in gilding,.in silvering mirrors, &c. 
Mercury is used in medicine in many forms, 
all of which may give rise to its constitutional 
effects, varying in the time required for the pro- 
duction of. their action and in the nature of the 
local disturbance they produce. Mercury with 
chalk, or hydrargyrum cum ereta, prepared by 
rubbing up 3 oz. of mercury with 5 oz. of 
prepared chalk, and blue pill made from a mass 
composed of 1 oz. of mercury rubbed up with 
14 oz. of confection of roses, and then beaten 
with 4 oz. of powdered liquorice root, are 


MERCURY 


preparations in very frequent use. The metal 
should be contained in them in a state of divi- 
sion so fine that its globules are not made visi- 
ble by alens magnifying four diameters or more. 
A small portion of oxide is probably present in 
them also, which is more soluble than metallic 
mercury, and thus renders the preparations 
more active. When blue pill is taken in small 
but repeated doses, the first appreciable effect is 
usually an increased activity of the secretions, 
particularly of the intestinal canal, the dis- 
charges from which become liquid and bilious; 
the mucous membrane of the lungs and genito- 
urinary apparatus may display a similarly aug- 
mented secretion. If there happen to be any- 
where an interstitial deposit of fibrine, or an 
exudation of lymph, or effusion of serum, its 
absorption may now be promoted; although 
Stillé says if the mercurial influence be carried 
too far, extensive ulcers will appear, sometimes 
coated with false membranes or exudations, 
and the eyelids and ankles may become cede- 
matous, and even general dropsy may ensue. 
In the next grade of the unfavorable action 
of mercury the appetite fails, digestion is im- 
paired, the secretions become still thinner and 
more copious, the firmness of the tissues di- 
minishes, newly formed callus is dissolved, and 
recently healed wounds open afresh; the mus- 
cles waste, the skin has an earthy paleness, 
with the other consequences mentioned above. 
These symptoms, says Stillé, appear to depend 
upon the radical change which the blood has 
undergone by losing a large portion of its nat- 
ural solid constituents, and perhaps a forma- 
tion of less highly vitalized compounds of al- 
bumen with the mercurial salt. Salivation is 
one of the most ordinary effects of the con- 
tinued use of mercury, and consists in a copi- 
ous flow of watery saliva, accompanied with 
swelling and soreness of the gums and a pe- 
culiar fetor of the breath. Ulcerations of the 
mouth may occur. The power of mercury to 
increase the secretion or discharge of bile, 
which for many years has been one of the 
most undoubted articles of medical faith, has 
recently been called in question; but although 
it can be shown clearly enough that in certain 
dogs the secretion of bile is not increased 
thereby, yet there seems to be not only clini- 
cal but experimental evidence to show that, in 
some way or other, the flow of bile into the 
intestine is rendered more copious by mer- 
curial action. The constitutional action of 
most of the other mercurial preparations re- 
sembles that first described. Calomel (techni- 
cally called hydrargyri chloridum mite) is often 
given as a cathartic, and when so given pro- 
duces no constitutional action whatever, ex- 
cept in persons who are endowed with a pecu- 
liar and exceptional sensitiveness to its action. 
Corrosive sublimate is an irritant poison even 
in quite small doses, but when given in doses 


of 3, to +, of a grain it is one of the best | 


forms in which to use the drug for its sys- 
temic action. Turpeth mineral, which is a 


406 


basic sulphate, is used as an emetic, and only 
exceptionally is absorbed in sufficient quan- 
tity to produce constitutional effects. Inunc- 
tions with mercurial ointment and fumiga- 
tions with the bisulphuret. or other salts may 
also introduce the metal into the system and 
give rise to the effects above described. Both 
calomel and corrosive sublimate have been 
injected subcutaneously, but when adminis- 
tered in this way are liable to produce ab- 
scesses. Mercurial fever and mercurial tre- 
mors, the latter often an extremely obstinate 
affection, are among the constitutional effects 
of mercury. Stillé says: ‘Few medicines 
produce such a marked sense of depression, 
both mental and bodily, as mercury even in 
ordinary doses; but when the system is 
brought thoroughly under its influence, these 
effects become distressing; the susceptibility 
to external impressions, and particularly to 
that of cold, is augmented, pains in the limbs 
are felt, slight annoyances disturb the equa- 
nimity, and sometimes mental debility ensues, 
so that a moody melancholy and fear of death 
may overtake the patient.” The statements 
in regard to the resemblance of lesions induced 
by mercury to those of the later stages of 
syphilis are probably exaggerated, as the symp- 
toms of mercurial poisoning, however severe 
they may be, are not, so far as can be ascer- 
tained by examining workmen in establish- 
ments where mercury is used and mercurial 
poisoning familiar, the same as those of syph- 
ilis.—It is impossible to give in any reasonable 
space an account of the uses which have been 
made of mercury in various diseases. It is 
much less used now than formerly, and its 
marked constitutional effects when it is em- 
ployed are avoided, if possible, rather than 
sought for. It is most largely employed in 
the treatment of syphilis, but it can be shown 
that even here it is not absolutely essential, 
although surgeons of great experience are con- 
fident that the disease is rendered shorter 
and more manageable thereby. The general 
verdict of the medical profession is undoubt- 
edly in favor of using mercury in the treat- 
ment of syphilitic disease, but of limiting its 
use to appropriate cases. It should not be 
administered indiscriminately in syphilitic any 
more than in other affections. In tertiary 
syphilis it should be used with great caution, if 
at all. It is given most advantageously in the 
primary, secondary, and hereditary forms of 
the disease, when these occur in individuals 
whose constitutions are capable of bearing the 
action of the drug. Whenever inflammation, 
especially of serous membranes, is accompa- 
nied with exudation, the careful administra- 
tion of mercury is often of advantage in pro- 
moting absorption of the exudation.—Mercury 
isa dyad, and forms two sets of compounds, the 
mercurous and mercuric salts; there are two 
oxides, mercury monoxide or mercuric oxide, 
HgO, and mercurous oxide, Hg.0. When mer- 
curic oxide is prepared by decomposing the ni- 


404 


trate by heat, it has a bright orange color, and 
is known as the red oxide of mercury. In the 
state of a finely levigated powder, or as an 
ointment, this is applied externally in medicine 
as a stimulant and caustic. The name red 
precipitate, or precipitate per se, was given to 
this oxide because of the manner in which it 
was formerly prepared. Mercury in a matrass 
(a glass vessel with a long narrow neck) was 
subjected continuously to the action of heat. 
The mercurial vapor rising in the neck of the 
matrass was converted into red oxide, which 
was prevented from escaping; and as the op- 
eration went on for weeks, the whole was 
converted into the same compound. Other 
mercurial compounds of especial interest are 
the subchloride and chloride, the one described 
under CatomeL and the other under Corro- 
SIVE SuBLIMATE.—In the arts, mercury is em- 
ployed in the construction of philosophical in- 
struments, and is preferred to other fluids for 
filling thermometers and barometers by reason 
of the great range of temperature through 
which it expands or contracts uniformly with 
equal increase or decrease of heat. Its amal- 
gam with tin is largely used for coating or 
‘*silvering” the backs of mirrors. The paint, 
vermilion, is its sulphuret, cinnabar. But its 
principal consumption is in the extraction of 
silver and gold from their ores in the amalga- 
mating process. (See AMALGAMATION.) 
MERCURY, or Hermes, an ancient deity of the 
Greeks and Romans. According to the Greek 
legend, he was a son of Jupiter and Maia, a 
daughter of Atlas. He was born in a cave of 
Mt. Oyllene, in Arcadia, whence his epithet 
Cyllenian. Soon after his birth, escaping 
from his cradle, he went to Pieria, and stole 
several of Apollo’s oxen, which he drove to 
Pylos, where he slaughtered two for a banquet 
and sacrifice, and concealed the rest. On re- 
turning to Cyllene, he found a tortoise at the 
entrance of his cave, of whose shell and some 
of the ox intestines he constructed the first 
lyre. Apollo, knowing who had stolen his 
cattle, went to Cyllene to demand restitution ; 
and when Mercury denied the theft he took 
him before Jupiter, who obliged him to con- 
fess. But when Apollo heard Mercury per- 
form on the lyre, he was so delighted that he 
permitted the young musician to retain the 
cattle, and presented to him his golden caduce- 
us, or pastoral staff, teaching him at the same 
time the art of prophesying with dice. Jupi- 
ter appointed him herald general of the gods, 
in which capacity he was frequently the medi- 
um of communication between mortals and 
immortals. It was he who conducted Priam 
to Achilles, when the verierable monarch went 
to beg the body of Hector from his conqueror. 
He bound Ixion to the wheel for boasting 
of intimacy with Juno, chained Prometheus 
to the Caucasus, and escorted Juno, Venus, 
and Minerva to Mt. Ida to submit their charms 
to the judgment of Paris. Mercury was es- 
teemed the author of various inventions, and 


MERCURY 


the origin of letters, numbers, astronomy, 
music, military tactics, gymnastics, weights, 
and measures was ascribed to him. He was 
also regarded as the god of eloquence, the pre- 
siding deity of the gymnasia, and the patron 
of fraud and perjury. The original seat of 
his worship was Arcadia, whence it gradually 
spread over the Grecian world. His festivals 
were called Hermaia. The most celebrated 
of his temples was that on Mt. Cyllene. The | 
principal things sacred to him were the palm 
tree and the tortoise. He is generally repre- 
sented as a young man with a broad-brimmed 
hat adorned with wings, in his right hand a 
herald’s staff or a sceptre, and on his feet a pair 
of winged sandals.—In Rome, Mercury was the 
god of commerce and diplomacy. The etyma 
of his name, merx and curius, clearly indicate 
his predominant function. A temple was raised 
to him in Rome near the Circus Maximus as 
early as 495 B. ©., and an altar of his stood 
contiguous to the Porta Capena. Under the 
cognomen of Malevolus, or the ‘‘ill-disposed,” 
he had a statue in the wicus sobrius, or Sober 
street, in which no wine shops were allowed to 
be kept, and there milk was the sole beverage 
offered to him. This statue held a purse in one 
of its hands as a symbol of his commercial 
functions. The festival of Mercury was cele- 
brated on the 25th of May, which was regarded 
as a high day by the Roman merchants. After : 
the various relations of Greece and Rome had 
become intimate, the Hermes of the former 
and the Mercurius of the latter were popularly 
considered identical, though the resemblance 
between the two divinities was very slight, 
and was never admitted by the /etiales, or 
guardians of the public faith of Rome. 
MERCURY, the planet nearest to the sun, 
travelling at a mean distance from it of about 
30,392,000 m. The eccentricity of the orbit of 
Mercury is considerable, the centre of the orbit 
being more than 7,000,000 m. from the centre 
of the sun. Thus his greatest distance from 
the sun amounts to about 42,669,000 m., his 
least to about 28,115,000 m. When nearest to 
the earth, Mercury’s distance from us amounts 
to about 45,000,000 m.; but when so situated 
he is not visible, because, being between us 
and the sun, his darkened hemisphere is turned 
toward us. His greatest distance amounts to 
about 135,500,000 m. When he is at his great- 
est distance his illuminated face is turned di- 
rectly toward the earth; but he cannot then be 
seen because he lies in the same direction as the 
sun, and is lost in the superior glory of that lumi- 
nary. He is seen most favorably when nearly 
at his greatest elongation; that is, when two 
lines drawn to the sun and Mercury include 
their greatest angle. At such atime he is about 
85,000,000 m. from us, and appears as a half 
disk. As he is illuminated with great brilliancy 
on account of his nearness to the sun, he is a 
difficult object of telescopic study, the more so 
that when most favorably situated the illumi- 
nated portions of his disk are seen obliquely. 


MERCY 


Therefore very little reliance can be placed on 
the accounts some telescopists have given of 
marks supposed to be seen on the planet’s sur- 
face, nor can his rotation period be regarded 
as fully determined from features so unsatis- 
factorily observed. Even the estimates of his 
diameter can scarcely be regarded as altogether 
trustworthy; but it is not probable that it 
greatly exceeds or falls short of 3,000 miles. 
His volume is about ;38, of the earth’s, and 
his density greater than hers in about the pro- 
portion of 10 to 9; so that his mass is about 
+£5, of the earth’s. He travels round the sun 
in rather less than three of our months, his 
mean sidereal revolution being completed in 
87:9693 days. His mean synodical revolution, 
or the mean interval between his successive 
returns to inferior conjunction, amounts to 
115°877 days; so that he passes through all his 
phases (from inferior conjunction to maximum 
elongation west of the sun, thence to superior 
conjunction through maximum elongation west 
of the sun, to inferior conjunction again) more 
than three times in the course of each year. 
But as he is only visible for a short time after 
sunset on three or four evenings when his elon- 
gation is easterly, and for a short time before 
sunrise on three or four mornings when his 
elongation is westerly, he is not often seen. 
In America he might be seen oftener than in 
England, however, as the twilight skies are 
seldom free from light mist in the latter country. 
It is commonly said that Mercury rotates on his 
axis in 24h. 5m. 28s.; but great doubt rests on 
the determination of this element, for the reason 
above mentioned.—Mercury, travelling within 
the earth’s orbit, sometimes transits (or passes 
across) the face of the sun. The first phenome- 
non of this sort ever observed took place in No- 
vember, 1631, and was witnessed by Gassendi. 
A transit of Mercury,is not so important in 
astronomy as a transit of Venus, because the 
nearness of Mercury to the sun prevents his 
having a measurable relative parallax; in other 
words, whereas Venus, seen from two distant 
stations on the earth during any moment of 
her transit, is projected at two spots measur- 
ably separated from each other on the sun’s 
disk, this is not the case with Mercury. The 
observation of Mercury in transit, however, is 
interesting as illustrating the phenomena which 
occur during a transit of Venus. The forma- 
tion of the ‘‘black drop,” a small black liga- 
ment which at the moment of contact seems 
to connect the disk of the planet with the dark 
space outside the solar disk, is véry manifest 
in the case of Mercury, though, owing to his 
disk being so much smaller than that of Venus, 
and his motions more rapid, the phenomena 
are not so readily studied. Transits of Mer- 
cury take place at intervals of 13, 7, 10, 3, 10, 
and 3 years. 

MERCY, Sisters of, or Order of Our Lady of 
Mercy, a religious order founded in Dublin by 
Miss Catharine McAuley in 1830. Miss Mc- 
Auley was born in Gormanstown castle, near 


MERGANSER 405 


Dublin, Sept. 29, 1787, and died Nov. 18, 
1841. Her parents, who were Roman Cath- 
olics, died while she was a child, and she was 
brought up without any definite religious 
faith. But she became a Roman Catholic, and 
devoted herself and her large fortune to the 
service of the poor. She induced several Ja- 
dies to join her, purchased a house in Dublin, 
and there in 1827 opened an asylum for desti- 
tute young women and a free school for poor 
children. Soon afterward she and her com- 
panions underwent a regular novitiate in a 
convent of Presentation nuns, and in 1831 as- 
sumed there the habit and took the vows of 
the new order. The rules first drawn up were 
sanctioned by the archbishop of Dublin, Jan. 
23, 1884; but subsequently the rule of St. Au- 
gustine, modified to suit the active duties of - 
the sisterhood, was adopted by them, approved 
by Gregory XVI. in 1885, and formally con- 
firmed by him in 1840. The sisters of mercy 
spread rapidly over Great Britain and her colo- 
nies. The first American house was estab- 
lished at St. John’s, Newfoundland, in 1842, 
and the first in the United States at Pittsburgh 
in 1848. In 1874 the order possessed houses 
of protection for servant girls, schools, asy- 
lums, and hospitals in all the New England, 
middle, and western states, including Califor- 
nia and Washington territory, and in nearly 
all the southern states.—The sisters of mercy 
have in view, besides other charities, the vis- 
itation of the sick and prisoners, the instruc- 
tion of poor girls, and the protection of virtu- 
ous women in distress. Wherever their means 
permit they found “‘houses of mercy,” where ° 
destitute girls of good character are cared for 
until employment can be found for them. 
They are subject to the bishops, and have no 
general superior, the communities of each dio- 
cese in the United States forming one body 
governed by a common superior, who is elect- 
ed by the professed choir sisters, and confirmed 
by the bishop. The sisterhood is divided into 
two classes, choir sisters and lay sisters. The 
former are employed about the ordinary ob- 
jects of the order, and the latter about the do- 
mestic avocations of the convent and such oth- 
er duties as may be assigned to them. Candi- 
dates for membership of either class undergo 
a preliminary “‘ postulancy” for six months; at 
the end of that. time they assume the white 
veil and become novices. The novitiate lasts 
two years. The vows, which are taken for 
life, bind the members to poverty, chastity, 
obedience, and the service of the poor, sick, 
and ignorant. The habit of the order is a 
black robe with long loose sleeves, a white coif, 
and a white or black veil. In the streets a 
bonnet of black crape is worn instead of the 
coif and veil. 

MERGANSER, a name applied to most of the 
saw-billed ducks, of the subfamily mergina, 
of which the goosander, the largest species, 
has been described under that title. The bill 
is very slender, narrow, compressed, ending in 


406 


a conspicuous nail, with the edges serrated; 
tarsi much compressed, the scales largest an- 
teriorly; and the tail feathers 18 in the North 
American species. In the genus mergus (Linn.) 
the bill is longer than the head, and mostly red, 
with the serrations conical, acute, and recurved; 
the tarsi about two thirds of the middle toe, 
tail about half the length of the wings, and 
head with a depressed crest. The red-breast- 
ed merganser (J. serrator, Linn.), sometimes 
called sheldrake in this country, is about 2 ft. 
long, with an extent of wings of 33 in., bill 24 
in., and a weight of 23 lbs. In the male, the 
head and upper neck are dark green, the throat 
reddish brown with black streaks, sides finely 
barred with transverse black lines, feathers in 
front of wing white with black margins, white 
of wing crossed by two black bars, and under, 
parts reddish white; head with conspicuous 
pointed crest; nostrils posterior. In the fe- 
male, the upper parts are ash-colored, the low- 
er reddish white, compressed crest chestnut 


Red-breasted Merganser (Mergus serrator). 


1. Male. 2. Female. 


brown, black at base of secondaries exposed ; 
outer tertials white, edged with black. This 
bird is distributed over the whole of North 
America and Europe, fishing chiefly in fresh 
water; it breeds in the middle and eastern 
states, and as far north as Labrador, begin- 
ning to build, according to latitude, from the 
first of March to the middle of May, among 
the rank grasses near fresh water; the nest is 
carefully made of dried weeds and mosses, and 
lined with down from the breast of the female; 
the eggs are from 6 to 10, 24 by 14 in., inshape 
like those of the domestic fowl, and of a uni- 
form pale yellowish cream color; the young 
take to the water at once, swimming and diving 
with great expertness. It is a very shy bird, 
and difficult to procure; the flight is rapid and 
well sustained; the habits are gluttonous; the 
food consists of fish, and its flesh is tough and 
fishy.—In the genus lophodytes (Reich.) the 
bill is shorter than the head, black, with ob- 
lique, low, short serrations, and the point trun- 
cated and not recurved nor acute; tail more 


MERGANSER 


than half the wings, tarsi half the middle toe, 
and head with an erect vertical crest. The 
only species is the hooded merganser (L. cucwl- 
latus, Reich.), which is about 18 in. long, with 
an extent of wings of 26 in., bill 2 in., and a 
weight of about 1} 1b. In the male, the head, 


Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus)—Male. 


neck, and back are black, with the under parts 
and centre of crest white; sides chestnut 
brown, barred with black; two black crescents 
on the white infront of the wing; lesser coy- 
erts gray; speculum of wing white, with a 
basal and median black bar; tertials black, 
with central white streaks; crest semicircular. 
In the female, the crest is shorter and more 
pointed; the head and neck reddish brown; 
no pure black on the back nor bars on the 
sides; white on the wings less, and the size 
much smaller. This, with the exception of the 


Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus)—Female. 


European white merganser (mergellus albellus, 
Selby; see Smew), is the handsomest of the 
family. The habits are those of the other 
mergansers; it is distributed over the whole 
of North America. The eggs are like those 
of the preceding species, except that they are 


—— a 


MERIAN 


smaller ; the flesh has a fishy taste and odor.— 
There is a small merganser in South America, 
for which was established the genus merga- 
netta (Gould), which seems to mark the transi- 
tion from the ducks to the mergansers. The 
bill is as long as the head, straight, compressed, 
elevated at the base; the shoulder of the wing 
in both sexes is armed with a strong sharp 
spur; the tail is lengthened and rounded, of 
rigid and pointed feathers. The only species 
mentioned by Gray is the WM. armata (Gould), 
found inhabiting the rapid rivers of the An- 
des,“swimming and diving against the moun- 
tain torrents with the utmost ease; so at 
home is it on the water, and so rarely dis- 
turbed, that it seldom makes use of its wings 
except for short flights; they are generally 
seen in pairs.—The affinity of the mergansers 
with the ducks is further shown by the oc- 
currence of hybrids; in the cabinet of the 
Boston society of natural history there is 
a wild hybrid between the ZL. cucullatus and 
the golden-eyed duck (bucephala Americana). 
MERIAN. I. Matthiaus, the elder, a Swiss en- 
graver, born in Basel in 1593, died in Frank- 
fort in 1651. He studied four years in Zirich 
under Dietrich Meyer, a glass painter and en- 
graver, lived several years in Paris, and after- 
ward in Frankfort. He is best known by views 
representing the environs of Heidelberg, Stutt- 
gart, and other cities, from his own designs (30 
vols., Frankfort, 1640-’88). II. Matthiius, the 
younger, son of the preceding, born in Basel 
in 1621, died in Frankfort in 1687. He stud- 
ied painting under Vandyke, and attained a 
considerable reputation, especially for his por- 
traits of the emperor Leopold I. and other 
German princes, painted after the manner of 
Vandyke. He also executed a ‘“‘ Martyrdom of 
St. Lawrence” in the cathedral of Bamberg, 
and other historical pictures, and was an engra- 
ver. ILI. Maria Sibylla, sister of the preceding, 
born in Frankfort, April 12, 1647, died in Am- 
sterdam, Jan. 13,1717. She drew from nature 
flowers, caterpillars, butterflies, and similar ob- 
jects, which she executed in miniature. In 
1665 she was married to Johann Andreas 
Graff, with whom she took up her residence 
in Nuremberg, retaining her own name. A 
work on ¢aterpillars, illustrated from her de- 
signs, was published in Dutch (2 vols. 4to, Nu- 
remberg, 1679-’83). A Latin translation ap- 
peared in Amsterdam in 1717, and in 1730 an 
enlarged edition was published there in French 
under the title of Histoire générale des in- 
sectes de | Europe. In 1684 she settled with 
her husband in Holland, and in 1698 sailed 
for Surinam, where during a residence of two 
years she prepared the materials for her Dis- 
sertatio de Generatione et Metamorphosibus 
Insectorum Surinamensium (Amsterdam, 1705), 
of which a new edition was published soon 
after her death under the supervision of her 
daughters. Her two works were republished 
together in 1768—’71 under. the title of Histoire 
des insectes de 1 Europe et de VAmérique (fol., 


MERIDA 407 


Paris). Two volumes of her original draw- 
ings are preserved in the British museum. 
MERIDA (anc. Augusta Emerita), a city of 
Estremadura, Spain, on the right bank of the 
Guadiana, in the province and 30 m. E. of the 
city of Badajoz; pop. about 5,000. The 
streets are paved and clean; the houses are 
mostly very ancient. The town contains a 
hospital, a lunatic asylum, a theatre, three 
churches, two nunneries, and four primary 
schools. Mérida is famous for its well pre- 
served monuments of Roman antiquity. The 
Guadiana is here crossed by a bridge built by 
Trajan, and rebuilt in 1610 by Philip III., with 
81 arches, 2,575 ft. long, 26 ft. broad, and 
33 ft. above the bed of the river. Another 
bridge, 450 ft. long, which still retains its 
original Roman pavement, crosses the little 
stream Albarregas. There is also a triumphal 
arch 44 ft. high, built by Trajan; a well pre- 
served amphitheatre; the piers of a stupen- 
dous aqueduct; a more modern Roman aque- 
duct of 140 arches, which still supplies the 
city with water; a gateway with an Arabic 
inscription; and a few remains of a castle.— 
Some historians suppose Mérida to have been 
founded by the Greeks; but it was certainly 
rebuilt and called Augusta Emerita by Publius 
Carisius in 25 B. C.. It was taken by the Moors 
shortly after their landing in Spain in 711, and 
from them it was wrested by Alfonso the Wise 
in 1230. Prudentius describes it as a magnifi- 
cent city in the 4th century; since its annex- 
ation by Alfonso it has gradually declined. The 
French invested the town in June, 1811, but 
were driven off by the English in April, 1812. 
MERIDA, an inland city of Mexico, in the 
peninsula and capital of the state of Yucatan, 
and of the department of its own name, 22 
m. from the gulf of Mexico, and 615 m. E. by 
N. of Mexico; pop. in 1871, 33,025, chiefly 
descendants of the Mayas and mestizos. It is 
situated in the midst of a level plain; the 
streets are very regular and spacious, and 
there are several squares. On the principal 
square stand the cathedral, a majestic struc- 
ture completed in 1598, the government house, 
the city hall, the episcopal palace, and the an- 
cient college of San Ildefonso, now occupied 
by the treasury offices and the state tribunals. 
Besides the cathedral, there are 14 churches, 
a hospital with a revenue of $115,000 and an 
annual subvention of $2,400 from the state, a 
public library, a theatre, prison, house of cor- 
rection, asylum, several political, mercantile, 
and literary periodicals, and a number of lit- 
erary and commercial associations. Education 
is in a prosperous state, there being schools 
of law, medicine, and pharmacy, an instituto 
literario, private colleges, academies, and lyce- 
ums, and 14 primary and grammar schools. 
Manufactures are very flourishing, including 
cotton fabrics, cigars and cigarettes, rum, re- 
fined sugar, molasses, cordage, leather, soap, 
Panama hats, &c. The annual value of manu- 
factures is about $1,200,000. Rope, leather, 


4.08 MERIDA 


and bags are exported to Havana. The port 
of Mérida is Progreso, on the gulf of Mexico. 
—Mérida was founded by Francisco de Mon- 
tejo the younger, on the site of the antique 
Maya town Te-hoo, in 1542; and it was erect- 
ed into a bishopric in 1561. 

MERIDA. I. AS. W. state of Venezuela, bor- 
dering upon Zulia (formerly Maracaybo), Tru- 
jillo, and Barinas, and the United States of Co- 
lombia; area, about 10,000 sq. m.; pop. about 
70,000, mostly Indians and mestizos. The sur- 
face is extremely uneven, being traversed in 
all directions by mountains belonging to the 
Andine chain, comprising 81 peaks exceeding 
10,000 ft. in height. The highest summit is 
in the Sierra Nevada, 15,066 ft. Between the 
mountain ranges are lofty table lands and ex- 
tensive valleys. There are 75 rivers, 33 of 


which flow to the Orinoco through the plains 


of Barinas; the largest is the Grita, a tribu- 
tary of the Zulia, navigable for 50 m. from the 
junction. There are several lakes of consid- 
erable size, among them the Lagunilla, 3,000 
ft. above the sea, yielding large quantities of 
urao or sesquicarbonate of soda. Nearly all 
the productions of the torrid and temperate 
zones abound, and domestic animals are very 
numerous. II. A city, capital of the state, on 
a beautiful plateau, 5,421 ft. above the sea, 310 
m. 8. W. of Caracas; pop. about 6,000. The 
streets are regular, and the houses generally 
low and solidly constructed, owing to the fre- 
quency of earthquakes. The city has a cathe- 
dral, several chapels, a convent, a seminary, 
a college, and several primary schools. The 
climate, though subject to frequent and sudden 
changes, is considered tolerably healthy; the 
mean annual temperature is 50° F. The chief 
occupations of the inhabitants are agriculture, 
cattle rearing, and the manufacture of cotton 
and woollen fabrics, which are preferred by 
reason of their cheapness to those from Eu- 
rope. Woollen carpets, tastefully variegated 
with brilliant colored flowers from a native 
vegetable dye, are extensively made. Mérida 
is the seat of an episcopal see, and was once 
second in importance among the cities of Ve- 
nezuela; but it has never fully recovered from 
the earthquake of 1812. 

MERIDEN, a town and city of New Haven 
co., Connecticut, on the New York, New Ha- 
~ ven, and Hartford railroad, 18 m. N. E. of New 
Haven; pop. in 1850, 3,559; in 1860, 7,426; 
in 1870, 10,495. The city is handsomely situ- 
ated and well laid out, and has gas and water 
works and a paid fire department. There are 
three post offices, Meriden, South Meriden, and 
West Meriden. Its manufactories employ a 
capital of about $5,650,000, and produce goods 
to the value of $7,500,000. The principal pro- 
ductions are iron castings, rolled brass, manu- 
factures of iron, steel, brass, bronze, and tin 
(including machinery. and cutlery), woollens, 
carriages, cement pipe, and britannia and elec- 
tro-plated silver ware, the Meriden britannia 
company being the largest of its kind in the 


MERIONETHSHIRE 


world. Meriden contains the state reform 
school for boys, 8 national banks, 2 savings 
banks, 33 public schools, 3 daily and 4 weekly 
newspapers, and 12 churches. It was incor- 
porated as a town in 1806, and as a city in 1867. 

MERIDIAN. See LoneirupeE. 

MERIMEE, Prosper, a French author, born in 
Paris, Sept. 28, 1808, died in Cannes, Sept. 23, 
1870. He studied law, and was received as ad- 
vocate, but did not practise. In 1830 he be- 
came secretary of the count d’Argout, and suc- 
cessively officiated as secretary in the ministry 
of commerce and chief of bureau in the ministry 
of marine. In 1884 he succeeded M. Vitet as 
inspector of ancient historical monuments of 
France, which furnished him with the mate- | 
rials for several valuable archeological works. 
In 1844 he was elected to the French academy, 
as successor of Charles Nodier. In 1848 two 
letters published in the Revue des Deux Mondes 
on behalf of his friend Libri, who had been 
accused of purloining from public libraries, 
subjected him to an imprisonment of 15 days. 
In 1858 he was made a senator. He contrib- 
uted to the romantic literature and drama of 
France the Thédtre de Clara Gazul, comédienne 
espagnole (1825; new ed., 1865), a professed 
translation from the Spanish, and La Guzla 
(1827), a professed collection of Illyrian songs. 
He wrote a series of novels, La double méprise, 
Colomba, Carmen, La Jacquerie, &c., and sev- 
eral historical works, Among the latter are 
Chronique du régne de Charles LX. (1829), 
Histoire de Don, Pédre I., roi de Castille (Pa- 
ris, 1843), and Lpisode de Vhistoire de Russie : 
les faux Démétrius (1854). His Mélanges his- 
toriques et littéraires appeared in 1855. His 
archeological works are Peintures de Véglise 
de Saint-Savin (1845), and researches in Cor- 
sica and in the south and west of France. Sey- 
eral of his works have been translated into 
German and English. A posthumous work, 
Lettres d une inconnue (2 vols., Paris, 1878; 
English translation edited by R. H. Stoddard, 
New York, 1874), comprises a series of letters 
of travel and gossip from 1842 to Sept. 23, 
1870, the last having been written two hours 
before his death. He left numerous manu- 
scripts, including an autobiography, announced 
in 1874 as in preparation for the press. 

MERINO SHEEP. See SHEEP. 

MERINTHUS. See CEriIntTHUS. 

MERIONETHSHIRE, a maritime county of 
North Wales, bordering on Cardigan bay; area, 
602 sq.m.; pop. in 1871, 46,598. The surface 
is almost entirely rocky and mountainous, sev- 
eral of its summits attaining a height of near- 
ly 8,000 ft. above the sea. The most cele- 
brated elevation is Cader Idris, whose summit 
is crowned with immense columns of crystal- 
line basalt, similar to those forming the Giant’s 
Causeway in Ireland. The principal rivers are 
the Dee, Maw, and Dovy. The largest lake is 
Bala, 12 m. in circumference. The principal 
minerals are copper, limestone, and slate. At 
the slate quarries of Festiniog several thousand 


MERIV ALE 


persons obtain constant employment. Lime- 
stone is also quarried, Oats, barley, and pota- 
toes are the chief crops. Capital, Dolgelly. 

MERIVALE. I. John Herman, an English au- 
thor, born in Exeter, Aug. 5, 1779, died April 
25, 1844. He studied at St. John’s college, 
Cambridge, but took no degree, on account of 
his being a Presbyterian. He practised in the 
court of chancery, was commissioner in bank- 
ruptcy from 1831, and published several vol- 
umes of chancery reports, and a poem, “ Or- 
lando in Roncesvalles.” A collection of his 
‘¢ Poems, Original and Translated,’’ appeared 
in 1841. I. Herman, an English author, son 
of the preceding, born in Devonshire in 1806, 
died in London, Feb. 9, 1874. He was called 
to the bar in 1832, and subsequently appoint- 
ed professor of political economy in Oxford 
university. He was made under-secretary of 
state for the colonies in 1848, and for India in 
1859. He has published ‘“ Lectures on Colo- 
nization and Colonies” (2 vols., 1841-’2; new 
ed., 1861), ‘‘ Historical Studies ” (1865), and, in 
conjunction with Sir H. B. Edwardes, a “ Life 
of Sir Henry Lawrence ” (London, 1878). I. 
Charles, an English author, brother of the pre- 
ceding, born in 1808. He graduated at Cam- 
bridge in 1880, was select preacher before the 
university in 1838-’40, Hulsean lecturer in 
1861, and Boyle lecturer in 18645. In 1848 
he became rector of Lawford, Essex, and in 
1869 dean of Ely. He has published ‘“ Fall of 
the Roman Republic” (1853); ‘ History of the 
Romans under the Empire” (7 vols., 1850-’62) ; 
‘The Conversion of the Roman Empire” and 
‘*The Conversion of the Northern Nations ” 
(Boyle lectures for 1864 and 1865); and a 
‘Translation of Homer’s Iliad” into English 
rhymed verse (2 vols. 8vo, 1869). 

MERIWETHER, a W. county of Georgia, 
bounded E. by Flint river, and drained by sev- 
eral creeks; area, 525 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
13,756, of whom 7,369 were colored. The 
county is noted for its medicinal springs. The 
Warm Springs discharge 1,400 gallons a minute 
at a temperature of 90°. The chief produc- 
tions in 1870 were 38,098 bushels of wheat, 
200,880 of Indian corn, 23,776 of oats, 27,648 
of sweet potatoes, 83,480 lbs. of butter, and 
8,230 bales of cotton. There were 994 horses, 
1,763 mules and asses, 7,058 cattle, 3,220 sheep, 
and 10,835 swine; 13 flour mills, and 2 lum- 
ber mills, Capital, Greenville. 

MERLE D°AUBIGNE, Jean Henri, a Swiss clergy- 
man and historian, born at Eaux Vives, near 
Geneva, Aug. 16, 1794, died in Geneva, Oct. 
21, 1872. He was descended from a distin- 
guished Huguenot family which was driven 
out of France by the revocation of the edict 
of Nantes. He was educated in Geneva, and 
attended Neander’s lectures in Berlin. In 1817 
he was ordained, and for six years following 
was pastor of the French Calvinist church in 
Hamburg. In 1823 he removed to Brussels, 
where for seven years he was pastor of a Prot- 
estant congregation, and court preacher to the 


MERLIN 409 


king of the Netherlands during his stays in that 
city. After the revolution of 1830 he returned 
to Geneva and took the chair of ecclesiastical 
history, and the general direction of a new 
theological institution founded by the evan- 
gelical society of that city. Some years later 
he began his principal work, Histoire de la ré- 
Jormation au X VI? siécle (5 vols., Paris, 1885- 
68). More than 200,000 copies of the English 
translation of this work have been sold in 
Great Britain, and at least twice that number 
in the United States. His supplementary His- 
towre de la réformation au temps de Calvin (5 
vols., Paris, 1862-’8) was to have extended to 
seven volumes, but was not completed at his 
death. He also published Le protecteur, ou la 
république d’ Angleterre aux jours de Cromwell 
(Paris, 1848); ‘Germany, England, and Scot- 


land, or Recollections of a Swiss Minister” 


(London, 1848); Zrois siécles de luttes en Ecosse, 
ou deux rois et deux royaumes (1850); and sev- 
eral discourses, and papers in the Archives du 
Christianisme, most of which have been trans- 
lated into English. In 1870 he published a 
pamphlet entitled Le concile et Vinfaillibilité. 

MERLIN, a European falcon, of the genus hy- 
potriorchis (Boie), which differs from the genus 
falco (Linn.) chiefly in the more lengthened 
and slender tarsi, and long slender toes. This 
bird (H. esalon, Gmel.) is about a foot long, 
with an extent of wings of 29 in., the male 
being a little smaller; it is the smallest of the 
British falcons, of pleasing colors, compact and 
graceful in form, with large head and short 
strong bill, the closed wings about 14 in. short- 
er than the tail. In the male, the upper parts 


are deep grayish blue, each feather with a black 


Merlin (Hypotriorchis salon), 


central line, the tail barred with black, and the 
lower parts light reddish yellow with oblong 
blackish brown spots; in the female, the upper 
parts are grayish brown with darker shafts, 
the tail barred with pale reddish, and the lower 
parts yellowish white with large longitudinal 


410 MERLIN 


markings; in both sexes the bill is pale blue 
at the base, and bluish black toward the end. 
From its courage and docility it was formerly 
trained to pursue larks and the smaller game 
birds. It is found all over Europe and western 
Asia; it very much resembles the American 
pigeon hawk (H. columbarius, Boie). 

MERLIN, the name of two legendary British 
seers and sorcerers, who lived in the 5th and 
6th centuries A. D. I. Merlin Ambrosins, a na- 
tive of Wales, is represented to have been the 
son of a demon by a Cambrian princess. When 
a mere youth he recommended himself to the 
notice of King Vortigern by the display of 
supernatural powers; and he subsequently 
became the counsellor of that monarch, and of 
his successors Ambrosius, Uterpendragon, and 
Arthur. This is the Merlin to whom allusion 


is made by Spenser in his ‘‘ Faerie Queen,” and ° 


by other old poets. He is also the subject of 
the metrical romance entitled “ Merlin,” of 
which Mr. Ellis has given an analysis in his 
‘“‘ Karly English Romances;” and he is promi- 
nent in Bulwer-Lytton’s ‘“ King Arthur,” and 
in Tennyson’s ‘‘Idyls of the King,” especially 
in *“‘ Vivien.” A book of prophecies attributed 
to him was printed in French in 1498, in Eng- 
lish in 1529, and in Latin in 1554. The prin- 
cipal account of him is given by Geoffrey of 
Monmouth in his Historia Britonum. ‘The 
Life of Merlin Ambrosius,” by T. Heywood, 
appeared in London in 1641. The early Eng- 
lish text society has reprinted the first part of 
the prose romance of Merlin from the unique 
manuscript in the Cambridge university library, 
edited by H. B. Wheatley (1875). IK. Merlin 


Caledonius Sylvestris, or the Wild, a native of Strath-. 


clyde, in 8. W. Scotland, was contemporary 
with St. Kentigern, bishop of Glasgow, in the 
latter part of the 6th century. According to 
Fordun, having slain his nephew, he fled to the 
woods, and there led the life of a savage till 
his death. A band of peasants pursuing him, 
he sprang from a rock into the Tweed, in order 
to escape them, and was impaled on a stake 
that chanced to be in the bed of the river. A 
metrical life of him, incorrectly ascribed to 
Geoffrey of Monmouth, was printed for the 
Roxburghe club (London, 1830). The works 
attributed to him were published at Edinburgh 
in 1615; but as the rhapsodies and prophecies 
of the Cambrian and Caledonian Merlins are 
confounded, being sometimes ascribed to one 
and sometimes to the other, it is almost im- 
possible to distinguish between them. 

MERMAN AND MERMAID, fabulous beings 
dwelling in the sea, having the head and body 
of a man or woman, and the tail of a fish. 
Pliny, 4lian, and Pausanias give particular ac- 
counts of their being seen by sailors and oth- 
ers, especially in the seas around the island of 
Taprobane (Ceylon). Julius Oxsar Scaliger, 
in his commentary on Aristotle (De Anima- 
libus), maintains their existence. Rondelet 
(1554) gave a picture of a singular merman 
seen in Poland, which was clothed by nature 


MERODE 


with the garb of a bishop. The most formida- 
ble animal of this kind is the devil-merman, 
monstrum marinum demoniforme, captured on 
the shore of Illyria, seen alive at Antwerp, and 
described by Aldrovandus. The merrows of 
Trish legend are mermaids. Capt. Whitbourne 
minutely describes a mermaid seen by him in 
1610 in the harbor of St. John’s, Newfound- 
land. Monsters of similar appearance have 
since been occasionally described. 
MERODACH, or Bel Merodach, the second of 
the minor Babylonian gods, nearly correspond- 
ing with the classic Jupiter, and astronomically 
identified with the planet Jupiter. The name 
Merodach was at first a mere epithet of the 
god Bel or Belus, and by degrees superseded 
the proper name. Its signification or origin 
is unknown. The golden image in the great 
temple at Babylon was worshipped as Bel rath- 
er than Merodach, but other images probably 
represented him as Merodach, and the temple 
itself, described by Herodotus as the temple of 
Belus, is the temple of Merodach in the in- 
scriptions. In what the distinction between 
the names consists, however, is not known. 
Bel Merodach is represented as the son of Ao 
and Davke, and the husband of Zirbanit. He 
is the ancient one of the gods, and the judge, 
and has the gates (probably with the seats of 
justice near them) under his special charge. 
He was the tutelar god of Babylon from an 
early period, and the Babylonian kings were 
often named after him, as Merodach-baladan 
and Evil-merodach, such use of the name 
occurring as early as 1650 B. OC. His wor- 
ship was adopted in Assyria at a later time, 
probably because of the consolidation of the 
two monarchies about the time of Pul, who 
claimed to have first put Merodach at the head 
of the Assyrian pantheon. Merodach was most 
honored under the later Babylonian kings, and 
praises and prayers addressed to him occupy 
the inscriptions of Nebuchadnezzar. At first 
he shared with several other deities the wor- 
ship of the people, but later concentrated in 
himself the greater part of the homage for- 
merly given to many gods, and was regarded as 
the source of all power and blessings. 
MERODE, Francois Xavier Marie Frédéric Ghis- 
Jain de, a Roman Catholic archbishop, born in 
Brussels in March, 1820, died in Rome, July 
24, 1874. His family claims descent from 
Raymond Berenger V., count of Barcelona 
and king of Aragon (died 1162); and one of 
his cousins was mother to Queen Maria, wife 
of Amadeus, late king of Spain. His mother 
was a niece of Lafayette; and his father, 
Count Félix de Mérode, took a leading part 
in the Belgian revolution of 1830, was a mem- 
ber of the provisional government, and, after 
refusing to be the candidate of the Catholic 
party for the throne, was mainly instrumental 
in securing the election of Leopold of Saxe- 
Coburg. Xavier entered the Belgian army in 
1841, and served with distinction as a volun- 
teer in Algeria under Marshal Bugeaud. He 


MEROK 


went to Rome in 1848, studied theology, and 
was ordained priest in 1850. He was im- 
mediately appointed chamberlain to the pope 
and canon of St. Peter’s, and was rapidly pro- 
moted, till in the beginning of 1860 he was 
made ‘“pro-minister of arms.” He organized 
the pontifical army, composed mostly of for- 
eigners, and induced Gen. Lamoriciére to take 
the command of it in April. That general 
having been defeated at Castelfidardo in the 
following September, Mérode asked the French 
troops in Rome to defend the pontifical au- 
thority. He soon quarrelled with the French 
commander, Gen. Goyon, who refused to com- 
municate with him. In 1865 he resigned his 
office in consequence of a disagreement with 
Cardinal Antonelli. He was appointed arch- 
bishop of Melitene June 22, 1866, and private 
almoner to the pope. It is said that the in- 
fluence of his brother-in-law, Count de Mon- 
talembert, caused him in 1869 to oppose the 
definition of the papal infallibility; but he 
accepted in 1870 the decision of the Vatican 
council. He devoted a large portion of his 
patrimonial wealth to improve the streets and 
squares of Rome, and to archeological exca- 
vations ; but a far larger portion was employed 
in founding charitable institutions and agricul- 
tural and industrial schools. His last public 
act was to welcome to Rome the American 
pilgrims from New York. 

MEROE, a state, with a capital of the same 
name, forming part of the ancient kingdom of 
Ethiopia. It is hardly possible to fix the site 
of the ancient city, much less to define the 
boundaries of the state at any given period. 
The whole of Ethiopia was once called Meroé. 
Greek writers applied the name to an island 
and a city on the upper Nile. The district is 
in reality a peninsula, formed by the Nile and 
its affluents, the Atbara and Bahr-el-Azrek, 
between lat. 13° and 18° N., and included in 
modern times in Nubia. At certain seasons it 
becomes an island by the overflowing of the 
rivers. Its length from N. W. to S. E. is about 
375 m., and its breadth about 200; and it con- 
sists of extensive plains, which formerly were 
fertile and well cultivated, but are now for 
the most part desert. This country was very 
- famous in antiquity. It produced gold, iron, 
copper, and salt; and partly from its natural 
riches, and partly from its situation between 
southern Ethiopia and the Red sea, it was 
from the earliest times the seat of a great com- 
merce, carried on by caravans from all parts of 
northern Africa, which made its chief city their 
central rendezvous. According to Herodotus, 
the “great city called Meroé, which is said to 
be the capital of the other Ethiopians,” was 
more than 40 days by land and 12 days by boat 
(52 days in all) beyond Syene. Later writers 
give it less than half this distance, placing Syene 
about midway between Alexandria and Meroé. 
According to Strabo’s statement, the city must 
have been in the neighborhood of the ruins 
near the modern Begerawieh; but when Meroé 


MEROVINGIANS 411 


took an active part in history, the residence 
of King Tahraka (Tirhakah) stood near the 
modern Meraweh, below Mt. Barkal. The in- 
scriptions give it the name of Neb; the Greeks 
and Romans called it Napata. During the 
reigns of the Osortasens and Amenemhes, 
about 3000 B. C., Egyptian rule extended over 
Nubia as far as Semneh and Kumneh, under 
Amenophis III. as far as Soleb, and under 
Rameses II. to Mt. Barkal. The oldest ruins 
found here formed part of a temple to Am- 
mon, built by Rameses II.; next in age are 
the ruins of Tahraka’s edifices. These, as well 
as later monuments, especially the 20 or 30 
small pyramids, are imitations of Egyptian 
art. The monuments of Begerawieh have the 
same style, though somewhat mixed with for- 
eign elements. It has long been customary to 
trace the culture of Egypt to that of Ethiopia 
and Meroé; but Egypt is a well favored land, 
while Meroé is excessively hot, and fertile 
only in oases; and the lower valley of the 
Nile has always been superior in culture and 
power to the upper; all of which renders it 
improbable that the civilization of Egypt was 
in any sense borrowed from Meroé. The re- 
verse is much more probable. There are indi- 
cations in Herodotus and Diodorus that Meroé 
had been under the rule of priests, but in the 
time of Ptolemy II. King Ergamenes estab- 
lished an independent kingdom. The name 
Meroé is given in the inscriptions of Begera- 
wieh as Meru and Merua, which Lepsius and 
other Egyptologists translate ‘“‘ white rock.” 
Here, as well as near Mt. Barkal, the shores 
of the Nile are lined with cliffs of white chalk, 
which probably gave the name to the country. 
The Assyrian inscriptions of King Sargon men- 
tion the king of Meroé (Milukhi), and one of 
Sennacherib says that ‘‘the king of Egypt had 
called for the archers, chariots, and horses of 
the king of Milukhi.” The inscriptions of 
Esarhaddon speak of ‘“‘the king of Egypt and 
Milukhi,” whom they call also “the king of 
Egypt and Cush ;” and Asshur-bani-pal records 
his campaign against ‘“Tarkuu (Tahraka) of 
Egypt and Milukhi.” Though the majority of 
Assyriologists translate Milukhi by Meroé, as 
George Smith in his ‘‘ History of Asshur-bani- 
pal translated from the Cuneiform Inscrip- 
tions” (London, 1871), Lenormant has come to 
the conclusion that Asshur-bani-pal’s Milukhi 
lay N. of Memphis, and that it was the name 
of a small independent kingdom which had 
been established in and near the western por- 
tion of the Delta. Ménant, in his Annales des 
rois @’Assyrie (Paris, 1874), has adopted Le- 
normant’s opinion. (See Ernropta.) 

MEROPIS. See Cos. 

MEROVINGIANS, the name of the first Frank- 
ish dynasty in Gaul or France. It was so 
called from Meroveus, king of the Ripuarian 
Franks (44858), who aided in the defeat of 
Attila in 451. He was succeeded by Childeric 
]. (458-’81), whose son Clovis, the conqueror 
of Gaul, and the first Christian monarch of the 


412 MERRICK 


Franks, left his possessions in 511 to his sons 
Thierry or Theodoric, Clodomir, Childebert, 
and Clotaire, the first receiving the east (Aus- 
trasia), the ‘second the southwest (with Or- 
leans), the third the centre (with Paris), and 
the fourth the north (with Soissons), The 
line of Thierry became extinct with his grand- 
son Theodebald or Thibault, sonsof Theode- 
bert. The sons of Clodomir were murdered 
by their uncles, and Childebert left no male is- 
sue. Thus Clotaire, the youngest son of Clovis, 
reunited the empire of the Franks (558-’61). 
On his death it was again divided by his four 
sons, Charibert reigning in Paris, Gontran or 
Guntram in Orleans (to which Burgundy, a 
new conquest, was attached), Sigebert in Aus- 
trasia, and Chilperic in Soissons. This period 


was distracted by internecine wars, during 


which the two princesses Brunehaut and Fre- 
degonda, the wives of Sigebert and Chilperic, 
were the most conspicuous characters. Sige- 
bert was assassinated, and his son Childebert, 
who also inherited the possessions of Gontran, 
was succeeded by two sons, Theodebert and 
Thierry II., who died without legitimate male 
issue. Clotaire II., the son of Chilperic and 
Fredegonda, reunited the whole kingdom. It 
was again temporarily divided by his sons 
Dagobert and Charibert, the former of whom 
was the founder of a line of kings known as 
Jainéants (lazy), their mayors of the palace 
being the real rulers of France. They were 
as follows: Sigebert IL, of Austrasia, 638- 
56; Clovis II., of Neustria (the western king- 
dom) and Burgundy, 638-’56; Olotaire IIL, 
sole king, 656—of Neustria and Burgundy, 
660-70; Childeric II., of Austrasia, 660-’70— 
sole king 670-73; Thierry III., of Neustria 
and Burgundy (deposed in 670 and restored), 
6738-91; Dagobert II., of Austrasia, 674~’9; 
Clovis III., of Neustria and Burgundy (like all 
the succeeding), 691-5; Childebert III., 695- 
711; Dagobert HL, 711-15; Chilperic IL, 
715-20; Thierry IV., 720- Bi: Childeric Ith, 
if 42-’52—deposed by Pepin the Short, founder 
of the Carlovingian dynasty. 

MERRICK, an “E. central county of Nebraska, 
bounded 8. E. by the Platte river, and inter- 
sected by Prairie creek and Loup ‘fork; area, 
about 650 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 557. The 
Union Pacific aa passes along the S. E. 
border. The soil is fertile, and timber grows 
along the streams. The chief productions in 
1870 were 9,999 bushels of wheat, 18,024 of 
Indian corn, 31,579 of oats, 3,035 of barley, 
5,029 of potatoes, 13,205 Ibs. of butter, and 
di 548 tons of hay. There were 118 horses, 298 
mileh cows, 444 other cattle, 478 sheep, and 
308 swine. Capital, Lone Tree. 

MERRICK, James, an English poet, born in 
Reading, June 8, 1720, died there, Jan. 5, 1769. 
He was educated at Trinity college, Oxford, of 
which he became fellow in 1744. When 14 
years old he published ‘‘ The Messiah, a Divine 
Essay.”” He took orders, but from delicate 
health was unable to perform clerical duties. 


MERRITT 


Among his works are: a “‘ Translation of Try- 
phiodorus” (Oxford, 1741); ‘‘ Poems on Sa- 
cred Subjects” (Oxford, 1763); ‘‘The Psalms 
Translated or Paraphrased in English Verse” 
(Reading, 1766); and ‘‘ Annotations on the 
Psalms”’ (Reading, 1768). His fable, ‘“‘The 
Chameleon,” is the best known of his works. 

MERRIMACK, a river of New England, formed 
by the junction of the Pemigewasset and Win- 
nipiseogee rivers at Franklin, N. H. From 
this point the river runs 8. 78 m. to Chelms- 
ford, Mass., and thence E. 35 m. to the Atlan- 
tic ocean at Newburyport. Its tributaries in 
New Hampshire are the Contoocook, Soucook, 
Suncook, Piscataquog, Souhegan, and Nashua; 
in Massachusetts, the Concord, Spiggot, Shaw- 
shine, and Powow. The principal tributaries 
are on the right side of the river. There are 
numerous falls in the Merrimack, and the riv- 
er furnishes an immense water power, the em- 
ployment of which in manufacturing has cre- 
ated the cities of Lowell and Lawrence, Mass., 
and Nashua and Manchester, N. H. Its width 
varies from 50 to 150 yards. It is navigable 
to Haverhill, Mass., 18 m. from the sea. The 
name is of Indian origin, and is derived from a 
word signifying a sturgeon. 

MERRIMACK, a S. central county of New 
Hampshire, intersected by the Merrimack rivy- 
er, and its affluents the Contoocook, Soucook, 
Suncook, &c.; area, about 700 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 42,151. The surface is broken and in 
many parts hilly; Mt. Kearsarge is in the 
N. W. portion. It is traversed by the Con- 
cord, the Suncook Valley, the Boston, Con- 
cord, and Montreal, the Concord and Clare- 
mont, the Contoocook River, and the North- 
ern railroads, and the Bristol branch. The 
chief productions in 1870 were 31,404 bushels 
of wheat, 189,788 of Indian corn, 103,525 of 
oats, 472,131 of potatoes, 144,673 Ibs. of wool, 
745, 386 of butter, 191,298 of cheese, 102,831 of 
maple sugar, and 7 8, 278 tons of hay. There 
were on farms 4,887 horses, 10,459 milch 
cows, 5,619 working oxen, 14,127 other cat- 
tle, 34,479 sheep, and 3,991 swine. The num- 
ber of manufacturing establishments in 1870 
was 414; capital invested, $4,896,995; value 
of products, $7,627,676. The most important 
were 7 cotton mills, 10 woollen mills, 3 paper 
mills, 86 saw mills, 6 flour mills, 12 tanneries, 
11 currying establishments, 3 manufactories of 
agricultural implements, 8 of leather belting 
and hose, 2 of boots and shoes, 17 of bricks, 
20 of carriages and wagons, 16 of clothing, 6 
of furniture, 4 of hosiery, 3 of iron castings, 
6 of machinery, 4 of organs, 10 of saddlery 
and harness, 4 of sash, doors, and blinds, 1 of 
silverware, and 5 of wooden ware. Capitai, 
Concord, which is also the capital of the state. 

MERRITT, Timothy, an American clergyman, 
born in Barkhamstead, Conn., in October, 
1775, died in Lynn, Mass., May 2, 1845. He 
became a minister of the Methodist Episcopal ~ 
church in 1796, and spent 34 years as a pastor 
in Boston, Lynn, Providence, Springfield, New 


MERSEBURG 


Bedford, and elsewhere. In 1831 he edited 
** Zion’s Herald ” in Boston, and from 1882 to 
1887 the “Christian Advocate and Journal” 
in New York. He also started a monthly pe- 
riodical in Boston entitled ‘‘ Guide to Chris- 
tian Perfection.” He was the author of ‘‘ The 
Christian’s Manual,” ‘The Convert’s Guide 
and Preacher’s Assistant,” and, with the Rey. 
Wilbur Fisk, ‘‘ Lectures and Discourses on Uni- 
versal Salvation,” besides numerous pamphlets 
and sermons mainly controversial. 

_ MERSEBURG, a town of Prussia, capital of a 
district in the province of Saxony, on the left 
bank of the Saale, 15 m. W. of Leipsic; pop. in 
1871, 138,364. It is fortified, and was formerly 
one of the most important towns of Germany. 
The cathedral, a fine Gothic structure dating 
from the 13th century, has a richly ornamented 
portal, and contains some of Albert Direr’s 
paintings. The town has some manufactories 
of linen, leather, paper, &c., and extensive 
breweries and distilleries. Near it Henry the 
Fowler in 933 achieved a great victory over 
the Hungarians. 

MERSEY, a river of England, formed by the 
union of several small streams, which have 
their sources in the hills near the borders 
of Yorkshire, Cheshire, and Derbyshire. The 
two principal of these, the Tame and the 


Goyt, after receiving the waters of all the rest, 


unite at Stockport. Here the river takes the 
name of Mersey, and flowing W. divides Che- 
shire from Lancashire, and falls into the Irish 
sea below Liverpool. The chief affluents of 
the Mersey are the Irwell and Weaver. At 
Runcorn, about 17 m. from its mouth, it ex- 
pands into a large estuary, which varies in 
breadth from 2 to 3 m., and contracts at its 
mouth to about three fourths of a mile. The 
course of this river is mostly through a level 
country, but its scenery is occasionally very 
picturesque. The principal towns on its banks 
are Stretford, Warrington, Hale, Garston, and 
Liverpool on the right, and Stockport, Run- 
corn, Ince, and Birkenhead on the left. Its 
entire length is from 55 to 60 m., and it is 
navigable to the Irwell. 

MERTHYR-TYDFIL (or Typvir), a parliamen- 
tary borough and market and mining town of 
Glamorganshire, South Wales, .21 m. N. by W. 
of Cardiff, with which it is connected by the 
Cardiff canal and the Taff Vale railway, and 
140 m. W. by N. of London; pop. of the bor- 
ough in 1871, 97,020; of the parish, 51,949. 
It is in the midst of the great mineral region 
of South Wales, and has attained its present 
importance since 1750, previous to which it 
was amerevillage. It is irregularly and poor- 
ly built, being largely made up of workmen’s 
houses; but of late years it has been much im- 
proved, and in the centre of the new and prin- 
cipal street is one of the largest and finest 
market places in Wales. It has a large number 
of places of worship. There are 50 extensive 
iron works, one of which employs 6,000 men, 
producing about 260,000 tons of iron yearly. 


413 


MERV, a town of Turkistan, in the khanate 
and 300 m. 8. E. of the city of Khiva, and 
12 m. E. of the Murghab river; pop. about 
3,000. It was one of the four imperial cities 
of Khorasan, and was the capital of many of 
the Persian sultans, especially of the Seljuk 
dynasty. It is on the caravan road from 
Meshed to Khiva and Bokhara, and though in 
a very unhealthy country was once a flourish- 
ing town, surrounded by beautiful gardens, 
whose fruits had a high reputation. It was - 
sacked by the Uzbecks about the beginning of 
the present century, and since then has steadi- 
ly declined. 

MERY, Joseph, a French author, born at Les 
Aigalades, near Marseilles, Jan. 21, 1798, died 
in Paris, June 17, 1866. He was dismissed 
from a seminary for reading Voltaire, and 
from a law school on account of a duel. Sub- 
sequently he was wounded in another duel in 
Paris, and went to Italy, whence he was soon 
driven by his dissipations: In 1821 he was 
arrested at Marseilles for writing against the 
abbé Elicagaray, and rearrested on account 
of another obnoxious publication. In 1822 
he visited Constantinople, quarrelled with the 
French ambassador, and was obliged to leave. 
After editing a journal at Marseilles, he estab- 
lished himself in Paris in 1824, and became 
known in conjunction with Barthélemy (see 
BartufiemMy, AvueustE Marseiire) by effec- 
tive satires in verse against various adminis- 
trations and by his adulation of the Bonaparte 
family, Napoléon en EKgypte (1828) being one 
of their finest lyrics. He acquired still more 
literary fame by entertaining and eccentric 
novels and books of travel. Among the best 
known are Nuits de Londres (republished as 
Nuits anglaises), Héva, La Floride, La guerre 
du Nizam, Les confessions de Marion Delorme, 
Nuits italiennes, Nuits @ Orient, Nuits espa- 
gnoles, Nuits parisiennes, and Un carnaval de 
Paris. Ue wrote the libretto for Semiramis 
and other operas, but was less successful in 
plays, of which he published a collection en- 
titled Thédtre de salon (1861). A new edition 
of his Poésies intimes appeared in 1864. Some 
of his novels have been translated into English. 

MESCALA, a river of Mexico, rises near the 
city of Puebla, and flows westwardly 400 m. 
to the Pacific, forming the boundary between 
the states of Guerrero and Michoacan. In 
Puebla it is known successively as the Atoyac 
and the Rio Pablano, further on also as the Rio 
de las Balsas, and at its mouth it is called 
the Zacatula. It was long regarded as a prob- 
able route of interoceanic communication, but 
it is not navigable on account of frequent 
rapids. The waters of the Mescala are sup- 
posed to contain deleterious elements, which 
have caused a loathsome disease of the skin, 
prevalent among the Pinto (7. e., spotted) In- 
dians living on its banks. Rich gold placers 
are found near its mouth. 

MESEMBRYANTHEMUM (Gr. peonuBpia, mid- 
day, and dv6oc, a flower), a genus of succulent 


MESEMBRYANTHEMUM 


Al4 MESEMBRYANTHEMUM 


plants called fig marigolds, and by the French 
Jicoides, aS some species produce an edible 
fruit resembling a fig. The genus is large, 
consisting of about 300 species, and the princi- 
pal one in asmall family, the jicoitdee or me- 
sembryanthemacee. Some of the species are 
annual, others perennial, with half shrubby, 
branching stems, and in others the stem is 
very short, the. leaves being collected in a 
compact rosette like a houseleek. They are 
natives of warm, dry countries, the greater 
number being from southern Africa; the 
leaves in all are exceedingly succulent and 
well adapted to resist the long droughts of 
their native regions. Perhaps half of the 
whole number are in cultivation; the flowers 
are generally showy, and consist of four or 
five sepals united by the base and adhering to 
the ovary, and numerous, very narrow petals, 
which are often in several series and give the 
flowers much the appearance of a head of 
some composite plant; they are white or of 
different shades of yellow and rose color. 
The capsule has at the top a series of slits ar- 
ranged in a star-like manner; these slits re- 
main closed while the capsule is dry, but when 
the rains have rendered the soil suitable for 
the germination of the seeds, the slits open by 
the action of the moisture and allow them to 
escape. The best known annual species, I. 
erystallinum, is described under Ioz Prant. 
The perennials are cultivated as greenhouse 
plants, and are occasionally used for bedding 
out in summer. The flowers open only on 
bright days, and usually at noon, but the 
plants are cultivated quite as much for their 
striking and odd foliage as for their flowers, 


Mesembryanthemum dolabriforme. 


The diversity of forms presented by the differ- 
eat species of this genus is remarkable. M. 
dolabriforme is so named from the resem- 
blance of the leaves to the ancient axe or 
hatchet; in J. deltoideum a cross section of 


| gateways. 


MESHED 


the leaf presents the outline of the Greek A; 
both of these are tall and branching. J. tigri- 
num is one of the low compact species in 
which the leaves are fringed with strong, 
spiny teeth, suggestive of a tiger’s jaw. The 
plants are of the easiest cultivation and re- 


Mesembryanthemum Leaves.—1. M. deltoideum. 
2. M. felinum, 


quire but little water. For so large a genus 
it contains but few useful species. MM. edule, 
the Hottentot’s fig, has an edible fruit resem- 
bling a small fig, while the leaves of some spe- 
cies and the seeds of others serve as food. 

MESHED, or Meshid, a city of Persia, capital 
of the province of Khorasan, in an extensive 
valley of the same name, about 185 m. N. W. 
of Herat, 800 m. E. of the southern extremity 
of the Caspian sea, and 460 m. E. of Teheran; 
lat. 836° 20’ N., lon. 59° 35’ E.; pop. estimated 
at 70,000. It is surrounded by walls 12 m. in 
circuit, enclosing much space occupied only by 
extensive burying grounds, and great tracts of 
ruins, the population being mostly confined to 
the centre. Its principal street is spacious and 
handsome. The place is chiefly known by the 
splendid mausoleums of Imam Riza, .Haroun 
al-Raschid, and Nadir Shah. Next to Mecca, 
it is the most sacred place for a Shiah Mussul- 
man, and many pilgrims visit yearly the shrine 
of Imam Riza, which is crowned with a splen- 
did cupola and gilded minarets, and stands in 
a court 480 ft. long and 225 ft. broad. The 
court is incrusted with mosaic work of painted 
and glazed tiles, and entered by four lofty 
The shrine is entered through a sil- 
ver gate, the gift of Nadir Shah. Within the 
same court is the mosque of Gohur Shah, 
which is also very splendid. Meshed contains 
several colleges, a spacious but unfinished cara- 
vansary, and a palace which is also a citadel. 
There is an aqueduct whose banks are shaded 
with trees. Velvets esteemed the best in Per- 
sia, sword blades of celebrated temper, some 
kinds of armor, and some silk and cotton goods 
are manufactured; and many of the inhabi- 
tants are employed in cutting gems from the tur- 
quoise mines in the vicinity. There is an im- 
portant commerce, by the great caravan routes 
of Persia, with Bokhara, Khiva, Herat, Ker- 
man, Yezd, and other quarters; rich caravans 
arrive daily. Near by are the ruins of Thus, 
the home of the poet Firdusi. The town suf- 
fered terribly from the famine of 1871. 


MESILLA 


MESILLA, a town of Dofia Afia co., New 
Mexico, on the right bank of the Rio Grande, 
about 240 m. 8. by W. of Santa Fé; pop. in 
1870, 1,578. The town, which lies in a valley 
of the same name, obtained notoriety from a 
dispute between the United States and Mexico 
in the settlement of the boundary under the 
treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, made in 1848. 
It was subsequently included in the purchase 
by the United States under the ‘‘Gadsden 
treaty” of 1853. Mesilla is the diminutive of 
the Spanish mesa, table; as here applied, it 
means a small plateau, or table land, on the 
bottom land of the Rio Grande, to distinguish 
it from the great table land, which is more ele- 
vated, and which extends for many hundred 
miles on both sides of the river. The Mesilla 
valley is about 30 m. long and from 1 to 4 m. 
wide. The soil is a rich alluvium, but artifi- 
cial irrigation is required. 

MESMER, Friedrich Anton, a German pbhysi- 
cian, the first promoter of animal magnetism, 
or ‘‘mesmerism,” born at or near Meersburg, 
Baden, on the lake of Constance, in 1733 or 
1734, died there, March 5, 1815. He studied 
medicine in Vienna, and took his degree of M. 
D. there in 1766, presenting on that occasion a 
thesis De Planetarum Influzu in Corpus Hu- 
manum, in which he held that the universe is 
pervaded by a subtle element exercising an ex- 
traordinary influence on the human body, and 
identical with the magnetic element. The 
means by which he brought his theory into 
notice, and the leading features of his life, are 
given under the head of Anima MAGNETISM. 

MESOLONGHI. See MissoLoneui. 

MESOPOTAMIA (Gr. pécoc and rrorayéc, between 
the rivers, viz., Euphrates and Tigris; Heb. 
Aram Naharaim, Aram or Syria between the 
two rivers; now Al-Jezireh, the island), an 
ancient country of western Asia, bounded, ac- 
cording to the common acceptation of the name, 
N. by Armenia, from which it was separated 


_ by the Masius range, a branch of the Taurus; 


N. E. and E. by the Tigris, separating it from 
Assyria; 8. by Babylonia; and S. W. and W. 
by the Euphrates, separating it from Syria. 
The Greek name seems to have been first used 
in the time of the Seleucid. Mesopotamia has 
never been a political designation, but always 
a purely geographical one; and it is sometimes 
found applied also to the regions bordering on 
the valley of the two rivers. Excepting the 
Masius range and its prolongation parallel to 
the upper Tigris, Mesopotamia formed a vast 
and mostly very fertile plain, well watered by 
rivers and canals, the chief stream between 
the two great rivers being the Chaboras, an 
affluent of the Euphrates, and the principal 
productions of the country grain, fruits, spices, 
timber, cattle, naphtha, and jet. The south- 
ernmost part of the plain, however, resem- 
bled the adjoining regions of the Syro-Arabian 
desert, and was inhabited by numerous wild 
animals, including lions, ostriches, and wild 
asses. Among the cities of Mesopotamia were: 
548 VOL, XI1.—27 


MESSALINA 415 


Apamea on the Euphrates, opposite Zeugma in 
Syria; Edessa (now Urfa), the capital of the 
province of Osroéne; Carre or Carrhae, the 
Haran of Abraham; Circesium, the Scriptural 
Carchemish, near the mouth of the Chaboras; 
and Nisibis (Nizib), the Scriptural Zoba, in the 
province of Mygdonia. Mesopotamia was in- 
habited by a people called Rotennu or Reten- 
nu on the Egyptian monuments. They were 
of Semitic race, and were struggling with Egypt 
for supremacy as early as 1600 B.C. In later 
times it was in turns a part of the Assyri- 
an, Babylonian, Persian, Macedonian, Syrian, 
Parthian, and Neo-Persian monarchies, until 
it was conquered by the Arabs. It was subse- 
quently invaded by the Seljuks, conquered in 
part by the crusaders, and finally became a 
province of the Ottoman empire. 

MESSALA, or Messalla (Marcus VAtLrErius 
MessaLta Corvinus), a@ Roman general, born 
according to Eusebius in 59, but according to 
Scaliger about 70 B. C., died about the begin- 
ning of the Christian era. He completed his 
studies at Athens, and on the outbreak of the 
second civil war joined Brutus and Cassius in 
the East, was appointed to the third rank in 
the republican army, and commanded. under 
Cassius at Philippi (42). After the overthrow 
of his party he surrendered to Antony, to 
whom he attached himself until, perceiving 
the ruin of that triumvir inevitable, he with- 
drew from his service, and entered that of 
his rival, for whom he fought in Sicily, against 
the Salassi in the Alps, and at Actium (381). 
He was appointed to succeed Antony as con- 
sul, and subsequently he obtained the procon- 
sulship of Aquitania, for the reduction of which 
province a triumph was decreed him. He was 
selected by the senate to greet Octavius with 
the title of pater patric, and the exordium of 
his oration has been preserved by Suetonius. 
Soon after this Messala resigned all his official 
dignities except the augurship, and retired to 
private life. Fragments of his orations re- 
main (Paris, 1842); his other writings are only 
known by their titles. 

MESSALINA, or Messallina, the name of two 
Roman empresses, who lived in the 1st century 
of the Christian era. I. Valeria, daughter of 
M. Valerius Messala Barbatus, and third wife 
of Claudius, to whom she was married before 
his accession to the empire. She was equally 
profligate and cruel. Many members of the 
most illustrious families of Rome were sacri- 
ficed to her fears, her jealousy, or her hatred. 
Among her noblest victims were the two Julias, 
one the daughter of Germanicus, the other of 
Drusus, son of Tiberius, who had excited her 
jealousy or envy; ©. Appius Silanus, who had 
wounded her vanity by rejecting her advances; 
and Justus Catonius, whose offence was privity 
to her guilt. For a long time Claudius was 
blind to her infidelity; but when, during his 
absence at Ostia, she contracted a public mar- 
riage with Caius Silius, a handsome youth for 
whom she had conceived a violent passion, he 


416 MESSANA 

caused her to be put to death. The sentence 
was executed in A. D. 48, by a preetorian trib- 
une, in the gardens of Lucullus, By Claudius 
she was the mother of two children, Britan- 
nicus and Octavia. IIL. Statilia, the third wife 
of the emperor Nero, whom she survived, and 
the granddaughter of T. Statilius Taurus, who 
had been consul in A. D. 11. She was first 
married to Atticus Vestinus, but the tyrant 
caused her husband to be put to death, and 
espoused her in 66. 

MESSANA. See Messina. 

MESSAPIA, the ancient Greek name of the 
peninsula forming the 8. E. extremity of Italy, 
called by the Romans Calabria, a name applied 
in modern times to the opposite peninsula. 
(See Catapria.) The boundary separating it 
from Apulia on the N. W. was not well defined, 
but Messapia consisted of what is popularly 
called the ‘‘ heel of the boot.” The peninsula 
was probably first known to the Greeks by the 
name of Japygia, which was afterward applied 
by them to all S. E. Italy, Herodotus speak- 
ing of Apulia as a part of Japygia, while Mes- 
sapia indicated the peninsula only. Later wri- 
ters make Japygia and Messapia synonymous, 
and confine them to the peninsula. The in- 
habitants were of two tribes, the Salentini 
along the S. W. coast near Tarentum, and the 
Calabri, whom the Greeks called Messapians, 
along the N. E. part. The latter were the more 
powerful, and the whole district came to be 
called after them by their Greek and Latin 
names respectively. It terminated at the S. 
E. in the rocky Japygian promontory (now 
Cape Leuca), standing boldly out into the sea. 
It was celebrated for its fertility, abounding in 
wine, olives, and other fruits. (See OrranrTo, 
Terra D’.) The Calabrian horses were famous, 
and the Tarentine cavalry was long celebrated. 
Virgil says that the region was infested by pe- 
culiarly venomous serpents. The inhabitants 
were of Pelasgic origin, had attained a consid- 
erable culture, and possessed the cities of Hyria 
or Uria and Brundusium in the latter part of 
the 8th century B. C., when the Greek colony of 
Tarentum was founded. They fought against 
the Greek colonists for many years, defeat- 
ing the Tarentines in a great battle about 478, 
but were gradually overcome by the Greek 
civilization and corrupted by its luxury. They 
made a short resistance to the Romans, uniting 
with neighboring tribes under the command of 
Pyrrhus, but were overcome in a single cam- 
paign after his fall. They revolted to Hanni- 
bal in the second Punic war, but were soon 
subdued. Under the empire Messapia was 
united for administrative purposes with the 
province of Apulia. The Byzantine emperors 
retained a footing here during the invasion by 
the Goths and Lombards, and were not finally 
expelled till the 11th century. 

MESSENE, the capital of Messenia in the Pe- 
loponnesus, founded by Epaminondas after his 
victory of Leuctra over the Lacedemonians, 
371 B. O. It was at the foot of the hill of 


MESSENTA 


Ithome, the fortress of which formed the acro- 
polis of the new capital, and was surrounded 
by massive stone walls, flanked with towers, 
of which there are still considerable remains 
at the modern village of Mavromati. Messene 
with its acropolis was, next to Corinth, the 
strongest city of the Peloponnesus. It was 
supplied with water from a fountain called 
Clepsydra, the spring of which still exists. 
MESSENIA, or Messene, the 8. W. division of 
the Peloponnesus in ancient Greece, bounded 
N. by Elis, from which it was separated by the 
river Neda, and Arcadia; E. by Laconia, the 
boundary line varying at various periods; and 
S. and W. by the sea, which on the south forms 
the large gulf of Messenia, or, as it is now 
sometimes called, of Coron. It is a mountain- 
ous country, containing but two plains of any 
extent, the southern of which, traversed by the 
Pamisus, was called Macaria or the Blessed, 
on account of its great fertility. The valleys 
among the mountains were also fertile, and 
the whole country was renowned for the mild- 
ness of its climate. Among the few towns of 
note were Pylos, a seaport, Cyparissia, Corone 
(now Coron), Methone (Modon), Abia, Dere, 
Stenyclarus in the northern plain of the same 
name, and the later capital Messene, besides 
the mountain fortresses of Ithome and Ira. 
The earliest inhabitants of Messenia were Le- 
leges and Argives. Polycaon, son of Lelex, is 
said to have given the country its name from 
Messene, his wife, daughter of the Argive Tri- 
opas. It was subsequently settled by AZolians. 
During the following period Messenia seems 
to have belonged partly to Pylos and partly 
to Lacedemon. When the Dorians conquered 
the Peloponnesus, it became the possession of 
Cresphontes, who destroyed the kingdom of 
Pylos. Of the kindred Dorian states, Sparta, 
the eastern neighbor, soon developed its ag- 
gressive policy, and after various collisions and 
mutual inroads the first Messenian war broke 
out. It is said to have lasted 20 years, its prin- 
cipal Messenian hero and victim being Aristo- 
demus, and ended with the fall of Ithome and 
the subjugation of Messenia. After 38 years 
of subjection, the Messenians rose under the 
lead of Aristomenes, supported by Argos, Ar- 
cadia, and other states of the Peloponnesus, 
while their enemies received the support of 
Corinth. Aristomenes succumbed after a strug- 
gle of 17 years, and Ira fell. (See Arisro- 
MENES, and Tyrraus.) In common chronology 
the first war is placed at 743-723 B. C., and 
the second at 685-668. The two great strug- 
gles are considered as- sufficiently attested, but 
the particulars, which are highly poetical and 
rest on authorities of the 3d century B. C.,. 
are justly doubted. The consequence of the 
wars was the emigration of a large number of 
the inhabitants to Italy and Sicily, giving the 
name of Messene or Messana to the town of 
Zancle in that island, and the subjection of 
those who remained to the condition of helots. 
Together with the other slaves of Sparta, they 


Sel 


MESSER 


were induced by the great earthquake which 
devastated the capital of their oppressors in 464 
to strike once more for freedom. This third 
Messenian war lasted ten years, and was termi- 
nated by the capitulation of the defenders of 
Ithome, who were allowed a free departure 
from the Peloponnesus. They settled at Nau- 
pactus, on the northern shore of the Corin- 
thian gulf, a town recently conquered by Ath- 
ens, now the declared rival of Sparta. When 
the former was crushed by the fatal issue of 
the Peloponnesian war, the Messenians of Nau- 
pactus were compelled to leave Greece.. Epa- 
minondas finally restored the independence 
of Messenia, convoking the refugees from the 
various lands of their exile, after the great 
battle of Leuctra (871), and giving the country 
a strongly fortified capital in Messene, a new 
town at the foot of the old stronghold Ithome 
(369), which was maintained down to the time 
of the Roman conquest of Greece in 146.—The 
modern nomarchy of Messenia is bounded N. 
by Achaia and Elis, E. by Arcadia, 5. by the 
gulf of Messenia or Coron, and W. by the 
Jonian sea; area, 1,226 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 
130,417. Capital, Kalamata. 

MESSER, Asa, an American clergyman, born 
in Methuen, Mass., in 1769, died in Providence, 
R. 1, Oct. 11, 1886. He graduated in 1790 at 
Brown university, where he became in 1796 
professor of languages, in 1799 professor of 


MESSINA 417 


mathematics and natural philosophy; and from 
1802 to 1827 he was president of the univer- 
sity. He was licensed to preach by the first 
Baptist church in Providence in 1792, and or- 
dained in 1801. The citizens of Providence 
for several years elected him to important civil 
offices. Three of his discourses and five ora- 
tions have been published. 

MESSIAH. See Jesus Currier. 

MESSINA. I. A province of Sicily, including 
the N. E. extremity of the island, bordering on 
the Mediterranean and the strait of Messina, 
which separates it from Calabria; area, 1,768 
sq.m.; pop. in 1872, 420,649. It is traversed 
from EK. to W. by the Neptunian mountain 
range, and by the Monforte, San Antonio, and 
several other small streams. ‘The mountains 
abound with wood. There are no large plains, 
but many valleys, which as well as the banks 
of the rivers are very fertile in wine, oil, nuts, 
and fruit of every sort, particularly lemons 
and oranges. The other principal products are 
silk, hemp, and flax. Some cotton of an in- 
ferior quality is raised for home consumption. 
The most important mineral product is sul- 
phur. On the south a portion of the province 
skirts the base of Mt. Etna. It is divided into 
four districts and includes the Lipari islands. 
Among the chief towns, besides Messina, are 
Castro Reale, Milazzo, Patti, Randazzo, and 
Taormina. If. A city (anc. Messana), capital of 


“4 ‘ 
UML TATU yyy hahaa 
rT | f 4 


Messina. 


the province, on the N. E. corner of the island, 
on the strait of Faro or Messina, here about 4 
m. wide, 120 m. E. by N. of Palermo, and 45 m. 
N. E. of Mt. Etna; pop. in 1872, 111,854. The 
approach from the sea is of remarkable beauty, 
the city rising in the form of an amphitheatre, 
and the dazzling whiteness of the houses pre- 


senting a picturesque contrast to the dark 
mountains in the background. The principal 
part of the city is built on the W. side of the 
harbor, paved with square blocks of lava, and 
contains several wide and handsome streets 
ornamented with statues and fountains. It 
contains more than 50 churches, the most an- 


418 MESSINA 


cient of which is the cathedral, and has also 
an arsenal, naval arsenal, archbishop’s palace, 
senate house, custom house, a large hospital, 
two theatres, a lazaretto, and numerous con- 
vents and nunneries. Messina is the seat of 
an archbishop. The harbor, one of the finest 
in the world, is about 4 m. in circuit, and can 
accommodate the largest fleet. The imports 
are colonial produce, cotton and woollen fab- 
rics, hides and hardware. The total exports 
for 1870 amounted to $8,636,500, of which 
lemons and oranges were valued at $2,904,- 
225; olive oil, $2,306,855 ; essence of orange, 
lemon, and bergamot, $1,358,070; and raw 
silk, $476,780. Tartar, limestone, almonds, and 
filberts are exported in considerable quantities. 
The total imports in 1870 amounted to $5,853, - 
755. In the same year there were entered 
1,284 steamers, of 763,022 tons, and 3,259 sail- 
ing vessels, of 360,214 tons; and cleared 1,274 
steamers, of 745,900 tons, and 2,992 sailing 
vessels, of 324,421 tons. The principal manu- 
factures are damasks and satins. Coral, tunny, 
and other fisheries are extensively carried on. 
Messina is defended by walls and bastions, a 
citadel, and many forts, and is considered a 
fortress of the highest importance, as com- 
manding the strait of its name, and thus being 
the principal gate to Sicily from the mainland. 
A railway extends to Catania, 594 m., and an- 
other to Palermo is now (1875) in progress.— 
The origin and early history of the ancient city 
are involved in obscurity. It is believed to 
have been founded by colonists from Magna 
Grecia and Greece between 1000 and 800 B. 
C., to have made rapid strides in prosperity, and 
to have derived its name from a body of emi- 
grants from Messene in Greece, the original 
name having been, according to Thucydides, 
Zancle, after the similar Greek word signify- 
ing a sickle (the form of the harbor). In 3896, 
when it was celebrated for its flourishing trade, 
a Carthaginian army landed in Sicily and de- 
stroyed the city, which was immediately re- 
built by Dionysius of Syracuse, who expelled 
the invaders. About 280 it was seized by the 
mercenaries expelled from Syracuse on the 
death of Agathocles, who were called Mamer- 
tini, children of Mamers or Mars, and who sub- 
sequently applied for assistance to the Romans; 
hence arose the first Punic war, in the course 
of which the city was taken by its allies, and 
thus became the earliest dependency of Rome 
beyond the Italian continent. Cicero calls it 
avery great and very rich city. In the civil 
war of 49-48 it was the station of a part of the 
fleet of Ceasar, and Sextus Pompey after his 
defeat by the fleet of Octavius under Agrippa 
(86) made his escape from it with only 17 
ships. During the middle ages Messina con- 
tinued to be an important city. To avenge 
the massacres of Sicily, it was besieged in 1282 
by Charles of Anjou, king of Naples, but re- 
lieved by Pedro of Aragon and Roger de Lo- 
ria, In 1673 it submitted to Louis XIV., but 
he was compelled to withdraw his forces by 


MESZAROS 


the Dutch and Spanish fleet. In 1748 it was 
afflicted by the plague, and the great earth- 
quake of 1783 destroyed and depopulated al- 
most the whole city, and it has since been re- 
built upon a better plan. It suffered severely 
from an inundation in 1823. A revolutionary 
outbreak took place there in 1848, but the 
insurgents were put down by the Neapolitans 
(Sept. 7). The possession of Messina during 
the war of that year enabled the king of Na- 
ples to reconquer the island. Every attempt 
at a popular movement was punished with the 
utmost rigor, a strong garrison was continually 
kept there, and the fortifications of the place 
were strengthened. In 1860, however, after 
the victory at Milazzo (July 20), Garibaldi’s 
army entered the town, and an agreement was 
soon after entered into by which. the citadel 
and three forts were to remain in the hands of 
the latter, and the town and two forts in the 
possession of the Sicilians. The citadel was 
invested by Gen. Cialdini on March 7, and 
surrendered on March 13, 1861. The recent 
erection of a lighthouse, a mosque, and an 
agency for the messageries maritimes, and the 
repair of the streets, have absorbed every ves- 
tige of ancient Messana except a colonnade 
whose stones could not be made available. 

MESTIZO, a Spanish-American term for the 
mixed offspring of Europeans and Indians. In 
Mexico, Peru, and Brazil, mestizos are very 
numerous. Their color is almost a pure white, 
with a skin of remarkable transparency. The 
chief indications of the mixture of Indian blood 
are a thin beard, small hands and feet, and an 
obliquity of the eyes. The women of this race 
are called mestizas, and the offspring of their 
marriage with whites differ but slightly from 
pure Europeans. 

MESZAROS, Lazar, a Hungarian general, born 
in Baja, county of Bacs, Feb. 20, 1796, died 
at Eywood, Herefordshire, England, Nov. 16, 
1858. He studied law at Pesth, but in 1813, 
on the outbreak of the new war against Napo- 
leon, he entered the Hungarian army in the 
service of the emperor Francis. He was in 
Italy as colonel of a hussar regiment in the 
spring of 1848, when he received the first in- 
formation of the important changes in Hun- 
gary, and was soon after offered the ministry of 
war in the cabinet of Batthyanyi, and started 
for Pesth. Elected a member of the diet, he 
defended the moderate measures of the minis- 
try. He went to the seat of war in the south, 
but failed in his attempts to storm the Rascian 
ramparts of Szent-Tamas (September). When 
Austria avowed the purpose of subjugating 
Hungary, he took the revolutionary side. In 
December he was sent to the north to check 
the advance of Schlick; but after an indecisive 
encounter at Szikszé (Dec. 28), his motley army 
suffered a total rout before Kaschau (Jan. 4, 
1849). When the difficulties with Gérgey com- 
pelled Kossuth to appoint a new commander- 
in-chief, the title was given to Mészaros and 
the real command to Dembinski, with whom 


a? 


Mész4ros soon after shared in the defeats at 
Széreg (Aug. 5) and Temesvar (Aug. 9), and a 
few days later was an exile in Turkey. Ac- 
companying Kossuth to Widin, Shumla, and 
Kutaieh, he was allowed in May, 1851, to de- 
part for England. He lived for some time in 
France, went to the island of Jersey after the 
coup @état of Dec. 2, 1851, and in the summer 
of 1853 sailed to America, where he resided 
at Flushing, L. I., and was naturalized as an 
American citizen. At his death he was on his 
way to visit Switzerland. 

METAL (Gr. wéraAdov), a term including about 
50 elementary substances which possess, either 
wholly or in part, certain well marked physical 
and chemical properties, of which the most 
universal and characteristic is lustre. The pe- 
culiar brilliancy and reflective power of the 
metals, which may be enhanced by polishing, 
results from their great opacity. The color of 
the metals is generally white with a grayish, 
bluish, or pinkish tint; copper and gold are 
the only exceptions. In extremely thin films 
some of the metals allow the passage of certain 
rays of light. Gold leaf transmits light of a 
faint greenish hue. Most of the metals have 
a high specific gravity, a property which was 
regarded as characteristic until the discovery 
of the alkaline metals, which are lighter than 
water. With the exception of arsenic, they 
may all be fused, the temperature required for 
fusion varying from 100° F. to the highest 
heat of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe. Some 
of the metals may be volatilized. Mercury, 


METAL 419 
METAL, Atomic Discoverer. Date of 
weight. discovery. 
: : First mentioned b 16th 
ZING. 2.0... 42042. oa Paracelsus....... ‘ | century 
ATSONICR ae hs -5 5 « 75 Schroder eee osasee. 1694 
Cobalte.. cae ts .<. 59 Brandt. 9eene- eee 17383 
PANN ees coe LOT 4.) Ullosec Bare ee 1736 
INIGK GIS tions. css 59 Cronstéedts.pece, cane 1751 
Manganese........ 55 Gabi aawees ee 1774 
Molybdenum...... 96 Hijelmiay tawcee ac eerie 1782 
ee ie Ane t 184 | D’Elhujar............ 1788 
PLUtADUI eee ess - 50 Gregoriters ten eae 1789 | 
PY CUPTUNT Rae hye e O16: Gadolinas. eee 1794 
Ohromiumes +). ee) 52°2 | Vauquelin............ 1797 
Tellurium,........ 128 Wieprotitee ce eee 1798 
HN eats ine 194 Hatchett...........0. 1801 
pRSMLALUIM ees ee cies 182 Ekebertiseizca.y ar 1802 
1 EVE Vebh bon aye aes 106767) (Wollastony.... «2.0. 1808 
Osmiunt.) ss... 199 Tennantemosnes sees. 1808 
Klaproth, _Hisinger, 
Cerin. Te iyeweses 92 / wide Bameling.. 2 se t 1803 
Iridiinvyes sce 198 Descotils and Tennant] 1803-4 
CHOC eet ASAP AW ONSStOM ane. cele ce 1804 
Potassium ........ 89°1 DV Vilage can cin cies ateteiee 1807 
OdMMN ers sees 28 CORR eters oh Seto were 1807 
loheeiebanyls HAR wee BS 187 Loe aia 8 eas aoe Pees 1808 
Strontiumis..as.c6 876 Rares Stk lavleny ate aiiaudhicarolet 1808 
Calelummaaere eae 40 ee Co ee Or 1808 
PACH eee see bee eT RRL ar RD 1818 
Cadmium......... 112 Stromeyernc. sewers 1818 
seh cae (beryl- {89-6 Berzelius............. 1824 
AUN UTE eee ee DA INV ONIOT acs tes oie aces 1827 
Glucinum..... -...| 9°4 | WoOhlerand Bussy....} 1828 
Ehoriumes. sos aco LTO MIE CIZOlIUS. tajce ase cee 1828 
Magnesium........ 24 Daryn canyon teers 1828 
Vanadium ........ SLs Sep Setstrom: acces ek 1830 
Lanthanum......, 93°6 |-Mosander............ 1839 
iWirqnitimayy ss. cee: 120 Peligotsy, cian ak 1840 
Didymiunienen. ss. 95 Mosander............ 1841 
Br biuliteesciss sen» 112°6 ar Teta. Fa Si eae 1848 
Ruthenium........ 104 Clade ee hee ae 1846 
Rubidium. sce 85:4 | Bunsen and Kirchhoff} 1860 
Crsiumigoeenn tse. 133 ae us = 1860 
Dhallinm yn. ae 204 Crookes (Lamy)...... 1861 


the only liquid metal, is solidified at —89° F. 
Arsenic when heated passes directly into vapor 
without fusion. Most of the metals possess a 
certain mobility of particles that allows of their 
being extended or otherwise altered in form. 
The two nearly related properties of mallea- 
bility and ductility, resulting from this, are not 
possessed by the metals in the same degree. 
A few of them, as antimony, arsenic, and bis- 
muth, are decidedly brittle. Some assume a 
plastic condition before complete fusion, no- 
tably iron and platinum; on this property de- 
pends the operation of welding. The strength 
of the metals -is very dissimilar, iron in the 
form of wire being about 26 times as tenacious 
as lead. They are all conductors of heat and 
electricity, although differing widely in this 
respect. The metals at present known, with 
the name of the discoverer and date of dis- 
covery of each, together with their atomic 


weights, are given in the following table: 
Atomic A Date of 
METAL, weight. Discoverer. discovery. 
Cold case esc as oe 197 Known to the ancients. 
ob LAS ie RR Pa ae 108 te U # 
Meroury!. ov. 3. 200 ' “i ie “ 
Gonnaemes it. < cextrs 63°4 & sf 2 
SORE chats n crerecs 207 O s Hs 
bs Ocal get aR a 118 ie 4 ? 
Trontee oeeeass « 56 ae se 48 oe 
Bismath 210 | Basilius Valentinus 15th 
Wah. « tte asilius -} | century. 
Antimony ........ 122 2: cs an, 1 


indium pe. see: 113°4 | Reich and Richter.... 1868 


With a few exceptions, the names and dates in 
the above list refer to the actual production of 
the metal. In many instances the metallic 
compounds were known and studied long be- 
fore the metal itself was isolated. Some of 
the rarer metals have never been prepared in 
a pure form. Pelopium, formerly enumerated 
among the metals, has been shown to have 
no existence; and the existence of terbium is 
doubtful. The last four metals were discov- 
ered by means of the spectroscope.—The fol- 
lowing tables exhibit the mutual relations of 
some of the more important metals in physical 
properties : 


SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. TEMPERATURE OF FUSION. 


J ee eo 0°593 | Mercury ........ —39°44° C, 
Potassium s...... ci Hee 0:865 | Potassium.... .. +62°50 
Bodtttiier mr ce racer 02902 SOGIUMI Os. sere + cere 95°60 
ENSUE NESINI scare eS (OU) LIM... was cewivernete 222 
ATU ONY ger ere) carats eM OOM Ley NER CL scares» o]as'stss 835 
Chromium (cast)..... Slr, ZaDC ates. cecens fake 
LANG te eee eas 715 | Antimony....... 450 
LN lie tee nee once (PAD) AS heen ecsenoor 1000 
Tron (pure). cewcaas s 812 | Copper......--.. 1200 
Nickel (forged)....... STi Gold ences ects ala 1200 
Copper (cast)......... 8:92 | Wrought iron.... 1800 
Silverewecsad. asthe: «5 10°50 | Platinum, fusible 

LOS istescten actus cess! « 11:35 only by oxy- 
IMOrCULY satenite « hecisé 13°59 hydrogen blow- 
Coldiateverey ws aicle vives 19°30 pipe. 

Platinum (fused)..... 21:15 


420 


ORDER 
OF TENAOITY. 


ORDER 
OF MALLEABILITY. 


ORDER 
OF DUCTILITY. 


LGA see iejaieiasicie = Gold. Gold. 

Tint epeeaseans 1°3 Silver. Silver. 
Golde. sescnan 5:6 Copper. Platinum. 
PANG ore neecrate 8 Platinum. Tron. 
Silveriuccsee oe 89 Tron. Copper 
Platinum...... 13 Tin. Zinc. 
Copper........ 17 Zine. Tin. 

JYONE aise saree 26 Lead. Lead 


CONDUCTIVITY FOR |CONDUCTIVITY FOR ney netaa menataney 
HEAT. ELECTRICITY. 0° anp 1000° 0. 
irene ea Bo (Matthiessen.) 

Bilver.o. 2... =1000/Silver...... =1000|Lead...... 000301 
Copper....... 736|Copper..... OGAMLIN Sao or 0:00273 
Gold iaeedts 582|Gold....... 552|Zine 
ZANG oe tees. cists LOOIZIN Orne peters 274) (forged). 0:00220 
WIN). eens TAD TONT. pene ec 144 Silver..... 0:00199 
TOM te cceciee LOM In ween: os 115|Gold...... 0°00188 
Mapa ee ce creer 85| Lead ....... 78)Wrht iron 0:00119 
Platinum..... 84|Mercury.... 16°3)Platinum.. 0:00068 


THERMO-ELECTRIO ORDER. SPECIFIC HEAT. 


Antimony. (Water = 1.) 

Arsenic, Lithium. ee 0:9408 
Tron. Sodrumiveiessee 02934. 
Zine. Aluminum....... 0:2143 
Gold. Tron syn sae cise 01138 
Copper. Gopperi-naeseneae 0-0952 
Lead, FINCH Sos eee 0:0956 
Tin. Silvers.neheeenee 0:0570 
Silver. Tiny eee ee 0:0562 
Cobalt. Antimony...... .- 0°0508 
Palladium. Gold Pesan ater 00324 
Platinum. Platinum......... 0°0324 
Nickel. Mercuiryasner seer 0-0333 
Mercury. Lead 5... eaeaner 0:0314 
Bismuth. Bismiutheeneoee er 0:0308 


The physical properties of the metals are large- 
ly dependent on their purity and molecular 
condition, and on temperature. Hammered, 
rolled, or drawn metal generally has a higher 
specific gravity than cast metal. The state of 
molecular tension often induced by mechanical 
working, especially when cold, is resolved by 
annealing, 7. ¢, heating and slow cooling. 
Most of the metals are more malleable and 
ductile at high temperatures. Commercial 
zinc is only malleable between 100° and 150° 
C.; at 200° it is so brittle that it can be pul- 
verized. The conductivity for electricity is 
greatly diminished at high temperatures, and 
also by the presence of impurities in the metal. 
The addition of a small amount of a foreign 
substance often makes a metal harder, more 
rigid, and less susceptible of elongation. This 
is notably the case with iron, which when pure 
is soft and stretches considerably under strain 
before breaking, while steel, which is iron 
with a small amount of carbon, may be rigid 
and brittle. If reference be had to the origi- 
nal area of section, the rigid metal will show 
the greatest strength under a gradually applied 
tensile strain; but if to the fractured area, the 
purer metal is the strongest. The tenacity of 
metals generally decreases as the temperature 
is raised. The fusing points of the more re- 
fractory metals given in the above tables are 


METAL 


approximate only, since trustworthy methods 
for determining high temperatures are want- 
ing. The metals vary greatly in hardness. 
The alkaline metals are as soft as wax, while 
some, as chromium, will scratch glass. It is 
not improbable that extreme hardness in metals 
is produced by the presence of some foreign 
body, and is not inherent in the metal itself. 
Most of the metals are capable of assuming a 
distinctly crystalline form, generally belonging 
to the regular or isometric. system. Some, as 
antimony and arsenic, crystallize in rhombo- 
hedrons. <A few of the metals occur native; 
these are gold, platinum, palladium, iridium, 
and rhodium, which are almost exclusively 
found in the metallic state, and silver, cop- 
per, mercury, bismuth, arsenic, and antimony. 
Generally, however, the metals occur mineral- 
ized in combination with oxygen or sulphur. 
The specific heats of the metals, as will be 
noticed in the above tables, are inversely as 
their atomic weights, or, in other words, the 
specific heats of the atoms of the metals are 
equal.—Chemically, the metals present very 
varied characters. Asa class they are distin- 
guished by the formation of compounds with 
oxygen which have basic characters, while the 
non-metals as a class form oxides which have 
acid characters. These two classes of oxides 
are capable of combining to form salts. While 
the oxides of the non-metals never form bases, 
the higher oxides of many of the metals have 
distinctly acid properties, and indeed a few of 
the metals form only acid oxides. The most 
stable compounds of tellurium, arsenic, anti- 
mony, tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, and 
vanadium with oxygen are acid in character 
and capable of combining with basic oxides, 
Those metals which seem to hold a position in- 
termediate between the two classes have been 
termed half metals or metalloids. The latter 
term, as now generally used, includes all the 
non-metallic elements, viz.: hydrogen, oxygen, 
bromine, chlorine, iodine, fluorine, boron, ni- 
trogen, phosphorus, selenium, silicon, sulphur, 
and carbon. Tellurium is closely related to 
sulphur and selenium, and is often classed with 
the metalloids; but its metallic appearance, 
and the analogy which its compounds bear to 
those of antimony, render its association with 
the metals equally appropriate. Hydrogen, 
although a gas and the lightest body known, 
resembles the metals in its chemical proper- 
ties, and is capable of replacing them in com- 
bination. The formation of salts is regarded 
in modern chemistry as the replacement of 
hydrogen in the acid by a metal.—The metals 
are variously classified. A natural grouping, 
and one in common use, is: 1, metals of the 
alkalies; 2, metals of the alkaline earths; 8, 
metals of the earths proper; 4, oxidable. 
metals proper, whose oxides form powerful 
bases; 5, oxidable metals, whose oxides form 
weak bases or acids; 6, metals proper, whose 
oxides are reduced by heat, called noble metals. 
The strength of affinity of the different metals 


METALLOIDS 


for oxygen is the basis of a classification for- 
merly much used. It is embodied in part in 
the electro-chemical series of Berzelius, which 
played an important part in the development 
of chemical science. The alkaline metals oxi- 
dize rapidly in the air, and decompose water 
at ordinary temperatures; others, as iron and 
zinc, do not oxidize in pure dry air, and de- 
compose water only at a red heat, or in con- 
tact with an acid; and others, as the noble 
metals, do not decompose water at any tem- 
perature. The electrical relations of the metals 
correspond in general to their affinity for oxy- 
gen. Thus, the alkaline metals are the most 
electro-positive, and the noble metals the most 
electro-negative. The metals likewise fall into 
groups in which the individual members can 
replace one another in compounds without 
change of crystalline form; they are then said to 
be isomorphous. As examples may be cited mag- 
nesium, calcium, manganese, iron, zinc, copper, 
and aluminum; barium, strontium, and lead; 
sodium, silver, thallium, gold, and potassium ; 
arsenic, antimony, and bismuth; tin, titanium, 
tungsten, and molybdenum; platinum, iridium, 
and osmium. The atomicity of the elements, 
or their combining values, forms the basis of 
classification for study in modern chemistry. 
Metals are thus divided into monads (or those 
replaceable by or equivalent to one atom of a 
monogenic element, as hydrogen or chlorine), 
dyads, triads, tetrads, pentads, and hexads, 
as follows: monads—lithium, sodium, potas- 
sium, rubidium, calcium, silver; dyads—cal- 
cium, strontium, barium, glucinum, yttrium, 
lanthanum, didymium, erbium, thorium, mag- 
nesium, zinc, cadmium, copper, mercury ; 
triads—gold, thallium; tetrads—titanium, tin, 
aluminum, zirconium, rhodium, ruthenium, 
palladium, platinum, iridium, osmium, lead, 
manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, cerium, indium, 
uranium; pentads—vanadium, arsenic, anti- 
mony, bismuth, niobium, tantalum; hexads— 
chromium, molybdenum, tungsten. <A few of 
the metals possess more than one atomicity, 
and appear in different compounds with differ- 
ent atomic values. The combinations of the 
“metals with the non-metallic elements may be 
divided into two classes, those with chlorine, 
iodine, bromine, and fluorine, and those with 
oxygen, sulphur, selenium, and tellurium. The 
former class are saline compounds, while the 
latter are generally basic, exceptionally acid, 
as before mentioned. Formerly the distinction 
was generally observed between haloid and 
oxygen salts, the former being the combination 
of a metal with a haloid body, as chloride of 
sodium, and the latter a combination of a basic 
oxide with an oxy-acid, as sulphate of soda. In 
the modern chemistry both characters of salts 
are regarded as the replacements of hydrogen 
in the acid by a metal. The combinations of 
the metals among themselves are known as 
alloys, or, in case of mercury, as amalgams. 
(See Attoy, and AMALGAM.) 
METALLOIDS. See Mrrats. 


METALLURGY 491 

METALLURGY (Gr. weraAAovpyéc, working met- 
als), the science which treats primarily of the 
separation and isolation of the metals contained 
in their natural combinations or associations, 
known as ores, and secondarily of the manipu- 
lation of the metals and the production of 
metallic compounds or alloys. The modes of 
occurrence of metals in nature are: 1, native, 
either pure or alloyed; 2, sulphides and com- 
binations of sulphides and arsenides; 3, oxides 
and combinations of oxides with silicic and 
carbonic acids. More rarely arsenides, chlo- 
rides, tellurides, &c., are met with, and also 
compounds of oxides with other acids than 
those mentioned, as phosphoric, sulphuric, 
&c. The metallurgical treatment of an ore 
depends first on the physical characters of 
the minerals and accompanying rocks, and 
secondly on their chemical composition. It 
may therefore be divided into mechanical and 
chemical, the former dealing with the sepa- 
ration of native metals or metallic combina- 
tions from enclosing rock and gangue, and 
with the separation of associated minerals 
from each other according to their relative 
specific gravities; and the latter with the reso- 
lution of the chemical combinations of the met- 
als with the non-metallic elements and with 
each other. The separation of the associated 
minerals and of minerals and metals from the 
gangue is usually effected by purely mechanical 
contrivances known as ore-dressing and ore- 
concentrating machines. Sometimes the metal 
or mineral is isolated by a process of liquation, 
heat being used (bismuth, sulphide of anti- 
mony). I. OrE Dressine. The dressing of ores 
is the separation by mechanical means, prelim- 
inary to further treatment, of the worthless 
portions of the material obtained in mining. 
This art is usually referred to the province of 
the mining engineer, rather than the metal- 
lurgist, because in most cases, where the mines 
and reduction works belong to separate propri- 
etors, the former are expected to deliver ores 
to the latter in a suitable condition for treat- 
ment. But strictly speaking ore dressing is a 
metallurgical process. Gillon classifies it as 
‘‘mechanical metallurgy.” Every ore has a 
valuable and a worthless portion, and there 
may be also an injurious portion, which causes 
loss in the treatment. To remove the worth- 
less portion (gangue) and the actively inju- 
rious portion, by mechanical means, is the 
object of ore dressing, In a few instances, 
such as the washing of coal and the simple 
panning or sluicing of gold without amalgama- 
tion, the separation furnishes, without further 
treatment, the marketable commodity desired. 
But these operations, though involving the 
same principles, are not usually classed as ore 
dressing ; and in most instances the mechanical 
preparation merely precedes the actual process 
of reduction. Whether any given ore should 
be subjected to this preliminary treatment is 
a question of economy, involving local condi- 
tions of expense and the unavoidable loss of 


42,2 


valuable material attendant upon the additional 
manipulation required. To decide this ques- 
tion, for instance, with regard to an ore that is 
to be treated by smelting, it must be deter- 
mined whether the expense of smelting the 
whole mass of the ore mined would be greater 
than that of first separating its worthless or 
injurious contents, and then smelting with bet- 
ter results the smaller quantity of concentrated 
materials; and also whether in the mechanical 
separation the loss of valuable material would 
be so great as to counterbalance the saving in 
smelting expenses, and the possible gain in 
purity of product and in completeness of ex- 
traction. It is also necessary to determine spe- 
cially in every case how far the process of pre- 
liminary treatment shall be carried. It would 
not be desirable, even if practicable, to remove 
every trace of gangue, since some earthy ma- 
terial is requisite for the formation of slag to 
protect the metal in the hearth of the furnace 
from oxidation. Simple concentration removes 
a portion of the worthless gangue, and divides 
the ore into two parts, usually called ‘‘ head- 
ings” and “tailings.” Headings may be made 
pure only by a loss of valuable material in the 
tailings; and, vice versa, the tailings can be 
made entirely worthless only by leaving con- 
siderable gangue in the headings. The best sys- 
tems therefore involve the formation of one or 
more classes of so-called ‘‘middlings,” or in- 
termediate grades, which may be subsequently 
separated again. This principle is also impor- 
tant in the treatment of a material containing 
different ores which cannot be advantageously 
smelted together. Thus zinc blende, which is 
very commonly associated with silver-bearing 
galena, is often poor in silver, and moreover 
seriously embarrasses the lead-smelting, not 
only by requiring extra fuel for its own volatili- 
zation or fusion in the slag, but also by taking 
up and removing in its vapors or slags a larger 
portion of silver than it originally contained. 
Yet this mineral, if separated, can under fa- 
vorable circumstances be profitably treated by 
itself.—The mechanical separation of minerals 
depends either upon their magnetic properties 
or their specific gravity. The former prin- 
ciple has been employed to a limited ex- 
tent in the separation of magnetic iron ores, in 
a finely divided state, from their accompany- 
ing gangue. Both permanent magnets and 
electro-magnets have been employed; but the 
process can scarcely be said to have proved an 
economical success, or to be now in practical 
operation outside of the laboratory.—Separa- 
tion by specific gravity is performed in air and 
‘water. So-called dry concentrators are chiefly 
used in localities where water is scarce. The 
simplest form is that of a bowl or hide, in 
which auriferous dirt'is placed and tossed in 
the wind, the lighter earthy particles being 
blown away, while the heavier sands con- 
taining the gold return to the vessel. Other 
air concentrators are winnowing channels, in 
which the material is separated by a draught 


METALLURGY 


of air, the heavier particles falling first to the 
floor, and the lighter ones being carried for 
longer distances; the result is a distribution of 
the materials on the floor of the channels in 
the order of their specific gravity. The most 
complete ore-dressing machines employing air 
are those in which the current of air is replaced 
by impulses, somewhat after the manner of the 
water jigs to be mentioned presently. The appa- 
ratus usually employed in dressing ores involves 
the use of water as a medium, and depends upon 
the relative periods occupied by bodies of dif- 
ferent size, shape, and gravity in falling through 
water. The most favorable condition for sep- 
arating ores would be the employment of a 
liquid exceeding in specific gravity one portion, 
and exceeded by the other portion, of the ma- 
terials to be treated. The former would then 
float, while the latter would sink to the bottom, 
as in the preparation of fine porcelain clays. 
But in almost all cases the minerals to be sep- 
arated sink in water, and a separation must be 
based on their different rates of sinking, de- 
pendent upon variations of specific gravity in 
different materials, and of size and shape of 
particles in the same material. Jn many ma- 
chines for the separation of minerals by water, 
those particles which actually fall at equal rates 
will be brought together; hence, if itis desired 
to bring together particles of the same mineral 
(that is, of the same specific gravity) only, the 
disturbing effect of difference in size must be 
avoided. In other words, a careful sizing of 
the material must precede its separation accord- 
ing to gravity. A given quartz sphere will be 
4 times as large in diameter, 68 times in vol- 
ume, and 23 times in weight, as a galena sphere 
that falls through water at the same rate; and 
if such apiece of quartz were present with such 
a piece of galena in the material under treat- 
ment, they would not be separated. The sepa- 
ration is not usually effected in still water. In 
some machines the ore is made to fall against 
arising current, or against impulses given by 
the motion of pistons; in others, the action of 
a stream of water passing through a trough or 
over an inclined plane is employed. The si- 
zing is frequently effected beforehand by sieves, 
but the inclined plane itself may produce a sep- 
aration according to the size of the particles, 
by reason of the greater rapidity of the upper 
surface of the stream, and the greater effect 
produced by the current upon larger particles. 
The shape has here an important influence, as 
determining the retardation of the particle by 
rolling or sliding friction. The apparatus in 
which still water is employed includes various 
kinds of settling tanks. The upward current 
and impulse is characteristic of the machines 
known as jigs; while the thin stream of water 
passing over an inclined surface is a feature of 
the buddle, the plane table, the rotary table, 
and the percussion table. The most universal- 
ly serviceable machine for ore dressing is the 
“tie” or ‘‘jigger.” This was originally a sim- 
ple improvement upon the treatment of ore by 


METALLURGY 


hand on a sieve under water. By plunging the 
sieve down suddenly under water, and allow- 
ing the particles to come again to rest upon it, 
a separation is effected; and if the stuff has 
been sized, and the operation has been repeated 
often enough, the denser particles are found in 
strata under the less dense. By scraping off 
the upper layers horizontally, ore and gangue 
may be separated. The first improvement was 
that of imparting motion by machinery to the 
sieve, but it was afterward found more con- 
venient and effective to employ a submerged 
stationary sieve, and impart a vertical oscilla- 
tory motion to the water. This is done by 
using pistons or elastic diaphragms placed in 
the sides of the box, or on the top of a lower 
chamber full of water, and communicating with 
a lower box through the sieve. An additional 
feature of recent mechanical jigs is the con- 
tinuous discharge, by means of which the dif- 
ferent classes of separated material are removed 
without interrupting the operation. It was 
formerly supposed that coarsely crushed ores 
only could be effectively treated by jigging; and 
since ores so crushed usually contain a large 
proportion of fragments composed of adhe- 
ring gangue and ore, and therefore possessing 
a specific gravity different from both gangue 
and ore, it was supposed that the jig could not 
be employed for the most delicate separation. 
But the improvements which have been made 
in this apparatus permit the treatment by it 
of much finer material than was formerly 
practicable, and at the same time have greatly 
reduced the hand labor and consequently the 
expense involved in the process. The result 
has been a great extension of the application 
of the jig, and the gradual abandonment to a 
large extent of the more cumbrous buddles and 
tables, which were formerly considered neces- 
sary for the treatment of the finest sands. 
The “dolly tub” is a very simple machine for 
separating the particles of crushed ore. Itcon- 
sists of a cylindrical vessel filled with water, 
in which the ore is rotated by means of revolv- 
ing arms. When rotation has been maintained 
long enough, according to the quality and size 
of the material, the ore is allowed to settle, 
while the workman jars the table by blows 
upon the side of the tub with an iron bar, to 
prevent adhesion upontheinner surface. This 
machine has been elaborated by Hund, Rit- 
tinger, and others, and provided with a con- 
tinuous discharge. In the machines already 
described, the material to be worked must pre- 
viously be carefully sized, but sometimes it is 
already too fine to be accurately or rapidly sized 
in sieves or ‘‘trommels,” and for this reason 
resort is had to a different treatment. The 
material is first separated into ‘‘ equal-falling ”’ 
portions, grains constituting each portion being 
of such relative size and specific gravity that 
they will sink through water in equal times. 
Each of these portionsis then treated alone upon 
a machine capable of separating the particles ac- 
cording to their specific gravity. For classify- 


423 


ing the equal-falling particles, various machines 
are employed, in which use is made either of a 
horizontal stream of water of decreasing rapid- 
ity and of considerable depth, or a compara- 
tively shallow, smooth stream, or a vertically 
ascending column with decreasing rapidity. 
The Spitzkasten or pointed box employs the 
first of these agencies. These boxes are hop- 
per-shaped, and several of them of different 
sizes are connected. The water carrying the 
ore flows into and over the first box, and the 
heavier particles settle, while the lighter flow 
on to the second box, and so on. The rapidity 
of the current is diminished by varying the 
breadth of the boxes. The vertically ascending 
column of water is employed in the so-called 
Spitzlutten, a system of conical boxes, in which 
the water does not flow over as a covering cur- 
rent, but enters at the bottom. Both the flow- 
ing current and the ascending current have 
been combined in some recent forms of point- 
ed boxes. The riffle, so frequently used in 
placer gold mining, involves the same princi- 
ple—The material, having been classified by 
any of the machines just mentioned into por- 
tions of equal-falling particles, must be treat- 
ed further in order to separate each of these 
portions according to specific gravity; and 
for this purpose machines must be employed 
in which the particles will be affected more 
in proportion to size than in proportion to 
weight. Of equal-falling grains, the smallest 
are of course the densest; hence, the smaller 
will be mainly ore, the larger mainly gangue. 
A very thin, smooth stream of water, passing 
over a plane surface, exerts different forces 
upon large and small grains lying in the cur- 
rent. The friction on the layer of water next 
to the bottom is much greater than on the layer 
above. Hence large grains, the tops of which 
protrude into the layer above, will be acted 
upon by a much more rapid current, and will 
be moved forward, while the smaller grains 
lying in the lowest layer are unaffected. This 
is incidentally also a separation according to 
gravity, since the large grains are specifically 
lightest. It is essential that the stream should 
be thin; a deep stream acts upon all points 
very nearly alike. Another requisite condi- 
tion is a proper velocity, which depends upon 
the inclination of the plane. If too nearly 
horizontal, the current will not move even the 
coarser particles, and if too steeply inclined it 
will be so violent as to sweep away fine and 
coarse alike. The amount of material held 
in suspension must also be regulated; if the 
water is too muddy, it will not be free to act 
on the separate grains, and the grains will act 
on each other. Keeping the water perfectly 
clear will effect the most complete sizing, but 
this condition is unfavorable to the quantity of 
work performed. The economical medium is 
found by practical experiment. Among the 
machines employed for this purpose are the 
plane table, the buddle, and the percussion 
table. The first requires little description. It 


424 


is an inclined plane, near the head of which 
the ore is deposited in the form of slime, and 
acted upon by a stream of water distributed 
uniformly over the board. To prevent the 
cutting of furrows or channels in the ore bed, 
the workman continually smooths and con- 
solidates with a wire brush or piece of plank 
the layer of concentrated ore deposited near 
the head of the table. When the table is full 
of accumulated ore, the water is shut off by 
means of the riffle, and the layer is divided 
into four parts, or zones, parallel with the 
head of the table. The upper zone is concen- 
trated ore; the second zone is usually about 
as rich as the original material; the third is 
poor, but still rich enough to pay for re- 
working; the fourth is too poor for further 
treatment, and is rejected as tailings. Minor 
subdivisions may sometimes be made to ad- 
vantage. The manual labor involved in this 
process has caused it to be more or less su- 
perseded by mechanical contrivances. One 
of these is the buddle, which may be consid- 
ered as consisting of a large number of plane 
tables placed radially round a central point. 
They may be arranged with their heads to- 
gether, the ore being fed in the centre and 
discharged on the circumference, in which 
case the buddle forms the frustum of a low 
cone, and is called a convex buddle; or they 
may be grouped with the tails toward the cen- 
tre, the feed being on the circumference and 
the discharge in the centre, constituting a con- 
cave buddle. In these machines the tedious 
operation of maintaining an even surface to the 
ore layer is performed by revolving arms car- 
rying brushes or scrapers. A concave buddle 
is usually preferred, by reason of its discharge 
in the centre, where the working surface is 
smallest. This secures a maximum force: of 
current for carrying away the worthless mate- 
rial; whereas on the convex buddle the cur- 
rent is strongest in the centre, and is most 
likely at that point to carry past the proper 
zone particles of rich ore; while on the cir- 
cumference, where the discharge takes place, 
the current is so much spread out as to have 
lost the power of carrying away the worth- 
less portions of the material. The percussion 
table is another improvement on the plane 
table, in which the smoothing and consolida- 
ting of the surface of the ore layer is effected 
by means of a periodical jar communicated to 
the table itself. This jar is ordinarily given by 
suspending the table, swinging it from its posi- 
tion of equilibrium, and allowing its backward 
swing to be stopped by striking against a sta- 
tionary block. The consolidation of the ore 
by brushes on the buddle, already alluded to, 
is not effective for very small particles. The 
finest slimes, when treated in buddles, remain 
too loosely on the surface, and permit the for- 
mation of furrows or channels; but on the 
percussion table the shock imparted to the 
particles thoroughly shakes them together, 
and consolidates the mass. The percussion 


METALLURGY 


tables until recently employed were stopped 
at intervals and cleaned up by hand, like the 
ordinary plane table; and the buddles were 
treated in the same way, the zones of classified 
material in the latter case being of course an- 
nular. But the most recent practice has given 
rise to continuously working buddles and per- 
cussion tables. The former are known as 
rotating tables, and are substantially buddles 
which revolve slowly under feeding spouts, 
and from which the dressed ore, instead of 
being allowed to accumulate on the table, is 
washed off by clean water as soon as the sep- 
aration of the grains has been effected. These 
machines, as well as the continuous percussion 
tables, were perfected by the late Herr von Rit- 
tinger of Austria. The rotating tables have 
been found somewhat complicated and waste- 
ful of water, and require very careful and skil- 
ful management; but the continuous percussion 
tables are pronounced both cheaper and more 
convenient than the similar machines of the 
intermittent type. These continuous tables 
receive their shock sidewise instead of end- 
wise, and the result is a distribution of the ore 
in peculiar curved zones upon the table. The 
stuff to be washed is delivered upon the tables 
at an upper corner. The clear water is fur- 
nished by distributors. The tendency of the 
pulp is to flow down the slope in a direct line; 
but by means of the lateral percussion the 
path of the heavier particles is changed, and 
they are gradually thrown toward the side re- 
ceiving the shock. The combination of this 
motion, at right angles to the current of water, 
with the downward motion of the current, 
gives to the particles, according to their size 
and weight, a more or less curved path, and 
gradually separates the heavier and richer par- 
ticles from the poor stuff. By the time they 
have reached the foot of the table the richest 
portions have been transferred to the corner 
diagonally opposite to that upon which they 
entered, while the middlings and tailings are 
discharged along the lower edge of the table, 
in the order of their concentration. By pla- 
cing compartments below the edge of the table, 
to receive the different discharges, the products 
of the classification are conducted away sepa- 
rately. The best authorities on this subject are 
the elaborate treatises in German by Rittinger 
and Gatzschmann. II. Exrraotion or Met- 
AIS FROM THEIR OreEs. The chemical processes 
employed for this purpose depend, 1, on the 
affinity of carbon for oxygen; 2, on the mu- 
tual reaction of an oxide with the sulphide of a 
metal; and 3, on the replacement of one metal 
in combination by another. The reactions in 
1 and 2 take place.only at high temperatures, 
while those in 3 may be effected either by 
fusion or in solution.—l. Metals reduced from 
the state of Oxide by Carbon. The aflinity 
of carbon for oxygen at high temperatures is 
sufficient to decompose most of the metallic 
oxides. Even the alkaline metals may be 
thus obtained. A few of the oxides (alkaline 


METALLURGY 


earths, earths, &c.) cannot be reduced by car- 
bon, but their chlorides are reduced by the al- 
kaline metals. In ordinary metallurgical prac- 
tice the naturally occurring oxides that are 
reduced by carbon are iron, tin, zinc, and lead. 
The ores of iron and tin are exclusively oxides. 
Zine occurs both in oxidized condition as car- 
bonate or silicate, and also as sulphide. Lead 
exists mainly as sulphide, but occasionally as 
carbonate, phosphate, &c. Metallic zinc is al- 
ways produced from the oxide; the sulphide 
must therefore first be converted into oxide 
before it can be treated for the reduction 
of the metal. Lead may be prepared both 
from the oxide and the sulphide, and accord- 
ing to the process employed the sulphide is 
either treated as such (see below) or oxidized 
by roasting. The methods employed for re- 
duction by carbon consist either in heating the 
oxide in direct contact with coal or in expo- 
sing it to the action of heated carbonic oxide 
gas. Iron ore is smelted in a high-shaft fur- 
nace, and is reduced entirely by carbonic oxide 
generated by the partial combustion of the 
fuel in the lower part of the furnace, where 
the metallic iron is melted. Tin ore is either 
smelted in a low-shaft furnace or on the hearth 
of a reverberatory furnace in contact with fuel. 
Oxidized lead ore is likewise treated in shaft 
furnaces. Zinc ore is mixed with fuel and heat- 
ed in clay retorts. Since the reduction of iron 
ore is effected at a temperature below the 
point of fusion of the metal, the latter may 
be obtained in the solid state having the form 
of the pieces of ore used (iron sponge); but 
as ordinarily smelted the metal is fused after 
reduction. In this fusion it combines with 
carbon and silicon and forms cast iron. This 
product, although containing only about 93 
per cent. of iron, has manifold applications in 
the arts. In the preparation of wrought iron, 
which is nearly pure, cast iron is submitted to 
an oxidizing smelting to remove the carbon 
and silicon. Tin and lead are reduced at tem- 
peratures above their points of fusion, and are 
obtained in a molten state, while zine is only 
reduced above its boiling point, and is obtained 
as vapor, which is condensed to a liquid.—2. 
Metals produced by the mutual Reaction of an 
Oxide and Sulphide. This reaction results, in 
the case of a few metals, in the formation of 
sulphurous acid gas and the separation of the 
metal, according to the following general for- 
mula: MS+2MO=M;+S0O.2. The principal 
examples of this mode of smelting are lead and 
copper. The sulphides of these metals are 
partially oxidized, and the oxide thus formed 
is intimately mixed at a high temperature with 
the unaltered sulphide, with the result given 
above.— 8. The Replacement of one Metal by 
another. The chemical affinity which the met- 
als possess for the non-metallic elements dif- 
fers greatly, and those possessing the strong- 
est affinity are capable, in many instances, 
of driving the weaker out of combination. 
Advantage is taken of this in the separation 


425 


of many of the metals. When sulphide of lead 
is heated with metallic iron, metallic lead is 
produced with sulphide of iron, owing to the 
stronger affinity of iron for sulphur. Anti- 
mony is reduced from its sulphide in the same 
way. This replacement of one metal by an- 
other is still more readily accomplished when 
the metal to be separated is in solution. It is 
only for the more valuable metals, as gold, 
silver, and copper, that the so-called wet pro- 
cesses, in contradistinction to the dry or smelt- 
ing processes, are employed. Silver is pro- 
duced in both ways. When associated with 
lead it is smelted by either of the lead pro- 
cesses given above, and is obtained alloyed 
with the lead. But when the ore or smelting 
product from which the silver is to be ex- 
tracted is free from lead or nearly so, the 
silver may be converted into sulphate and 
dissolved out by water, or into chloride and 
dissolved either by a solution of chloride of so- 
dium or hyposulphite of soda or lime. From 
these solutions the silver may be precipitated by 
iron or copper, or it may be thrown down as 
sulphide and this decomposed by iron. Rich 
silver ores (sulphides) are sometimes added 
directly to the molten lead in the process of 
cupellation, in which case the silver is reduced 
by lead. Copper is also produced to a con- 
siderable extent by wet processes. It is ren- 
dered soluble by dissolving the native oxides 
or carbonates, or the oxide produced by roast- 
ing the sulphide by acid, and is precipitated by 
metallic iron. In gold and silver extraction 
processes, mercury is largely used to collect 
the finely divided metals, since it combines 
with them readily, forming anamalgam. When 
the metals occur native in the ore, they may 
be directly extracted with mercury. Some 
natural compounds of silver are decomposed 
by simple trituration in an iron pan or mortar. 
If mercury is present, the silver is taken up as 
soon as set free. In the more refractory ores 
the silver is converted into oxide or chloride 
by roasting before treating with iron and mer- 
cury. Metallic gold may be rendered soluble and 
extracted from its ores by means of chlorine. 
From the solution thus obtained the gold is 
precipitated by iron (iron vitriol). The pro- 
duction of mercury from its principal ore (sul- 
phide or cinnabar) does not depend on any of 
the three processes given above. The ore is 
simply heated with access of air, when the 
sulphur is oxidized to sulphurous acid and the 
metal liberated in the form of vapor. (For 
detailed accounts of processes see the articles 
on the different metals.)—Not unfrequently an 
ore after dressing may contain several metals, 
and the processes involved in the extraction 
and separation may be very complicated and 
include the operations of all three classes givén 
above. (See Freiberg smelting process, under 
Leap.) The amount of a metal in an ore is 
often so small that it is necessary to subject 
the ore to a concentrating process before it is 
treated for the extraction of the metal. Thus 


426 


copper ores which may contain 5 per cent. or 
less of metal are worked by a process known 
as matte smelting, whereby the copper is raised 
to 70 or 80 per cent. by the removal of earthy 
ingredients and iron. In this process the cop- 
per in the ore is collected in a matte which is 
mainly a combination of iron, copper, and sul- 
phur. The iron is gradually removed in suc- 
cessive operations, until only copper and sul- 
phur are left. From this enriched product the 
copper is separated by the roasting-reaction 
process. (See Copper.) Nickel ores are like- 
wise first smelted to a matte.—The furnaces 
employed for metallurgical operations may be 
divided into the shaft or blast furnace, the 
gas or reverberatory furnace, and the crucible. 
In the shaft furnace the ore or other metal- 
lic compound is charged alternately with the 
fuel, and a reducing atmosphere, that is, one in 
which carbonic oxide predominates, always ex- 
ists. In areverberatory furnace the fuel does 
not come in contact with the hearth of the 
furnace, on which the substance to be heated 
is placed. The atmosphere here is generally 
oxidizing, owing to the practical impossibility 
of obtaining a high temperature without the 
admission of a slight access of air. In gas fur- 
naces the access of air can be better regulated 
than with the ordinary reverberatory, but it 
must not be overlooked that carbonic acid, 
the product of combustion, gives off oxygen to 
some metals (as iron) at a red heat. Where 
a low temperature only is required, a more or 
less reducing atmosphere may be maintained 
by limiting the supply of air. But when an 
active reducing action is required on the hearth 
of a reverberatory furnace, the substance to be 
treated is intimately mixed with coal. A coy- 
ered crucible or retort heated from without is 
entirely independent of the source and character 
of the heat, and consequently the nature of cru- 
cible smelting depends solely on the substances 
employed.—The earthy matters associated with 
the metals in ores are removed in ordinary smelt- 
ing operations in the form of a fusible com- 
pound, which when solidified is generally hard 
and stony and is called slag or cinder. In iron 
smelting the slag consists mainly of silica, lime, 
and alumina. It is rarely the case that an iron 
ore contains these substances in the proper 
proportion to form a fusible cinder, and conse- 
quently the substance which is deficient must 
be added. As most iron ores are silicious, 
limestone is usually added as flux. In copper 
and lead smelting, the cinder usually contains, 
besides the earthy bases, a considerable amount 
of iron in the form of ferrous oxide. The 
cinder from copper matte smelting is almost 
exclusively a ferrous silicate. Mill cinder pro- 
duced in the operation of puddling pig iron is 
also a ferrous silicate, but the iron contained in 
it is the incidental and unavoidable result of 
the oxidizing atmosphere in the furnace neces- 
sary for the removal of the silicon and carbon; 
it does not therefore represent an enriched 
product, but a waste of iron.—In order to 


METALLURGY 


facilitate the extraction of the metal, it is often 
necessary or desirable to change the physical 
or chemical constitution of the ores. This is 
effected by roasting or calcination. Roasting 
in its simplest form consists merely in the 
exposure of the ore to heat, in order to render 
it friable and porous and thereby more readily 
reducible. Compact iron ores are often thus 
treated. Again, an ore may contain volatile in- 
gredients which can be driven off by heat. It 
becomes thereby enriched, besides being render- 
ed porous. The spathic ores of iron (carbonates) 
and the brown hematites (hydrates) when heat- 
ed part with their carbonic acid and water, and 
are converted, the former into porous magnetic 
oxide, and the latter into red oxide. This kind 


of roasting, generally called calcination, is usu- 


ally effected in low-shaft furnaces or kilns, the 
heat being generated by fuel charged with the 
ore, or by the use of gas. The sulphides and 
arsenides of the heavier metals are often roast- 
ed in order to break up existing combinations - 
and to form others which are more suscepti- 
ble to treatment. This roasting may be either 
oxidizing or chloridizing. Oxidizing roasting 
consists in subjecting the ore, or other metallic 
combination, as matte, in the form of lumps 
or powder, to the action of heat, with free 
access of air. It is sometimes conducted in 
heaps in the open air by piling up lumps of 
ore or matte with layers of fuel. When suffi- 
cient sulphur is present, the pile when once 
ignited continues to burn without the aid of 
fuel. This method is always tedious, and gen- 
erally imperfect. The ordinary method of fur- 
nace roasting consists in exposing the ore in 
the form of powder to the action of heat and 
air on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace. 
The ore must be frequently turned and rab- 
bled, so that the oxidation shall proceed uni- 
formly. It is also necessary to avoid a tem- 
perature which would sinter or fuse the mass, 
and thus hinder the complete exposure of the 
small particles to the air. To obviate the ne- 
cessity of hand labor in turning the charge, 
and also to hasten the roasting, mechanical ap- 
pliances have been employed, such as revolving 
chambers and hearths. It has also been found 
that showering the ore or matte in fine pow- 
der into a heated chamber or stack is a very 
expeditious method of roasting. Gerstenhdfer 
was the first to introduce this practice. His _ 
furnaces are rectangular chambers provided 
with iron bars of triangular section arranged at 
regular intervals, base uppermost. The time 
of exposure in falling is thus somewhat pro- 
longed. The sulphides of the different metals 
behave very differently when roasted. In gen- 
eral the metal and sulphur are both oxidized} 
part of the latter passes off as sulphurous acid, 
which under favorable conditions can be util- 
ized in the production of oil of vitriol; and 
part is converted into sulphuric acid, which 
combines with the metallic oxide. Ata high 
temperature this sulphuric acid may be driven 
off, either wholly or in part, and the oxide left. 


METAPHYSICS 


When arsenic and antimony are present, the 
reactions become much more complicated and 
complete roasting more difficult. Gold, mer- 
cury, and silver may be reduced to metal by 
roasting, owing to their feeble affinity for oxy- 
gen at high temperatures. Some sulphides 
are difficult to roast, owing to their fusibility 
(sulphides of lead, bismuth, antimony, &c.). 
Chloridizing roasting has for its object the 
conversion of silver in ore or matte into the 
condition of chloride, in which form it may be 
dissolved, or directly treated with metallic iron 
to separate the silver, as mentioned above. 
The chlorination of silver is effected by the 
addition of common salt to the charge to be 
roasted, which is decomposed by the sulphuric 
acid generated by the oxidation of the sulphur 
with the liberation of hydrochloric acid. The 
methods employed are in general the same as 
those used in oxidizing roasting. The revolv- 
ing cylinder (Briickner’s) and the showering 
furnace (Stetefeldt’s, on the principle of Ger- 
stenhéfer) are largely used, and are found to 
give good results—In many smelting opera- 
tions, especially where ores of complex compo- 
sition are used, an alloy of several metals is fre- 
quently produced. Thus the furnace or work 
lead from many ores contains copper, antimo- 
ny, silver, gold, and other metals. The separa- 
tion of the metals from each other is based on 
their relative oxidability, on the solvent action 
of metals and metallic oxides on each other, on 
difference in fusing point, on crystallization, 
and on solubility in acids. Examples of these 
methods will be found in the accounts of the 
different metals. It will suffice here to men- 
tion briefly the separation of lead from silver 
by the oxidation of the former, and the re- 
moval of copper and other metals at the same 
time, by the solvent action of litharge on their 
oxides (cupellation); the separation of silver 
from copper by alloying the latter with lead, 
and subsequently removing the lead with the 
silver by heat (liquation); the removal of sil- 


ver from lead by zinc (Parkes’s process) and | 
| duke Ferdinand (1771). 


by crystallization (Pattinson’s process); and 
the separation of silver from gold by acids.— 
Metals occur in the arts either cast as ingots or 
in finished forms, or wrought by hammering, 
rolling, and drawing into sheets, rails, wire, 
&c. These mechanical processes are intimate- 
ly connected with and dependent upon the 
physical properties of the different metals and 
on their purity.—See “‘ Elements of Metallur- 
gy,” by J. Arthur Phillips (London, 1874). 
METAPHYSICS. See PuiLosopny. 
METASTASIO, Pietro Antonio Domenico Bonaven- 
tara, an Italian poet, born in Rome, Jan. 3, 
1698, died in Vienna, April 12, 1782. He is 
said to have excelled in improvising verses at 
the age of 10. Gravina, an eminent jurist and 
scholar, adopted him as a son, changing his 
name of Trapassi to that of Metastasio (from 
the Gr. wetdoracic, change or transfer), and 
preparing him for the profession of the law, 
but without discouraging his studies in classical 


METASTASIO 497 


and dramatic literature, in which he advanced 
so rapidly that at 14 he wrote a tragedy, Gius- 
tino, after the Greek model. He accompanied 
his patron to Naples, where his talents gained 
him many friends. While continuing the study 
of jurisprudence, he took holy orders, whence 
he was sometimes called Abbate. Gravina 
bequeathed him in 1718 a considerable fortune; 
but the young poet squandered most of it 
within two years, and again applied himself to 
the study of the law. Soon returning to his 
favorite pursuit, he produced an epithalamium 
and the drama Lndimione. Under the patron- 
age of the viceroy of Naples he wrote Gli orti 
esperidi and Angelica, the latter after Ariosto. 
The part of Venus in the former play was per- 
formed by Maria Bulgarini, or La Romanina, 
who was at that time the leading Neapolitan 
prima donna, and whose appreciation of Me- 
tastasio’s genius laid the foundation of a most 
intimate relation, the poet writing under her 
inspiration his Didone abbandonata (1724), 
which was set to music by Sardi and other 
composers, and established Metastasio’s fame. 
He accompanied the signora to Rome, where 
his Semiramide (set to music by Meyerbeer in 
1819), Het0, Alessandro nell’ India, Catone in 
Utica, and Artaserse were performed in rapid 
succession. In 1729 he went to Vienna, where 
he succeeded Zeno as imperial Jaureate. In 
1733 appeared his Olimpiade ; and one of his 
most celebrated lyrical dramas, La clemenza di 
Tito, was performed in 1734, and was again 
set to music in 1790 by Mozart. The death of 
the emperor Charles VI. in 1740, and the out- 
break of war, led to the closing of the theatre 
in which he had been employed, and he now 
devoted himself to literary pursuits, chiefly to 
translations and annotations of Greek writers. 
In 1744 appeared his plays of Antigone and 
Ipermnestra. After the return of peace he 
wrote J1 re pastore (1751), which was enacted 
by the ladies of the imperial family. His last 
operatic play, J? Ruggiero, was produced at 
Milan on occasion of the marriage of the arch- 
His last occupation 
was the superintendence of the magnificent 
Paris edition of his works. Metastasio was 
among the first to recognize the genius of 
Mozart, and to express his admiration of a 
comic opera which the composer, then only 12 
years old, had set to music in 1768. His best 
known oratorios are La morte d Abele, [sacco, 
and La passione ; and his most popular cantatas 
are La libertad, La primavera, and La partenza. 
A catalogue raisonné of his compositions is 
given by Dr. Burney. The best editions of his 
works are those in 12 vols. (Paris, 1780-’82), 
and 20 vols. (Mantua, 1816—’20).—See Burney, 
“Memoirs of the Abbate Metastasio,” with 
translations of his principal letters (8 vols. 8vo, 
London, 1796). The best Italian sketch of his 
literary career is by Mauro Boni in his edi- 
tion of Metastasio’s works (Padua, 1811). His 
‘‘Dramas and Poems” were translated into 
English by J. Hoole (8 vols., London, 1800). 


498 METASTASIS 


METASTASIS (Gr. perdoraoic, translation), a 
change in the seat of a disease, attributed by 
the humorists to a translation of the morbific 
matter from a part previously diseased to 
another, and by the solidists to a translation of 
the irritation. It has been a matter of dispute 
whether such an action as metastasis really 
ever takes place, or whether it is not simply 
an extension of the disease. The frequent sud- 
den transference of the seat of gout and acute 
rheumatism would seem to favor the idea that 
there is change of seat without any progressive 
extension. There are some diseases, however, 
which were formerly considered as metastasic, 
that have been shown to be properly not so 
classified. (See Mixx Lee.) 

METCALFE, a 8S. central county of Kentucky, 
watered by Big and Little Barren rivers; area, 
about 500 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 7,934, of whom 
861 were colored. The surface is rolling and 
the soil fertile. The chief productions in 1870 
were 38,818 bushels of wheat, 276,207 of 
Indian corn, 62,462 of oats, 1,310,381 lbs. of 
tobacco, 17,718 of wool, 84,350 of butter, and 
1,045 tons of hay. There were 2,327 horses, 
1,868 milch cows, 2,385 other cattle, 8,701 
sheep, and 12,966 swine. Capital, Edmonton. 

METCALFE, Frederick, an English clergyman, 
born in 1817. He graduated at St. John’s col- 
lege, Cambridge, in 1838, and subsequently 
was elected a fellow of Lincoln college, Oxford. 
In 1848 he became head master of Brighton 
college. He has published ‘‘The Oxonian in 
Norway” (2 vols., 1856); ‘‘The Oxonian in 
Thelemarken ” (2 vols., 1858); ‘ History of 
German Literature” (1858); and ‘ The Oxonian 
in Iceland” (1861). He has adapted from the 
German of A. Becker sketches from the do- 
mestic life of the ancient Romans and Greeks, 
under the titles “‘ Gallus ” (1844; 2d ed., 1853) 
and ‘‘ Charicles” (1845; 2d ed., 1854). 

METELLUS, a Roman plebeian family of the 
Cecilia gens. The following are its most dis- 
tinguished members. I. Lucius Ceecilius, com- 
mander against the Carthaginians in the first 
Punic war, defeated Hasdrubal in 250 B. C., and 
was honored with a triumph. He was twice 
consul, once dictator for the purpose of hold- 
ing the comitia, and pontifex maximus during 
the last 22 years of his life. He lost his 
sight while rescuing the Palladium from fire, 
and died about 220. II. Quintus Ceeilins, son 
of the preceding, served successively as ple- 
beian edile, curule edile, consul, proconsul, 
and dictator for the purpose of holding the 
comitia. He fought in the second Punic war 
against Hasdrubal in Spain, and against Han- 
nibal in Bruttium, and survived the final vic- 
tory over the Carthaginians many years. III. 
Quintus Cecilins Metellus Macedonicus, son of the 
preceding, commanded as praetor in Mace- 
donia, where he defeated and made prisoner 
the usurper Andriscus (148), fought success- 
fully against the Achzans (146), and as consul 
against the Celtiberians in Spain. He was 
censor in 131, died in 115, and was carried to 


METELLUS 


the funeral pile by three sons who had offici- 
ated as consuls, and a fourth who was candi- 
date for the same dignity. The first, second, 
and fourth were afterward distinguished by 
the surnames of Balearicus (from the conquest 
of the Balearic isles), Diadematus, and Oa- 
prarius. IV. Lucius Cexcilius Metellus Dalmaticus, 
nephew of the preceding, officiated as consul, 
censor, and pontifex maximus, received his 
surname from his victories over the Dalma- 
tians in 119, and was active against Satur- 
ninus 19 years later. V. Quintus Cecilins Metellus 
Numidieus, brother of the preceding, com- 
manded as consul in 109, and as proconsul in 
the following year, against Jugurtha in Nu- 
midia, but had the mortification to see the 
fruit of his victories, the honor of a final tri- 
umph over the enemy, snatched from his 
hands by Marius, his legate, who supplanted 
him in the opinion of the Roman people, and 
was elected consul to succeed him in command. 
He was, however, allowed a triumphal entry 
into Rome (107), and subsequently elected 
censor (102). Two years later Marius con- 
certed with the tribune Saturninus a scheme 
to destroy the influence of Metellus, who was 
regarded as the foremost leader of the aristo- 
cratic party. Saturninus moved and carried 
through an agrarian law, with an additional 


enactment requiring the senators to take an ~ 


oath of fidelity to the same, under penalty of 
being expelled the senate. Metellus remained 
faithful to his convictions, suffering with calm 
resignation not only expulsion from the senate, 
but banishment from Rome. He retired to 
Rhodes, whence he was recalled in the follow- 
ing year. His orations are praised by Cicero, 
and were still admired in the time of the An- 
tonines. VI. Quintus Cecilius Metellus Pius, son 
of the preceding, received his surname from 
his filial efforts to bring about the recall of 
his father from exile. He commanded in the 


social war, tried in vain to save Rome from — 


Marius and Cinna in 87, crossed over to Africa, 
and subsequently fought against the Marian 
party in Umbria, Cisalpine Gaul, and Spain, 
where his efforts proved insufficient against 
Sertorius. He was consul with Sulla in 80, 
and died while pontifex maximus, being suc- 
ceeded by Julius Cesar (63). VII. Quintus 
Cxcilius Metellus Celer, great-grandson of Metel- 
lus Macedonicus, served as legate under Pom- 
pey in Asia, and as pretor in Italy in the 
year of Cicero’s consulship (63), with whom 
he actively codperated against Catiline and his 
followers. On the outbreak of the war, being 
intrusted with the command in Picenum and 
the Senonian district in upper Italy, he greatly 
contributed to the defeat of Catiline by block- 
ing up the passes of the Apennines, and thus 
compelling him to face the army of Antonius, 
Cicero’s colleague. In 62 he was sent as 
proconsul to Cisalpine Gaul, in 60 officiated 
as consul with Afranius (opposing the schemes 
of Pompey, who was better served by his col- 
league as well as by his younger brother Ne- 


~~ = 


METEMPSYCHOSIS 


pos), and died in the following year, it was 
suspected from poison administered by his 
profligate wife Clodia. VIIZ. Quintus Czcilius 
Meteilus Pius Scipio, the adopted son of Metellus 
Pius. (See Scrpro.) IX. Quintus Ceecilius Metel- 
lus Creticus, received his surname from the con- 
quest of Crete, whither he was sent as consul 
in 69, and whence he returned in 66, but was 
prevented by his political opporients from 
celebrating a triumph till after the defeat of 
Catiline, during whose agitation he had pre- 
vented an insurrection of the slaves in Apulia. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS (Gr. verd, denoting change, 
and wy, soul), the supposed transmigration 
of the soul from one body to another. Itisa 
feature in Brahmanism and Buddhism, which 
represent the migration after death into the 
body of a higher or lower animal as a reward 
of virtue or penalty for vice. The soul may 
even deteriorate into the vegetable or mineral 
world. According to Herodotus, the Egyp- 
tians were the first to entertain this doctrine. 
They believed that the soul was clothed succes- 
sively with the forms of all the animals that 


- live on the earth, and that it then returned 


after a cycle of 3,000 years into the body of 
a man, to recommence its eternal pilgrimage. 
The later Pythagoreans maintained that the 
soul has a life peculiar to itself, which it en- 


-joyed in common with demons or spirits be- 


fore its descent to the earth, and that there 
must be a degree of harmony between the 
faculties of the soul and the form which it 
assumes. Plato adopts and treats the doctrine 
in his ‘* Pheedo,”’ maintaining the preéxistence 
of the soul before it appears in man, of which 
condition it retains dim reminiscences; and 
after death, according to its peculiar qualities, 
it seeks and chooses another body. Every 
soul, according to him, returns to its original 
source in 10,000 years. After completing each 
life it spends 1,000 years in the infernal world 
in a condition corresponding to that life. The 
idea appears in the speculations of the Neo- 
Platonists, and in the cabala of the Jews. Por- 
phyry gave to it its most definite development 
in Neo-Platonic thought. The cabalists thought 
that the destiny of every soul was to return 
into mystical union with the divine substance, 
but that in order to do this it must first devel- 
op all the perfections of which it has the germ 
within itself. Origen, in his work ‘‘ On Prin- 
ciples,” is supposed to hold this doctrine, to 
find in it the final cause of creation, and to 
maintain that God gave existence to the world 
as a place of purification for those souls which 
had sinned in heaven; and this explains why 
the Deity introduced so many apparent imper- 
fections into his work. But Origen’s book ex- 
ists only in the Latin translation, De Principiis, 
by Rufinus, who is believed by modern critics 
to have altered the original, and to have inter- 
polated some of his own notions. This idea, 
attributed to Origen, was also held by the 
Gnostics and Manicheans, and by the druids, 
and is still believed by the Druses. 


METEOR 499 


METEOR (Gr. yeréwpoc, lofty, in the air), any 
phenomenon of short duration occurring in the 
atmosphere. Rain, snow, hail, fog, and dew 
are meteors distinguished as aqueous; the 
movements of the winds constitute the varie- 
ties of aérial meteors; luminous meteors are 
the singular phenomena displayed by the ac- 
tion of the aqueous particles diffused through 
the atmosphere upon the rays of light, such 
as fata Morgana, halo, mirage, rainbow, &c., 
and may also include the aurora borealis; and 
igneous meteors are such phenomena as light- 
ning, aérolites, shooting stars, &c. Most of 
these are described in this work under their 
own names.—In common language, the term 
meteor is applied only to those bodies which, 
as globes of fire or as shooting stars, are occa- 
sionally seen darting through the heavens at 
unknown distances from the earth, and in un- 
determined paths. Sometimes exploding and 
projecting upon the earth fragments of stone 
called meteoric iron, they are proved to be 
solid bodies in a state of intense heat, and are 
then known as aérolites or meteorolites. In 
ancient times these bodies were witnessed in 
different parts of the earth, and their appear- 
ance was chronicled as among the most won- 
derful natural exhibitions. The Chinese rec- 
ords of such phenomena extend back to 644 
B. O.; and from the 7th century B.C. to A. 
D. 833, 16 falls of aérolites are recorded in 
the astronomical annals of the Chinese. By 
the Greeks and Romans in the same period 
accounts are preserved of only four such falls. 
Humboldt says that it is remarkable that the 
Ionian school, in accordance with the present 
opinion, early assumed the. cosmical origin of 
meteoric stones. Anaxagoras of Clazomens 
held that the meteors are masses torn away 
from the earth by the violence of the rotation ; 
and that between the earth and the moon 
there revolve other dark bodies, which can 
produce eclipses of the moon. Diogenes of 
Apollonia, as recorded by Stobeeus, also taught 
that dark masses of stone move with the vis- 
ible stars and remain unseen by us. Plutarch 
in the life of Lysander (cap. xii.) expressly 
declares that falling stars “are really heavenly 
bodies, which from some relaxation of the 
rapidity of their motion, or by some irregular 
concussion, are loosened and fall, not so much 
upon the habitable part of the globe as into 
the ocean,’ which is the reason that their sub- 
stance is seldom seen.” The nature and move- 
ments of the meteoric bodies which fall upon 
the earth have already been considered under 
AfirorirE. But some of the most extraordi- 
nary meteoric displays, of the nature of fire 
balls or bolides, and of shooting stars, unac- 
companied by falls of stone, may properly be 
noticed in this place. The bolis is the fiery 
body from which aérolites are precipitated 
upon the earth; but many such bodies pass 
across the heavens, and sometimes explode and 
disappear, leaving behind no vestiges of their 


| solid materials. They appear singly at irreg- 


430 


ular periods, and move with great rapidity 
across the sky, exhibiting sometimes a dazzling 
brilliancy, greater than that of the sun at 
noonday, as is remarked by Humboldt of one 
seen at Popayan in 1788. A luminous train 
follows.them, and their path has been known 
to remain brilliant for several minutes after 
they have disappeared. Admiral Krusenstern, 
indeed, in his ‘‘ Voyage,” describes a fire ball 
the train of which shone for an hour after the 
body had disappeared, scarcely moving during 
this time. They send forth vivid scintillations 
and present various bright colors, and the 
same meteor is differently described as seen 
from different places. Often they divide into 
two or more bodies which move along togeth- 
er, and sometimes they explode with a report 
like heavy thunder. They are of various ap- 
parent sizes, occasionally exceeding that of the 
moon. On Feb. 6, 1818, one was seen in Eng- 
land about 2 P. M. descending vertically and 
shining with a light equal to that of the sun. 
Dr. E. D. Clarke, who described this in the 
‘¢ Annals of Philosophy,” vol. xi., p. 273, was of 
opinion that meteorolites fell from this body; 
and in Lincolnshire it was reported that a hiss- 
ing noise accompanied it, and a trembling of 
the earth was felt like the shock of an earth- 
quake. The records of fire balls seen in the 
evening are very numerous. They appear at 
no particular season, and are limited to no par- 
ticular portions of the earth, though most of 
the observations have been recorded in Europe. 
In 1623 one was seen over Germany, and de- 
scribed by Kepler. In 1676 one passed over 
Italy from the direction of Dalmatia about two 
hours after sunset, and disappeared toward 
Corsica. At Leghorn it was heard to explode, 
and fragments from it fell into the sea. Its 
height was estimated by Montanari at 88 m. 
Halley describes in the “ Philosophical Trans- 
actions,” No. 360, a meteor of extraordinary 
brilliancy which appeared over England in 1719 
about 8 P.M. It suddenly illuminated the 
streets of London, causing the stars to disap- 
pear, and the moon, which before was shining 
brightly, to be hardly visible. The eye directed 
toward it could scarcely bear its brilliancy. It 
moved like a falling star at a height estimated 
at 60 to 70 m., and with a velocity of 300 to 
350 m.in a minute; through Devon and Corn- 
wall and on the opposite coast of Brittany a 
loud explosion was heard proceeding from it. 
On Aug. 18, 1783, at 9 P. M., another very 
remarkable meteor of this character was seen 
over a large part of Europe from the north of 
Ireland to Rome. It crossed the zenith at Edin- 
burgh, appearing single and well defined, of a 
greenish shade, and with a tail; but at Green- 
wich it had the appearance of two bright balls 
with other luminous bodies following it. Its 
height was estimated to be above the limits of 
the atmosphere, its speed more than 1,000 m. 
a minute, and its diameter more than a mile. 
Cavallo describes its bursting and the noise 
of the explosion, which was 10 minutes in 


METEOR 


reaching the earth. Bowditch describes, in the 
‘¢ Memoirs of the American Academy,” ameteor 
seen Novy. 21, 1819, at Danvers, Mass., and in 
Baltimore, Md., the diameter of which appeared 
to be half a mile. Its direction was 8. 44° W.., 
and its height, at first 38 m., was soon reduced 
to 22m. ‘Two minutes after its disappearance 
a rumbling noise was heard which lasted longer 
than a minute. On the evening of July 20, 
1860, about a quarter before 10 o’clock, a me- 
teor passed over the state of New York, from 
the west, being seen on Lake Erie, and soon 
afterward at Buffalo, Albany, New York city, 
New Haven, Newport, R. I., and New Bedford, 
Mass. At the south it was visible in the state 
of Delaware. By many observers it was at 
first supposed to be a display of rockets or of 
Roman candles; and all had the impression 
that its elevation was only a few hundred feet. 
From a vessel off Sandy Hook it appeared to 
fall into the sea at a short distance. First 
appearing as a single body, it was observed 
to separate into two balls, which kept along 
together, emitting sparks and what appeared 
to be flames. <A table of meteors and meteoric 
showers given in Izarn’s Lithologie astrono- 
mique includes one of iron in Lucania, 54 B. C.; 
one of mercury (!) in Italy, of unknown date; 
a fall of about 1,200 stones, one “of which 
weighed 160 Ibs. and another 60, at Padua in 
1510; sulphurous rains at Copenhagen in 1646 
and in the county of Mansfeld in 1658, and 
a shower of sulphur at Brunswick in October, 
1721; a shower of fire at Quesnoy, Jan. 4, 
1717; one of sand lasting 15 hours in the At- 
lantic, April 6, 1719; and extensive showers of 
stones at Aden, July 24, 1790, and in France, 
May 15, 1864. (See AérotitTe.)—Falling stars 
resembling small bolides are often seen on a 
clear night shooting at the rate of four or five 
an hour across the sky. These are termed 
“‘sporadic ” meteors, in contradistinction to 
the ‘‘ periodic,” which at certain periods ap- 
pear often in vast numbers like showers of fire. 
Displays of this kind are recorded as occur- 
ring in October, 902; Oct. 19, 1202; and Oct. 
21, 1866 (O. S.). Each time the stars are said 
to have been in motion all night, falling like 
locusts, and in numbers which no one could 
count. More modern occurrences of this phe- 
nomenon were observed on the night of Nov. 
9-10, 1787, in southern Germany; and after 
midnight of Nov. 12-18, 1799, as described by 
Humboldt and Bonpland, in Cumané. The 
same phenomenon was also observed as far 
south as the equator, and over North America, 
even to Labrador and Greenland, and on the 
other side of the Atlantic in Germany. From 
the bearing and course of the meteors at dif- 
ferent points, their elevation was computed 
to be 1,419 m. In 1818 meteoric displays of 
great brilliancy were seen on the same night 
of Nov. 12-13, in England, and again in 1822 
at Potsdam in Brandenburg. In some of the 
exhibitions about this period a deposit of dust 
was observed upon the surface of the water, 


METEOR 


on the buildings, and other objects. On the 
same night in 1831 and in 1832, the same phe- 
nomenon reappeared in Europe and America. 
But the year 1833 is memorable for the most 
magnificent display on record. This was on 
the same night of November also, and was 
visible over all the United States, and over a 
part of Mexico and the West India islands. 
Together with the smaller shooting stars, 
which fell like snow flakes and produced phos- 
phorescent lines along their course, there were 
intermingled large fire balls, which darted forth 
at intervals, describing in a few seconds an arc 
of 30° or 40°. These left behind luminous 
trains, which remained in view several min- 
utes, and sometimes half an hour or more. 
One of them seen in North Carolina appeared 
of larger size and greater brilliancy than the 
moon. Some of the luminous bodies were of ir- 
regular form, and remained stationary for a con- 
siderable time, emitting streams of light. <At 
Niagara the exhibition was especially brilliant, 
and probably no spectacle so terribly grand 
and sublime was ever before beheld by man as 
that of the firmament descending in fiery tor- 
rents over the dark and roaring cataract. It 
was observed that the lines of all the meteors 
if traced back converged in one quarter of the 
heavens, which was y Leonis Majoris; and this 
point accompanied the stars in their apparent 
motion westward, instead of moving with the 
earth toward the east. The source whence 
the meteors came was thus shown to be inde- 
pendent of the earth’s rotation and exterior to 
our atmosphere. As computed by Prof. Deni- 
son Olmsted of New Haven, it could not have 
been less than 2,238 m. from the earth. Three 
successive annual returns of this phenomenon 
on the same night led astronomers on both 
sides of the Atlantic in the following years to 
watch for its recurrence; and displays more 
or less brilliant, but not by any means equal to 
that of 1833, were witnessed in different places 
in Europe or America every year till and in- 
cluding 1889. They were again observed on 
the night of Nov. 12-13, 1841 and 1846, and 
again in 1866 and every following year till 1871 
inclusive. But it is not alone in November 
that periodic exhibitions of the fall of meteors 
have been observed. It is found that they often 
occur about the 10th or from the 9th to the 
14th of August; and Humboldt named other 
periods that are likely to prove of the same 
interest, as about the 22d to the 25th of April, 
between the 6th and 12th of December, the 
27th and 29th of November, and about the 
17th of July. He noticed the singular coinci- 
dence which different observers have remarked 
in the great brilliancy of the aurora borealis 
during the fall of the meteors. Prof. Olmsted 
early suggested that the meteors probably 
emanate from a nebulous body, which re- 
volves around the sun in an elliptical orbit, 
the aphelion of which meets the orbit of the 
earth at tbe times of the annual exhibitions. 
The nebular character is inferred from the 
549 VOL. x1.—28 


431 


fact that none of the meteors, though they fall 
toward the earth with prodigious velocity, 
ever reach it in a solid state, all being dissi- 
pated in the atmosphere, and no material sub- 
stance found to indicate their nature. Arago 
adopted a view similar to that of Olmsted. He 
suggests that the meteoric bodies may consti- 
tute a stream in the form of an annular zone, 
within which they pursue one common orbit; 
that there are several such streams, which 
intersect, each at its own period, the earth’s 
orbit; and that through each the myriads of 
small cosmical bodies are irregularly dispersed. 
But: the demonstration of the real orbits pur- 
sued by these bodies (at least in the case of 
the more remarkable periodical showers) be- 
longs to the years following the display of 
Noy. 18-14, 1866. Prof. Newton of Yale col- 
lege had predicted the recurrence of a great 
display of November meteors, such as had 
been seen in the years 1799 and 18838, for the 
year 1866; and he even announced as the 


probable hour of the display early morning in 


America. He was within a few hours of the 
truth, the display occurring during the early 
morning in Europe, and closing before morn- 
ing began in America. European astronomers 
noted the point in the heavens whence the 
meteors seemed to radiate, not far from the 
star y Leonis, as in 1833. Then followed an 
inquiry into the orbit of the meteors. Prof. 
Newton had indicated five orbits as capable 
of explaining the recurrence of great displays 
about thrice in a century. Of these the three 
most probable were: first, a year and 5), part; 
secondly, a year less ,4, part; and thirdly, 334 
years. Prof. Newton considered the last named 
period improbable, because it implied an orbit 
extending beyond the orbit of the distant plan- 
et Uranus. He therefore regarded a period of 
rather more or rather less than a year as prob- 
ably the true period of these meteors. But just 
at this time a remarkable discovery was made 
by Schiaparelli of Italy. Noticing that the 
comet II., 1862, passed the earth’s orbit nearly 
at the place she occupies on Aug. 10-11, he was 
Jed to inquire whether the path followed by 
the comet resembled that traversed by the 
August meteors, assuming that they have the 
same period of revolution as the comet (about 
124 years). He found the agreement so close 
as to leave no doubt of the existence of a real 
association between the August. meteors and 
the large comet of 1862. This will be seen 
from the following comparison : 


ELEMENTS. Comet of 1862./ August meteors, 
Longitude of perihelion........| 844° 41’ 848° 88’ 
Longitude of ascending node...| 137 2T 138 16 
Inclination teenies wnacaa sarees & 66 25 64 3 
Perihelion distance .......... 0-9626 0°9643 
POTIOAM ag ements e a saci es 128-14) | Ses ete 
Motion........................ Retrograde. | Retrograde. 


Astronomers therefore began to regard as not 
improbable the theory that the true period 
of the November meteors is about 33} years. 


432 METEOROLOGY 


Peters, Temple, Leverrier, and other astrono- 
mers calculated the path on this assumption, 
and then they inquired whether any known 
comet possesses a similar path. By a singular 
coincidence, a telescopic comet had been found 
that very year, 1866, which traversed an orbit 
so near to that obtained for the meteors as to 
leave no doubt of the identity of the two or- 
bits. The comparison is as follows: 


ELEMENTS. November Temple’s 
meteors. comet. 

Perihelion distance............- 0:9893 0°9765 
Recentricity: S22. Sore: Pee 0°9033 0°9054 
Semi-axis major............... 10:340 10°324 
Inciination(. sie, sa seserine ies 18° 3’ TO 18-1’ 
Longitude of descending node. . 51° 28’ 51° 26:1’ 
Perlod heey. cgutts aa els 83°25y. 83'176y. 
Motion ria): gic sugeom tate. Satis Retrograde. | Retrograde. 


But the matter was removed from the region 
of mere probability by the researches of Prof. 
Adams, the well known English astronomer. 
Analyzing the perturbative effects of the plan- 
ets upon the members of the November me- 
teor system, on the various assumptions point- 
ed out by Prof. Newton as mentioned above, 
he found that the actual changes taking place 
in the position of the meteors’ node (changes 
indicated by the gradual alteration of the date 
of the shower) imply an orbit extending so 
as to bring the meteors under the disturbing 
influence of the giant planets. Hence the re- 
currence of great displays thrice in a century 
can only be explained by the last assumption 
of Newton, assigning to the meteors a period 
of 3384 years or thereabouts. Adams selected 
a period of 334 years, and found the nodal 
changes satisfactorily accounted for. Since 
then the identity of another system, the mete- 
ors of Noy. 27-29, so far as their path is con- 
cerned, with the short-period comet called Bie- 
la’s, has been satisfactorily demonstrated, by 
the occurrence of a shower (predicted on that 
assumption) on Noy. 27, 1872. More than 100 
meteor systems are now recognized, not in all 
or in most cases by the periodic recurrence of 
great displays, but by the existence of distinct 
radiant points. Even 10 or 12 meteors only, 
seen on the same night, can be safely assigned 
to a single system, when they are all found to 
radiate from nearly the same point of the star 
sphere.—There is every reason to believe that 
meteoric astronomy is as yet only in its in- 
fancy, and that the combined study of meteor 
systems and comets will throw great light on 
many most interesting subjects of astronomi- 
cal research. Some of the researches of Prof. 
Kirkwood into the relations presented by com- 
ets seem very promising in this respect. 
METEOROLOGY (Gr. peréwpoc, lofty, and A6- 
yo¢, discourse), the description and explana- 
tion of the phenomena peculiar to the atmos- 
phere of the earth. On the atmosphere and 
its changes depend the development of life, 
both vegetable and animal, the currents and 
the navigation of the ocean, and even the 


great changes that have been wrought in geo- 
logical ages by superficial disintegration and 
erosion. The consideration of these and kin- 
dred subjects gives rise to branches of science 
that may be considered as applications of me- 
teorology proper, which should be restricted 
to the simple consideration of the atmospheric 
phenomena themselves, and the laws which pro- 
duce them. Asa science of observation, gener- 
alization, and induction, our present knowledge 
of meteorology dates from Aristotle; but as 
a deductive science, and one deserving to be 
ranked with astronomy, chemistry, and phys- 
ics, its history is confined to the past 25 years. 
In this article we shall present in brief some 
of the more important general statistics, thus 


| representing the results of the observations by 


which deductive theories must be tested, and 
shall conclude with a few words on the latter. 
—InpvctivE Merrorotoey. Our review of 
the inductive science will be divided into sec- 
tions on the constitution, the temperature, the 
movement, the moisture, and the pressure of 
the atmosphere, in which arrangement we fol- 
low the very valuable treatise of Schmid.—1. 
Constitution and Properties of Air. To Priest- 
ley and Scheele (1774) we are indebted for our 
first knowledge of the chemical constitution of 
the atmosphere as a mixture of oxygen and 
nitrogen; to these constituents Bergman in 
the same year added carbonic acid gas as the 
third component; of the other gases that are 
present in very small quantities, excepting the 
vapor of water, it is not necessary to make 
further mention. The proportions by weight 
of the previously mentioned gases in the air 
over the Atlantic ocean are very nearly as 
follows: nitrogen, 77 per cent.; oxygen, 23 
per cent.; carbonic acid gas, 4, of 1 per cent. 
The weight of one litre (61°027 cubic inches) 
of air, at 32° F., and a barometric pressure 
of 29°9 inches, is 1293187 grammes (19°9569 
grains), as determined by Regnault (1847). A 
unit’s volume of dry air at the temperature of 
32°, if free to expand, increases to 1°3665 on 
being heated to the temperature of 212°. The 
increased pressure experienced on heating from 
32° to 212° a volume of dry air confined within 
the same space is in the ratio of 1 to 1°36706. 
The specific heat of air is usually assumed as 
unity, and the increase of temperature due to a 
sudden condensation of any portion of it into a 
smaller volume is about 10° for a diminution in 
volume of 1,, assuming that the air originally 
is at a temperature of 32° and a pressure of 
30 inches. The coefficient of viscosity of air 
is, according to Maxwell (1872), in British mea- 
sures, 0°0825 at temperature 32°. The altitude 
and figure of the atmosphere are terms to 
which, strictly speaking, no exact definition can 
be given, since it is not yet certain that the rare- 
fied gases in its upper portion do not merge by 
insensible degrees in the ether of interstellar 
space. On the other hand, the only portions 
of the atmosphere that have any important 
bearing upon meteorological phenomena are 


a 


-_ 


METEOROLOGY 433 


those below which the phenomena of twilight, 
the aurora, and shooting stars take place, and 
these are generally confined to an altitude less 
than 100 m. above the earth’s surface. At an 
altitude of 12 m. the air has a density one 
tenth of that which it has at the surface of 
the earth; that is, at that altitude the average 
barometric pressure would be three inches, 
and it is not likely that any changes take 
place at this height that are appreciable at 
the surface of the earth. The elevations of 
the mountains on the earth’s surface bear a 
very appreciable ratio to the altitudes of the 
cloud-bearing and storm-producing strata of 
the air; in fact, these latter nearly all lie far 
below the summits of the highest ranges; and, 
as a consequence, the distribution of the ele- 
vated portions of the continents is a very im- 
portant factor in meteorology. Of equal or 
even more importance is the relative position 
of the land and oceans. Not only is the ocean 
the principal source of the moisture in the 
atmosphere, but its influence is felt in a very 
different way. The power of absorbing and 
radiating solar heat is very great for all vegeta- 
ble structures, such as the forests and prairies 
present; solid earth and rocks possess these 
properties in a far less degree, and even lower 
than these in the scale must be placed the 
ocean water. On the other hand, the specific 
heat of the earth is so much less than that of 
water, that the same amount of heat received 
from the sun upon each will affect the temper- 
ature of the air over the land nearly twice as 
much as that over the ocean.—2. Temperature. 
Atmospheric temperatures are almost uniform- 
ly measured by means of the mercurial or the 
spirit thermometers, the air thermometers be- 
ing at present employed only in researches of 
extreme delicacy. (See THermomerer.) The 
heat found within our atmosphere may be con- 
sidered as coming from six sources: 1, that 
peculiar to the interior of the earth; 2, that 
received from the stars; 3, that received from 
the moon ; 4, that received from shooting stars; 
5, that produced by friction of tides, winds, 
&c.; 6, that received from the sun; all which 
should be added ‘to that originally possessed 
by the atmosphere. Considering the original 
heat as tending continually to be radiated and 
lost in space, the true meteorological problem 
is to determine how this loss is made up from 
the six sources just enumerated. 1. That the 
interior of the earth is in general warmer than 
the surface is shown by observations of tem- 


perature in deep springs, wells of water, and 


mines, and by the phenomena of volcanoes and 
geysers, and is very plausibly demonstrated by 
all seismological theories. (See EARTHQUAKE.) 
As an average for the whole earth, and espe- 
cially applicable to the temperate zone, the 
temperature at a depth of 80 to 100 ft. is con- 
stant, showing that at this point we reach the 
surface of equilibrium between the conduction 
of heat from the interior outward, and the 
effect of the radiation from the earth’s sur- 


face. The only known exception to this rule 
is found in the northern portion of Siberia, 
where at a depth of 400 ft. the temperature 
is still 10° below the freezing point. On ac- 
count of the slow conducting power of the 
materials of the earth, the superficial layer of 
80 ft. in thickness should be viewed by the 
meteorologist not as a medium through which 
any important part of the interior heat of the 
earth is conducted to the atmosphere, but rath- 
er as a storehouse of the solar heat that enters 
into the ground, and thus equalizes the daily 
and annual changes of temperature. Never- 
theless, the quantity of heat conveyed into the 
atmosphere by the circulation of air within 
mines, by hot springs, and by volcanoes, is 
perhaps barely appreciable, and is for the en- 
tire globe possibly equivalent to an elevation 
of =1,° F. in the temperature of the entire at- 
mosphere. 2. Since the earth is in the cen- 
tre of a celestial vault thickly studded with 
stars, each of which radiates heat in all di- 
rections, its tendency is to assume a tempera- 
ture higher than that which prevails through- 
out the interstellar spaces; the latter being 
estimated by Pouillet at about —222° F., while 
the temperature of the earth due to the stellar 
heat would be —128° F. 3. The heat radiated 
from the moon to the earth, though exceeding- 
ly small, has been measured by Lord Rosse 
(‘‘ Philosophical Transactions,” 1878). The 
greater part of this heat is absorbed by the 
aqueous vapor of the atmosphere before it can 
reach the earth’s surface. ‘The principal effect 
of the lunar heat is therefore probably ex- 
erted in warming the upper layers of air, and 
in dissipating the clouds. The surface of the 
moon as heated by the sun attains to its max- 
imum temperature a few days after the full 
moon, at which time its influence on the clouds 
and on the rainfall is probably barely appre- 
ciable at stations favorably situated, though 
Klein (1868) and Wierzbicki (1878) have shown 
it to be inappreciable in the interior of Europe. 
4. The numerous shooting stars that daily en- 
ter the earth’s atmosphere bring into it an ap- 
preciable quantity of heat, as is evident by their 
own combustion and dissipation; but as yet no 
accurate knowledge on this point is available. 
This heat is a simple case of the conversion of 
force into heat, and its amount could be calcu- 
lated had we any positive information as to 
the mass of the meteors. 5. A small fraction 
of the energy of the earth’s daily rotation is 
by friction converted into heat, which passes 
from the ocean to the atmosphere and exerts 
a slight warming influence. For the further 
consideration of this obscure subject, see Fer- 
rel, ‘“‘ Tidal Researches”? (Washington, 1874). 
6. Solar radiation produces on the earth both 
chemical and optical as well as thermal effects. 
This is subject to very slight fluctuations, con- 
nected in some unknown way with the varia- 
tions of the solar spots; the freqnency and ex- 
tent of the latter vary in a period of 114 years, 
and possibly also in a period of 55 or 56 years. 


434 METEOROLOGY 


Attempts have been made to demonstrate other 
periods, of which perhaps the only one whose 
existence is plausible appears to agree with 
the time of rotation of the sun upon its axis. 
We are therefore justified in considering the 
intrinsic radiation from the sun as very approx- 
imately constant, and the diurnal and annual 
variations of terrestrial temperature depend 
upon the position of the station on the earth’s 
surface, and the position of the earth’s axis of 
rotation in reference to the annual orbit de- 
scribed by the earth about the sun. The quan- 
tity of heat received by any surface varies 
directly as the time of exposure and as the 
sine of the sun’s altitude, and inversely as the 
square of the sun’s distance. According to 


Lambert (1770) and Meech (1855), the sun’s’ 


daily intensity is proportional to the cosine of 
the latitude. At either pole the intensity in 
midsummer is one fourth greater than on the 
equator ; this arises from the fact that daylight 
on the equator lasts but 12 hours, while at the 
pole the sun shines throughout the whole 24 
hours. In general, from May 10 to Aug. 3 the 
sun’s vertical intensity over the north pole is 
greater than upon the equator. In the tem- 
perate zone the temperature of the air attains 
its maximum about one month after the maxi- 
mum of the sun’s intensity; in this interval 
therefore the earth must receive during the day 
more heat than it loses by radiation at night. 
The average annual intensity upon the whole 
earth’s surface from pole to pole is 299 ther- 
mal days, the intensity of each of which units 
equals that of the mean equatorial day. The 
annual intensity of solar rays during 100,000 
years, past or future, can never vary (owing 
to the varying eccentricity of the earth’s orbit) 
more than the equivalent of five hours of 
average sunshine in ayear. These conclusions 
refer to the whole earth’s surface collectively. 
On the other hand, the annual intensity at the 
different latitudes on the earth varies much 
more considerably, and the extreme values of 
diurnal intensity may vary by as much as one 
ninth of the present value. It seems therefore 
that under the existing conditions of physical 
astronomy the intensity of solar heat upon the 
earth can never have been materially different 
from its present value.—In these rules we have 
considered only the heat received at the outer 
surface of the atmosphere from the sun, neg- 
lecting the absorption of heat by the earth’s 
atmosphere and the radiation of heat back 
into space, two circumstances that materially 
affect actual temperatures. The absorption of 
heat in its passage through the atmosphere is 
directly found approximately by observations 
made with the pyrheliometer of Pouillet (Pog- 
- gendorff’s Annalen, xlv.), or the actinometer 
of Herschel (1825), which instruments replace 
the ruder contrivances of earlier days, such as 
Leslie’s photometer (1797), and De Saussure’s 
helio-thermometer (1787). The only self-re- 
cording apparatus that indicates the power of 
the direct rays of the sun at present in use is 


the so-called black-bulb-in-vacuum or solar- 
radiation thermometer of Negretti and Zam- 
bra. Observations with Pouillet’s pyrheliom- 
eter show that the absorption of solar heat by 


the atmosphere follows sensibly the same law 


as the absorption of solar light, and amounts 
for the temperate zone to from 20 to 40 per 
cent. when the rays penetrate vertically down- 
ward. According to the investigations of 
Melloni, Tyndall, Magnus, and others, aqueous 
vapor is almost opaque to the invisible heat 
rays belonging to the red end ‘of the spectrum, 
and accordingly an increase in the absorp- 
tion of the direct solar rays occurs where an in- 
creased amount of moisture is present in the air. 
The absorption of solar heat by the material 
composing the earth’s surface varies of course 
with every change in the constitution or mo- 
lecular condition of the latter. Dry and sandy 
or rocky soils become heated to a higher tem- 
perature than the moister portions of the earth, 
while the ocean experiences the least varia- 
tion of temperature. But perhaps the most 
important property of the earth’s surface con- 
sists in this, that the rays which are not ab- 
sorbed by it, and which are consequently ra- 
diated back through the atmosphere, have 
been degraded to the red end of the spectrum ; 
these are therefore very largely absorbed by 
the aqueous vapor in the lowest portions of 
the atmosphere, from 40 to 90 per cent., ac- 
cording to the dryness of the air, being re- 
tained within one or two miles of the earth’s 
surface. As a consequence of this absorp- 
tion, the temperature of the air at the surface 
rises most rapidly during the day at places 
covered by a layer of clear moist air, even 
though such layer be at a considerable altitude 
above the station, without reaching down to 
it; and on the other hand, the temperature 
diminishes most rapidly at night when a clear 
atmosphere, holding but little moisture, exists 
over the station. The conduction and convec- 
tion into the interior of the earth and ocean 
of the solar heat that falls upon its surface, 
produces such a storing up of heat as to sensi- 
bly ameliorate the sudden changes that would 
otherwise occur, and to delay the periodical 
daily and annual maxima and minima of atmos- 
pheric temperature. The temperature of the 
soil has been measured by means of thermom- 
eters whose bulbs are, as was first suggested by 
Quetelet, permanently imbedded therein; and 
the general laws governing the distribution of 
temperature in the interior of the earth were 
mathematically investigated by Fourier (1812) 
and Poisson (1835). The range of the varia- 
tions of temperature diminishes rapidly as we 
descend into the soil, forming an inverse geo- 
metrical series when the depths form an arith- 
metical series; again, the durations of corre- 
sponding periodical changes in temperature at 
and below the surface of the ground increase at 
any depth in proportion to the square root of 
the durations of the surface periods. Daily 
variations of temperature are perceptible at a 


+ a al 


METEOROLOGY 435 


depth of 8 ft., while annual variations are barely 
observable at a depth of 80 ft. The effect of the 
sun’s heat upon the water of the ocean differs 
in some important respects from its effect on 
the continents: first, in that a large percentage 
of heat is rendered latent in evaporating the 
surface water of the ocean; secondly, in that 
the specific heat is much larger for water than 
for dry earth; and finally, in that the mobility 
of the water permits of a very extensive sys- 
tem of convection. According to the observa- 
tions of Lenz (1829), Carpenter (1870), Thom- 
son:(1874), &c., the average temperature of 
the ocean at depths greater than 500 ft. is that 
of the maximum density of water at the pres- 
sure to which it is subjected. The tempera- 
ture of a layer a few inches in thickness on 
the immediate surface of the water can, when 
the ocean is very still, be raised as high as 90° 
F.; but in the general disturbed condition of 
the water its surface temperature is much be- 
low that of the adjacent stratum of air. Asa 
secondary effect of the influence of the ocean, 
must be noted the fact that the heat rendered 
latent in the evaporation of its surface water 
in great part returns to the atmosphere when 
that vapor is condensed to cloud and rain.— 
Having thus indicated the original sources of 
atmospheric temperature, we come to the con- 
sideration of that subject itself. In order that 
the temperatures measured in different portions 
of the world may be comparable among them- 
selves, it is necessary that uniformity should 
be secured in the exposure of the thermome- 
ter to such influences as can affect its indica- 
tions. As a general rule, in ascertaining the 
temperature of the lowest stratum of air, the 
thermometer should be elevated not less than 
5 nor more than 50 ft. above the earth’s sur- 
face, and should be surrounded on all sides, at 
a distance of from 1 to 5 ft., by a light double 
latticework, or equivalent structure, which can 
itself rapidly follow the varying temperature 
of the air, and prevent all radiation of heat 


except that which takes place between the 


thermometer and the interior of the lattice- 
work. But such a thermometer cage is scarce- 
ly practicable in the investigations of the tem- 
perature of the upper strata, so far as they can 
be reached by aéronauts, and numerous but 
unsatisfactory studies have been made into the 
relations between the indications of protected 
and unprotected thermometers. Some knowl- 
edge as to the temperature of the upper strata 
is given by the study of the refraction by the 
atmosphere of the rays of light which reach us 
from the celestial bodies. The most important 
features of atmospheric temperature are its va- 
riation with the altitude, its diurnal variation, 
its annual variation, and its geographical dis- 
tribution. On the three latter points the mass 
of information can best be presented by graphic 
methods, as in the accompanying diagrams. 
But the irregularities of the temperatures at 
various altitudes may be better seen by the 
study of the following table: 


Diminution of Temperature with increasing Altitude, 
as shown by Observations in Balloons, 


gs | 5 
m | ds | “4 
a Wl a a ° Glaisher and Coxwell. 
e | S# | eo 
E 
< 1804, | 1852, 1862, 1862, | 1863, 
Sept. 16)Nov.10) July 17. Sept. 5. April 18. 
Feet. Asc. |Desc.} Asc. | Desc. Asc. | Desc. 
0,000 | 874°) 50°0°) 59°0°)....] 59°59)... 61°0°| 57°0° 
1.000.).).... 46°2 |...... BGO lee... . (00 -ale eee 
9,000|...... rf a RN a RA EA ae 540°] 57°0 |...... 
8,000 |...... OB beset el cenieee yes 53°57 /°51* 071.5. 
4,000 y.e283 86°5 | 45°0 |....| 45°0 |...... re ae ete 
5,000 |...... a eee .| 41°70 | 49°2 | 44-2 |o0.... 
6,000)) rae 84°9 | 35°8 8675) |)4555.7 40¢1 | once. 
LOUD eae oe ore Ba OTN valeciee eee On LOO Socom sees 
8,000 |...... 82°4 | 82°5 |..../...... 40:0, baa eee 
CHOU Bele de HSL eraotebecrite al wilt ato seem lias ereiaac ie setts 
10,000 | 54°4 | 28°6 | 26°0 [87°4) 82-0 | 81°5 | 82:0 | 25°0 
LOCO O2" 001 2D" Oe. peice Mule | G3 a V2 cara 0 
12,000 | 47°5 | 22-1 | 26°0 |84°2)...... ZO°DMP OL OM eee eee 
1350001550" pelit-8 |-29-0 5242.) 26°70 | 24°54) 23°0) 10.2.8. 
14,000 | 48°8 | 15°8 |...... silhete forever 28°0 | 21°0 | 16°5 
LOCO CAT Goes? oo Olt eral LS Olina ara. 20°0 | 17°0 
16,000} 48°8 | 12°9 | 81:0 |29°7| 16°5 | 18-0 | 17°5 | 16°0 
PEOVO ISG [Bmlen Oa el OO20 Aik specie. Mery elie cies ¢.< TZ cOMie ena. 
18,000 | 36-9 OTE iste tere Perea As OU trealtoie ee siesta estveters 
TROOONTS0 cI ge 228 [60 Olio) LO" Ol Ieee. 1cOP ieee 
200029 2a tee ele Saleem OLO de One107 0 laren. 
ZL OOO 28s8ae 652 (024 °5) alll OF ene a 13°0 | 14°5 
PANTO ORE) WV EE Te TIA ze clay i TESTE aaa ae 
28,000} 14°5 | 10°8 |...... See ie ee 2°0 | 12°5 | 12°5 
PE AOU Se Gr oe pace an 1630 120 070 eran. 12°0 | 12°0 
VAAN ON RASH ou laanaae 16°0 j19°0|—2°0 |—2°0 |......]...... 
26,000! )-. sts, <tes[isereies + LOO siete O° Cuivre ceteris. 
DG OOO. Beers ae tes Meat oer SEM SI Tabet pores GoeSOr 


The decrease of temperature with increase of 
elevation has apparently a diurnal and an an- 
nual change, and 30 ascensions in 1868 showed 
that it may very probably often during the 
night be reversed into an increase instead 
of decrease, at least for the lowest 2,000 ft. 
Above the clouds the temperature decreases 
very steadily. As an average of all of his 
midday ascensions, Glaisher says that the 
diminution in the first 1,000 ft. was 4°5° with 
a cloudy sky, and 6°2° with a clear sky. In an 
ascent made on April 6, 1864, remarkable vari- 
ations were met with, such that at 10,000 ft. the 
thermometer registered the same as on the 
earth’s surface; but on this occasion clouds 
and fogs alternated up to the highest point at- 
tained by the balloon.—Diagram No. I. shows 
the diurnal variations of temperature for Jan- 
uary and July, as deduced from observations 
continued through several years.at stations in 
different geographical positions. In this table 
the average daily temperature of the month 
is assumed as the zero line.. The annual vari- 
ations for a few representative stations are 
shown graphically in diagram No. I., where 
even the minuter features of the yearly changes 
are developed by the use of Dove’s five-day 
means. It will be noted that the maximum 
temperature occurs at Madras at the time of 
the solstice, while at stations further north it 
occurs two to five weeks later. Diagrams No. 
III. and IV. give the average distribution of 
mean temperatures over the surface of the earth 
as shown by means of the isothermal lines 
for January and July respectively, as published 


436 METEOROLOGY 


SRN ea DL 

Pepe eet 

Pd Maa aM IARI SL 

trp total rs olan eT 


id 2 La 
SORSRRSRREP 7 2aR Ne - 
Ba AE ISN Sia 


EREe CaS 
ah abeted +44 ical 2S SS Pe Se: 


ic Bek | 
Ssinssestaseatosestontee 


fel Poet ay N 
COOTER 
Ei GG A a TF 
PW A dL 
pobichedtahelael Pe Meals 
MORMMMAPI eh URI go 
Hips 20 BF a O69 8 Ss 
$0 al Ra Se 
Bi 0 TO EO 
REN VES PG BE YN OP) 97 PP 
fel hal gh baslalalestebary iuleaiated gated he ati 
RCP REE LLLP Peseta siteiers tt 
CECE eer Se 
Ss GE CTS 
HMMA Ane NUT ME BEM ine 
co halt ebb ese 


Dotted lines for January; full lines for July. 


Diagram 1.—Diurnal Variation of Temperature. 


by the British admiralty in 1872. These lines 
depend on the immense mass of observations 
collected by that board, and by the labors of 
Dove, Maury, Buchan, and many others. The 


comparison of the isothermals for January and 
July shows at a glance the results of the com- 
bined influence of the solar altitude, the dis- 
tribution of continents, plateaus, oceans, &e. 

The more detailed analysis and comparison of 
these temperatures belongs to the subject of 
climatology. So far as our observations ex- 
tend, they show that the annual mean temper- 
atures of the points having the same latitude 
are about 24° higher in the northern than in 
the southern hemisphere. The average tem- 
perature of the whole earth, according to Dove, 
is greater in July than in J anuary by about 8° 

F., although in July the earth is further from 
the sun than in January, in the ratio of 93 to 
90. Besides the preceding normal and peri- 
odical fluctuations of temperature, as deduced 
from the average of many observations, the 
temperature of the air is subject to large non- 
periodic variations, which disturbances, prop- 
erly so called, are considered in connection 
with Storms, under that title. The more im- 
portant of these non-periodic variations ac- 
company the areas of moist and dry air, as 
these successively flow over the earth’s surface. 
These disturbances in the periodical variation 
of temperature have their origin in terrestrial 
influences, and are the secondary reaction of 
the sun’s rays themselves.—3. Winds and Cur- 
rents. If we neglect the slight amount of heat 
received from other sources, we may in gen- 
eral say that the winds are due to the combined 
influences of the rotation of the earth on its 
axis and the disturbances of the air, caused 
either by the introduction and subsequent con- 
densation of its vapor, or simply by the warm- 
ing of the lower strata of the atmosphere by 
the sun. The movement of the air is there- 
fore a question of mechanics, capable of solu- 
tion in just so far as mathematical analysis is 
able to fully take into account the combined 
influence of these primary forces, and the laws 
of pneumatics, friction, &c. This subject has 
been inductively investigated by Coftin, Bu- 
chan, Muhry, and Hann. The observations of 
the lower strata of the air are best obtained, 
as regards the directions of movement, by the 
self-recording wind vane, and as regards their 
velocity, by the self-recording anemometers. 
Apparatus by which these two anemometric 
elements are recorded continuously has in some 
form or other been adopted during the past 
few years by the government observers at a 
large number of stations throughout the world. 
The measurement of the pressure exerted 
against a flat surface by the wind is sometimes 
substituted for the direct measurement of the 
wind’s velocity; but these two elements are 
only with difficulty and approximately to be 
compared between themselves. When obser- 
vers have no means of measuring force or ve- 
locity, an empirical scale is adopted, two forms 
of which are in common use, that of Admiral 
Beaufort and that of the Smithsonian institu- 
tion; these are given in the following table. 
Owing to the great differences in the estimates 


a 


437 


METEOROLOGY 


ai 
RR 
Hh 
it 

g 
d. 
Sy 
i 
ay 

x 
ip 


July 


May 
tt 21 31 4 2030 W 230 292 09 7 DO 8 


June 


April 


February Marck 
19 


® 
8 
. 
ge 


.—Annual Peers of ee ay 


Drageam II 


. 


S 


‘ek 
ae ie 
a 


a 


yu 


ia 


of Equal Temperature for January. 


We, 
Ht 


| ae 


leg le & 
a 
me 

i | 
ma 
a 


Diagram III] —Isotherms or Lines 


| 


I 


oH ae 


N 


Diacgam LY,.—Isotherms or Lines of Sra atcsuin for July, 


438 


of wind force, it is difficult to convert these 
empirical scales into actual wind velocities, 


METEOROLOGY 


and they should be discarded whenever a good 
anemometer is available. 


Empirical Scale of Winds. 


BEAUFORT SCALE. SMITHSONIAN SOALE. 
Number. Designation. Description. Number. Designation. 
QO ieigidess Calm. dtc Scar eeaell IMsrenate eh ae eile o's lelsials cc's. ane ooisislomiain sie ee per ements iets eje ts ss Calm. 
Lin asec Light/air: s 7. pe Just sufficient to make steerage way. ih Sorenee Very light breeze. 
Died sheets Light breeze..../ ) With which a ship with all) 1 to 2 knots. Paes ie Eur Gentle breeze. 
Os ayerste caret Gentle breeze... sails set would go in smooth} 8to4 *“ Oe hingoe Eee Fresh wind. 
OS Cmte Moderate breeze SVAULOL evel cic tere ee stoaictarnle nie ichere 0 t0;.G sae i arsiere fais Strong wind. 
Duss Fresh breeze.... royals, &c. Shs asergeeee High wind. 
ikea Baets Strong breeze... Tahieh she single reefs and topgallant sails.| 6......... Gale. 
Cade aegis Moderate gale... ati se ; double reefs and jib, &c. (Cie Strong gale. 
2 ye eon Fresh gale...... SE sone SAT. triple reefs, &c. See vies « Violent gale. 
Dos eee Strong gale..... close reefs and ety. Diete salsc ss Hurricane. 
In which she could just bear close-reefed main- : ‘ 
LO: dat ireris Whole gale...... | topsail, and reefed resetl t 1d sey wae Most violent hurricane. 
Die mamogeay BLOEM vcs sis sess Under storm staysails or trysails. 
LZ ioe nes Hurricane’... -..: Under bare poles. 


The movements of the upper currents of the 
atmosphere have been observed by means of 
the clouds, balloons, the transfer of volcanic 
ashes, and the occasional luminous trains that 
are left in the wake of bright meteors. These 
latter, being from 10 to 100 m. above the 
earth’s surface, have given us the only knowl- 
edge we have attained with respect to the cur- 
rents at so great an elevation. With regard to 
the ascending and descending: currents of air, 
no satisfactory method of observation has yet 
been put into execution, though such seems 
practicable by an aéronaut. So far as our 
present information justifies an opinion, it 
seems probable that at an altitude of above 
10 m. the atmospheric currents are subject 
to variations as large, though perhaps not as 
sudden, as are the winds at the surface. In 
the lower portion of the atmosphere it is not 


uncommon to find two or three currents of air, 
from as many different directions, superim- 
posed upon each other. (See Strorms.)—The 
general phenomena of the winds at the surface 
of the earth may be considered in reference to 
their diurnal and annual variations, and their 
geographical distribution. The daily period in 
the strength and velocity of the wind is due 
in great part to the unequal heating of the 
different portions of the land, and especially 
to the over-heating of the land as compared 
with the sea. This period is most strikingly 
manifested at the stations on the immediate 
coasts of continents, and on the borders be- 
tween mountainous countries and plains. In 
the latter case the elevated regions of the earth 
are cooled by nightly radiation, and the cold 
layers of dry air in contact therewith subse- 
quently flow down and slip under the warmer 


NORTH. 


Diagram V.—Diurnal Change in the Direction of the Wind at Wallingford, Conn. 


and moister air of the lower lands. An excel- 
lent instance of the mutual influence of ocean 
and continents on the daily variations of the 
wind is shown in the accompanying diagram, 


V., which gives the direction of the winds 
each hour of the day, for the months of Janu- 
ary, May, and July, at Wallingford, near New 
Haven, Conn., as published by F. E. Loomis 


439 


METEOROLOGY 


is as conspicuous 


direction. 


ing winds are souther- 


A daily period in the force 


with which the wind blows 


the early morning winds are northerly (land’ 
while the even 
as the periodicity in its 


breezes), 
ly (sea breezes). 


the 


respective monthly lines show by the changes 


? 


In this figure the arrows show the 


1871. 
direction toward which the wind moves; 


In 


This is well 


70 


8 


Q_2 


Noon -————_ PIE 
4 O 


sre 
& 70 


——— AM 
2 4 


o 


in 


from the observations of Bache at Philadel- 
phia.—The annual variations of the wind may 
be traced back to the same ultimate cause, 
namely, the varying influence of the unequally 


exemplified in diagram VI., from Loomis, 
showing the average pressure of the wind 

pounds per square foot for each hour, derived 
heated portions of the continents and oceans. 
The most remarkable annual variations in the 


Drageam VI.—Diurnal Variations in Force of Wind at 
Philadelphia. 


known as monsoons, in the 
The most remarkable perma- 


in fact, that in May | nent or nearly permanent winds are the trade 


0) 
mM 
o ° 
Sé 
o 
Sa) 
so 
35 
Arcs 
Wis! ra 
aren 
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to barb 
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Shaded circles indicate regions of numerous calms. 


ry, and March 


Winds for January, February 


ig 
oS 


DracRamM VII.—Isobars and Prevailin 


ane 


ae 
el 
: a 


i, 


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bs 


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Shaded circles indicate regions of numerous calms, 


Draceam VIII.—Isobars and Prevailing Winds for July, August, and September. 


440 METEOROLOGY 


winds, which flow from the northeast and 
southeast, in the northern and southern hemi- 
spheres respectively, toward the equator, and 
include between them a narrow belt of equa- 
torial calms. The latter has a breadth of a 
few degrees only, and varies its position with 
the seasons, lying somewhat further to the 
north of its mean position in July, and to the 
south in January. On account of the intimate 
relation between the direction of the wind and 
the barometric pressure, it is best to represent 
these two meteorological elements on one map; 
and accordingly on the accompanying charts, 
Nos. VII. and VIII. (compiled from those 
published by the British admiralty in 1872), 
are shown by arrows flying with the wind 
the prevailing winds for the months of July 
and January, over the entire globe; regions 
of prevailing calms are designated by shaded 
circles. The comparison of these charts will 
show more clearly than words the great changes 
which take place in the movements of the air 
during the year. The principal regions of 
calms and light variable winds, besides the 
equatorial belt already mentioned, are those 
belts about 10° broad, lying N. and S. of the 
trade wind regions, in the respective hemi- 
spheres. Coffin (1853) has moreover shown 
that N. of the belt of calms in the Atlantic the 
winds both of Europe and America show com- 
paratively slight but decided indications of 
monsoon features, due to the over-heating of 
the land in summer and its cooling in winter. 
Similar phenomena are observed in reference 
to the Sahara of northern Africa, and to the 
continent of Australia. Of the non-periodic 
variations of wind, the most important are 
those attending storms. Dove has shown 
that, at any station in the northern temperate 
zone, the wind veers more frequently than it 
backs; that is to say, the successive wind 
changes are more frequently in the order 
S., W., N., &c., than they are in the reverse 
order, S., E., N., &c. But this interesting law 
may be considered as a simple consequence of 
the position of the stations in relation to the 
paths generally pursued by storm centres. Red- 
field (1821-57) was the first to prove that in all 
extensive severe storms there is always present 
a system of surface winds revolving about and 
blowing in toward a storm centre, which latter 
has a progressive motion along the surface of 
the earth. Ata short distance above the earth’s 
surface is a system of outward-moving spiral 
currents immediately above the lower inward- 
moving winds. The independent investigations 
of Espy (1837), Reid, Piddington, Ley, and 
others, have abundantly confirmed the correct- 
ness of Redfield’s conclusions; and the studies 
-of later writers have shown that such a sys- 
tem of winds is characteristic of severe storms 
throughout the world. (See Hurrioang, and 
Storms.) The relation between the wind and 
temperature is graphically represented by the 
thermal wind rose, which gives for each direc- 
tion of the wind the average temperature re- 


maining after eliminating the effects of the 
daily and annual changes and the lesser local 
peculiarities. The following table presents a 
few of the stations for which sufficiently long 
periods of observation are available to render 
the average results trustworthy: 


Thermal Wind Rose. 


NEW ST. PETERS- 
HAVEN. VIENNA. LONDON, BURG. 

WIND. 

Year, Jan. | July. | Jan. | July. | Jan. | July. 
Nena 46°3° | 26°6°| 66°8°| 32°4°, 61°0°| 13°8°) 58.6 
N; EH...) 4874 26°4 | 70°2 | 80°3 | 61°6 T1 | 62°7% 
ORS ERN 49°5 25°5 | 74°38 | 81°6 | 65°0 | 18°8 | 64°7 
BoB 50°2 29°3 | T1°8 | 85°6 | 66°8 | 10°7 | 65°35 
Soe aewe 52°2 80°T | °72°5 | 40°4 | 65°4 | 138°6 | 65°4 
S. W....| 58°0 | 85°4 | 72°5 | 39°8 | 63°7 | 19°T | 64°9 
Wien o 47°9 | 86°0 | 65°9 | 36°8 | 63°6 | 19°0 | 61°6 
N. W...| 44:5 82°0 | 66°0 | 83°3 | 62°0 | 13°1 | 60°2 
IN erotic 46°3 | 26°0 | 66°3 | 82°4 | 61°0 | 13°8 | 58°6 


The connection between the direction of the 
wind and the position of the moon in its orbit 
has been investigated by Schubler and Eisen- 
lohr for stations in Germany, and the results, 
as shown in the following table by Schubler, 
would indicate that N. and E. winds are more 
frequent at the time of the last quarter of 
the moon, and that S. and W. winds prevail at 
the second octant: 


Table showing the Prevalence of each Wind on the Days 
of the respective Phases of the Moon. 


: | « : 
LUNAR PHASES. b - |B E : a Mean direction. 
Ai Ail w| 

Newimoonte-. .aanerass 6/18 44/18/17 28/45/28 8. 8. W. 
Hirst Quarters. .n. .t1)- = 8/12'40)17|17 24 55)24 S. W. by W. 
Second octant.......... 7/16 33)18)12 23 62/22 W. by S. 
Fullimooniectnes ties ste 11)15 85/16/12 25 59/23 W. 
Last quarter3..°.. 10... 12/29/41 /10/13 85 38/18 W. 


—4. The Aqueous Vapor, whose presence in 
the atmosphere is of the highest importance 
in a meteorological point of view, as well as 
in reference to animal and vegetable life, may 
here be considered as having its ultimate ori- 
gin in the ocean, whence it is drawn by surface 
evaporation under the influence of solar heat. 
Its subsequent diffusion throughout the atmos- 
phere is in aslight degree due to Dalton’s prin- 
ciple of the diffusion of gases, but principally 
to its convection by the winds; its deposition, 
whether in the form of clouds or rain, is the 
result of the subsequent cooling of the moist 
air. Of the rain which falls upon the land, 
a large portion is again evaporated, and thus 
returned to the atmosphere, and ultimately to 
the ocean. The quantity of moisture in the 
air is determined for meteorological purposes 
by means of observations with either the hair 
hygrometer of De Saussure, the wet and dry 
bulb thermometers of August, or the dew-point 
instruments of Daniell, Regnault, Bache, and 
others. (See Hyerometry.) Measurements of 
evaporation have such a peculiarly local sig- 
nificance that it has been difficult to ascertain 
any practicable means of making these com- 
parable with each other; but it may be said 


METEOROLOGY 


with considerable certainty that evaporation is 
two or three times greater in sunshine than in 
shade; is four or five times greater in hot sum- 
mer days than in cold winter days; is greater 


A.M. i 
OF 2345 ECV3ZIIPMUHADAZ ene a 


Dragram [X,.—Diurnal Change of Vapor Pressure. 


in windy weather in proportion to the strength 
of the wind; is greater in dry than in moist 
weather; greater from marshes and forests 
than from fields of melting snow; greater 
from the latter than from the surface of the 
ocean; and in general greater in the equatorial 
than in the temperate regions. The aqueous 
vapor in the atmosphere may be considered 
from several points of view, 
namely: as to the pressure it 
exerts in maintaining baromet- 
ric equilibrium; or as to its 
absolute quantity; or, again, 
as to its relative quantity as 
compared with the amount re- 
quired to saturate the atmos- 


50 


7% 


JEM AM ST SAS OND 


% 


60 


Dracram X.—Annual Changes of Rela- 
tive Humidity (2. A), of Vapor 
Pressure (V. P.), and of Tempera- 
ture (7:). 


AM. Noon P.M. 
O1ZE4S OVE IWNRAZ 34 E5OVSIWUMR 


Z oe 


441 


and on the other hand, by leaving the remain- 


ing air dryer, allows a more perfect radia- 
tion into space of the terrestrial heat, thereby 
increasing the diurnal variations of tempera- 


ture. The diurnal variation in the 
expansive pressure exerted by the 
vapor is illustrated by diagram IX., 
showing the results of observations 
made at Vienna. The annual varia- 
tion in vapor tension is given for 
the same station in the following 
diagram, No. X. By the relative 
humidity is meant the absolute hu- 
midity expressed as a fraction of the 
total quantity of moisture that the 
air would contain if perfectly satura- 
ted at its observed temperature. As 
to its diurnal variation, the relative 
humidity is least in the hottest portion of the 
afternoon, and greatest shortly before sunrise, 
as shown in diagram XI.; similarly, as to its 
annual variation, it is least in the summer 
months and greatest in the winter, as shown 
by comparing the curves for January and July 
in the same diagram, or more fully by the an- 
nual curve (R. H.) given in diagram X., where 


IW 2 


coh 
hy 


Scale for the January 


«syn 


Diagram XI.—Diurnal Change of Relative Humidity. 


phere. The condensation of a portion of the | a comparison between the humidity and the 
vapor into cloud or rain, on the one hand, | temperature can be easily made. The irregu- 
diminishes the barometric pressure, thereby | larity of geographical distribution of moisture 
giving rise to local areas of low barometer, | is by no means so great as might be expected. 


442 


It is true that in the interior of North America 
and of Asia the air at the surface is rarely if 
ever completely saturated; but on the other 
hand, the monthly and annual averages show 
that a very large amount of aqueous vapor is 
always present even in those regions, notwith- 
standing their comparative dryness. The dis- 
tribution of moisture in reference to altitude 
above the sea was for a long time supposed to 
follow the law suggested by Dalton (1806), 
namely, that it was expanded throughout the 
atmosphere precisely as if constituting an in- 
dependent vaporous atmosphere within the 
gaseous one; but the later researches of Re- 
gnault, Bessel, Strachey (1861), and Hann 
(1874) have shown the fallacy of this theory. 
According to Hann, the pressure diminishes as 


we ascend more rapidly than it should accord- 


ing to Dalton’s law, and the weight of the 
vapor existing in a vertical column above a 
given place is only 0°22 of what his law would 
indicate; five tenths of the aqueous vapor is 
within 6,500 ft. of the surface of the sea, and 
the strata under 20,000 ft. in altitude contain 
nine tenths of the vapor in the entire atmos- 
phere. The ratio between the quantity of 
vapor at a given height and that at the surface 
is shown in the following table, as deduced by 
Hann from balloon and mountain observations: 


Altitude, feet. |Quantityofvapor.|| Altitude, feet. |Quantity of vapor. 

1:00 8,000 0°42 
1,000 0:87 10,000 0°84 
2,000 0°80 12,000 0°27 
3,000 0°78 14,000 0:23 
4,000 0°64 16,000 0-18 
5,000 0°56 18,000 0°16 
6,000 0-56 20,000 0-13 
7,000 0°48 22,000 0-07 


On the other hand, the irregularities of the dis- 
tribution of vapor are such that the observations 
made in England in balloons show that layers 
of moist and dry air may alternate with each 
other. In the United States, and generally in 
continental situations, it is probable that such 
alternations only attend storms. The relation 
between moisture and the direction of the wind 
is expressed graphically by the so-called hygro- 
metric wind rose, which gives for each direc- 
tion of the wind the average force of vapor and 
relative humidity. The following table shows 
these relations for some of the few stations for 
which the computations have been made: 


Hygrometric Wind Rose. 


FORCE OF VAPOR. RELATIVE HUMIDITY. 


WIND. 
London. Halle. 
Winter. Summer, Winter. Summer, 
in, in. per ct. per ct, 

UNG 0°21 0°42 89 68 
N.E 0°20 0°41 91 67 
Bie. ats 0°19 0°49 93 61 
8. E 0°27 0°54 &6 65 
Bouse 0°32 0°60 83 67 
8. W.. 0°82 0°54 82 70 
Wess 0°28 0°49 81 71 
N. W. Q°24 0°44 8&8 69 
Niet 0-21 0°42 89 68 


METEOROLOGY 


The relative dampness of the easterly winds 
and the dryness of the westerly winds is well 
shown by this table for Europe. We also see 
that the fact that the summer winds are dryer 
than the winter is due to their increased tem- 
perature and capacity for vapor, and not to any 
diminution in the quantity of vapor held by 
them, since the latter is in summer larger than 
in winter.—5. Precipitation of Aqueous Vapor. 
This is apparent under the forms of cloud, 
fog, dew, and rain, and their various modifica- 
tions, and produces a local diminution in the 
barometric pressure. The quantity of dew 
admits but very rarely of precise measurement, 
the most satisfactory series of experiments hav- 
ing been made by Dr. W. O. Wells in London. 
(For many details concerning it, see Dew, and 
Frost.) However important an abundant dew 
may be to the husbandman, it can scarcely be 
considered by the meteorologist as other than 
a local and temporary phenomenon, of minor 
importance in the general economy of the 
atmosphere. The formation of fog is but 
little more important in this connection. (See 
Foe.) Of more importance to all classes 
must be esteemed the formation of clouds and 
rain. (See Crovps, and Rain.) Clouds, ac- 
cording to the commonly received classifica- 
tion of Howard (1802), are divided into the 
cirrus, stratus, cumulus, and nimbus, for which 
latter Poey (1872) has proposed to substitute 
the pallium or sheet cloud. Howard intended 
by the term nimbus to designate those clouds 
from which rain was falling; but it does not 
appear certain that rain may not occasionally 
fall from either the stratus, the cumulus, or 
the pallium, or from the numerous combina- 
tions of these typical forms. The presence of 
clouds and the phenomena displayed by them 
are valuable to the meteorological observer, 
both as affording him an indication of the di- 
rection of the upper currents of air, and as 
giving some clue to the moisture and tempera- 
ture there prevailing. For the present we 
have principally to do only with the average 
percentage of cloudiness, and its influence upon 
the temperature. A diurnal periodicity, show- 
ing two maxima and two minima in the per- 
centage of cloudy sky, will be perceived by 
the most cursory observer; the hours at which 
these occur vary with the kind of cloud; for 
the cumulus they are, maximum at 8 P. M., 
minimum at 5 A. M.; for the stratus, maximum 
at 6 A. M., minimum at 3 P. M. In moun- 
tainous countries it is easy to trace the direct 
dependence of this periodicity upon the heat- 
ing of the soil during the day time and the 
cooling of the air by radiation during the night 
time; but the daily period is also distinctly 
pronounced within the tropics, and is clearly 
seen whenever a station in the temperate zone 
is in the interior of the continent within the 
range of an area of relatively dry air. The 
total percentage of all kinds of clouds is shown 
for two European stations in the following 
table for January and July: , 


a 


METEOROLOGY 


Diurnal Variation in Cloudiness. 


AT CREFELD. | AT PRAGUE. 
HOUR. 
January. July. January. July. 
Midnight. 75 per ct. | 49 per ct. 

1 A.M. oe S 

2 73 45 

3 | ae oP 

£ 65 46 

6 Js ae 74 51 

7 82 63 ice in 

8 ¥ ee 76 49 
a9 1T 62 a ae 
10 oe ate 74 d+ 
11 76 66 a ie 

Noon. bs af 73 58 

1 peep fe 76 67 a ie 

2 Be ae | 13 56 

3 74 66 ra a 

4 ra a | %3 5T 

5 13 63 hee ae 

6 Ac ae | 73 54 

7 69 59 Wier be 

8 are ae | 7D 54. 

9 67 58 ats af 
10 a bf | 78 48 
11 70 53 ee Ss 

Midnight. a as 75 51 


An annual periodicity in the cloudiness is also 
observed (see the following table), having its 
maximum in the winter time throughout the 
temperate zones, while within the polar cir- 
cle the maximum cloudiness may be placed 
in the late summer and fall. 


Annual Variations in Cloudiness. 


MONTH. AT OREFELD. | AT PRAGUE. 
el AINUAT YG. 5 Ae Sass rothartsiiaais 74 per ct. 73 per ct. 
MGDEUBIY ctstielele yavesicin bases 6 72 70 
BESOIN oe fiitern bilerctat cseareles 66 62 
A DUUR ara ctteine brant ha eiaeveeilare 62 54 
1 ee ate RRS on Acrrican crite 66 52 
PUNO ee ceed cre etevea acme > €5 53 
Cigar beh as Aires ae Le eA 62 51 
TA TISSUE L seve suchas orsleacoeiera cia. ale 58 49 
September... c.cess ccs sce «5 5T 51 
Octoberrs IO cies Pa hte weie's 65 68 
NOVEM DEL aks emotional 10 76 
(Decemperans ses ein cites. 74 74 


As regards the geographical distribution of 
cloudiness, it may be remarked briefly that the 
annual averages show a minimum cloudiness 
in the regions of the trade winds and in the 
interior of continents, and a maximum in moun- 
tainous districts, the polar regions, and on the 
western coasts of the continents. The relation 
between the direction of the wind and the ay- 
erage degree of cloudiness is known to all, and 
is rendered apparent by the following table: 


Percentage of Cloudiness for each Wind Direction. 


CARLSRUHE. VIENNA. 
WINDS. 
Winter. Summer. Winter. Summer, 

INR ete eee 63 46 15 45 
De Des Se Ane 56 82 74 26 

SSN aO oa 56 29 63 25 
Ba livece cece ae 69 48 71 25 
att c nai ae 80 59 70 8T 
Bee Wists sews sis 82 62 69 43 

Salaries #0, 65/3 80 58 65 56 
ON eer 17 55 72 55 

dyed Glan ess 63 46 


443 


The connection between the lunar phases and 
the cloudiness has been already spoken of. 
The influence of cloudiness in protecting the 
earth’s surface against the direct rays of the 
sun, and against nightly radiation from the 
earth, has been investigated for a few stations 
only. According to Weilenmann (1874), the 
atmosphere, when the sky is clear, protects the 
earth against radiation by an amount equal to 
one third of the protection afforded by a cloudy 
sky, whence the latter may be concluded to 
allow on the average scarcely 15 per cent. of 
the solar heat to reach the earth’s surface. 
The connection between cloudiness and baro- 
metric pressure has not yet been studied with 
the care it deserves; but it is certain that 
a low barometer corresponds to an increased 
cloudiness, and an important ,portion of the 
daily variation in the barometric pressure de- 
pends upon the formation of dew or fog at 
night and of cumulus clouds by day. ‘The rain- 
fall may be considered as the completion of the 
process of the formation of clouds, although 
probably the majority of clouds are dissipated 
without producing rain. The larger part of 
the rainfall is probably deposited by uprising 
currents of air, and therefore it has its daily 
and annual periods. The formation of snow is 
apparently more directly dependent upon noc- 
turnal radiation of heat. The measurement of 
rainfall by means of the simple rain gauge needs 
to be made under circumstances of great uni- 
formity, if for different stations we would at- 
tain results comparable with each other. The 
most minute investigations of the laws govern- 
ing rainfall have been made by Symons, and 
published since 1866, in his annual volumes of 
‘ British Rainfall.” According to these results, 
which are abundantly confirmed by other mea- 
sures taken throughout the world, the quanti- 
ty of rain received by a gauge diminishes in an 
irregular manner with the height of the gauge 
above the earth’s surface. The diminution is 
apparently to be attributed principally to the 
greater velocity of the wind at the higher sta- 
tion, and amounts to 10 per cent. of the whole 
rainfail for an elevation of 20 ft., and in one 
exceptional case, at the height of 50 ft., to 40 
per cent. of the rainfall at the surface. The 
study of the diurnal period of the precipitation 
(including rain and snow) has as yet led to only 
an imperfect result; but it is believed that as 
a general rule, in the temperate zones, a maxi- 
mum occurs in the afternoon in the summer, 
but before sunrise in the winter months. The 
annual variation in rainfall depends almost ex- 
clusively upon the relation between the winds 
and the geographical position and topographi- 
cal details of the country. On the W. coast ot 
North America and of Europe the greater part 
of the annual rainfall occurs in winter, but in 
the interior of Europe and on the E. coast of 
the United States in summer. The geographi- 
cal distribution of the snow and rainfall over 
the world can be properly presented only by 
means of a very large and detailed chart; its 


444 


general distribution over the United States is 
shown by the accompanying map (XII.), com- 
piled by Lieut. H. C. Dunwoody from data af- 
forded by the signal service observations of 
the United States from the establishment of 
the bureau in 1870 to January, 1881. The re- 
gion of heaviest precipitation appears from it 
to be a narrow strip along the coast of Wash- 
ington territory, where alone more than 80 
inches of rain fall during the year. The regions 
of the next heaviest rainfall, between 70 and 
80 inches annually, are a narrow strip back of 
this one, a small section on the eastern coast of 
Florida, and another small district south of 
Cape Hatteras. The most extensive district of 
the next heaviest annual precipitation, from 60 
to 70 inches, is around the northeastern bor- 
ders of the Gulf of Mexico, in southeastern 
Louisiana, southern Mississippi and Alabama, 
and western Florida; while narrower regions 
of equal precipitation are found in western 
Washington and Oregon and northwestern 
California, eastern Florida, and eastern North 
and South Carolina. In the mass of the south- 
ern states south of North Carolina and Ken- 
tucky and east of the Indian territory and 
Texas, the mean annual rainfall is between 50 
and 60 inches. This region is surrounded on 
the north and west by two belts, the more re- 
mote and more arid one of which is the wider, 
which together include the bulk of the states 
north of 86° 80’, and east of the Mississippi 
river, most of Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas, 
and eastern Kansas, Indian territory, and Tex- 
as, in which the amounts of annual precipita- 
tion are respectively from 40 to 50 inches and 
from 80 to 40 inches. West of the western 
edge of the latter zone is a comparatively nar- 
row region in which the rainfall is between 20 
and 30 inches annually; while west of this isa 
broad region, reaching over the Rocky moun- 
tains, and to the Columbia river in the north- 
west, in which the mean annual precipitation 
is between 10 and 20 inches. The rainfall be- 
gins at Columbia river again to increase, in nar- 
row belts, toward the west, till it reaches its 
culmination in the region of greatest precipita- 
tion, already mentioned, on the Pacific coast. 
The most arid regions in the United States are 
in Nevada and Arizona, and a district in south- 
eastern New Mexico, where the mean annual 
precipitation does not amount to ten inches. 
The heaviest rainfall occurs in those countries 
in which warm, moist monsoon winds blow 
from the seacoast up over rapidly rising hills. 
Thas the annual rainfall on the Cossyah hills, 
facing the bay of Bengal, is 600 inches, but 
20 m. further inland it is reduced to 200 
inches, and at 30 m.to 100. The connection 
between rainfall and the direction of the wind 
presents therefore an apparent discrepancy 
in various parts of the world, even for sta- 
tions on the same parallel of latitude, accord- 
ing as the winds ascend in their course from 
the ocean level to hill-tops, or descend from 
the mountains and plateaus to the lowlands. 


METEOROLOGY 


—6. Barometric Pressure. It is only when 
we come to study the pressure of the atmos- 
phere, as shown by the barometer, that we 
arrive at a connected intelligible view of the 
peculiarities of weather and climate. In fact 
it is evident that no portion of the atmos-. 
phere can be moved from one region to an- 
other, except under the influence of a pressure 
applied in’ the direction of its motion; such 
movement is simply an effort to reéstablish a 
disturbed statical equilibrium. The laws of 
mechanics show that relatively to the earth’s 
surface the air would remain quiescent if the 
sun were absent; but the density of the at- 
mosphere is disturbed by the solar heat, by the 
variable quantity of aqueous vapor rising from 
the oceans and continents, and by the local 
condensation of this vapor into cloud and rain. 
In this way temporary abnormal inequalities in 
the distribution of barometric pressure are pro- 
duced, which give rise to the winds, and afford 
the meteorologist that connecting link which 
enables him to unite the whole circle of atmos- 
pheric phenomena into a harmonious system. 
(See Barometer.) The height of the baromet- 
ric column is found to vary at the same station 
in regular diurnal and annual changes, and also 
in a non-periodic manner; on moving the in- 
strument to other places, its height is found to 
vary with the geographical position, and in an 
especially remarkable degree with every change 
of altitude. The latter class of changes have 
been the subject of numerous profound inves- 
tigations, having for their ultimate object both 
the utilization of the barometer for hypsomet- 
ric purposes, and the solution of the inverse 
problem, the reduction of actual barometric 
readings to the sea level. The solutions of both 
these problems can as yet be satisfactorily 
effected only in respect to annual means; but 
within allowable limits of error approximate 
methods may be applied to monthly means and 


Ome eee ee ORS aee Ca ae ee fe) 
The dotted line is for Nertchinsk, Asia continental station; the full line, 
for Plymouth, Eng., maritime station. 


Diagram XIII.—Diurnal Variations in the Barometer. 


to individual observations, when the altitude 
of the station does not exceed 2,000 ft. The 


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TIVANIVY IVONNY FOVYAAV 


"USUM = OL:s«s WHOA GT SOM «08 «“BUOT Gg 0s 


ent - 


(1) See SAUCE 


ai jae ve 
, * 


ne a eval: any : 
ane oT) Aye ‘ Seater eameel = aera os bis 


at yet haat hai adh 


ie 


AP hid gb 


a Mone i 
arte Aci b 


METEOROLOGY 


systematic variations in the barometric pressure 
can be best shown graphically, and it will suf- 
fice to present only a few typical cases. The 
existence of a perceptible lunar tide in the 
atmosphere is now no longer considered prob- 
able, and the important periodic changes all 
depend upon the sun. The diurnal changes, as 
shown in diagram XIII. for Nertchinsk, Siberia, 
and Plymouth, England, illustrate respectively 
the continental and maritime stations. The ef- 
fect of elevation above the surrounding country 
(not merely above sea level) is seen in the con- 
trasts between the diurnal changes at Geneva 
(altitude 1,335 ft.) and at the summit of Mt. 
St. Bernard (8,114 ft.), as shown in diagram 
XIV., both for January and July. At the sea 
level, two maxima and two minima of pressure 
occur during each 24 hours; the maxima be- 


y of oo ng ° 
fe Orel ow Ase F pee a 


January. 


| 


SPT 
July. 


\ 


\ 
he 


The full lines are for St. Bernard; dotted lines for Geneva. 


Diagram XIY.—Diurnal Variations in the Barometer. 


tween 9 and 11 A. M. and between 9 and 11 
P. M., the minima between 3 and 5 P. M. and 
between 2 and 5 A. M., respectively. The an- 
nual barometric changes are shown in diagram 
XY. as given by Lorenz and Rothe (1874) for 
typical stations, whence the great influence of 
geographical position is easily seen. A clear- 
er perception of the important part played by 
aqueous vapor will be obtained if from the 
whole atmospheric pressure shown in diagrams 
XIII., XIV., and XV. we subtract that portion 
due to aqueous vapor, as shown in diagrams 
IX. and X.; the remainder is technically known 
as the pressure of the dry air, or the gaseous 
atmosphere. It is found that the gaseous and 
the vaporous components have each a single 
diurnal and annual fluctuation, and that it is 


445 


the combination of these that produces the 
irregular and even double fluctuations in the 
total pressure shown in the preceding dia- 
grams. A general view of the annual baromet- 
ric changes, and a more complete insight into 
the relation between pressure, wind, and weath- 


Brocken, 


St. Bernard, 


Vienna. 


Buda. 


Moscow. 


Trkutek, 


Madras. 


Reykiavik. 
Cambridge, Eng. 
Toronto, 


St. Louis. 


Diagram XV.—Annual Variations in Atmospheric Pressure. 


er, are obtained by the comparison of a series 
of charts, such as VII. and VIII., which show 
for the respective months the average distribu- 
tion of the pressure of the atmosphere over the 
surface of the globe. The variations of baro- 
metric pressure with the latitude were first defi- 


446 


METEOROLOGY 


nitely established by Schouw (1882), although | irregular barometric variations coincide in 


asserted by Clark (1776) and Humboldt (1807). 
The variations which occur on the same paral- 
lel of latitude, and especially the seasonal dif- 
ferences between the pressures over the land 
and the ocean, were first elaborated by Buchan 
(1868). The charts VII. and VIII. are com- 
piled from the latest results published by Bu- 
chan and by the admiralty office in London, 
and must be considered as representing very 
nearly the actual distribution of barometric 
pressure over the globe, as reduced to a uni- 
form sea level. The irregular or non-periodic 
variations of the pressure are intimately con- 
nected with the disturbances or storms which 
sweep over the earth. (See Hurrioanez, and 


general with the regions of most decided alter- 
nations between clear, cold, dry weather, and 
cloudy, warm, moist, or rainy weather. In an- 
alyzing this connection between pressure and 
weather, we will only mention the relation be- 
tween the barometer and the winds and rain. 
The general connection between the changes 
of pressure at any place and the winds is shown 
in the following table, which gives the aver- 
age reading of the barometer during the prey- 
alence of the respective winds for a few typi- 
cal stations in the northern hemisphere; in 
these cases, as for the entire globe, the pres- 
sure is greatest for cold or dry winds, and least 
for warm or moist winds, which law obtains 


Storms.) The regions of greatest average | in both the winter and summer seasons: 


Relation between the Wind Direction and the Barometric Pressure. 


WIND 8T. PETERSBURG. LONDON, CARLSRUHE. VIENNA. 
DIRECTION. Winter. Summer. Winter. Summer, Winter, Summer. Winter. Summer, 
inches. inches, inches. inches. inches. inches. inches, inches, 

ENGR eters ssiae ete 98-111 23°023 29°97T4 29°997 29-781 29-732 29°483 29°366 
IRE Dees ae 28°138 28°0856 29°972 80° 040 29° 786 29°"%31 29-455 29°861 
Demeter eerie: 28°290 28°065 29°S885 30° 057 29-721 29° 695 29°466 29°259 
fry J Di Gea Meee 28°311 28°028 29-746 29°982 29° 693 29° 626 29°412 29-259 
Baie eae ices 28°189 27° 982 29° 724 29° 852 29° 644 29° 626 29 °381 29 °238 
PER tocanss cn: 28°129 28°0038 29°849 29°799 29° 637 29-622 29°171 99°242 
Wie crccaiccats 28°055 28° 039 29-962 29° 862 29° 651 29° 642 29-272 29°284 
INV Green ec, 27°944 28° 036 29°97% 29°946 29-708 29° 703 29-362 29-296 
IN Reiser alee oe es 28°111 28° 023 29-974 29°997 29°781 29° 732 29-483 29°366 
The relation between atmospheric pressure and | gations.—DrpuctivE Mrreorotoey. Of me- 


rainfall depends upon the direction of the ac- 
companying wind; but if, as in the following 
table, each wind direction be treated by itself, 
it will be seen that during rain and snow the 
pressure is usually below the average for that 
wind, and is falling still lower for southerly 
winds and increasing rain, but is rising for 
northerly winds and clearing weather : 


Barometric Variations preceding and following Rain. 


Depression of barometer 
below the general aver- iseetie a a anne 
* age for the respective its aber tidy Pierhi dg 
WIND. winds at Berlin. ces eee 
During rain.| Duringsnow. | Preceding rain.| During rain. 
inch. inch. inch. inch. 

1s buseecser 0°148 0°242 +0°087 +0°053 
UN Gy este ec 0°144 0° 263 +0°005 +0°039 
BE vaielatcore c's 0°118 0°226 —0°001 —0°036 
Bi. Wess 0°109 0° 203 —0°044 —0°058 
Brac jecat ines 0°109 0°202 —0°0386 —0°054 
3) Wikrsccieys « 0° 087 0° 174 —0° 068 —0° 023 
WWittstes:s 0°069 0°139 +0°012 +0°020 
INS W... 0°109 0°169 +0°027 +-0°094 
IN Sarthe ervtepels 0° 143 0°242 +0°087 +0°015 


The connection between the temperature, pres- 
sure, wind, and weather may be briefly indi- 
cated in the so-called weather rose, examples of 
which are presented for central Europe and for 
a portion of the United States in diagrams XVI. 
and XVII.—We here terminate our presenta- 
tion of some of the more interesting relations 
between those meteorological phenomena which 
admit of exact observation, and which form 
a safe basis for further philosophical investi- 


teorology as an inductive science, the preceding 
pages and the various articles referred to there- 
in may serve to give us some faint idea; of it 
as a deductive science it would seem premature 
as yet to speak, were it not that the foundations 


i 
Meet aes 

RN) o oem Om om i: 4% 

Se: pore Tae) sh 42 

Ns a Ln @ 4 

~— cil CON a he ‘ 

& f ee Soot GG \ 
ms > erollng.. Sarna ni 
Sete nee SOE 

rs 3) 

Stes a int A 
Stn re ee SES a ae eat 
‘ees eae 4 Soe hie 
‘ ‘ 3 Oe 1 | ' 
iy ihie-neain * ae! i 
Ya Me i " 9S 
\ B . S7 > 
%, “Neri eS, 
sy, hy wee wey RRR CS 
y FN eee or 

%r 
Dito Sr 
YG Uy nee 
n. » 


rg 


Diagram XVI.—Weather Rose for Central Europe. 


of this new meteorology are now apparently 
well laid, although it must be confessed that 
the passage from crude observations back to 
the unknown laws of the invisible forces which 
guide these most complex operations of nature 
is not yet completely open to the student. The 


METEOROLOGY 


attempts to predict the weather, and especially 
storms, which are now daily made by the mete- 
orological offices of numerous civilized nations 
would of themselves seem to imply the exis- 
tence of a deductive science more or less de- 


veloped. This however is not necessarily the 
N 
ae io Sty 
«' ” <a eooennenm en, ®, 4 
S\. ta gt “Lloy, 7 * 
5a Rosas Ri A ~. 
/ e Ris 
& rd gee 4 “88, Fp = 
eo “ ‘S he, qe & 
6) a -_ j herp, @ ai 
i \ ° 
: S: 
OQ 
e3 
& = 
ec & 
x f 
x 
é a 
jks] 
f 
re 
“> ° 
%4 


DracramM XVII.—Weather Rose for Eastern and Middle 
United States. 


case, for it has been found practicable, on the 
one hand, by means of the telegraph, to collect 
in a few hours material for compiling a dai- 
ly weather map for the whole of Europe or the 
United States, and, on the other hand, to apply 
to such maps the numerous generalizations that 
have been found to hold good for the respec- 
tive portions of the world; a process which, 
repeated from day to day, reminds one of the 
methods adopted in astronomy for computing 
special perturbations. There seems to be no 
good reason for speaking disparagingly of me- 
teorology as a science, since, whether we study 
the stars, the atmosphere, atoms, or organic na- 
ture, we find ourselves everywhere confronted 
by an overwhelming mass of phenomena which 
are subject as yet only to an inductive philoso- 
phy. Owing to the infinite number of com- 
binations among the meteorological elements, 
no empirical rules can invariably lead to cor- 
rect predictions; but the calculus of probabili- 
ties shows that over 50, and often 75 per cent. 
of our predictions should be well verified, a 
conclusion in harmony with actual experience 
throughout the world. But this percentage 
of verifications, we have reason to believe, is 
sensibly greater when the predictions are based 
not merely upon empirical rules, but equally 
upon a consideration of such general principles 
as must form the groundwork of the true de- 
ductive science. The foundations of the new 
meteorology are necessarily found in the sim- 
ple laws of mechanics. They have been con- 
sidered by several authors, but by none with 
so much completeness as in the work of Ferrel 
550 VOL, XI.—29 


447 


“On the Motions of Fluids and Solids, relative 
to the Earth’s Surface” (Nashville, 1854, and 
New York, 1860). In this treatise the motions 
and figure of the atmosphere are first treated 
of, on the hypothesis that no resistance is 
offered by obstacles or by friction upon the 
earth’s surface; in a subsequent section the 
influence of such resistance is considered, on 
the hypothesis that a uniform coefficient of 
friction obtains over the whole earth’s surface. 
Mr. Ferrel thus deduces the necessary existence 
of two belts of high barometric pressure, ex- 
tending entirely around the globe between the 
tropics and the parallels of 30° N. and S. re- 
spectively, and of a belt of low pressure at the 
equator, as well as regions of low barometer 
within the arctic and antarctic circles; belts 
of calms near the equator, the tropics, and the 
polar circles are also deduced. The continents 
and oceans offer very unequal frictional resis- 
tances, which causes the equatorial belt of calms 
to lie on the average a little north of the true 
equator in the Atlantic and Indian oceans, but 
nearly on the equator in the Pacific ocean. 
Similarly, it can be shown that to the irregular 
distribution of the friction of the continents is 
partially due the breaking up of all these belts 
into segments lying respectively over the ocean 
and the continents. In general the motion of 
the earth’s atmosphere is a consequence of the 
unequal heating by the sun of the equatorial 
and polar regions; the subsequent effort of 
nature to establish statical equilibrium relative ° 
to the earth’s surface is that which gives rise 
to the phenomena of the winds. The unequal 
heating of the continents and oceans, due to 
their unequal specific heats and radiating pow- 
er, and to the annual vibration of the sun be- 
tween the tropics, is the principal cause of the 
breaking up of the belts of temperature, pres- 
sure, and winds into continental and oceanic 
areas. But whatever induces a local or general 
change in the density of the air disturbs its 
equilibrium and necessitates its motion; and 
the disturbing power next in importance to 
the solar heat is the diffusion of aqueous vapor, 
the density of which is only six tenths of that 
of dry air at the same pressure and tempera- 
ture. It thus happens that the combined effect 
of friction, temperature, and moisture gives 
rise to the variable distribution of barometric 
pressure exhibited in the charts VII. and VIIL., 
which show areas of high barometer existing 
in winter over the continents, but in summer 
over the oceans, and over the eastern half of 
each ocean, rather than over its central por- 
tions. The general distribution of barometric 
pressure having been thus deduced by Mr. 
Ferrel, he then considers the local disturbances 
known as cyclones, tornadoes, &c., all the phe- 


‘nomena of which are deducible from his ini- 


tial mechanical formulas (see ‘‘ Bulletin of the 
Philosophical Society of Washington,” June, 
1874, and the “‘ American Journal of Science,” 
November, 1874), if we supplement these 
by the researches of Hirn, Peslin, and Reye. 


448 METER 


These latter have applied to the phenomena of 
the atmosphere, and especially to its vertical 
motions, those laws of thermodynamics which 
were first fully insisted on by Espy in ‘ The 
Philosophy of Storms” (1841), but which re- 
quired the accurate experiments of Regnault 
and the analysis of Clausius, Thomson, and 
others, to make them available quantitative- 
ly, as well as qualitatively, for meteorological 
purposes. The above mentioned authors have 
shown the connection that must exist between 
the expansion of uprising moist air (whether it 
be pushed by winds up over elevated regions, 
or ascend on a hot day in consequence of local 
rarefaction), and the formation of clouds and 
rain, deducing thereby, with great minuteness, 
many of the details of the origin, growth, path, 
and decay of storms. Finally, the phenomena 
of radiation and absorption of heat, though as 
yet only partially deducible from correct physi- 
cal theories of the constitution of gases, may 
still be looked upon as well determined experi- 
mentally by the observations of Tyndall and 
others, as far as regards the constituents of the 
atmosphere, and form the basis of the reasoning 
by which we are able to deduce the general 
laws of the periodic and non-periodic changes 
of temperature and moisture. We are thus in 
a position to reduce all meteorological pheno- 
mena, to the three principles involved in gene- 
ral mechanics, thermodynamics, and molecular 
physics; and it may be confidently expected 
that the increasing powers of mathematical 
analysis will ere long enable us to rear upon 
these a superstructure of deductive meteor- 
ology, limited in its application to the explana- 
tion and prediction of the weather only by the 
extent and accuracy of our observations. 

METER. See Gas, vol. vii., p. 638, and 
Water METER. 

METEYARD, Eliza. See supplement. 

METHODISM, a form of church life and pol- 
ity which originated in England during the 
18th century. JI. Earty History anp Prin- 
orpLes. The moral and religious condition of 
England at the beginning of the 18th century 
was most deplorable. The court was dissolute; 
the standard of taste was low; the prevalence 
of skepticism was alarming; the church, both 
established and dissenting, had lapsed into a 
state of lifeless formalism; the masses of the 
people had sunk into incredible vice and bru- 
tality. In the year 1729 John Wesley, a fel- 
low of Lincoln college, Oxford, became con- 
vinced of the necessity of a deeper spiritual life. 
With his brother Charles, likewise a student 
of Oxford, and a few other associates, he or- 
ganized a meeting for their mutual moral im- 
provement. The band soon began to manifest 
increased religious zeal by visiting almshouses 


and prisons, by instructing the children of the’ 


poor, and by a strict and conscientious ob- 
servance of all the ordinances of the church. 
They were soon joined by others, among them 
Mr. Hervey and Mr. George Whitefield of Pem- 
broke college, till at the end of six years they 


METHODISM 


numbered 14 or 15 persons. The rigid exact- 
ness of their lives attracted general attention 
among their fellows; they were objects of 
ridicule and contempt, and received various 
designations, but the term ‘‘ Methodists” was 
applied to them by a student of Christchurch 
college, on account of their methodical mode 
of life and work. On the departure of the 
brothers Wesley to Georgia in 1735, the band 
was dissolved, but the new religious life that 
had there been enkindled manifested itself in 
the more zealous ministrations of the members 
of the ‘Godly Club.” After his return, Wes- 
ley began to preach in London and elsewhere 
with great fervor. His sole object was to bring 
back the church to a pure and holy life, and 
to save the degraded and neglected. For the 
same object Whitefield and others had already 
labored earnestly during the absence of the 
Wesleys in Georgia. These reformers were at 
first received with coldness by the public, and 
their labors were regarded with suspicion or 


‘hostility. Wesley was at length debarred ad- 


mission to the pulpits. In the early part of 
1739 Whitefield had set the first example of 
open-air preaching at Kingswood, near Bristol, 
where he had addressed an immense crowd 
of colliers. Though at first disapproving of 
Whitefield’s attempt, after a brief hesitation 
John Wesley as well as his brother Charles fol- 
lowed this example. Being denied admission 
to the churches by the clergy, they were com- 
pelled to continue their preaching in private 
houses, barns, market places, and the open 
fields, as opportunity was given. Thousands 
flocked to their ministry, and multitudes were 
converted. Wesley and his coadjutors were 
stubbornly opposed by the dignitaries of the 
establishment, who were strong in condem- 
nation of this violation of ecclesiastical order. 
Sometimes the mob was stirred up to revile 
and assault them; sometimes the power of the 
law was invoked against them as disturbers of 
the peace. The converts made by their preach- 
ing were either despised or utterly neglected 
by the church, and hence Wesley, at their own 
request, formed them into societies for mu- 
tual edification and improvement, called ‘the 
United Societies.” Wesley’s own account of 
their origin is as follows: ‘In the latter end 
of the year 1739 eight or ten persons came to 
me in London, who appeared to be deeply con- 
vinced of sin, and earnestly groaning for re- 
demption. They desired (as did some two or 
three more the next day) that I would spend 
some time with them in prayer, and advise 
them how to flee from the wrath to come, 
which they saw continually hanging over their 
heads. That we might have more time for 
this great work, I appointed a day when they 
might all come together; which from thence- 
forward they did every week, viz., on Thurs- 
day in the evening. To these, and as many as 
desired to join with them (for their number in- 
creased daily), I gave those advices from time 
to time as I judged most needful for them; 


—_— 


METHODISM 449 


and we always concluded our meetings with 
prayer suitable to their several necessities. 
This was the rise of the united society, first 
in London, and then in other places. Such a 
society is no other than a company of men 
having the form and seeking the power of 
godliness, united in order to pray together, to 
receive the word of exhortation, and to watch 
over one another in love, that they may help 
each other to work out their salvation.” The 
mass of those who had been converted were 
from the poor and uneducated classes. For the 
government of these societies a few simple rules 
were proposed by the Wesleys, which, with 
slight exceptions, are still recognized as the 
‘General Rules” by all branches of the Meth- 
odist church. The sole condition of member- 
ship in these societies was ‘‘ a desire to flee from 
the wrath to come and to be saved from sin.” 
But this desire will be shown by its fruits, 
leading the man to avoid evil and to do good. 
Hence these rules forbade in the members of 
these societies the evils then most generally 
practised, ‘‘such as profane swearing, Sabbath 
breaking, drunkenness, buying or selling spirit- 
uous liquors, or drinking them except in cases of 
extreme necessity; fighting, quarrelling, broth- 
er going to law with brother, returning evil for 
evil or railing for railing; the using of many 
words in buying and selling; the buying or 
selling of uncustomed goods; the giving or ta- 
king things on usury, 7. ¢., unlawful interest; 
uncharitable or unprofitable conversation, par- 
ticularly speaking evil of magistrates or of min- 
isters; doing to others as we would not they 
should do unto us; doing what we know is not 
for the glory of God, as the putting on of gold 
and costly apparel; the taking of such diversions 
as cannot be used in the name of the Lord 
Jesus; the singing those songs or reading those 
books which do not tend to the knowledge or 
love of God; softness, and needless self-indul- 
gence; laying up treasures upon earth; borrow- 
ing without probability of paying, or taking up 
goods without probability of paying for them.” 
But it was ‘expected that all continuing in 
these societies should continue to evidence their 
desire of salvation, secondly, by doing good; by 
being in every kind merciful after their power ; 
as they have opportunity, doing good of every 
possible sort, and as far as possible to all men; 
by feeding the hungry and clothing the naked; 
by helping or visiting them that are sick or in 


* prison; by instructing, reproving, and exhort- 


ing; by doing good especially to them that are 
of the household of faith, or groaning to be so; 
employing them preferably to others, buying 
one of another, helping each other in business, 
&c., and so much the more because the world 
will love its own, and them only; by diligence 
and frugality; by self-denial and by submission 
to bear the reproach of Christ; by attendance 
upon the ordinances of God, such as public 
worship, the ministry of the word, the supper 
of the Lord, family and private prayer, search- 
ing the Scriptures, and fasting and abstinence.” 


These rules were declared to be taught in 
God’s Word, and that they are written on every 
truly awakened heart. If any violate these 
rules, they are to be admonished and borne 
with for a season; but if they persist, then 
they are to be exscinded. For the accommo- 
dation of these societies chapels had been pro- 
vided at London and Bristol. During 1740-41 
Wesley and his co-workers were preaching 
and founding societies in Yorkshire, Derby- 
shire, Leicestershire, and Wales, while White- 
field had made his second voyage to America, 
and by his wonderful eloquence had aroused 
the religious consciousness of the people from 
Maine to Georgia. On the return of White- 
field the differences between him and Wesley 
on doctrinal points caused their separation, 
and Whitefield organized the Calvinistic Meth- 
odists in 1741. By the labors of Whitefield, 
Methodism was introduced into Scotland and 
Wales, and, aided by the munificence of the 
countess of Huntingdon, chapels were provi- 
ded and a college for preachers was found- 
ed. Oalvinistic Methodism had many remark- 
able adherents, who were instrumental in the 
conversion of multitudes. Next to Whitefield 
in labors and success was Howell Harris, the 
apostle of Methodism in Wales; and not less 
in labors were Romaine, Madan, Venn, Ber- 
ridge, and others. In 1744 Whitefield made 
his third voyage to America, repeating the la- 
bors of former visits, and preaching with won- 
derful effect in the Bermudas in 1748. On 
his return to Europe in June, 1748, he visited 
Scotland, and also preached to immense con- 
gregations in England. In 1747 Thomas Wil- 
liams, a lay preacher from England, had formed 
a society in Dublin. In the same year the 
Wesleys visited Ireland, and great success at- 
tended their ministry, though bitter opposition 
was experienced from the Roman Catholic 
population. Among the converts from Cathol- 
icism in 1749 was Thomas Walch, who has been 
styled the apostle of Methodism to the Irish. 
In 1744 Wesley had invited several clergymen 
of the establishment and his lay assistants to 
meet him in London, to give ‘their advice 
respecting the best method of carrying on the 
work of God.” Thereafter these ‘‘ conferences” 
were held annually, and were occasions of re- 
vising the work, laying plans for the ensuing 
year, and discussing questions of doctrine and 
polity. In the midst of his severe labors Wes- 
ley wrote in defence of the system which he 
had inaugurated, and devised means for the 
education of his preachers and the improve- 
ment of his churches. In 1757 he was joined 
by John Fletcher, a Swiss by birth, who had 
been ordained a priest in the established 
church. In him Wesley found an earnest de- 
fender and a powerful apologist for his doctri- 
nal views. During the progress of this won- 
derful revival work, the strong opposition of 
the clergy of the establishment continued. 
Individual examples of sympathy and aid to 
the itinerants were found, but in many in- 


450 


stances the converts, and even Mr. Wesley and 
some of his clerical fellow workers, were re- 
pelled from the eucharist. Under these cir- 
cumstances it was felt by many that these so- 
cieties should receive the sacraments at the 
hands of their own preachers, and some had 
ventured to administer them. The conference 
of 1755 was greatly agitated with this question, 
and the kindred one of separation from the 
established church was openly discussed; but 
after a protracted debate, it was decided to be 
inexpedient to form a separate church. Since 
the first voyage of Wesley to America in 1735, 
the Moravians, whom he then met, had by the 
simplicity and purity of their lives exerted a 


powerful influence on the Methodist move-. 


ment. They had societies in London and else- 
where, but their numbers were limited, and 
they lacked that compact organization neces- 
sary for permanent success. Between 1750 
and 1760 Ingham, assisted by Moravian helpers, 
founded more than 80 societies in Yorkshire and 
the neighboring counties. These were in close 
affiliation with the Arminian and Calvinistic 
societies, but had their separate conferences. 
In 1760 a small company of Irish, descendants 
of German Palatines, who had received Meth- 
odism, removed to New York, and in 1766, 
through the influence of Barbara Heck and 
Philip Embury, resumed the religious services 
to which they had been accustomed in Ireland. 
They were assisted by Capt. Webb, an officer 
in the British army, who had been licensed by 
Wesley asa local preacher. In 1769 two preach- 
ers were sent to America. These found that 
the country had been greatly awakened by the 
labors of Whitefield, and they were successful 
in establishing a church in New York. White- 
field had crossed the ocean 13 times, but in 
1770 his work was terminated by his death at 
Newburyport, Mass. At this time the mem- 
bers in Wesley’s societies amounted to 29,- 
179. The period between 1770 and 1780 wit- 
nessed no cessation of labor by either branch 
of Methodism. Although a controversy on the 
points of difference between Arminianism and 
Calvinism was carried on with great ability 
on either side, in which Wesley and Fletcher 
were opposed by Shirley, Toplady, Rowland 
Hill, and others, not only were the societies 
cared for and greatly increased, but also the 
foundations of those great moral enterprises, 
the Bible, tract, and missionary societies, were 
laid, and much attention was given to schemes 
of public philanthropy. In 1771 Francis As- 
bury and Richard Wright had been sent 
to America, where the work had greatly in- 
creased, and where the first conference was 
held in 1773. From 1784 the history of Meth- 
odism diverges into two main branches, viz. : 
Wesleyan Methodism and the Methodist Epis- 
copal church. The first assumed a distinct 
organic and legal status by the record in the 
high court of chancery of Mr. Wesley’s ‘‘ Deed 
of Declaration,” and the second became an 
independent church in America through the 


METHODISM 


ordination by Mr. Wesley and the Rev. James 
Creighton of Thomas Coke as superintendent 
and bishop of the Methodist societies in Amer- 
ica, and Richard Whatcoat and Thomas Va- 
sey as presbyters. Till his death in 1791, 
Wesley continued to preside at the annual 
conferences and to plan and direct the work. 
Methodism had already been introduced into 
England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, the British 
islands, France, the United States, Nova Sco- 
tia, Newfoundland, and the West Indies. “ In 
1791 it numbered 233 circuits, 540 travelling 
preachers, and 134,599 members.— Confession. 
Methodism strove at first only to restore a 
purified and intensified spiritual life. The 
careful discussion by Wesley and his fellow 
laborers, in the conferences and through pub- 
lished works, of the religious needs of the 
people and of the obstacles to the progress of 
the work of evangelization, was the occasion 
of the development of the Wesleyan theology. 
Methodism has no such elaborate and authori- 
tative symbol as the Tridentine decrees, or the 
Heidelberg, the Augsburg, the Westminster, 
and other confessions. The substance of its 
doctrines is to be found in the writings of 
John Wesley, John Fletcher, Richard Watson, 
and others, and in the generally uniform teach- 
ings of the Methodist pulpit. The articles which 
Wesley prepared for the Methodist church in 
America were taken substantially from the 
thirty-nine articles of the church of England. 
Agreeing with the so-called orthodox churches 
in most cardinal doctrines of the Bible, the 
material principle of Methodism, like that of 
all other independent systems of theology, is 
to be found in its conception of the mutual 
relation of God and man with regard to the 
work of salvation through Christ. Methodism 
holds that the salvation or non-salvation of 
each human being depends solely on his own 
free action in respect to the enlightening, 
renewing, and sanctifying inworkings of the 
Holy Spirit. If, in respect to these inworkings, 
he holds himself receptively, he will be saved 
both here and hereafter; but if he closes his 
heart against these influences of the Spirit, he 
will continue in death both here and in eter- 
nity. With this fundamental view, all the 
other doctrinal peculiarities of Methodism, 
such as its dogma of freedom, its emphasis 
of the work of the Holy Spirit, its views of 
assurance, Christian perfection, &c., are inti- 
mately and harmoniously connected. In ac- 
cord with this general principle, Methodism 
is Arminian in distinction from Calvinistic. 
Teaching the total depravity of the race 
through the fall of the first pair, and man’s 
consequent absolute inability to recover a state 
of holiness and obedience, except as aided by 
divine grace, Methodism teaches that this grace 
of God in Christ is universal. First, as to 
the divine purpose: God wills the salvation 
of all, and Christ died for all. Secondly, as 
to the work of God for us, or the objective 
operation of grace: for as by the first Adam 


—" 


METHODISM 451 


“judgment came upon all men unto condem- 
nation,” so by the second Adam ‘the free 
gift came upon all unto justification of life.” 
Thirdly, as to the work done in us, the sub- 
jective operation of grace: it enlighteneth 
every man, and convinceth every man, thus 
putting all men under probation; for “the 
grace of God which bringeth salvation to all 
men hath appeared.”” Methodism teaches that 
none of Adam’s descendants are held guilty 
of Adam’s sin until they reject the grace of 
Christ; 7. ¢., through the atoning work of 
Christ all men stand in a gracious relation 
to God, instead of a natural relation, and are 
subjects of the influence of the Holy Spirit; 
and they continue in this gracious relation 
until excluded by virtue of voluntary trans- 
gression. With this view harmonizes its teach- 
ing relative to infant baptism and salvation, 
and the responsibility of man for his own sal- 
vation or damnation. Methodism holds to two 
sacraments, baptism and the Lord’s supper. 
As eligible to the former, it recognizes infant 
children and believing children and adults; to 
the latter, professing Christians and penitent 
seekers of salvation. It prescribes no exclu- 
sive mode of baptism, and dictates no exclusive 
posture in receiving the Lord’s supper. Yet 
its most usual mode of baptism is by sprink- 
ling, and that of receiving the bread and wine 
is in the kneeling posture. It emphasizes the 
doctrine of assurance, 7. ¢., that the Holy Spirit 
bears witness of pardon and acceptance to the 
justified sinner; but this is only taught as a 
privilege of believers, and is not made the test 
of Christian character. It also makes promi- 
nent the doctrine of Christian perfection, or 
perfect love, declaring the object of its organi- 
zation to be to spread Scriptural holiness over 
the land. In accordance with this view, its 
preachers, previous to being received into its 
conferences, declare that they are going on unto 
perfection and expect to be made perfect in 
love in this life—Polity. Methodist polity, 
like the Methodist confession, is to be under- 
stood only by regarding Methodism as a revi- 
val and missionary movement. Wesley thought 
as little of establishing a separate church pol- 
ity as of publishing a separate theology. The 
rapidly increasing work caused him and his 


coadjutors great anxiety.. It was their wish. 


and purpose to leave those who had been con- 
verted through their ministrations to the pas- 
toral care of the clergy of the establishment. 
But the neglect and frequent ridicule of the 
converts by the clergy caused many to turn 
back and plunge again into sin. . Hence Wes- 
ley on his departure from London appointed 
Mr. Maxfield, a young layman, to meet and 
encourage the members during his absence. 
Maxfield, through unusual zeal, was led to take 
a passage of Scripture to expound. Much good 
followed this attempt. Wesley, however, has- 
tened to put an end to what he regarded a 
disorderly procedure; but on listening to the 
earnest and persuasive preaching of Maxfield, 


he was convinced that this was God’s provi- 
dential way of providing for the wants of the 
growing societies. About the same time John 
Nelson, a mason of Bristol, began to explain 
to his neighbors the way of salvation which 
he had found, and to compare and explain the 
Scriptures. This was the origin of lay preach- 
ing, which afterward became so important an 
element in the economy of Methodism. <As 
the number of lay preachers increased and 
the number of converts multiplied, Wesley 
invited several clergymen and these lay assis- 
tants, as before mentioned, to meet him in 
London, “to give him their advice respecting 
the best method of carrying on the work of 
God.” This first assembly that took the name 
of ‘‘conference” was held in the Foundery, 
London, June 25, 1744. That Methodism was 
yet but a revival within the establishment is 
seen from the view taken by Wesley and his 
associates of the relations of the Methodist so- 
cieties to the church of England. Secession 
was discouraged, and they distinctly denied that 
they were dissenters. The hope was still en- 
tertained that the regular clergy might be faith- 
ful in their care of the people, and administer 
to them the sacraments. No provision was 
made for a future assembly, but conferences 
were held annually thereafter, and the record 
of their proceedings was published under the 
title, ‘‘Minutes of the several Conversations 
between the Rev. Mr. Wesley and others.” 
Previous to the conference of 1744 the great- 
er portion of England had been divided into 
“circuits,” and provision had been made to 
supply these with preachers for such time as 
the need of the work seemed to indicate. 
Here are thus found the elements of the circuit 
and itinerant systems, which have been so gen- 
erally maintained. During the life of Wesley 
the conferences were occupied in consultation 
respecting the best methods of conducting the 
evangelical work for the ensuing year, in the 
discussion of doctrinal questions, and in advi- 
sing the lay preachers as to the proper manner 
of spending their time in study, preaching, and 
pastoral labors. Till the close of the American 
revolution there had been no organization of 
a separate church de jure, although since the 
conference of 1744 there had been a church 
de facto, of which John Wesley was the chief 
head and executive. While in his work as 
an evangelist he recognized the sole and ex- 
clusive authority of the established church 
wherever the English civil authority was ex- 
ercised, the discussions of the several confer- 
ences, as well as Wesley’s writings and con- 
duct, clearly show that his views of ecclesi- 
astical authority and polity underwent radical 
changes, and led him, at the recognition of 
the independence of the American colonies, 
to provide a separate church organization for 
the Methodists of America, and at his death to 
perpetuate his work by constituting the ‘‘ Uni- 
ted Societies” a distinct ecclesiastical body 
in regular legal form. Methodism holds to 


EE 


452 METHODISM 


no inspired or divinely imposed church polity. | ander Kilham resulted, and took the name of 
While it believes that certain types of church | the Methodist New Connection. After Wes- 
organization are found in the New Testament, | ley’s death the progress of the Wesleyan Meth- 
it teaches that no uniformity of church gov- | odists was rapid and substantial. As a revi- 
ernment is obligatory, but that a church is at | val power it was unceasing in its labors for 
liberty to adapt its polity and government to | home evangelization, and as a missionary move- 
its varying exigencies. So with the orders| ment it organized conferences im Ireland, 
of the clergy. Methodism concedes that three | France, Australia, Canada, and the other Brit- 
orders early appeared in the church, but denies | ish provinces of America, and established mis- 
that these are enjoined in Scripture. Thus | sions in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Porta- 
in Great Britain it recognizes but one order, | gal, continental India, Ceylon, China, western 
while in America it has provided two. Agree- | and southern Africa, the West Indies, Austra- 
ably with its original character as a revival | lia, and many of the islands of Oceania. It de- 
and missionary movement, it feels at liberty | veloped a wise and efficient financial system ; 
to adjust its polity to the demands of its work. | it has taken active part in the great ques- 
Nevertheless its government and usages are | tions of emancipation and civil liberty; it laid 
essentially similar in all its divisions, as will | broad the foundations of its educational sys- 
appear from the separate accounts of them. - I. | tem, and wonderfully developed its literary and 
Divistons oF Mernopisu. The original body | theological character by the works of Thomas 
of Methodists in Great Britain are called Wes- | Coke, Jabez Bunting, Adam Clarke, Robert 
leyans or Wesleyan Methodists. The principal | Newton, Joseph Benson, Richard Watson, 
secessions from this parent body are the Cal- | Thomas Jackson, and many others. The doc- 
vinistic Methodists, the Methodist New Con- . trines of the Wesleyan Methodists have al- 
nection, the Primitive Methodists, the United | ready been sufficiently indicated. While they 
Methodist Free church, the Bible Christians, have no written confession of faith, they find 
and the Primitive Methodists of Ireland. There | in the thirty-nine articles of the established 
are also several minor divisions—1. Wesley- | church a proximate expression of their doctrinal 
ans, or Wesleyan Methodists. Although the | belief; but the deeds of their churches and the 
“ United Society,” organized in 1739, was the courts of England recognize Wesley’s notes on 
real origin of Methodism, the Wesleyans had | the New Testament and a portion of his ser- 
no legal status till 1784, and the societies had | mons as a standard of doctrine. Its polity and 
been under the exclusive control of the Wes- | government are substantially defined im the 
leys. They had assembled the conferences, | “ Deed of Declaration.” By this instrument the 
and had directed the religious work. The supreme ecclesiastical government is vested ex- 
chapels and preachers’ houses had been deeded | clusively in the hands of the clergy. These 
to trustees for the use of such preachers as | meet annually in conference, and continue in 
John or Charles Wesley should send to them, | session not less than five days and not more 
and, after the death of the Wesleys, of such than three weeks. The legal conference has 
as the conference should appoint. Near the power to receive preachers on trial, to re- 
close of his life, John Wesley drafted the so- | ceive into full membership on ordination, to 
called “ Deed of Declaration,” a plan for the | pass upon the character of all the preachers, 
perpetuity of the societies. In this instrument | to try charges against any, and to reprimand, 
100 preachers named by Wesley were declared | suspend, or exscind. It is its prerogative to 
to be the legal conference, and their character | review and revise the proceedings of the sub- 
and powers were clearly defined. To them | ordinate judicatories. These are: first, the 
was intrusted the duty of filling vacancies as | district meeting or conference, composed of 
they might occur. By the enrollment of this | ministers and laymen residing within a cer- 
document in the high court of chancery the | tain district, embracing from 10 to 20 circuits; 
conference secured a corporate existence and | second, the quarterly meeting, composed of 
legal status. The provisions of this deed have | local preachers, stewards, and class leaders, 
remained substantially the same to the present | at which meeting, thus composed largely of 
time. These members are technically called | the lay element of the church, candidates for 
“The Legal Hundred.” After the death of | the ministry are first proposed, and can be 
Wesley the church was greatly agitated by | rejected without appeal; thirdly, the leaders’ 
controversies relative to its polity, as well as meeting, held monthly, and composed of the 
by the political questions to which the French | minister or ministers of a circuit, the leaders of 
revolution had given rise. The celebration ) classes, and stewards, the last having in charge 
of the sacraments by its own preachers inde- | chiefly the temporalities of the societies. The 
pendently of the establishment, the powers | members of the various churches are divided 
of individual societies, and the relation of lay- | into “classes,” each numbering from 12 to 20 
men to the government of the church, were | persons and placed under a “leader,” who is 
among the chief subjects in controversy. These to meet the class weekly to inquire after their 
were substantially adjusted in 1795 by the | spiritual condition and give such counsel and 
adoption of a plan called “ Articles of Agree- | exhortation as each may need. The ministry 
ment for General Pacification,” although soon | is itinerant, preachers being appointed to a 
after a secession under the leadership of Alex- | church for a single year, and eligible to con- 


METHODISM 453 


tinue in one circuit not more than three con- 
secutive years. A body composed of one rep- 
resentative from each district meeting consti- | “ Wesleyan Education Committee,” and they 
tates a stationing committee, which prepares | have since manifested great interest in educa- 
a draft of the stations of all the ministers | tional matters. They have under their control 
for the ensuing year, and submits this to the | a “Proprietary College” at Sheffield, and a 
conference, where appeals are made and the | collegiate institution at Taunton, both standing 
scheme of appointments perfected in accord- | in collegiate relations to London university; a 
ance with the demands of the work. Impor- | college at Belfast, Ireland; and two theological 
tant improvements have been made in this pol- | schools situated respectively at Didsbury and 
ity from time to time, by which the seemingly | Richmond. They also support an extensive sys- 
oligarchical character of the “‘ Legal Confer- | tem of day schools, amounting in 1871. to 889 
ence” has been modified, and the methods have schools and 150,765 scholars, for which teach- 
been made consonant with the voice of ‘the ers are trained at the Wesleyan normal school 
large body of the conference. Yet the essen- | in Westminster. The statistics for 18734 of 
tial principles of the original “‘ Deed ” are still | the British Wesleyan church, including Great 
retained.—In the progress of its history, Wes- | Britain, the Irish, French, and Australasian 
leyan Methodism has developed various “con- | conferences, and the foreign missions, are: 
nectional ” enterprises, as its needs have sug- | members, 507,107; on trial, 32,361; travelling 
gested. Among these are the contingent fund, | preachers, 1,917; Sunday schools, 7,032; schol- 
established in 1756, for the support of home | ars, 261,740.—2. Calvinistie Methodists. This 
missionaries, for deficits of preachers on poor | branch of the original revival movement arose 
circuits, &c., which is sustained by an annual | from a diversity of view between Wesley and 
collection in all the societies, by donations and | Whitefield on doctrinal points, the former ad- 
bequests, and by appropriations from the book | vocating the Arminian theology and the lat- 
room; the children’s fund, founded in 1819, | ter the Calvinistic. Aided by his patron, the 
for equalization of the support of the children | countess of Huntingdon, Whitefield first erect- 
of preachers, according to the numbers and abil- | ed the celebrated “‘ Tabernacle” near the site 
ity of the societies; the general chapel fund, | of Wesley’s “‘ Foundery” in London, and was 
founded in 1818, to relieve embarrassed chap- | instrumental in building churches in various 
els and stimulate the liberality of the people in | parts of the United Kingdom. This branch of 
repairing and building chapels and preachers’ | Methodism divided into three sects, the “* Lady 
houses, by affording them help according totheir | Huntingdon Connection,” the “ Whitefield 
own exertions; and the preachers’ auxiliary | Methodists,” and the “ Welsh Calvinistic Meth- 
fund, for the relief of superannuated preachers, | odists.” The first of these branches adhered 
their widows and orphans. This denomination | to the liturgy of the established church, and 
had early been very zealous in the planting and | adopted a settled pastorate. Their numbers 
support of missions both domestic and foreign. | are limited, yet they still maintain the Ches- 
These local and unmethodical efforts were suc- ) hunt college, which was founded by Lady 
ceeded in 1818 by the “‘ General Wesleyan Mis- | Huntingdon. The Whitefield Methodists have 
sionary Society,” by which its entire mission- | been almost entirely absorbed into the Inde- 
ary operations were consolidated under a regu- | pendent church. The third branch has been 
lar board of managers. The amount disbursed | successful in labors especially in Wales and 
in 1873 was about £175,000. It supports mis- | among the Welsh population in America. It 
sions in every quarter of the globe. The dis- numbers about 60,000 communicants in Wales, 


ward at Wood House Grove and New Kings- 
wood. In 1837 the Wesleyans formed the 


- tribution of books and tracts by the preachers | and 4,000 in America, the latter divided into 


in their circuits was early insisted on by Wesley. | four annual conferences.—3. The Methodist 
In 1782 he and Coke instituted the “Society | New Connection originated in 1797. The Wes- 
for the Distribution of Religious Tracts among | leyan body had been agitated by various ques- 
the Poor.” To supply the needs of the people | tions of doctrine and polity. Great uneasiness 
Wesley early had a book store and printing | was felt by numbers of preachers and lay- 
house of his own, which has developed into | men because by the “Deed of Declaration” 
the Wesleyan book concern, one of the largest | the supreme government had been vested in 
publishing houses in England, whose interests | the clergy. This dissatisfaction manifested it- 
are supervised by a book steward and two edi- | self in various serious charges made against 
tors. These have also the general oversight | the ministry by Alexander Kilham, an or- 
of the official periodicals of the denomination. | dained travelling preacher. These charges 
The originators of Methodism early gave at- | were judged by the conference of 1796 to be 
tention to education. In 1739 Whitefield laid | slanderous, and after trial Kilham was expelled. 
the corner stone of a charity school at Kings- | He drew after him about 5,000 members. The 
wood for the neglected miners, which was | outlines ofa constitution were published by a 
afterward completed by Wesley. It also be-| conference convened in 1798, and these laws 
came the anxious inquiry at the conferences, | and rules have been revised from time to time. 
Can we have a seminary for laborers? Its | The conference is composed of equal numbers 
school fund was designed for the education of | of clergy and lay members. It has power to 
preachers’ children at Kingswood, and after- | make laws and rules every seven years, but 


454 


any proposed changes in the general rules must 


be submitted to the quarterly conferences for: 


examination, and must be approved by two 
thirds of the ensuing conference. In doctrine 
and general church usage this body agrees with 
the parent church. In addition to the home 
work in England, they support missions in 
Ireland, Canada, Australia, and China. The 
‘‘ Minutes ” for 1874 give : chapels, 677; soci- 
eties, 827; circuit preachers, 244; local preach- 
ers, 1,270; members, 33,563; Sunday schools, 
590; officers and teachers, 11,566; scholars, 
80,483.—4. The Primitive Methodists origina- 
ted in 1810, in consequence of a controversy 
about the propriety of holding camp meetings. 
These meetings had been introduced into Eng- 


land by Lorenzo Dow, and had proved an effi- 


cient means of good to the common people. 
They were defended and advocated by Hugh 
Bourne, a zealous layman, but were declared 
by the Wesleyan conference of 1807 ‘‘ improp- 
er” and ‘‘likely to be productive of consider- 
able mischief.’ On the persistence of Bourne 
in his labors he was expelled in 1808; and 
William Clowes, a fellow laborer of Bourne, 
was expelled two years later. They neverthe- 
less continued their labors with increased zeal 
and success. In Lancashire and Cheshire a 
schism in the Wesleyan church led 16 congre- 
gations and 28 preachers to be mostly absorbed 
into the Primitive Methodists. This church is 
chiefly Wesleyan in theology and. discipline. 
Its annual conference in England is composed 
of two thirds lay and one third clerical mem- 
bers; in the United States the clerical and lay 
elements are equal in the annual conference. 
It has churches in Great Britain, Ireland, Can- 
ada, the United States, New Zealand, Australia, 
Tasmania, and Africa. According to the ‘‘ Min- 
utes” of 1874, its numbers are as follows: 
preachers, itinerant and local, 15,904; mem- 
bers, 166,772; Sunday school teachers, offi- 
cers, and scholars, 356,276 ; chapels and other 
preaching places, 6,425.—5. The Bible Chris- 
tians were organized in 1815 by William 
O'Bryan, a Wesleyan Methodist local preacher, 
who separated himself from that body on. ac- 
count of irregularities in his methods of work, 
and visited a destitute district in E. Corn- 
wall and W. Devonshire, where he formed 
his first class. They have missions in Canada 
(these became independent in 1854) and Aus- 
tralia. They have a publishing house in Eng- 
land and one in Bowmansyille, Canada. In 
doctrine they are essentially Wesleyan. In all 
minor courts the laity are in the majority, but 


every fifth conference must be composed of 


equal numbers of preachers and laity; to the 


intervening conferences the laity send one rep- 


reséntative from each district. In 1878 this 
body had 1,991 itinerant and local preachers, 
1,072 chapels and other preaching places, 26,427 
members, and 58,089 Sunday school teachers 
and scholars.—6. Other Bodies. The lesser se- 
cessions from the Wesleyan church are chiefly 
the ‘‘ Band-Room Methodists,” who originated 


METHODISM 


in Manchester in 1806; the Primitive Methc-: 
dists of Ireland, 1816; the Protestant Metho- 
dists, 1828; the ‘“‘ Wesleyan Methodist Asso- 
ciation,” 1835; and the “‘ Reformers,” 1849. 
The last three have recently been merged un- 
der the name of the ‘‘ United Methodist Free 
Church,” which in 1872 numbered 66,907 
members. JI. Mernopism 1y AmeErIoA.—1l. 
The Methodist Episcopal Church is:the origi- 
nal and largest body of Methodists in the Uni- 
ted States. Wesley and Whitefield, during their 
visits to America, had organized no Metho- 
dist societies. The nucleus of the first Meth- 
odist church in America was composed of 
immigrants from Ireland who had been mem- 
bers of Mr. Wesley’s societies. In 1766 these 
were formed into a class and instructed by 
Philip Embury, who had been a class leader 
and local preacher in Ireland. . He was greatly 
assisted by Capt. Thomas Webb, an officer of 
the British army stationed in New York, who 
had been licensed as a local preacher by Wesley 
in 1765. Webb preached and formed classes 
during 1768 on Long Island, and in New Jersey, 
Delaware, and Philadelphia. In the same year 
the first chapel was dedicated in John street, 
New York; and in 1770 the first Methodist 
church in Philadelphia was erected. In 1769 
Boardman and Pilmore, the first missionaries 
sent to America by Wesley, arrived in New 
York and took charge of the work in that vicin- 
ity. Nearly contemporaneously with Embury, 
Robert Strawbridge, a local preacher from 
Ireland, settled in Maryland and formed a so- 
ciety in Frederick co., and afterward organized 
classes in Baltimore and Harford counties. 
About the same time Robert Williams had im- 
migrated from England, and had formed the 
first circuit in Virginia and preached in North 
Carolina. In 1771 Francis Asbury arrived, 
and the next year he was appointed by Mr. 
Wesley superintendent of the American socie- 
ties. He was soon superseded by Thomas 
Rankin, an experienced and able minister and 
disciplinarian. The first American confer- 
ence was held in 1773, and consisted of ten 
preachers, all of European birth. The socie- 
ties then aggregated 1,160 members. At the 
beginning of the revolutionary struggle nearly 
all the preachers of English descent, except 
Asbury, sympathized with the cause of the 
mother country, and returned home. During 
the war the English church in America was: 
nearly extinguished, and the dependence of 
the Methodists on the English clergy for the 
sacraments. almost entirely failed them. For 
this cause a majority of the Methodist preach- 
ers determined to provide for their adminis- 
tration independently of the English clergy. 
This threatened a serious rupture of the peace 
and harmony of the church. Under these cir- 
cumstances Wesley in 1780 applied to the bish- 
op of London to ordain at least one presbyter 
to administer the sacraments among the Amer- 
ican Methodists, but was refused. MTherefore 
in 1784 Wesley, assisted by the Rev. Thomas. 


METHODISM 


Creighton and Richard Whatcoat, presbyters, 
ordained the Rev. Thomas Coke, LL. D., as 
superintendent of the American Methodist 
churches, with the instruction that Asbury 
should be assistant superintendent. On Coke’s 
arrival a general conference of 60 ministers 
met in Baltimore, Dec. 24, 1784, and approved 
Wesley’s action by unanimously electing Coke 
and Asbury superintendents. This conference 
adopted the episcopal form of government, 
made the episcopal office elective, and held the 
superintendents amenable to the body of min- 
isters and preachers. The ‘‘ Sunday Service ” 
and twenty-five ‘‘ Articles of Religion,” were 
adopted. Thus thechurch first assumed organic 
form. From this time the progress of the de- 
nomination was rapid and assured. Before the 
close of the century Methodism had reached 
the Mississippi valley, had been established 
in the eastern British provinces and Canada, 
had been successfully preached in New Eng- 
land, and had met with great success through- 
out the middle and southern states. It was the 
first church to recognize officially the constitu- 
tion of the United States, and to pledge its loy- 
alty to the government. It had greatly devel- 
oped its internal polity and divided its territory 
into annual conferences; had laid the founda- 
tions of its benevolent and educational enter- 
prises; had introduced the Sunday school into 
America; had established a publishing house; 
had taken advanced ground on temperance; 
had been active in attempts to ameliorate the 
condition of the slave population; and had 
been positive in declaring the general incom- 
patibility of slaveholding with membership in 
its communion. In 1800 Richard Whatcoat 
was elected bishop, and in 1808 William Mc- 
Kendree. In 1808 the plan of a delegated 
general conference was adopted. This body, 
composed of 90 members, held its first session 
in 1812. The church, from a single class of 
five members in 1766, had now increased to 
195,357 members and 688 preachers.—Doc- 
trines. These are expressed in the twenty-five 
‘‘ Articles of Religion,” which, with the excep- 
tion of the 23d, were prepared by Mr. Wesley 
from the thirty-nine articles of the church of 
England. With the addition of the 23d and a 
few slight changes, they remain as they were 
adopted by the conference of 1784. Article I. 
is the enunciation of the usual orthodox view 
of the nature of God, and the trinity of per- 
sons in the unity of the Godhead. Art. II. 
enunciates the orthodox doctrine of the incar- 
nation, natures, suffering, crucifixion, death, 
burial, and the conciliatory and_ sacrificial 
character of Christ’s passion. Art. II. recog- 
nizes his real resurrection and ascension. Art. 
IV. asserts the co-equality of the Holy Ghost. 
Art. V. declares the sole authority.of the Holy 
Scriptures, and defines the canonical Scriptures. 
Art. VI. defines the relation of the Old and 


New Testament Scriptures, and affirms the- 


binding power of the moral law. Art. VII. 
defines original sin, guarding against Pelagi- 


455 


anism. Art. VIII. describes the condition of 
man after the fall of Adam, and declares his 
utter inability ‘‘to do good works, pleasant 
and acceptable to God, without the grace of 
God by Christ preventing us, that we may 
have a good will, and working with us when 
we have that good will.” Art. IX. enunciates 
the Protestant doctrine of justification by 
faith. Art. X. describes the character of good 
works. Art. XI. protests against the doctrine 
of supererogation. Art. XII. treats of sin 
after justification, declaring that “the grant 
of repentance is not to be denied to such as 
fall into sin after justification: after we have 
received the Holy Ghost, we may depart from 
grace given, and fall into sin, and, by the grace 
of God, rise again and amend our lives.” Art. 
XIII. defines the visible church of Christ. 
Art. XIV. protests against the Roman Catho- 
lic doctrine of purgatory, pardon, worship, 
and adoration, as well of images as of relics, 
and the invocation of saints. Art. XV. de- 
clares against the practice of the Roman Cath- 
olic church in conducting her services in a lan- 
guage not understood by the people. Art. 
XVI. defines the nature and number of the 
sacraments, declaring against their necessarily 
saving efficacy. Arts. XVII., XVIII., and XIX. 
define more fully the nature and significance 
of the sacraments. ‘‘The baptism of young 
children is to be retained in the church.” The 
supper of the Lord is to be administered in 
both kinds. Transubstantiation and the eleva- 
tion of the host are condemned as unsup- 
ported by Scripture or reason. Art. XX. de- 
clares the sufficiency of- the one and only 
offering of Christ for all the sins of the whole 
world, and condemns the sacrifices of. mass- 
es as blasphemous and deceitful. Art. XXI. 
affirms the lawfulness of marriage to Christian 
ministers. Art. XXII, denies the necessity of 
uniformity in the rites and ceremonies of the 
church, and announces that ‘‘every partic- 
ular church may ordain, change, or abolish 
rites or ceremonies, so that all things may be 
done to edification.” Art. XXIII. recognizes 
that ‘the president, congress, the general as- 
semblies, the governors, and the councils of 
state, as the delegates of the people, are the 
rulers of the United States of America accord- 
ing to the division of power made to them by 
the constitution of the United States, and by 
the constitutions of their respective states.” 
Art. XXIV. denies a community of goods in 
the Christian church, but enforces the duty of 
almsgiving, &c. Art. XXV. defines the na- 
ture and asserts the right of a Christian man’s 
oath. These articles purposely avoided the 
questions of Calvinism and Arminianism, and 
were intended as a broad platform on which 
all real Christians might unite.—Polity. The 
polity of the church is clearly defined in the 
book of its doctrines and discipline. There 
are five judicatory bodies, termed respectively 
the ‘‘ General Conference,” the ‘‘ Judicial Con- 
ference,” the ‘‘ Annual Conference,” the “ Dis- 


456 


trict Conference,” and the ‘‘ Quarterly confer- 
ence.” Prior to 1872 the general conference 
was composed exclusively of preachers elected 
by annual conferences, also composed exclu- 
sively of preachers, so that the constituent 
body and the delegated body were both wholly 
clerical. In 1872 a plan was completed for the 
introduction of a lay element. The general 
conference now consists of one minister for 
every 45 members of each annual conference, 
chosen by ballot by the ministers themselves, 
and two laymen, chosen by lay electors from 
the several quarterly conferences within the 
territory of the annual conference. It meets 
quadrennially on the first day of May, and is 
presided over by the bishops. The ministerial 
and lay delegates meet as one body, though a 
separate vote can be had provided one third 
of the ministers or laymen demand it. In case 
of a separate vote, a majority of both orders 
is necessary to pass a measure. It is the sole 
legislative body of the church, limited by cer- 
tain ‘‘ Restrictive Rules,” all of which rules are 
subject to revision except the first, which for- 
bids the conference to revoke, alter, or change 
the articles of religion, or to establish any new 
standards or rules of doctrine contrary to the 
present existing and established standards. It 
elects bishops, missionary and educational sec- 
retaries, book agents, and editors of its period- 
icals, and is also the court of final appeal. The 
judicial conference is composed of “triers of 
appeals,” seven of whom are elected by each 
annual conference. It tries bishops who may 
be accused, and also appeals of members con- 
victed in an annual conference. To try the 
latter cases, the triers of three conferences 
must unite; to try the former, the triers of 
five conferences are required. Their decision 
is final, except that law questions may be re- 
viewed by the general conference. The annu- 
al conference consists of travelling preachers. 
A bishop is the presiding officer, or in his ab- 
sence the conference may appoint its president. 
Its powers are simply administrative. It holds 
its members responsible, passing their charac- 
ter under examination each year. Its action 
is subject to review by the general conference. 
The district conference is composed of the 
presiding elder of the district, pastors, local 
preachers, exhorters, and one steward and Sun- 
day school superintendent from each pastoral 
charge. It licenses local preachers, and recom- 
mends them to the annual conference for ad- 
mission or for ordination. The local preach- 
ers are amenable to this body, which also cares 
for the general financial, benevolent, and edu- 
cational interests of the district. The quar- 
terly conference consists of the pastor, local 
preachers, exhorters, stewards, class leaders, 
and trustees and Sunday school superinten- 
dent (if members of the church) of a single 
pastoral charge, over which it exercises super- 
vision. The leaders and stewards’ meeting, 
composed of the pastor, class leaders, and stew- 
ards, cares for the sick and needy, guards the 


‘Sunday school and tract interests. 


METHODISM 


discipline of the members, and has power to 
recommend for membership and for license to 
exhort or preach. In common with the Wes- 
leyans, the M. E. church divides its members 
into classes under appropriate leaders. This 
church recognizes two orders in the ministry. 
Its bishops are not diocesan, but have a joint 
jurisdiction over the whole church. They are, 
however, since 1872, required to reside sever- 
ally within certain districts into which the ter- 
ritory was then divided. They preside over the 
annual and missionary conferences, arrange the 
presiding elders’ districts, station the preachers 
annually, and exercise a general superinten- 
dence over the spiritual and temporal interests 


of the church. The ministry is itinerant, the 


ministers not being allowed to remain in the 
same pastoral charge more than three consecu- 
tive years. Admission to the annual confer- 
ence is preceded by a probation of two years, 
and the completion of a prescribed course of 
study. The local preachers are usually lay 
preachers who are helpers of the regular pas- 
tor. Admission to membership is preceded by 
a probation of six months, to give the candi- 
date time to acquaint himself with the doctrine 
and discipline of the church; but members of 
other churches in regular standing are received 
without probation. The Methodist Episcopal 
church has rapidly developed its educational 
and benevolent institutions. It discussed plans 
of education as early as 1780, and in 1787 it 
dedicated its first college. In 1817 it opened 
its first permanent academy, and in 1820 the 
general conference recommended that each an- 
nual conference establish and maintain a semi- 
nary. Its first Biblical school, projected in 
1839, established at Concord, N. H., in 1847, 
was removed to Boston in 1867, and now forms 
a school of the Boston university. In 1874 it 
had under its supervision and control 27 uni- 
versities and colleges, with 5,250 students; 69 
seminaries and academies, with about 14,500 
students; and 5 theological schools, one in 
Germany and one in India, with 428 students. 
The total value of school property is about 
$8,500,000. Its publishing interests received 
early attention. Its book concern, begun in 
1789 on a borrowed capital of $600, has be- 
come the largest publishing house in America. 
The New York concern in 1878 had a capital 
of $1,052,448, and the Western Methodist book 
concern at Cincinnati a capital of $467,419. 
Besides these there are depositories in nearly 
every chief city of the United States. It pub- 
lishes a quarterly review, and 5 monthly and 
13 weekly periodicals. The missionary society, 
organized in 1819, superintends both the do- 
mestic and foreign missionary work. In 1873 
it appropriated $843,149. Its board of church 
extension was established in 1864; its receipts 
in 1878 were $115,296 05. The Sunday school 
union and tract society manage its immense 
It has also 
a woman’s foreign missionary society, and a 
board of education. Its statistical returns for 


METHODISM 


1874 give the following figures: bishops, 
13; annual conferences, 80; itinerant minis- 
ters, 10,845; local preachers, 12,706; members, 
1,845,089; probationists, 218,432; Sunday 
schools, 18,958; officers and teachers, 203,409 ; 
scholars, 1,383,227; value of churches and par- 
sonages, $78,516,6938.—2. Methodist Episcopal 
Church, South. Methodism was firmly estab- 
lished in the southern states at an early day. 
It embraced alike in its membership slaves 
and slaveholders, and slaveholders were found 
in its ministry. The subject of slavery occu- 
pied the attention of the American Methodists 
even prior to their organization into a distinct 
church. The members were at first advised 
to emancipate their slaves. Their local preach- 
ers were warned, and suspension and expul- 
sion threatened in case they failed to manumit 
their slaves, or bought slaves for the purpose 
of holding them. On the organization of the 
church in 1784, provision was made for the 
spiritual care of the blacks, and slavery was 
declared to be contrary to the law of God and 
every principle of the revolution. A method 
was likewise adopted for the extirpation of 
what was affirmed to be an “ abomination.” 
It was determined that persons who should 
buy, sell, or give away slaves should be im- 
mediately expelled, unless they bought them 
with the purpose to free them. In 1796 the 
disciplinary question read: ‘‘ What regulations 
shall be made for the extirpation of the crying 
evil of American slavery?” In the answer 
recommendation was made to the ‘“‘ yearly con- 
ferences, quarterly meetings, and to those who 
have oversight of districts and circuits, to be 
exceedingly cautious what persons they admit 
to official stations in our church; and in the 
case of future admission to official stations, to 
require such security of those who hold slaves 
for their emancipation, immediately or gradu- 
ally, as the laws of the states respectively and 
the circumstances of the case will admit.” 
The church was requested to consider the sub- 
ject of negro slavery with deep attention till 
the ensuing general conference, ‘in order to 
take further steps in eradicating this enormous 
evil from that part of the church of God to 
which we are united.” One of the discipli- 
nary provisions of 1804 was that a travelling 
preacher, the owner of slaves, should forfeit 
his ministerial character in case of failure to 
emancipate them where the laws might permit. 
The church was advised to forward through 
appointed channels addresses and petitions to 
state legislatures to secure the gradual emanci- 
pation of the blacks. In 1808 it was declared 
that no slaveholder should be eligible to the 
office of elder, where the laws will admit of 
emancipation. In 1812 each annual conference 
was authorized to make its own regulations 
relative to buying and selling slaves. The con- 
ference of 1816 substantially reaffirmed the 
regulation of 1808, but extended the ineligi- 
bility to all official members. The disciplinary 
statements were changed from time to time, 


457 


ever maintaining a distinct protest against the 
evil of slavery, but guarding the rights of mem- 
bers and ministers in those states where the 
laws did not admit of the manumission of 
slaves. The general conference of 1840 de- 
clared that ‘‘ mere ownership of slave property, 
in states or territories where the laws do not 
admit of emancipation and permit the liberated 
slave to enjoy freedom, constitutes no legal 
barrier to election or ordination of ministers 
to the various grades of office known in the 
ministry of the Methodist Episcopal church.” 
At the general conference of 1844, the appeal 
of the Rev. Francis A. Harding from the de- 
cision of the Baltimore conference, suspending 
him from the ministry for failure to manumit 
slaves obtained by marriage, was argued, and 
the decision confirmed, it being held that the 
laws of Maryland allowed manumission. The 
case of James O. Andrew, a bishop of the 
church, who had come into the possession of 
slaves subsequently to his election, also came 
before the conference for examination. A 
resolution ‘‘that it is the sense of the general 
conference that he desist from the exercise of 
his office, so long as this impediment (slave- 
holding) remain,” was passed by a vote of 111 
to 69. After many attempts at reconciliation, 
the delegates from 13 annual conferences pre- 
sented a declaration that this action of the 
conference ‘‘ must produce a state of things in 
the south which renders a continuance of the 
jurisdiction of the general conference over these 
conferences inconsistent with the success of 
the ministry in the slaveholding states.’ This 
was referred to a committee of nine, who re- 
ported a plan in which provision was made for 
a separation, in case such a contingency should 
arise. It provided for the peaceful adjustment 
of boundary lines, and an equitable division of 
property. The next day after the adjourn- 
ment of the conference, the southern delegates 
published a call for a convention of the slave- 
holding conferences to meet in Louisville, Ky., 
May 1, 1845. This convention declared the 
conferences there represented to be a distinct 
connection under the name of “‘ The Methodist 
Episcopal Church, South.” It also provided 
for its first general conference, which met at 
Petersburg, Va., in May, 1846. By a decision 
of the supreme court of the United States, the 
property was divided with the southern church 
in accordance with the provisions of the plan. 
This church now consists of 87 annual con- 
ferences, composed of travelling ministers and 
lay delegates, four of the latter from each dis- 
trict. The general conference is composed of 
an equal number of clerical and lay members. 
In economy and doctrine it is very similar to 
the Methodist Episcopal church. It has a pub- 
lishing house at Nashville, Tenn., and a pros- 
perous missionary society. Previous to the 
civil war it had 21 colleges for males, and 55 
collegiate and academic institutions for fe- 
males. It published one quarterly, two month- 
ly, and eight weekly periodicals. Its mis- 


458 


sionary, publishing, and educational interests 
were greatly crippled by the war, but are now 
reviving. Its ‘“‘ Minutes” for 1873-4 give the 
following figures: 3,134 travelling preachers, 
5,344 local preachers, 663,106 members, and 
370,102 Sunday school teachers and scholars.— 
3. African Methodist Episcopal Churches. The 
refusal to accord equal privileges in church sit- 
tings, in the administration of the eucharist, 
&c., to the colored members of the Methodist 
church, had caused great uneasiness and dissat- 
isfaction. In 1787 they had discussed their 
grievances ina convention at Philadelphia. In 
1816 a general convention of colored Metho- 
dists organized a separate church, ‘‘in order to 
secure their privileges and promote union 
among themselves.” 
ference in 1816, Richard Allen, a principal 
leader in the movement, was elected first bish- 
op. The doctrines and government of this 
church agree with those of the parent body. 
It has a book concern in Philadelphia, a week- 
ly periodical, one college, and church property 
to the value of $4,500,000, There are 10 con- 
ferences, 7 bishops, 600 travelling preachers, 
1,800 local preachers, and 200,000 members. 
In 1819 a secession from this church was or- 
ganized, under the title of the ‘“‘ African Metho- 
dist Episcopal Zion Church.” They annually 
elect their superintendent, and in 1873 had 694 
preachers and 164,000 members. The ‘ Col- 
ored Methodist Episcopal Church in America,” 
organized in 1870 from members of the Meth- 
odist Episcopal church, South, and in sympa- 
thy with her, has 3 bishops, 1,818 preachers, 
and 67,888 members.—4. Methodist Protestant 
Church. This body was organized by former 
members of the Methodist Episcopal church in 
1830, primarily for the alleged reason that its 
government.secured to.the itinerant ministers 
the unlimited exercise of the legislative, ex- 
ecutive, and judicial powers of the church, to 
the exclusion of all other classes of ministers, 
and of all the people. Members of several gen- 
eral conferences had exhibited marked dissat- 
isfaction with some leading features of the 
government, and a very respectable minority 
struggled hard to effect important changes. A 
periodical, ‘‘The Wesleyan Repository,”- was 
commenced in 1820, and continued to the gen- 
eral conference of 1824. Numerous petitions 
were presented to that body, praying for a rep- 
resentation of ministers and laymen in the law- 
making department. Immediately after the 
adjournment of that conference a meeting 
was held in Baltimore, when it was deter- 
mined to publish a periodical, entitled ‘The 
Mutual Rights of the Ministers and Members 
of the Methodist Episcopal Church,” “for the 
purpose of giving the Methodist community a 
suitable opportunity to enter upon a calm and 
dispassionate discussion of the subjects in dis- 
pute.” This meeting resolved itself into a 
union society, and recommended that similar 
societies be organized in all parts of the Uni- 
ted States, ‘‘in order to ascertain the number 


At the first general con-’ 


METHODISM 


of persons in the Methodist Episcopal church 
friendly to a change in her government.” This 
measure was followed by persecution and ex- 
pulsion of some of the reformers. In 1826 the 
Baltimore union society recommended state 
conventions to be held in the several states to 
inquire into the propriety of preparing one 
united petition to the general conference of 
1828, praying for representation, and to elect 
delegates to meet in a general convention for | 
the purpose. Conventions were accordingly 
held, and delegates elected. In North Caro- 
lina several members of the Granville union 
society were expelled for taking part in this 
convention. In 1827 11 ministers were sus- 
pended, and finally expelled, from the Meth- 
odist Episcopal church in Baltimore, and 22 
laymen, for being members of the union soci- 
ety. They and their friends immediately or- 
ganized under Mr. Wesley’s general rules, ta- 
king the title of the ‘‘ Associated Methodist 
Reformers.” In November, 1827, the general 
convention, composed of ministers and lay 
delegates elected by the state conventions and 
union societies, assembled in Baltimore. This 
convention memorialized the general conference 
of 1828 that the government of the church 
might be made representative, and more in ac- 
cordance with the mutual rights of the minis- 
ters and people. To this memorial the gener- 
al conference replied adversely. The reform- 
ers then withdrew in considerable numbers, in 
different parts of the United States, and called 
another general convention in Baltimore, Nov. 
12, 1828. This convention drew up 17 “ Ar- 
ticles of Association,” to serve as a provision- 
al government for the Associated Methodist 
churches. A subsequent convention, which 
was held in Baltimore, November, 1830, adopt- 
ed a constitution and discipline for the gov- 
ernment of the Methodist Protestant church. 
The Rev. Francis Waters, D. D., of Baltimore, 
was elected president. This constitution opens 
with the enunciation of certain elementary 
principles which lie at its foundation. It con- 
sists of 17 articles, defining the government and 
discipline of this body. This church agrees with 
the parent body in doctrine, but differs in eccle- 
siastical government. The general conference 
is composed of equal numbers of clergy and lai- 
ty, elected by the annual conferences in the ratio 
of one delegate of each order for every thou- 
sand communicants. The office of bishop is 
not recognized, but the president of general 
conference is chosen by ballot. The annual 
conference consists of all the ordained itinerant 
ministers within a district, and it elects its own 
president. The composition, duties, and pre- 
rogatives of the general, annual, and quarterly 
conferences are quite similar to those of the 
like bodies in the parent church. In 1858 
most of the annual conferences in the free 
states became intensely anti-slavery, and de- 
manded of the general conference which met 
in Lynchburg, Va., in the month of May, such 
legislation as should exclude plaveholpars from 


METHODISM 


the communion of the church. As the general 
conference refused to comply, 19 annual con- 
ferences sent delegates to a convention which 
met in Springfield, O., Nov. 10, 1858. This 
convention suspended all official connection 
with the other portions of the church so long 
as they tolerated slaveholding. Subsequently 
these conferences seceded from the Methodist 
Protestant church, and with a few from the 
other non-Episcopal Methodist bodies organ- 
ized the “‘ Methodist Church.” This secession 
reduced the numerical and financial strength 
of the original church fully one half, leaving to 
it only 20 annual conferences. The Methodist 
Protestant church has about 65,000 members, 
and about $1,500,000 worth of property. The 
denomination has a book concern in Balti- 
more, and publishes three periodicals. Its 
church organ is ‘‘The Methodist Protestant,” 
published in Baltimore. It has likewise un- 
der its control four literary institutions. The 
Methodist church had in 1874 28 confer- 
ences, 924 preachers, and about 65,000 mem- 
bers. It has a book concern and publishes a 
paper at Pittsburgh, Pa., and supports a mis- 
sionary board, a board for ministerial edu- 
cation, and one college.—5. The Wesleyan 
Methodist Connection of America was organ- 
ized by a convention of 151 members, minis- 
terial and lay, convened in Utica, N. Y., May 
31,1843. Prominent among its founders were 
Orange Scott, president of the convention, first 
editor and publishing agent of the denomina- 
tion; Luther Lee, an able controversialist and 
theologian, author of ‘‘ Elements of Theology ;” 
Edward Smith, and others of large experience 
and good ability. In doctrine and religious 
usages this body is strictly Methodistic. Its 
distinctive features appertain to questions of 
morality and church polity. Opposition to 
slavery was a principal cause of its organiza- 
tion. The argument ran thus: Slavery is sin 
per se; therefore slaveholders should be de- 
nied a place in the Christian church. A strin- 
gent rule was enacted, excluding from church 
communion not only all slave owners and slave 
traders, but also all who claimed that the in- 
stitution is right. This denomination did much 
to educate the public to the point of positive 
opposition to slavery. A strong position was 
also taken against intemperance, forbidding the 
manufacture, sale, or use of intoxicants as bev- 
erages, and even the intentional aiding of oth- 
ers so todo. Fellowship with freemasonry and 
_ kindred societies is forbidden, as incompati- 
ble with the spirit and precepts of the Chris- 
tian religion. The polity of this denomination 
unites the connectional and congregational ele- 
ments. In interests merely local the churches 
are independent, but those which are general 
are placed under the supervision of the con- 
ferences, general and yearly. In the former, 
which meets quadrennially, rests the supreme 
legislative authority, while the latter are for 
the most part administrative. These confer- 
ences respectively elect their own presidents. 


459 


Equal representation of the laity with the min- 
istry is secured in all the conferences by spe- 
cific provision. There is but one order in its 
ministry, that of elders; it is believed that, in 
the sense of the Scriptures, bishops are but 
pastors, and deacons supervised the temporal- 
ities of the church. Its itineracy is voluntary, 
and the pastorate is purely the subject of agree- 
ment between pastor and people. There are 
16 yearly conferences, mostly confined to the 
northern states. The connection owns a pub- 
lishing house at Syracuse, N. Y., where two 
papers are issued, the ‘‘ American Wesleyan,” 
organ of the denomination, and the ‘Chil- 
dren’s Banner.” The assets are estimated at 
$40,000. These interests are supervised by 
a publishing agent, editors, and a book com- 
mittee consisting of six ministers and six lay- 
men, all of whom are elected by the general 
conference. The connection has contributed 
liberally to the cause of Christian education, 
has a well organized missionary society, and 
a society incorporated for the aid of superan- 
nuated ministers and the needy widows and 
orphans of deceased ministers. It had in 1874 
about 250 ministers and 20,000 members.—6. 
Canadian Methodism. Methodism was intro- 
duced into the eastern British provinces by 
Wesleyan missionaries as early as 1765, and 
was afterward greatly advanced by American 
itinerants sent out by Coke. Chief among 
these was Freeborn Garrettson, who reached 
Nova Scotia in 1785. Though there were 
classes prior to this time, William Losee, who 
entered Canada in 1790, is regarded as the first 
Methodist itinerant minister in that province. 
Methodism was greatly promoted by laborers 
from the United States, William Case, Henry 
Ryan, Nathan Bangs, and others, who in the 
face of great opposition established societies 
in both Lower and Upper Canada. Till the 
war of 1812 this work had been chiefly di- 
rected by the Methodist Episcopal church of 
the United States. The war interrupted this 
intercourse, and at its close preachers appointed 
to Canadian stations by the Genesee confer- 
ence were regarded with suspicion. The rival 
claims of the American and English Methodists 
were adjusted in 1820 by giving to the Eng- 
lish conference the jurisdiction of Lower Can- 
ada and to the Genesee conference that of the 
Upper province. This adjustment did not 
prove satisfactory. In 1828 the Canada con- 
ference, organized in 1824, became an inde- 
pendent Methodist church, with an episcopal 
form of government, but in 1833 a union 
with the British conference was effected. <A 
portion of the church resisted this union, and 
has continued under the title of the Meth- 
odist Episcopal church of Canada. In govern- 
ment and doctrine it is like the parent body. 
It has three annual conferences, 228 travel- 
ling preachers, 225 local preachers, 21,818 
members, 80,000 Sunday school scholars, and 
church property to the amount of $2,149,776, 
and has charge of two collegiate institutions. 


460 METHODISM 


The union of the larger body of the Canadian 
Methodists with the British conference was dis- 
continued in 1840, but resumed in 1847. In 
1878 the British conference granted the peti- 
tion of the Canadian and East British confer- 
ences to exist as independent organizations. In 
June, 1874, the Wesleyan conference of Canada 
was divided into three annual conferences; but 
in October a union was formed of this confer- 
ence, the East British American, and the New 
Connectional Methodists of Canada, under the 
title of ‘‘The Methodist Church of Canada.” 
This new organization has 956 travelling preach- 
ers, 100,178 members, more than 100,000 Sun- 
day school scholars, one university, and four 
collegiate and academic institutions. — Other 


Methodist bodies are the Evangelical Associa-: 


tion, organized in 1800, largely German, which 
in 1874 had 2 bishops, 15 annual conferences, 
1,213 preachers, 1,184 churches, and 90,249 
members; the United Brethren in Christ, also 
mostly German, organized in 1800, which in 
1872 had 42 annual conferences, 1,709 preach- 
ers, 8,912 organized churches, and 120,445 
,members; and the Free Methodist church, or- 
ganized in 1860, which in 1874 had 2 superin- 
tendents, 8 annual conferences, 170 preachers, 
and 6,000 members. IV. Lirzratrurr. Of the 
immense literature of Methodism, besides the 
works and biographies of its founders and early 
promoters, may be mentioned the following: 
‘‘ Annual Minutes of the Methodist Confer- 
ence;” ‘Minutes of the Annual Conferences 
of the Methodist Episcopal Church” (29 vols. 
8vo); “Journals of the General Conference 
of the Methodist Episcopal Church ” (12 vols. 
8vo); ‘History of the Religious Movement 


called Methodism,” by Abel Stevens, D. D. (3° 


vols. 8vo, New York, 1861); ‘‘ History of Meth- 
odism,” by George Smith (8 vols. 8vo, 1862) ; 
‘‘ History of the Methodist Episcopal Church,” 
by Nathan Bangs, D. D. (4 vols. 12mo); ‘ His- 
tory of the Methodist Episcopal Church,” by 
Abel Stevens, D. D. (4 vols. 8vo); ‘‘ History 
of the Discipline of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church,” by Robert Emory, with additions by 
the Rev. W. P. Strickland; ‘History of the 
Great Secession,” by Charles Elliott, D. D.; 
‘‘The Oxford Methodists,” by the Rev. L. 
Tyerman (London, 1878); ‘‘ History of the 
Organization of the M. E. Church, South,” by 
A. H. Redford, D. D.; “Annals of Southern 
Methodism,” by the Rev. Charles F. Deems; 
‘“‘ History of Methodism in Canada,” by G. F. 
Playter; ‘‘ History of Canadian Methodism,” 
by the Rev. John Carroll (4 vols. 8vo) ; ‘ His- 
tory of the Missions of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church,” by the Rev. W. P. Strickland (Cin- 
cinnati, 1850); ‘ Theological Institutes,” by 
the Rev. Richard Watson, D. D., with an 
analysis by the Rev. John McClintock, D. D.; 
Systematische Theologie einheitlich behandelt, 
by William F. Warren, D. D. (8vo, Bremen, 
1865); ‘‘Defence of our Fathers,” by Bishop 
Emory; and ‘Church Polity,” by Abel Ste- 
vens, D. D. For a complete bibliography of 


METTERNICH 


Methodism down to 1865, see the above work 
of Dr. Warren. 


METHODIUS. See Cyrrit anp MeErnopits. 
METRE, and Metric System. See WEiguTs AnD 
MEASURES. 


METRONOME, an instrument for measuring 
time in music. It is a kind of pendulum 
whose centre of oscillation is beyond the 
point of suspension, contrived so that it may 
be easily carried about and placed convenient- 
ly on a table. The first metronomes went 
without clockwork, consisting simply of a rod 
with sliding balls at either end, and suspended 
near the middle on a horizontal rod which 
served as an axle. (See Mercnanios.) The 
modern instrument is kept in motion by clock- 
work, and usually consists of a wooden py- 
ramidal box on the front of which is a grad- 
uated scale of figures numbering from above 
downward. A pendulum, bearing a sliding 
weight a anda bob 3, has its rod graduated 
with marks corresponding to those on the 
scale. As the sliding weight is moved up, the 
centre of oscillation is moved further beyond 
the point of suspension ¢, and the vibrations 
take place more slowly. The scale in the 
instrument from which the drawing was made 
has a range from 40 to 208, the numbers cor- 
responding to the number of beats per minute, 
which is the unit of time. In some instruments 
a bell has been add- 
ed, arranged so as to 
strike at the begin- 
ning of each bar. 
The knob shown at 
d moves the bell by 
means of a slide; 
e is the key for 
winding. Modern 
composers are in 
the habit of mark- 
ing their composi- 
tions with the met- 
ronomic signs, and 
many of the princi- 
pal works of the old- 
er composers have 
recently been thus 
marked by the edi- 
tors. These signs 
consist of a note together with its numeri- 
cal or metronomic value. For example, if a 
movement is marked ? = 132, that implies 
that when the sliding weight is set at 132 
on the scale the pendulum will vibrate once 
to each quarter note in the bar. Similarly, 
Y — 80 would signify that when adjusted at 
80 the pendulum would vibrate once to each 
half note. The credit of this invention is 
usually given to Maelzel, but it more properly 
belongs to Diederich Winkel of Amsterdam, 
who made the first instrument about 1815. 
Maelzel improved upon it somewhat, and ap- 
propriated the invention. 

METTERNICH. I. Gemens Wenzel Nepomuk 
Lothar, prince, an Austrian statesman, born in 


Metronome 


METTERNICH 


Coblentz, May 15, 1778, died in Vienna, June 
11, 1859. He first appeared in public life as 
master of ceremonies at the coronation of Leo- 
pold II. (1790). Subsequently he studied juris- 
prudence for a time in Mentz, made a jour- 
ney to England in 1794, became Austrian am- 
bassador at the Hague, and married in 1795 the 
granddaughter and heiress of Prince Kaunitz, 
whose large domains, added to his own patri- 
mony, made him one of the wealthiest land- 
holders of Germany. He attended the con- 
gress of Rastadt in 1797-9, and was ambas- 
sador in Dresden in 1801, in Berlin in 1803-74, 
and in Paris in 1806, where Napoleon received 
him with the remark: ‘ You are very young to 
represent so powerful a monarchy.” ‘ Your 
majesty was not older at Austerlitz,” replied 
Metternich. In 1807 he concluded at Fon- 
tainebleau the convention by which Braunau 
was restored to Austria, and the Isonzo river 
made the boundary of Italy. In 1809, on the 
outbreak of the war between Austria and 
France, Metternich joined the emperor Francis 
in Hungary, and succeeded Count Stadion as 
minister of foreign affairs. In 1810 he con- 
ducted the negotiations with Champigny in re- 
gard to Napoleon’s marriage with Maria Lou- 
isa, and subsequently escorted the archduchess 
to Paris. Yet he never ceased to watch the am- 
bitious designs of Napoleon, and kept himself 
in constant communication with the English 
and Russian governments. Napoleon, in his 


interview with him in Dresden, June 27, 1813,. 


accused Metternich of conspiring against him, 
while professing to conclude with him a treaty 
of peace. In fact, while Metternich was ma- 
king proposals of peace to Napoleon, a for- 
mal treaty was concluded at Reichenbach, by 
which Austria engaged to declare war against 
France in case the conditions which were to 
be proposed at Prague should not be accepted. 
This treaty was for a long time kept secret. 
The formal declaration of war was drawn 
up by Metternich’s order, Aug. 11, and the 
quadruple alliance was concluded by him at 
Teplitz, Sept. 9. Metternich’s great influence 
in this war soon became apparent. The kings 
of Bavaria and Wirtemberg were induced to 
forsake Napoleon by a secret provision made 
through Metternich that they should be pro- 
tected against popular disturbances, and should 
receive additional possessions. He was re- 
warded by the Austrian emperor with the 
hereditary dignity of a prince of the empire, 
conferred on the eve of the battle of Leipsic. 
He took a leading part in all subsequent con- 
ferences and treaties. When the congress of 
Vienna opened, he was unanimously chosen 
to preside over its deliberations. He attended 
the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, was 
chancellor of state in 1821, attended the con- 
gress of Verona in 1822, and until the revo- 
lution of 1848 exercised a remarkable ascen- 
dancy over the affairs of Austria and Europe, 
as the leading champion of conservatism. He 
was strenuously opposed to the policy of 


\ 


METTRAY 461 


France as inaugurated by the revolution of 
1830. After the death of Francis (1835) Met- 
ternich remained in oflice as chancellor and 
prime minister to his successor Ferdinand. In 
1840 and 1841, during the complication of the 
oriental question, he exerted. his influence in 
favor of the maintenance of peace abroad. <At 
home his iron rule prepared the way for the 
revolution which terminated his power (March 
13, 1848). Barely escaping with his life from 
the people, he fled through Holland to Eng- 
land, where he remained till November, 1849. 
He next removed to Brussels, and in 1851 
returned to Vienna. On his way thither he 
visited his estate on the Johannisberg, which 
had been presented to him by Francis in 1816, 
but which during the revolutionary move- 
ments in Germany in 1848-9 had been taken 
from his control, and while there received a 
visit from Frederick William IV. of Prussia. 
Without resuming public office, he continued 
until his death to exercise great influence in 
political affairs. The prince was fond of let- 
ters and art; and in one of his letters to Alex- 
ander von Humboldt he remarks that his incli- 
nation would have led him rather to the sphere 
of science than to that of diplomacy. In addi- 
tion to his Austrian titles, he was created by 
the king of Naples duke of Portella, with a 
pension of 60,000 Neapolitan ducats, and was 
made a Spanish duke, while honors and pres- 
ents were showered upon him by all European 
potentates. II. Richard, prince, eldest son of 
the preceding by his second wife (the baro- 
ness of Leykam and countess Beilstein), born 
in Vienna, Jan. 7, 1829. After officiating as 
ambassador in Dresden and as attaché to the 
ministry of foreign affairs during the war of 
1859, he became soon after the peace of Villa- 
franca (July 11, 1859) ambassador at Paris, and 
held the post till December, 1871. He was 
made hereditary councillor of the Austrian em- 
pire in 1861, and privy councillor in 1864.—He 
married in 1856 his niece, the princess PavLINE 
(born Feb. 26, 1836), a daughter of Count 
Maurice Sandor, and the heiress of vast estates. 
The princess became an intimate friend of the 
empress Eugénie and a brilliant leader of so- 
ciety in Paris during the second empire. 
METTRAY, an agricultural and penitentiary 
colony of France, in the department of Indre- 
et-Loire, 5 m. N. of Tours, on the railway to 
Le Mans. It is'a celebrated establishment for 
the reformation of juvenile offenders, which 
is supported mainly by its own labor, and tq 
some extent by voluntary donations and an- 
nual subscriptions. Frédéric Auguste Demetz 
(who was born May 12, 1796, and died at Met- 
tray, Nov. 8, 1878) was the founder. He 
studied law, and for several years was a judgo 
of the court of police correctionelle at Paris. 
In order to learn the best way to reform juve. 
nile criminals, he investigated the agricultural 
colonies in Hamburg, Belgium, and Holland 
for the reformation of young offenders, and in 
1886 made a tour of inspection of the peni- 


462 


tentiaries in the United States. On his return 
to France, M. Demetz, in connection with the 
viscount Bretigniéres de Courteilles, estab- 
lished in 1839 the colony of Mettray, the vis- 
count offering a portion of his own estate 
for the experiment. In July they assembled 
23 young men and began training them for 
teachers for the young offenders who were 
to be brought there. In January, 1840, they 
admitted 12 young criminals, and gradually 
increased the number, till in August, 1872, 792 
were under training; and from the foundation 
to that date 4,287 had been received. The 


boys are divided into families of 50; the labor 
is chiefly agricultural, though various trades 
are carried on; and the establishment is almost 
wholly self-supplied, though not entirely self- . 

After the death of Courteilles 
superintendence of the establish- 


supporting. 
(1854) the 


METZ 


ment devolved on Demetz. Demetz published 
Projet dMétablissement dune maison de refuge 
pour les prévenus acquittés ad leur sortie de 
prison (Paris, 1836); Lettre sur le systéme péni- 
tentiaire (1838); Rapport sur les pénitenciers 
des Etats-Unis (1839); Résumé sur le systéme 
pénitentiaire (1847); Rapport sur les colonies 
agricoles (1856); and an interesting series of 
annual reports to the société paternelle on the 
condition of the colony of Mettray. 

METZ, a fortified city of the German Reichs- 
land of Alsace-Lorraine, at the confluence of 
the Seille and Moselle, 80 m. W. N. W. of 
Strasburg; pop. in 1871, 51,388, which has 
been much diminished by French emigration 
since the cession. to Germany. The city is 
surrounded by a regular system of fortifica- 
tions, and entered by nine gates with draw- 
bridges. The most important works were 


commenced by Vauban and Belle-Isle and com- 
pleted by Cormontaigne; and since the Ger- 
man occupation the fortifications have been 
improved and extended. ‘The esplanade in the 
centre of the city is a beautiful promenade; the 
quarter on the right side of the Moselle con- 
tains many steep and narrow streets. Among 
the principal public buildings are the arsenal, 
the cathedral, the churches of Notre Dame de 
Ja Ronde and of the abbey of St. Vincent, both 
of great antiquity, the military hospital, the 
hall of justice, and the public library. Besides 
many Roman Catholic churches and convents, 
it contains a Calvinist church and several syn- 
agogues. It has manufactories of woollen 
goods, hosiery, plush, embroidery, beer, tiles, 
and nails. Its manufacture of silk plush for 
hats is very extensive.—Metz was known to 
the Romans under the name of Divodurum, 
changed subsequently to that of Mediomatrici, 


having been the capital of that tribe of Bel- 
gic Gaul; in the 5th century it was called 
Mettis or Metis. It became celebrated as the 
capital of Austrasia, which was afterward 
called the kingdom of Metz, and which in the 
middle of the 9th century assumed the name 
of Lorraine. Early in the 10th century Metz 
fell into the power of Henry the Fowler of 
Germany, and subsequently became a free im- 
perial city, famous for its commerce, its bril- 
liant society, and its love of letters and art. 
As the seat of one of the three bishoprics of 
Lorraine, it witnessed many commotions caused 
by the rivalries of the citizens and clergy. In 
1552 it was occupied by Henry II. of France, 
besieged several months by Charles V., and suc- 
cessfully defended by the duke of Guise. It 
was annexed to France by the treaty of West- 
phalia (1648). At the beginning of the war of 
1870 the third corps of the French army was 


METZU 


stationed at Metz under Marshal Bazaine. Na- 
poleon III. arrived there on July 28 and as- 
sumed the chief command. After the defeats 
at Worth and Forbach, Aug. 6, about half of the 
French army was concentrated here, and on the 
8th Marshal Bazaine assumed command. On 
the 14th the emperor with the vanguard left 
Metz and crossed the Moselle, and on the same 
day the first attempt of Bazaine to prepare for 
retreat was checked by the battle of Courcelles. 
The immediately succeeding battles of Mars- 
la-Tour on the 16th, and Gravelotte, 18th, 
drove the French within their fortifications, and 
Metz was now closely besieged by the Germans 
under Prince Frederick Charles. The subse- 
quent attempts of Bazaine to break out were 
defeated, the more important sorties being 
repulsed on Aug. 26, 31, Sept. 1, 22-23, 27, 
Oct. 2, and 7-8. On Oct. 27 Metz capitulated, 
Bazaine surrendering his entire force to Prince 
Frederick Charles. (See Bazarnz.) By the 
treaty of Frankfort, May 10, 1871, Metz was 
included in the cession of the Alsace-Lorraine 
territory to Germany. For the surrender at 
Metz Marshal Bazaine was tried by court mar- 
tial at Versailles, the duke d’Aumale presiding. 
At the conclusion of the trial, Dec. 10, 1878, 
the judges declared Bazaine guilty of the capit- 
ulation of Metz and of the army in the open 
field without doing all that was prescribed by 
honor and duty to avoid the surrender. He 
was unanimously condemned to death, and to 
degradation from his rank previous to his 
execution; but all the members of the court 
signed an appeal for mercy, which the duke 
d’Aumale in person presented to President 
MacMahon, who commuted Bazaine’s sentence 
to 20 years’ seclusion. He was sent to the 
island of Ste. Marguerite, but escaped Aug. 
9, 1874.—See Die Operationen der zweiten 
Armee vom Beginn des Kriegs bis zur Ca- 
pitulation von Metz, by the baron von der 
Goltz (Berlin, 1878). 

METZI, Gabriel, a Dutch painter, born in Ley- 
den in 1615, died there in 1658, or according 
to some authorities in 1669. In his youth he 
settled in Amsterdam, where he rose to emi- 
nence as a genre painter, being distinguished 
for minute imitation of nature. He painted 
a few portraits, including one of Admiral Van 
Tromp now in the Louvre. His pictures bring 
very high prices. 

MEUDON, a village of France, in the depart- 
ment of Seine-et-Oise, built upon an eminence 
on the left bank of the Seine, and on the Paris 
and Versailles railway, 3 m. S. W. of Paris 
and 2 m. 8S. W. of Fort Issy; pop. in 1866, 
5,417. During the siege of Paris, Meudon was 
occupied by the 11th German army corps, which 
during the night of Jan. 13, 1871, repulsed a 
vehement sortie of the troops of Paris. The 
castle of Meudon, during the latter years of 
the second empire the summer residence of 
Prince Napoleon, was burned on Jan. 30. 

MEULEN, Antoine Francois van der, a French 
artist, born in Brussels in 1634, died in Paris, 

551 VOL. XI.—30 


MEUSE 463 


Oct. 15, 1690. He was in early youth a pupis 
of Peter Snayers, a painter of battles, and was 
invited to Paris to paint campaign scenes in 
the life of Louis XIV. He passed the rest of 
his life there, and was esteemed as a painter 
of battles, hunting scenes, and cavalcades. 

MEURSIUS, or De Meurs, Johannes, the elder, a 
Dutch scholar, born at Loosduinen, near the 
Hague, in 1579, died in Soré, Denmark, Sept. 
20, 1639. He was tutor to the sons of Barne- 
veldt, and in 1610 became professor of history 
at Leyden, and in 1611 of Greek. The states 
of Holland conferred on him the title of his- 
toriographer, but on the execution of Barne- 
veldt he was subjected to persecution, and in 
1625 accepted the appointment of professor of 
history in the university of Soré. He wrote 
numerous monographs on Greek and Roman 
antiquities, and his collected works fill 12 
volumes folio (Florence, 1741-’63).—His son 
JOHANNES (1613-54) also distinguished him- 
self as an antiquarian scholar. 

MEURTHE-ET-MOSELLE, a N. E. department 
of France, in the old province of Lorraine, bor- 
dering on Belgium, Luxemburg, the German 
Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine, and the depart- 
ments of Vosges and Meuse; area, 2,025 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1872, 365,137. By the treaty of 
Frankfort, May 10, 1871, Germany took from 
France almost one half of the department of 
Meurthe and nearly the whole of Moselle. By 
a law of the French national assembly, Sept. 
11, 1871, the portions of Meurthe and Mo- 
selle remaining were united under the pro- 
visional name of Meurthe-et-Moselle. The 
principal river is the Meurthe. The surface is 
generally uneven, but none of the hills are 
more than 700 ft. high, and they are covered 
with forests, fruit trees, and vineyards. The 
soil is generally fertile, and the department is 
noted for the variety of its productions. Among 
the minerals are iron, copper, lead, building 
stone, and gypsum. There are some manu- 
factures of linen, muslin, canvas, and wool- 
len stuffs. It is divided into the arrondisse- 
ments of Nancy, Lunéville, Toul, and Briey. 
Capital, Nancy. 

MEUSE (anc. Mosa; Dutch, Maas; Flem. 
Maese), a river which rises in the department 
of Haute-Marne in France, and, flowing main- 
ly N. through Vosges, Meuse, and Ardennes, 
enters Belgium near Charlemont. From Na- 
mur it flows N. E. till near its entrance into 
Holland, when again it bends N., then flows 
N. W., and finally W. A little below Gorkum 
it divides into two branches, one of which 
takes the name of Merwede, and, after again 
dividing and forming with its arms the isl- 
and of Ysselmonde, falls into the North sea 
amid shoals and quicksands; while the other 
branch, which flows more to the south, and 
likewise subdivides into two smaller streams, 
discharges its waters by these channels into 
different parts of the same sea. The delta of 
the Meuse is larger than that of any other Eu- 
ropean river. Its principal tributaries are: in 


464 MEUSE 


France, the Mouzon and the Chiers; in Bel- 
gium, the Lesse, the Sambre, and the Ourthe; 
in Holland, the Waal, the Leck, and the west- 
ern Yssel. The chief cities on its banks are 
Verdun, Sedan, Méziéres, and Charlemont, in 
France; Namur and Liége, in Belgium; Maes- 
tricht, Venloo, Dort, and Rotterdam, in Hol- 
land. The river is over 550 m. long, and it is 
navigable to Verdun, 430 m. from the sea. 

MEUSE, a N. E. department of France, in 
the old province of Lorraine, bordering on 
Belgium and the departments of Meurthe-et- 
Moselle, Vosges, Haute-Marne, Marne, and Ar- 
dennes; area, 2,368 sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 284,- 
725. The Faucilles mountains traverse it from 
S. E. to N. W., and send off numerous ramifica- 
tions. The chief rivers are the Meuse, Aisne, 
Aire, and Orne. Cotton and iron are manu- 
factured. It is divided into the arrondisse- 
ments of Bar-le-Duc, Commercy, Montmédy, 
and Verdun. Capital, Bar-le-Duc. 

MEW, or Sea Mew, a name given in Great 
Britain to some of the smaller gulls, and espe- 
cially to the common European species (larus 
_eanus, Linn.), called also winter mew. 

MEXICAN PICTURE WRITING. See Hrsro- 

. GLYPHIOS. 

MEXICO (Estapos Unipos pE Mfstco; Aztec, 
Mexitli), a federal republic occupying the S. 
W. portion of the continent of North America, 
between lat. 15° and 82° 42/ N., and lon. 86° 
34’ and 117° 7’ W. It is bounded N. and N. E. 
by the United States; E. by the gulf of Mexico 
and the Caribbean sea; S. E. by Balize; S. by 
Guatemala; and S. and W. by the Pacific. Its 
maximum length from the Guatemala frontier 
to the extreme N. W. limit is 1,990 m.; its 
maximum breadth, about lat. 26° N., is 750 m.; 
the breadth in lat. 19°, between Vera Cruz on 
the Atlantic and Manzanillo on the Pacific, is 
but 540 m., and the minimum distance between 
the two oceans, 140 m. from N. to S., is on 
the isthmus of Tehuantepec. The republic is 
divided into 27 states, one federal district, and 
one territory, which, with their areas, popula- 
tion, and capitals, according to statistical re- 
ports of 1869 and 1873, but chiefly the former, 
are as follows: 


STATES. piehr Population. Capitals. 
Aguas Calientes....; 2,216 160,630 ; Aguas Calientes. 
Campeachy ........ 26,083 80,366 | Campeachy. 
Chiapas............| 16,769 193,987 | Chiapas. 
Chihwahws.. .2 24... 105,295 179,971 | Chihuahua. 
Coahuila tenses sts 61,050 95,897 | Saltillo. 
Colinas ces. tess. « 2,893 63,333 | Colima. 
DUurang Ongar r adic s 42,643 155,077 | Durango. 
Guanajuato......... 11,180 874,043 | Guanajuato. 
Guerrerotnenecics ate 24,226 300,029 | Guerrero. 
Hidaleoe ween wean 8,480 494,207 | Pachuca. 
JALISCO Wis nicas eile sis.c 48,967 924,580 | Guadalajara. 
Mexico one nee eet 9,598 650,663 | Toluca. 
Michoaean.......... 21,609 618,240 | Morelia. 
Morelos 20 ecm se 1,898 147,039 | Cuernayaca. 
Nuevo Leon........ 14,363 174,000 | Monterey. 
Oajaca te iteeetdese 27,389 646,725 | Oajaca. 
Puebla coe ore 9,598 697,788 | Puebla. 
Querétaro........0. 8,429 153,286 | Querétaro. 
San Luis Potosi..... 28,889 476,500 | San Luis Potosi. 
Singloats-ceee pense 25,927 163,095 uliacan. 


MEXICO 


Area in 


STATES. sqm. Population. Capitals, 
Sonora. 5.)sc se sewte oh 81,022 109,888 | Ures. 
Tabascoy....cen-enee 12,716 83,707 | San Juan Bautista. 
Tamaulipas,.,...... 28,659 108,778 | Ciudad Victoria. 
Tlaxcala cir n.venteaee 1,498 121,665 | Tlaxcala. 

Vera Cruziccusnetes 27,483 459,262 | Vera Cruz. 
Yucatan eesmecny 82,658 422,365 | Mérida. 
ZACALECAS, «20. ee oe 26,585 897,945 | Zacatecas, 
Federal District .... 85 275,996 | Mexico. 
Lower California(ter- 
TIGOTY) th ss Siecle oe 59,083 21,645 | La Paz. 
Total jccmatelalsse 761,640{ 9,169,707 


In the tables for 1873, giving a total of 9,400,- 
000, the population of some states was exag- 
gerated. The most densely populated regions 
are the table lands and the slopes of the Cor- 
dillera. There are in the republic 18 cities or 
towns whose population exceeds 20,000; in 12 
of them it is above 30,000, and in 5 more than 
50,000.—In regard to geographical position, 
Mexico is highly favored. It lies between two 
great oceans, has a northern frontier of 1,400 
and a southern of 345 m., and a seaboard of 
6,086 m., 1,677 m. of which are on the gulf of 
Mexico and the Caribbean sea, and 4,408 m. 
on the Pacific, including 2,040 m. of shore 
washed by the gulf of California. The coasts, 
being deeply indented, especially in the penin- 
sula of Lower California, with numerous bays 
and gulfs, and fringed with capes, points, and 
promontories, are extremely irregular in out~ 
line. The principal gulfs are those of Mex- 
ico and California, the first of which ranks 
among the largest in the world. The more 
noteworthy bays are those of Caborca, San 
Juan Bautista, La Bruja, and Tegiiece, on the 
coast of Sonora; Campeachy and Tehuantepec, 
washing respectively the N. and S. shores of 
the isthmus of Tehuantepec; San Luis, Las 
Animas, Malaga, Santa Marina, Magdalena, San 
Francisco or San Sebastian, and Molejé, in 
Lower California; La Asuncion, Espiritu San- 
to, and Chetumal, in Yucatan. The principal 
capes are Oatoche in Yucatan, Rojo in Vera 
Cruz, Corrientes in Jalisco, and Pulmo, San 
Lucas, San Lazaro, San Eugenio, and San 
Quentin, in Lower California. All the coasts 
washed by the Caribbean sea and the gulf of 
Mexico are low, flat, and sandy, except near 
the mouth of the Tabasco river, where the 
heights of San Gabriel extend N. E. and S. 
W. for about 30 m.; but the majestic moun- 
tains of Vera Cruz, visible many leagues to 


| seaward, form a picturesque background which 


relieves the monotony of the shore region of 
that state. On the Pacific side the coasts, 
though generally low, are here and there rough- 
ened by spurs extending from the Cordillera - 
toward the ocean. Off the N. E. coast of 
Yucatan are some islands; that of Coz mel, 
called by the primitive inhabitants of the pen- 
insula the island of Swallows, and by the 
Spanish conquerors Santa Cruz, has an area 
of about 300 sq. m., abounds in forests of pre- 
cious timber, and is celebrated as the shrine to 
which the ancient Mexicans made pilgrimages 


| TE uray 
ae oy i ela 


spine,  Altata 
8 cu 


23° 


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English Miles 


ude West 22 from Washington 18 14° 10° | 


3r 


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Fico ter can 
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litude West 99 from Greenwich 95 


(HE LIBRARY 
oF THE 
WMVERGATY OF THINGS 


MEXICO 


to worship their idols in temples, the ruins of 
which are still visible. Carmen island or Perla 
del Golfo, in the bay of Campeachy, is 16 m. 
long and about 2 m. wide, with a seaport of 
the same name. Other islands in the gulf of 
Mexico are the islas de los Sacrificios near 
Vera Oruz, and the islet on which was built 
the fort or castle of San Juan de Ulua just op- 
posite Vera Cruz, famous in Mexican history. 
Guadalupe, Cerros, San Benito, Lobos, and 
Santa Margarita islands are situated off the W. 
shore of Lower California; in the gulf of Cali- 
fornia are those of Angel de la Guarda (67 m. 
long), Tiburon, Carmen, and Cerralvo; and the 
islets of Revillagigedo are about 250 m. to sea- 
ward. The harbors on the Caribbean sea, 
where the commerce is quite unimportant, are 
excellent; while those of the gulf of Mexico 
(Progreso, Campeachy, Tabasco, Coatzacoalcos, 
Vera Cruz, and Tuxpan) have only open road- 
steads, the shore being unapproachable by any 
kind of craft during the prevalence of north- 
ers; and the ports of Tampico, on the Pinuco, 
and Matamoros, on the Rio Grande, are not 
always accessible even to vessels of small 
draught. By far the most commodious har- 
bors in the republic are those on the Pacific 
and the gulf of Oalifornia, the principal be- 
ing Acapulco, Manzanillo, San Blas, Mazatlan, 
Guaymas, and La Paz.—The face of the coun- 
try is extremely diversified. 
gions are in general low and sandy, especially 
on the Atlantic side, where they were probably 
submerged at no remote period as far as the 
foot of the mountains. In no part of the re- 
public within 30 m. of the sea does the land 
rise higher than 1,000 ft., except perhaps in 
Chiapas, where the chain of the Mexican 
Andes presents a mural barrier facing the 
ocean, toward which the descent is exceeding- 
ly rapid. But the traveller journeying inland 
from either side, N. of the Tehuantepec isth- 
mus, climbs by a succession of gigantic terraced 
mountains to a table land with a mean elevation 
of 8,000 ft., extending far beyond the north- 
ern limits of the republic. On the railway 
from Vera Cruz to the capital, every variety 
of climate is experienced within the space of a 
few hours, and the natural productions pecu- 
liar to each are successively passed in review, 
from the sugar cane, indigo plant, and plantain 
of the tropics, to the pines, firs, and lichens of 
the north. The Cordillera of the Andes enters 
the Mexican territory from Guatemala, and to 
about lat. 17° 80’ extends almost midway be- 
tween the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; from 
that point it curves nearly due N. to lat. ‘21° 
15’, and approaches the E. coast, attaining its 
maximum elevation somewhat S. of the par- 
allel of Mexico city, between Toluca on one 
side and Jalapa and Cordova on the other, 
where several peaks rise to 15,000 and 17,000 
ft. above the sea. Still further N. the Sierra 
Madre runs N. by W. toward Guanajuato, 
near which city it widens considerably and 
separates into three distinct branches, the most 


The littoral re-. 


465 


easterly of which trends in a generally north- 
ern direction through Nuevo Leon to lat. 24° 
30’, then bends N. W., and, traversing Coa- 
huila, gradually declines in elevation as it ap- 
proaches the Rio Grande. The central branch, 
or Cordillera de Andhuac, the highest of the 
three, runs N. W. through Zacatecas, Durango, 
and Chihuahua, taking successively the names 
of Sierra de Acha, Sierra de los Mimbres, Sierra. 
Verde, and Sierra de las Grullas; about lat. 
30° it is united by a system of spurs with two 
lateral chains, that of Texas to the east, and 
that of Sonora to the west. The western chain, 
or Cordillera proper, runs nearly parallel to 
the last through Michoacan, Jalisco, Zacatecas, 
Sinaloa, and Sonora, and is linked by spurs 
advancing westward to the maritime Alps of 
California, That portion of the Mexican Andes 
richest in silver is comprised between lat. 16° 
and 29°, while the alluvial auriferous soil con- 
tinues a few degrees further northward. .A 
striking similarity between the general struc- 
ture of the Mexican and that of the South 
American Andes is observable in the barrancas 
or vast fissures frequently intersecting the Cor- 
dilleras. The backs of the mountains form very 
elevated plateaus or basins, sufficiently uniform 
in height to be regarded as one continuous table 
land. The valley of Mexico is an elliptical 
plain with an area of about 940 sq. m.,,fringed 
on the east, south, and west by lofty peaks, 
some of which are active volcanoes. Indeed, 
the plain may be regarded as one vast voleanic 
hearth, reughened at intervals by isolated hills 
rising abruptly from the surrounding level. 
The most elevated summits are at the south- 
east, where Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl tower 
majestically over all the rest. So regular is 
the great plateau (formed exclusively by the 
broad, undulating, flattened crest of the Mexi- 
can Andes, and not the swelling of a valley 
between two mountain ridges, such as; the alpine 
valley of Bolivia or that of Thibet),-and so gen- 
tle are the slopes where depressions. occur, that 
the journey from Mexico to Santa Fé, New 
Mexico (about 1,200 m.), might be performed 
in a four-wheeled vehicle. From Mexico 8. to 
Oajaca, in the centre of the plain of that name, 
with an elevation varying from 3,000 to 6,000 
ft., the route is almost as level as from the 
capital northward. ‘Traces of volcanic fire, so 
numerous near the W. coast of Guatemala and 
in San Salvador, disappear in the gneiss-granite 
mountains of Oajaca; but they again become 
apparent, perhaps for the last time toward the 
north, in the central Cordillera de Andhuac. 
There a line of summits, comprising the vol- 
canoes of Tuxtla, Orizaba, Popocatepetl, Iztac- 
cihuatl, Toluca, Jorullo, and Colima, extends, 
between lat. 18° 15’ and 19° 80’, almost due 
E. and W. across the republic, and lies nearly 
perpendicular to the great axis of the chain of 
Guatemala and Andhuac. The following are 
the principal mountain peaks of Mexico, the 
first ten being volcanoes, with their heights 
according to the most recent measurements: 


466 MEXICO 


Elevation 


MOUNTAINS. STATES, i ha 
Popocatepetl............ Mexico® csv. aches sires 17,540 
Ovizibs.# fopukidess asale es Vera Cruz and Puebla..| 17,176 
FEU CAs craters ates ederstorstersiaieys Mexica’ so. netave st cies 6. « 16,610 
Tztaccihuatl ion. sc- sere’ « Mexico and Puebla.....) 15,705 
Colima jade. . eee Acta SAUSCONE. oghiscite ve Bre 12,000 
Zapotlan el Grande...... SRNSCON Fs ccre wlaie sie ieloss 4¥ie 9,293 
San Martin or Tuxtla.:..| Vera Cruz.............. 9,708 
Tancitaroway sistent. deems Michoacan tie. ds stock oes 9,596 
Sorullo.. ft a geste aid Bl LICH OS CANE oe tages Voienyss lasers ae 
BOCONUSCO 2. ct ects as oe hig pasicctes. say cers ores 7,436 
Guarda. Soe ee MGEXICOR Sita ecsioee soa] 16,048 
AJUSCO pies BAF cee eee NEOXIGO ses aides dinte c ices 15,682 
AACuaitipalcc cst setae IMOXIC ORME siete leaa.cl5 4, <ays pd S008 
Cofre de Perote.......... WierevOruzieees st rs sa%e 14,309 
Zempoaltepec ........... Osjacatein te seeee sor LO Ose 
La, Bron...ase sc ceentia any Guerrero .. 0.0.00 dees 11,789 
Pico de Quinceo......... Michoacan.............| 10,603 
Veta Grande............ ABCAtECAS Hires. LS. ek 9,041 


Of the volcanoes, Orizaba, Iztaccihuatl, Popo- 
catepetl, Toluca, Jorullo, and Colima form an 
E. and W. line nearly across the republic, and 
will be found described under their own names. 
The first four rise far above the limit of per- 
petual snow. San Martin or Tuxtla, in the 
mountains and near the town of the latter 
name, in the state of Vera Cruz, emits day and 
night a column of flame visible far to seaward 
in the gulf. Its last eruption occurred shortly 
after the conquest.—Mexico is very imperfectly 
watered, having comparatively few rivers, and 
but a small number of these, owing to the pe- 
culiar topography of the country, are naviga- 
ble. The largest is the Rio Bravo del Norte 
or Rio Grande, which forms part of the boun- 
dary with the United States, collecting the 
waters of the Mexican rivers Conchos (itself of 
considerable magnitude), Salada, and Sabinas, 
and of several minor streams. The Panuco, 
with its numerous tributaries, drains a portion 
of Guanajuato, Mexico, San Luis Potosi, and 
Tamaulipas, and empties into the gulf 5 m. be- 
low Tampico. It is navigable by small vessels 
for about 30 m. from its mouth, which is ob- 
structed by a bar with but 9 ft. of water. The 
Alvarado and Coatzacoalcos descend from the 
Oajaca mountains, traverse that state and Vera 
Cruz, and fall into the gulf 50 and 140 m., re- 
spectively, S. E. of the city of Vera Cruz. But 
for the bar at its mouth and numerous shoals, 
the Coatzacoalcos might be navigated for a con- 
siderable distance by large vessels. The Gri- 
jalva or Tabasco takes its rise in Guatemala, 
enters Mexico by the southern frontier of Chia- 
pas, which state and that of Tabasco it traverses, 
and empties into the gulf at the N. E. corner 
of Tabasco by two mouths. This river passes 
the capitals of the two states just named, be- 
tween which it flows under a high mountain ; 
it is deep and ‘often rapid, and in the lower 
half of its course, which lies through a thickly 
wooded country, isnavigable by schooners. The 
impetuous Usumasinta also rises in Guatemala, 
flows through Chiapas and Tabasco, and dis- 
embogues in the Laguna de Términos in Yuca- 
tan, being linked to the Tabasco by a number 
of cafes or transversal canals. The Chimalapa 
rises in the same watershed as the Coatzacoalcos 


and holds a hurried course to Tehuantepec bay. 
The chief river of Oajaca is the Verde, de- 
scending im the same watershed as the two 
preceding, and falling into the Pacific about 
lon. 97° 380’ W., after a generally 8. W. 
course of 200 m., passing the city of Oajaca. 
From the state of Mexico descend two large 
rivers to the Pacific: the Mescala or Balsas, 
which rises near Huastepec on the W. slope of 
the Sierra Madre, and after a winding course 
S., 8S. W., and S. through Mexico, Michoacan, 
and Guerrero, falls into the sea at the small 
but commodious port of Zacétula, which name 
is often given to the lower portion of the river; 
and the Santiago or Lerma, rising in the lake 
of the latter name, and flowing N. W. 325 m. 
into Lake Chapala, from which it issues at the 
opposite end, to pursue its course 275 m. 
further to the port of San Blas. Shortly after 
leaving the lake it forms a magnificent cas- 
cade. Principal among the rivers flowing into 
the gulf of California are the Culiacan, Fuerte, 
Mayo, Yaqui, and Colorado; the last is navi- 
gable by the largest vessels from the frontier to 
its mouth. Mexico has 59 lakes and lagoons, 
the most important of which are those of the 
valley of Mexico, viz.: Tezcuco, with an area 
of 99 sq. m.; Chaleo, 54 sq. m.; Xochimil- 
co and Xaltécan, 27 sq. m. each; Zumpango, 
9 sq.m.; and San Cristébal, 6 sq.m. Some 
of them overflow during the rainy season, 
jeoparding the city of Mexico, which has often 
narrowly escaped destruction by inundations. 
Of the very imperfect system of drainage that 
exists, a portion was established by the ancient 
Aztecs, who likewise constructed the canal 
connecting Tezcuco, Xochimilco, and Chalco. 
The first of these is navigated by flat-bottomed 
steamers; but it is the exclusive depository 
of the city sewage, and to the consequent mias- 
matic exhalations the insalubrity of the capital 
is mainly due. Another large and important 
lake is Chapala, in Michoacan and Jalisco, 
also navigated by steam. Of the remaining 52 
lakes none deserve special mention, although 
some are of considerable extent.—The geolo- 
gy of Mexico has been but imperfectly stud- 
ied. The mountains in the extreme south- 
east are mainly composed of porphyry, with 
some limestone and clay slate, in which last 
veins of silver, copper, and lead frequently 
occur. The Oajaca system is chiefly of granite, 
especially in the loftiest peaks; and granite 
forms the rocky foundation of the central ta- 
ble land, where however the upper strata ex- 
hibit an extensive superstructure of porphy- 
ries rich in precious metals, together with 
basaltic lavas, trachyte, clay slate, amygdaloid, 
syenite, serpentine, dolorite, and limestone and 
sandstone. The Cerro del Mercado in Durango 
is said to be one vast mass of iron.—The min- 
eral products of Mexico, so far as hitherto 
known, are richer than those of any other 
country, not excepting Peru; and it is sup- 
posed upon good authority that still richer 
mines of silver and gold are likely to be discov- 


on ° ——— = 


MEXICO 


ered. The quantity of silver annually extracted 
Is estimated at 500 tons, and that of gold at 


a ton and a half. Almost one half of the total* 


yield is derived from the three great mining dis- 
tricts of Guanajuato, Zacatecas, and Catorce. 
In 1803 the shaft of the Valenciana mine, 
which yields an average annual profit of $500,- 
000, had reached a depth of 1,670 ft., being 
the deepest hitherto opened by the hand of 
man. ‘The value of the precious metals from 
the Mexican mines, from the conquest down 
to 1826, was as follows: 1521 to 1803, $2,- 
027,952,000; 18038 to 1810, $161,000,000; 
1810 to 1826, $180,000,000 ; total, $2,368,- 
952,000. The events of the war of indepen- 
dence constrained many mine owners, mostly 
creoles, to emigrate; and a number of tho most 
productive mines are still in ruins, notwith- 
standing the efforts made to reclaim them by 
foreign capitalists. The whole of the gold and 
silver extracted from the mines of Mexico up 
to 1870 is estimated at $4,200,000,000. The 
seven principal mines of San Luis Potosi alone 
produced in 1868 silver to the value of $2,- 
176,899 26. The state of Sinaloa is said to be 
literally covered with silver mines, the foreign 
property in which is distributed as follows: 
American, $2,000,000; Spanish, $1,450,000 ; 
English, $250,000; and German, $50,000. Mex- 
icans there work so many mines and on so 
small a scale, that accurate statistics concern- 
ing them cannot be obtained. Scientific ex- 
plorers, who visited the Sinaloa mines in 1872, 
reported that those on the Pacific slopes would 
be the great source of the supply of silver for 
the next century. In 1870 there were in 
Oajaca 83 silver and 40 gold mines; in Sonora, 
144, chiefly yielding gold, besides 583 in which, 
although very productive, the works were sus- 
pended. The mines during the colonial pe- 
riod were crown property, and those who 
worked them paid one fifth of the product 
to the king. When Mexico became indepen- 
dent they were declared public property, and 
miners were required to pay into the national 
treasury only a small percentage of the yield. 
Even this tax was afterward abolished, and 
any one can, by right of discovery, denounce 
or record a mine, and obtain authority to work 
a certain number of varas free of tribute. A 
slight tax is however imposed on melting and 
coining it, amounting in 1878 to $166,590 14 
for the whole republic. Although the ancient 
Aztecs do not appear to have possessed regu- 
larly stamped coin, their commerce was not 
exclusively confined to exchange of commodi- 
ties; they had certain signs of the values of 
different articles, which consequently took the 
place of money, and of which Clavigero enu- 
merates five kinds. One of these was cacao 
beans, counted by aiguipillis or lots of 8,000, 
or by sacks of 24,000 each. For articles of 
daily necessity the usual money was scraps 
of cotton cloth called patoleuachtli; expen- 
sive objects were paid for in grains of gold 
carried in quills; and for the cheapest arti- 


467 


cles copper pieces cut in the shape of a T 
were used. After the conquest the first mint 
was established in Mexico in 1538 by Don 
Antonio de Mendoza, the first viceroy. The 
coinage of colonial times was distinguished 
into four subdivisions: moneda macuquina, ir- 
regular polygonal coin stamped without a ma- 
chine, and having a cross, two lions, and two 
columns on one side, and the name of the reign- 
ing Spanish sovereign on the other, extending 
from 1585 to 1781; moneda columnaria, or 
pillar coin, 1782-71; moneda de busto, or 
bust coin, 1772-1821; and the coinage struck 
during the war of independence, 1810-21. 
Since the establishment of independence there 
have been two distinct categories, the imperial 
and the republican. The total issue of macu- 
quina coins was $760,765,406; pillar coins, 
$461,518,225; bust coins, $929,298,827; total 
coinage of the colonial period, $2,151,581,958, 
of which $2,121,474,024 was executed at the 
mint of the capital, and $30,107,934 (all bust 
coins) at the mints of Chihuahua, Durango, 
Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Sombrerete, and Za- 
catecas; $2,082,322,235 was silver, $68,716,- 
880 gold, and $542,893 copper. There were 
in 1873 eleven mints in the republic: Durango, 
Guadalajara, Oajaca, Culiacan, Hermosillo, and 
Alamos, under the direction of the central gov- 
ernment, and Mexico, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, 
San Luis Potosi, and Chihuahua, rented by 
private individuals; and the aggregate coinage 
at all of them in the year 1872-3 was $20,374,- 
554, of which $19,686,434 was silver. The 
total coinage in the Mexican mints from their 
foundation to June 380, 1873, was as follows: 
$2,151,581.958 
798,778,655 
$2,945,855,613 


Of the specie coined in 1869-’70 ($20,677,021), 
$17,479,014 was exported, leaving $3,198,007 
for the general circulation.—Tin is abundant 
in Michoacan, and still more so in Jalisco; 
copper is common in both these states and in 
Guanajuato and Mexico; and lead is frequently 
found in almost all the silver mines, and espe- 
cially in those of Oajaca. In this last state 
occur vitriol and amethysts, agates, turquoises, 
and carnelians, the most remarkable beds of all 
of which are in Mount Cocola on the confines 
of Tlaxcala. The galinozo stone, a black vol- 
canic product, at times shaded with blue, and 
susceptible of a high polish, is found in many 
of the states. Marbles everywhere abound, the 
green and white varieties of Tecali being very 
beautiful. Porphyry, jasper, alabaster, rock 
crystal, talc, various green stones somewhat 
resembling emeralds, iron and loadstone (the 
two last particularly in Chihuahua), are met 
with in many parts of the Sierra Madre. True 
serpentine is found in Guanajuato, as are also 
zinc, antimony, and arsenic. Mercury occurs 
in that state and elsewhere; but this commodi- 
ty, now so extensively used in the amalgamation 
process, is mostly imported, and at enhanced 


Colonial’ periods s WoW h.G ss eelde teed ets 
Period of independence (1§21-°73)............ 


468 MEXICO 


prices. Gypsum and slate are very common; 
and coal is said to exist at the head waters of 
she Rio Sabinas. Sulphur abounds in the craters 
and on the flanks of the volcanoes, as well as 
in many of the rivers of Jalisco; the coasts of 
Yucatan afford quantities of amber; and salt 
is so plentiful in Yucatan, Puebla, Jalisco, and 
Tamaulipas as to be the object of an extensive 
export trade. Copperas abounds in Mexico; 
garnets, found in many parts of the republic, 
are much esteemed; and Lower California is 
justly celebrated for the large number and su- 
perior quality of its pearls. The fisheries of 
the avicula margaritifera or pearl oyster are 
carried on along the gulf coasts of the Califor- 
nian peninsula, and have long been highly pro- 
ductive. In 1873 the value of the shells ob- 
tained by 636 divers was $112,030, and of the 
pearls $64,300. Mineral springs are numerous 
in every part of the table land and on the 
slopes of the Cordilleras; the most famous 
are those of El Pefion and Nuestra Sefiora 
de Guadalupe, both in the vicinity of the city of 
Mexico, from the first of which are extracted 
large quantities of salt; and the thermal 
springs of Aguas Calientes.—In point of cli- 
mate, Mexico, in common with all the An- 
dine territories of Spanish America, is divided 
into three great terraces: the coast regions, or 
tierras calientes (hot lands); the mountain 
slopes, or tierras templadas (temperate lands) ; 
and the elevated plateaus, or tierras frias (cold 
lands). The first region comprises all the 
country lower than 3,000 ft. above the sea; 
the second extends from 3,000 to the mean 
elevation of the central table land, 6,000 ft. ; 
and the third embraces all above this last alti- 
tude. The climates are distinguished into hot 
and dry, and hot and moist; temperate and 
dry, and temperate and moist; and cold and 
dry, and cold and moist. Properly there are 
but two seasons in all Mexico: the dry, from 
October to May; and the rainy, comprising the 
remaining months. The heaviest rains fall in 
August and September. The heat is gener- 
ally excessive on all the coasts, but especially 
so at Guaymas, Mazatlan, and Acapulco, on 
the Pacific, and Vera Oruz, Mérida, Sisal, and 
Progreso, on the gulf. The mean annual tem- 
perature at Guaymas is 104° F.; that in all 
the tierras calientes is from 75° to 85°; in 
the tierras templadas, from 65° to 72°; and in 
the so-called cold regions, from 55° to 60° in 
the dry season, and never rising higher than 
80° in the wet. The healthiest localities are 
those enjoying a dry climate, whether hot, 
temperate, or cold; and the most unhealthy, 
those in whose climate humidity prevails. The 
extreme rarefaction of the atmosphere in the 
highlands renders acute lung diseases common, 
and particularly pneumonia; and disorders of 
the digestive organs are likewise frequent and 
fatal. Yellow fever and black vomit, the great 
scourges of the coast regions, usually set in at 
Vera Oruz about the end of May, and last till 
November. At Campeachy, Tampico, and 


176 31; total, $340,791,403 17. 


Acapulco the season often passes without a 
single case, intervals of six or even eight years 
sometimes occurring between the visitations at 
the last named port. But no such respite is 
ever enjoyed at Vera Cruz, Mérida, or any of 
the coast towns of Yucatan, at all of which 
the mortality is generally very great.—The soil 
of Mexico is for the most part extremely fer- 
tile. The comparatively few exceptions are 
nearly all attributable to insufficient irrigation. 
Artificial irrigation is secured by means of 
canals and aguajes or dams. The value of 
the landed property of Mexico is set down as 
follows in an official report for the year 1878: 
municipal, $147,819,162 20; rural, $174,641,- 
The minis- 
ter of finance remarks, however, that triple 
that amount ($1,022,374,209 54) would more 
nearly approximate the truth. The magnifi- 
cent arboreal vegetation embraces 114 dif- 
ferent species of building timber and cabinet 
woods, including oaks, pines, firs, cedars, ma- 
hogany, rosewood, &c.; 12 species of dye 
woods; 8 of gum trees; the caucho or India 
rubber, copal, liquidambar, camphor, turpen- 
tine pine, mezquite (yielding a substance simi- 
lar to gum arabic), dragon tree, and the almd- 
cigo or callitris gquadrivalvis, from which san- 
darach is extracted. Among the oil-bearing 
trees and plants, of which there are 17 varie- 
ties, are the olive, cocoa palm, almond, sesame, 
flax, the tree yielding the balsam of Peru, &c. 
The maguey plant furnishes the natives with 
wholesome beverages, and in some instances 
also food, while the fibre is an excellent sub- 
stitute for hemp. The fermented juice, called 
pulque, is the favorite beverage of the Indians, 
and is much liked by many of the whites; and 
a sort of brandy, mezcal, also prepared from 
it, is highly intoxicating. The value of the 
trade in pulque for 1862 was reported at $1,- 
487,523, and in mezcal at $2,576,646; but 
both have considerably increased with the fa- 
cilities for rapid transport afforded by the 
Mexico and Vera Cruz railway opened in 1873. 
A special train called the “ pulque train” runs 
every day between the capital and Sultepec. 
There are 59 classified species of medicinal 
plants; and many more are mentioned by 
botanists as still unclassified by science. Jalap 
is exported to the extent of $50,000 per an- 
num; the United States alone took $10,000 
worth in 1873. The annual export of jalap at 
the beginning of the present century was 170,- 
000,000 lbs. Every variety of edible fruit 
known in Europe or America is found in 
Mexico, almost all growing spontaneously; and 
owing to the peculiar structure of the country, 
all of them, as well as every kind of European 
garden vegetable, may be obtained in the mar- 
kets of the capital throughout the year. Agri- 
culture is assiduously but laboriously carried on 
by the natives, who persist in using the imple- 
ments of their ancestors, to the almost abso- 
lute exclusion of efficient modern appliances. 
One of the chief cultivated products is maize, 


— oe “7 


MEXICO 


of which three and even four abundant crops 
are obtained annually in many districts, and 
which thrives in all parts of the country. The 
yield is often 500 fold; andthe Indians make 
it, with beans and chilli, their almost exclusive 
food. Wheat gives an increase of 60 fold, and 
rice of about 45. Several varieties of beans 
are grown; also barley, rye, lentils, potatoes, 
sweet potatoes, peas, cumin and coriander 
seeds, &c. Cotton, coffee, cacao, the sugar 
cane, tobacco, indigo, and cochineal are the 
staple productions of the hot and temperate 
regions. The cotton crop of 1873 in Sinaloa 
comprised 550,000 lbs. at an average price of 
20 cents; the cotton district of San Juan Evan- 
gelista produced 1,342,104 lbs. in 1872. The 
coffee of Colima, with an annual yield of about 
30,000 Ibs., is reported equal in quality to 
the finest Mocha. That of Vera Cruz (Jalapa 
and Cordova) is likewise much esteemed; the 
shipments of it to the United States in 1873 
amounted to $299,942. The great cacao cen- 
tre is Oajaca, where its three yearly crops ren- 
der its culture the most profitable in the state. 
Sugar is made in large quantities in Vera 
Cruz and elsewhere. The tobaccos of Tabasco 
and Vera Cruz are quite equal to the finest of 
Cuba. The annual value of the food.crops of 
Mexico may be estimated at about $58,000,000, 
and of all agricultural productions at $110,- 
000,000. The flowers of Mexico are among 
the richest and most varied in the world; 
and several of the streets of the capital on 
Sunday mornings are literally enamelled with 
flowers of brilliant hue and fragrant odor. 
Grapes flourish in Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and 
Aguas Calientes, where, as in Sinaloa, wines, 
brandy, sugar, and raisins are made from 
them.—The manufactures of Mexico are com- 
paratively unimportant. Except those of tobac- 
CO, cacao, sugar, and indigo, none are exported, 
and but few can fully meet the home demand. 
Very good woollen and cotton cloths are 
woven in Durango, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Nue- 
vo Leon, Mexico, Puebla, and Vera Cruz, and 
the rebozos (a species of shawl) of silk and 
linen, and the harness and saddles, are un- 
equalled in any of the other Spanish-Ameri- 
can countries. Sugar is manufactured largely 
and of good quality, the state of Morelos alone 
frequently furnishing 50,000,000 lbs. yearly. 
There are paper mills in Guadalajara and else- 
where. Glassware, porcelain, and earthen- 
ware of superior quality are made; also hats, 
chocolate, laces, flowers, liquors, gunpowder, 
&c.; and there are iron founderies and flour 
mills in many of the states. The silver and 
goldsmiths excel in the execution of filigree 
ornaments ; and the Indians of Mexico, Guana- 
juato, and Guadalajara are skilful in the manu- 
facture of clay and rag figures, almost worthy 
to rank with works of sculpture. The figures 
represent muleteers, water carriers, soldiers, 
and such like, with perfect accuracy of cos- 
tume, and sometimes portraits from life, or 
from photographic pictures. Beer and pale ale 


469 


of excellent quality are made in several brew- 
eries in the capital. The dulces or sweetmeats 
of Guadalajara are much sought after both in 
and out of the republic.—The fauna includes 
three species of large felidw, the puma or 
American lion, jaguar, and ocelot; among 
the smaller is the wild cat. Wolves are com- 
mon in the northern states, and also the coyotl 
or coyote; besides which there are bears, wild 
boars, and bisons. A species of sloth is found 
in the southern forests, with five varieties 
of monkeys. Of the other wild animals the 
principal are hares, rabbits, squirrels, two or 
three kinds of deer, beavers, moles, martens, 
and otters. All the domestic animals intro- 
duced by the early Spanish settlers have 
multiplied prodigiously. The horses, though 
small, retain the spirit and graceful forms of 
the Andalusian stock from which they mainly 
sprang. The rivers and lakes abound in ex- 
cellent fish; turtles are taken in considerable 
numbers on the coast, and the carey of Yucatan 
and Guerrero is the object of a trade valued at 
$20,000 yearly. The ophidians are represented 
by a few boas in the southern forests, and sey- 
eral species of snakes, some extremely venom- 
ous, as the rattle and coral snakes. The Jar- 
gest lizard is the iguana, whose flesh is by some 
of the natives considered excellent food. Nox- 
ious insects infest the hot regions in myriads; 
alacranes or scorpions, in two distinct varie- 
ties, are everywhere feared, and it is said that 
many children are killed every year by their 
sting; and scolopendras, gigantic spiders, ta- 
rantulas, and mosquitoes abound. Bees are 
numerous, and their wax is an article of ex- 
port; and the silkworm, though comparatively 
neglected, is said to yield an annual profit of 
$40,000. The birds of prey are eagles, hawks, 
and zopilotes or turkey buzzards, the scaven- 
gers of the coast towns, with three or four 
species of owls. Domestic fowl are extremely 
abundant. The parrots, humming birds, tro- 
gons, &c., vie in richness of plumage with those 
of Brazil; and the Mexican songsters, the 
prince of which is the zenzontle or mocking 
bird, are unequalled by those of any other coun- 
try.—The population comprises about 6,000,- 
000 Indians of unmixed blood, nearly one half 
of whom are nomadic savage tribes of the 
mountainous districts of the north ; about 500,- 
000 whites or creoles, chiefly descended from 
the early Spanish colonists; perhaps 25,000 Af- 
ricans or hybrids possessing some negro blood, 
whether mixed with the European or the In- 
dian element; and mestizos or half-breeds de- 
rived from the union of the whites and Indians. 
Of the Indians there are 35 tribes, speaking as 
many different tongues and nearly 150 dialects, 
They are indolent and apathetic, but under 
prudent direction become good workmen, and 
often attain to excellence in the mechanic 
arts; and many of them have been closely con- 
nected with the leading political events of the 
country. The mestizos inherit the vices rath- 
er than the virtues of the parent stocks, are 


470) MEXICO 


inconstant and turbulent, and, if not the pro- 
moters, have been the instruments in many civil 
wars. Thecreoles or white Mexicans are in gen- 
eral arrogant, proud, indolent, and reckless, 
but extremely courteous and hospitable. The 
men are often well informed, but the edu- 
cation of the women rarely extends beyond 
reading and writing and a knowledge of mu- 
sic. The national costume of the ranchero or 
planter is a close-fitting jacket and slashed 
trousers adorned with massive gold or sil- 
ver lace and buttons, and so wide below as to 
almost cover his immense spurs with rowels 
two or three inches in diameter. Some of 
the women still retain the old Castilian black 
silk dress; but French fashions prevail among 
the higher classes.—The staple articles of ex- 
port are silver and gold coin, silver and cop- 
per ores, cochineal and indigo and other dye 
stuffs, with timber, cabinet woods, Sisal hemp, 
ixtle, &c. The imports are cotton, linen, wool- 
len, and silk fabrics, wrought and unwrought 
iron, machinery, hardware, provisions, &c. The 
value of the exports to the United States 
from Vera Cruz in 1873 was $872,616; to 
Great Britain from the whole country in 1872, 
$2,217,620. The whole foreign trade of the 
republic in 1873 was: exports, $25,500,000; 
imports, $28,000,000. The annexed table shows 
the relative proportion of imports from dif- 
ferent countries: 


COUNTRIES. Value. COUNTRIES. Value. 
Great Britain...| $13,000,000 || Italy.......... 200,000 
United States .. 5,000,000 || Ecuador ...... 150,000 
Franee. . cewieca 5,000,000 || Guatemala... . 50,000 
Germany,...... 2,000,000 || Colombia ..... 40.000 
Spain ska Se 1,506,000 ||} Chili.......... 40,000 
Cubasiiesaseee 1,500,000 || Venezuela .... 80,000 
Ching wee ceperme 1,000,000 ——_——__— 
Belgium’....... 500,000 Total 2).ee- $30,010,000 


Systematic smuggling is so prevalent that the 
official figures representing the imports of all 
kinds and the exports for bullion may safely 
be doubled. The duties collected in the year 
ending June 30, 1870, amounted to $17,303,- 
945 24, of which $8,274,572 were received at 
maritime, and $9,029,373 24 at frontier custom 
houses. According to the latest official report, 
published in November, 1873, the shipping 
movements at all the ports of the republic in 
1870 were as follows: 


ENTERED. CLEARED. 

FLAG. |Vessels, Tons. FLAG. Vessel -. | Tons. 
Mexican ....| 2,155 | 108,641 || Mexican..../ 2,140 . 100,008. 
Britishen sts 163 | 75,461 || British ..... 177 | 84514 
Spanish ..... 45 | 11,494 || Spanish..... 42 7.898 
French...... 116 | 47,685 || French. 110 | 48.073 
Prussian .... 62 | 18,224 || Prussian ... 66 | 19,959 
United States} 328 | 386,176 || Uni'd States} 3827 | 378.710 

uteh’:.)ss. 19 4,157 || Dutch...... 22 8,959 
Norwegian..| 25] 17,805 || Norwegian..| 23 | 6.894 
Danish...... 16 8,926 || Danish ..... 13 8.571 
Others ...... 21 5,492 || Others ..... 21 5,965 

Totals. 08 | 2,950 | $69,061 || Total... 2,941 | 659,551 


Of the number of vessels entered, 862 were 
steamers, and of those cleared, 378. One French 
and two British lines of steamers ply regularly 
between St. Nazaire, Southampton, and Liver- 
pool and the gulf ports of Vera Cruz and Tam- 
pico, touching at Havana, St. Thomas, Marti- 
nique, and Santander. The British steamers 
frequently call at New Orleans. An American 
line between New York and the principal gulf 
ports every 20 days, calling at Havana and New 
Orleans, receives a subsidy of $2,200 per round 
trip from the Mexican government. Regular 
communication is kept up between Acapulco 
and Panama and the intermediate ports of 
Mexico and Central America, and between Aca- 
pulco and San Francisco and the intermediate 
ports of Manzanillo, Mazatlan, and Cape San 
Lucas, by two American lines, one of which 
has a subsidy of $2,500 per round trip, and the 
other $2,000 monthly, from the Mexican gov- 
ernment. In 1872 there were 5,740 arrivals 
at and 5,095 departures from Mexican ports. 
The Mexican merchant navy comprises 1,029 
craft of all sizes, 357 of which are sea-going or 
large coasting vessels.—The existing railways 
of the republic are as follows: 


Mexico to Vera Cruzigcc sccm sineinecsce ds a.08 creepers 26314 m. 
Brancn, Apizaco tom Puebiaterctimee reeset 2917 * 
Meéxicoito/Dlalpamiair ie . sepa ances aoe ete 1556.5 
Vera Cruz (La Zamorana) to Medellin............ eg 
Mexico"to Guadalupe: a. scriore cciets ie ciecs ait sieiatercts 41g %& 
*Mexico to Tacubaya and Popotla................ 83% 
* Mexico /to,Atzcapozaleo sci. 2 aente « da sles s lolesais 64% * 
*Vera Cruz to Puebla via Jalapat...............- Pape 9 Ge 

Totalssse te os vc ce co onicaeiaes Mosbee seemed 86356 m. 


The line from Mexico to Vera Cruz is one of 
the most wonderful engineering enterprises in 
the world. It was commenced in 1852, com- 
pleted in December, 1872, at a cost of $27,000,- 
000, and opened to public traffic through its 
whole extent on Jan. 17, 1878. About 60 m. 
of the line extend over the mountain region 
between the coast and the great Mexican pla- 
teau, the elevation of which on the eastern 
border is nearly 8,000 ft. above the sea. This 
portion of the road, with an average grade of 
2°51 in 100, or 133% ft. to the mile, carried 
along the flanks of lofty mountains, through 
long tunnels, and over bridges spanning deep 
ravines, affords an opportunity of surveying 
the grandest and most picturesque scenery on 
the North American continent. The traffic 
amounts to about 240,000 passengers and 184,- 
000 tons of freight per annum ; the receipts are 
about $2,500,000, and the running expenses 
average 60 per cent. of the receipts. The line 
between Mexico and Atzcapozalco is to be ex- 
tended to Cuautitlan and Toluca. There is a 
line of horse cars from Matamoros to Paso 
de Santa Cruz. Several other lines are pro- 
jected, the most important of which is one 
from Mexico N. to El Paso, to communicate 
with the United States railway system. There 
are 24 regular lines of diligences established 
between the principal towns of the republic. 


* Horse cars. ¢t Completed to Tolome. 


ee 


ie ORS eee 


——— 


The lack of good roads, in a country whose 
topographical structure deprives it of navigable 
rivers, greatly retards its material develop- 
ment and prosperity. Large sums were ap- 
propriated in 1873 for new highways and for 
repairs on such as already exist. A network 
of telegraph wires, 4,345 m. in length in 1874, 
embraced all the states but Chihuahua, Sonora, 
and Chiapas, and 655 m. more were in process 
of construction. The central government owns 
1,575 m. of the lines, and state governments 
605 m. There are lotteries under the direc- 
tion of the government, and paying 10 per 
cent. of the proceeds into the national trea- 
sury.— Mexico has a federal government, based 
upon the constitution of 1857, and strongly 


MEXICO 471 
EXPENDITURES. 1871-2. | 1872-3, 
Legislative .............. $630,195 82 $964,912 32 
PUNCCIINIVG..cnktecrd. aaa 28,088 T0 41,965 23 
Supreme court........... 41,754 87 63,905 98 
Circuit Couxts.;. 0.1.0. 27,942 10 89,843 63 
strict lees). Aone 105,448 32 185,549 30 

Ministry of foreign rela- 
RIOUS Smee sisi c ¢ sil. sors 110,810 49 187,675 93 
Ministry of the interior .. 1,859,220 67 1,823,429 77 
SeeLOT’ JUStICE? occa): 557,105 12 178,878 30 
ss of finance....... 1,963,947 OL 2,399,581 48 
“of war and navy. 7,624,282 82 7,427,891 60 
& of public works.. 1,719,418 76 1,248,628 71 
EDUC Ge Dts me. a jects <oreic oe 275,188 27 482,894 16 

Balance from preceding 
VOare Pha echt vee cs 218,248 87 254,969 73 
Reserve fund............ 79,600 80 1,186,394 13 
Provisional branches..... 2,450,629 81 8,648,176 20 
SHUVUCG DG Cl aa caret rare etree 1,054,888 88 909,647 42 
EU OLAIS «ste lefetess lato oielshe(e $18,246,714 81 | $20,989,863 89 


resembling that of the United States. The 
executive power is vested in a president elect- 
ed by universal suffrage for four years, hav- 
ing a salary of $30,000, and aided in the ad- 
ministration by a council or cabinet consist- 
ing of the ministers of the interior (goberna- 
cion), foreign affairs, justice, public worship 
and public instruction, public works (fomento), 
finance, and war. These ministers are appoint- 
ed by the president. The chief justice of the 
supreme court unites with his judicial functions 
those of vice president of the republic. The 
legislative power resides in a congress, consist- 
ing of a lower house, the members of which 
are elected by universal suffrage for two years, 
each state being represented in the proportion 
of one member for every 80,000 inhabitants ; 
and a senate with two members for each state, 
elected by a plurality of votes in the congress 
of their respective states, and who must have 
completed 30 years of age. The congress is by 
law required to sit from Jan. 1 to April 15 in 
each year; and a consejo de gobierno or govern- 
ment council holds sessions during the recess 
of congress. The predominant religion is the 
Roman Catholic; but all other sects are toler- 
ated, by virtue of a law promulgated in 1873. 
The ecclesiastical hierarchy consists of three 
archbishops, of Mexico, Guadalajara, and Mi- 
choacan ; and ten bishops, of Puebla, Nuevo 
Leon, Oajaca, Durango, Yucatan, Chiapas, 
Lower California, Sonora, San Luis Potosi, 
and VeraOruz. The revenue is mainly derived 
from customs, as will be seen by the following 
table for the years 1871-’2 and 1872-3: 


REVENUE, 1871—’2, 1872~'3, 


$9,265,699 68 | $9,076,709 74 


Divers contri- Fed 
butions...... diatrict 1,192.796 78 1,741,622 91 
Customs....... es 488,016 45 471.298 75 
Stamped paper.......... 2,217,274 60 1,734.894 54 
Nationalized property.... 895,261 65 505,488 88 
PEINER EO, Flee ceed b es 259,481 58 159,484 18 
Public instruction fund... 78,080 86 65,864 11 
@arriave tax so. scaesa lk 10.235 79 7,078 68 
WOBLSOM tis shee osteo ss 474,819 10 265,440 22 
pundries!4),2.' .45.056n8- 617,445 81 284.586 27 
PAT EORLO fs chai elie on copies eco 47,694 8T 22,078 27 
BUOtHIB2 ota wih tctate oho te $15,046,756 67 | $14,338,926 50 


The expenditures were as follows: 


There is no official report of the national debt. 
The loans contracted by the imperial govern- 
ment are in their entirety repudiated by the 
present government. The army comprises 
22,887 men, viz.: 15,407 foot, 5,140 horse, 
1,463 artillery, and 377 coast guards and inva- 
lids. The estimated total expenditure for the 
army department in 1872-38 was $10,252,522 
32, which would include an extraordinary ap- 
propriation of $2,628,239 50.—Public instruc- 
tion is in a comparatively prosperous condi- 
tion; the number of schools is steadily in- 
creasing, through the liberal appropriations of 
the central and the various state governments 
for the development of the system, and the 
coéperation of private individuals. The fol- 
lowing institutes in the city of Mexico are sup- 
ported by the central government: an ad- 
vanced school for girls, preparatory school, and 
schools of law, medicine, agriculture, engineer- 
ing, fine arts, commerce, and arts and trades; 
besides which there were in 1873 in the whole 
federal district 888 schools of all grades, 103 
being for females, and the total attendance be- 
ing 22,407, of whom 8,773 are females. Among 
these schools were 12 under the jurisdiction 
of the Lancasterian company, 6 under that of 
the benevolent society, the schools of the found- 
ling hospital and other charitable institutions, 
private schools to the number of 100, and 
three for adults, with 248 pupils, 148 of whom 
were females. In the other states there were 
3,582 public schools, of which 3,498 were 
male primary and 29 male grammar schools; 
the total attendance at all of them was 165,- 
864, of whom 19,594 were females. The num- 
ber of public schools for adults was 23, with 
935 male and 76 female pupils; and that of 
the literary institutes 15, with 2,493 students. 
—The history cf Mexico may properly be dis- 
tinguished into ancient and modern; and the 
latter is subdivided into two periods, the colo- 
nial and that of independence. Notwithstand- 
ing the numerous theories advanced concern- 
ing the primitive inhabitants of the country, all 
is still wrapped in profound obscurity. Tra- 
dition and the existing remnants of ancient 
structures point to a more remote and perhaps 


47 2 MEXICO 


a higher civilization than that which filled the 
early Spanish conquerors with admiration; but 
neither can assist in determining the name or 
the origin of the first immigrants. Historic 
ground in Mexico is, not reached until the end 
of the 6th century; all beyond belongs to the 
domain of mythology. The Toltecs came to 
the valley of Mexico, and there built their 
capital, Tollan (Tula), toward the beginning of 
the 7th century. According to one theory, 
they came from Guatemala; another theory 
represents them as crossing from Asia to 
America, by a chain of islands which in re- 
mote ages stretched at the north from the 
shores of the eastern to those of the western 
continent. They are described as an agricul- 
tural people, clothed in long tunics, sandals, 
and straw hats; not very warlike, but humane 
and civilized, and proficient in the highest 
mechanical arts; erecting cyclopean edifices ; 
haying a worship not sanguinary ; and invent- 
ing the system of astronomy afterward adopt- 
ed by the Tezcucans and Mexicans. The first 
Toltec dynasty is said to have been founded 
early in the 8th century by Icoatzin. After 
a lapse of about 500 years, the kingdom of 
Tollan, reduced by civil strifes, pestilence, and 
famine, was divided, and many of the survi- 
ving inhabitants migrated southward. The 
Toltecs were the first tribe to leave a written 
account of their nationality and polity; they 
are regarded in Mexican history as the primi- 
tive nation of the country, and their epoch is 
taken as the starting point of a fixed chronol- 
ogy for the native annals. With the downfall 
of their monarchy terminated the civilization 
of the north. Not long afterward the Chichi- 
mecs, described as a fierce northern tribe, liv- 
ing by the chase, dwelling in caverns or straw 
huts, monogamous, and worshipping the sun 
as their father and the earth as their mother, 
came to the Toltec country, which they did not 
conquer, as they met with no resistance, but 
merely occupied peacefully, settling in the same 
towns with the Toltecs who remained from the 
general emigration. The descendants of these 
Toltecs became once more numerous and pros- 
perous, and, taking the name of Colhuis or 
Culhuas, founded Colhuacan on the margin of 
the lake. Between the arrival of the Chichi- 
mees and the end of the 12th century, tradition 
mentions the influx of a multitude of other 
northern tribes, chief among whom were the 
Tepanecs, who, with Atzcapozalco as their capi- 
tal, established an independent state, and became 
gradually so powerful that in later times two 
of their kings usurped the throne of Tezcuco. 
Another of these tribes were the Techichimecs, 
the founders of the Tlaxcalan republic; and all 
of them spoke the Nahoa or Nahuatl tongue. 
After these came the Acolhuis, likewise of Na- 
hoa origin, and consequently kindred to the 
Toltecs, and especially distinguished among all 
the immigrants by the Chichimecs as being the 
most refined. From them the latter readily 
learned agriculture, the mechanic arts, and town 


life; and the two races became so completely 
intermingled as at last to be confounded in one 
great nation in the kingdom of Tezcuco or 
Acolhuacan, a name indicating that not only 
the customs and culture of the Acolhuis pre- 
vailed, but also their language, which was in- 
comparably more perfect than the Chichimecan. 
The most important of all the tribes, the Mexi- 
cans or Aztecs, although the last to choose a 
permanent resting place, had been as long in 
the valley as any of the sister nations. They 
proceeded from Aztlan, an unknown region of 
the north, and reached Anahuac about 1195, 
having made three stations, at which the ruins 
of casas grandes are still to be seen. (See 
Casas Granves.) Their first halting place 
was on the shores of the lake of Teguyo or 
Teguayo, probably identical with the lake of 
Timpanogos, or Great Salt lake, in Utah; the 
second was on the river Gila, and the third not 
far from the Presidio de los Llanos. After 
reaching the plain of the lakes, the Mexicans 


led a nomadic existence for 1380 years. After . 


a series of unsuccessful encounters, in which 
their numbers were greatly diminished, they 
laid on the islands of the lake the foundations 
of their city of Tenochtitlan in 1325. Reduced 
to extreme poverty, and hated by surround- 
ing nations, they resolutely strove against ill 
fortune until they became numerous and pow: 
erful enough to take the offensive. They then 
spread desolation and slavery through many of 
the tribes who in former days had shown them 
little mercy. Their capital was extended, and 
beautified to: an extraordinary degree; they 
soon became the, equals of the Tezcucans in 
the cultivation of the arts and sciences; their 
institutions, customs, theogony, and even their 
language, were propagated wherever their pow- 
er reached. The adjacent territories were in- 
vaded and occupied by Aztec garrisons, The 
Tezcucans were perhaps more advanced in 
knowledge and refinement than the Mexicans; 
but the latter were certainly far more power- 
ful, and they gave their name to the whole 
country and to the civilization of their day. 
The boundaries of the Aztec realm have never 
been precisely defined; but they extended 
northward to the country of the Huastecas, 
whom the Mexicans never subdued; to the 
northwest the empire did not reach beyond 
the province of Tulba, the vast tract of land 
beyond which was occupied by the Otomies 
and some Chichimec tribes; to the west it ter- 
minated at the frontier of Michoacan; on the 
southwest it was in general only limited by the 
Pacific; and the greatest length on that coast 
was from Xoconochco (Soconusco) to Coliman. 
On the Atlantic side the Mexicans possessed 
all that lay W. of the Coatzacoalcos. The 
Acolhuan dominions did not form one eighth 
of the Aztec kingdom. It should be observed 
that Ahuizotl, whose reign immediately pre- 
ceded the Spanish conquest, carried his arms 
successfully into Guatemala, subduing that 
country and a portion of Nicaragua. The 


Bi = 


MEXICO 


Tepanecs in 1419 seized the Acolhuan capi- 
tal, assassinated the king, and placed their 
own prince Tegozomoc upon the throne, 
which was transmitted to his son Moxtla. 
But Nezahualcoyotl, the rightful heir, sueceed- 
ed with the aid of the Mexicans not only in 
driving out the Tepanecs, but in conquering 
their country, which they gave to their allies the 
Mexicans. A league of mutual support and 
defence was then entered into by the princes of 
Mexico, Tezcuco, and Tlacopan, the conquered 
countries to be divided between the confed- 
erates, and the largest share to be awarded to 
Mexico. During a century of constant war- 
fare this pact was adhered to with the strictest 
fidelity. The Mexican monarch had the pre- 
dominance in matters of war; the authority of 
the three was equal in all other concerns; and 
no one ever meddled with the government of 
the others. Toward the middle of the 15th 
century, when the Acolhuan power began to 
decline, the Mexican king plundered a portion 
of his neighbor’s territory, and arrogated to 
himself the title of emperor, though the Tez- 
cucan sovereigns continued to reign until the 
time of the conquest. These last had the pre- 
rogative of crowning those of Mexico.—For 
the first 27 years after the foundation of Te- 
nochtitlan, the government was in the hands of 
a body of 20 nobles; but in 1352 it was trans- 
formed into an elective monarchy, Acamapitzin 
or Acamapichtle being the first king. In the 
beginning the power of the sovereigns was 
limited, and their prerogatives were very mod- 
erate; but with territorial extension and in- 
creased wealth came the introduction of court 
pomp and pageantry, and such despotism as 
characterized the reign of Montezumal. After 
the election of a king, four princes or lords 
were chosen from among his nearest of kin, 
whose voice was indispensable in all state af- 
fairs; they acted as senators, were presidents 
of the royal council, and one of their number 
was in due time elected successor to the crown, 
with sole reference to fitness for the office. In 
later times it was customary to appoint the four 
candidates to the government of minor states; 
the one elected must have been general in the 
army, and not under 80 years of age. When 
the successor was under age, the government 
during his minority was committed to the 
senior of the royal family most fitted for the 
charge, whose election was confirmed by the 
kings of Tezcuco and Tlacopan. Three councils 
or cabinets assisted the king in the administra- 
tion: one for the revenue, another for war, 
and a third for the government of the prov- 
inces. The councillors or ministers, though 
necessarily of the nobility, owed their eligi- 
bility to long military service and a profound 
knowledge of state matters. The nobles and 
priests were the main supporters of the nation- 
al interests; but the influence of the latter in 
public affairs was more limited than in some 
of the earlier monarchies. They had no seat 
in the privy council, and their functions were 


473 


chiefly restricted to superstitious exercises and 
foretelling the issue of campaigns. But they 
were intrusted with the education of children, 
were consulted on all grave family concerns, 
and their social influence was almost unbound- 
ed. Profound respect for the main principles 
of morality was evinced by the ancient Mexi- 
cans, with whom the security rather of person 
than of property was largely provided for. In 
the uninhabited districts of the kingdom, public 
inns were placed at intervals for the gratui- 
tous accommodation of wayfarers, and boats 
or bridges for their convenience in crossing 
rivers; and when the roads were damaged by 
floods, they were repaired at the public ex- 
pense. A complete system of supreme and 
subordinate tribunals existed in all the towns, 
and a still more perfect judicial organization 
in the neighboring kingdom of Acolhuacan, 
where a council of all the judges throughout 
the realm was held once in 80 days at the 
capital, the monarch in person presiding, for 
the adjudication of causes left undetermined 
by the lower courts. The Aztecs were as re- 
markable for the moderation of their civil as 
for the severity of their penal code; but their 
laws seem to have been administered less im- 
partially than in Tezcuco, and to haves been 
somewhat flexible for the nobles and priests. 
Creditors could imprison their debtors, and had. 
a claim upon their inheritance, but could not 
enslave the widows or orphans; and slaves 
about to be sold might free themselves by 
taking refuge in the royal palace. Adultery 
was punished with death, however noble the 
offender might be. For treason or any crime 
against the person of the monarch, embezzle- 
ment of the taxes, &c., the offender was put to 
death with all his kindred to the fourth degree. 
Murder, even of a slave, was always a capital 
crime. Drunkenness in youth was a capital 
offence; in persons of maturer years, though 
not capital, it was punished with severity; but 
men of 70 years, and all persons on festive oc- 
casions, were permitted the use of wine. He 
who lied to the prejudice of another had a por- 
tion of his lips cut off, and sometimes his ears. 
Finally, he who robbed in the market, altered 
the lawful measures, or removed the legal 
boundaries in the fields, was immediately put 
to death; and conspirators against the prince, 
and those who committed adultery with the 
prince’s wife, were torn to pieces limb by 
limb. The murder of a merchant or an am- 
bassador, or any injury or insult to the latter, 
was considered a sufficient cause of war. Du- 
ring a series of very cruel wars, all prisoners 
were devoured or enslaved. At one time the 
laws were so few that the people knew them 
all by heart. They were represented by paint- 
ings; and the judges were attended by clever 
clerks, or painters, who by means of figures 
described the suits and the parties concerned 
therein. The Mexicans had two sorts of pris- 
ons, one for debtors and persons not guilty of 
capital crimes, the other a species of cage in 


474 


which were confined condemned criminals and 
prisoners taken in war, both of whom were 
closely guarded, those doomed to capital pun- 
ishment being sparingly fed, and the others 
abundantly nourished that they might be in 
good flesh when led to sacrifice. For the same 
reason the Mexicans in battle preferred to cap- 
ture their enemies alive. Polygamy was per- 
mitted, but seldom practised save by the princes 
and nobles. Marriage generally required the 
consent of the parents of both parties; and 
there was a special court for divorces, in which 
a wife might sue. Filial affection was a char- 
acteristic virtus of the Aztecs. Except in the 
royal family, sons succeeded to all the rights 
of their fathers; if these died without male 
isstie, their rights reverted to their brothers, 


and in the absence of the latter to their neph- 


ews. Daughters could not inherit. The gov- 
ernment revenues were derived from crown 
lands set apart in the various provinces, from 
a tax on the agricultural products, and chiefly 
from a tribute consisting of provisions and 
manufactured articles; besides which a con- 
tribution was received from the merchants and 
craftsmen every 20 or 80 days. The profes- 
sion of arms was one of the most esteemed, 
and those who died in defence of their country 
were regarded as the happiest. There were 
four distinct grades of generals, and next be- 
low them were captains. The main bodies or 
regiments consisted of 8,000 men, and seem to 
have been divided into battalions of 400 men 
each, and these into squads of 20. They marched 
in admirable order; the priests were always in 
front; and the signal for combat was given by 
kindling a fire and sounding a trumpet. Their 
tactics were unfavorable to hostilities by night; 
but “force and stratagem, courage and deceit,” 
says Prescott, ‘‘were equally admissible in 
war.”’—The Aztecs were most sincere in the 
practice of their religious rites. They believed 
in a supreme creator, invisible yet omnipres- 
ent, but requiring numerous assistants to per- 
form his will, each of whom presided over 
some special natural phenomenon or phase of 
human existence. They had 13 principal and 
several hundred inferior deities. The dread 
Huitzilopochtli, the war god of the Aztecs, 
was the patron divinity of the race, and myriads 
of human victims were sacrificed to him yearly 
in countless pyramidal temples throughout the 
realm. Quetzalcoatl, a more beneficent deity. 
was described by the natives as a tall white 
man, with a large forehead and flowing beard, 
who taught his favored people the art of gov- 
ernment and the various arts of peace, espe- 
cially those of the husbandman and silver- 
smith; forbade bloody sacrifices, and only per- 
mitted those of bread, roses, and perfumes; 
and warned against robbery and all violence. 
This ‘god of the air,” as he was named, hay- 
ing incurred the displeasure of one of the other 
chief deities, was compelled to leave the coun- 
try; but on quitting the shores of the gulf he 
promised to return, and the Mexicans always 


MEXICO 


looked forward to that auspicious day. After 
his departure from ‘the capital, he tarried at 
Cholula, where a magnificent temple was dedi- 
cated to him, the ruins of which are among the 
most curious remains of Mexican antiquities. 
All these divinities were represented by images 
of clay, wood, stone, or precious metals and 
gems, but of most fantastic forms, coarse and 
hideous; and of the minor gods of every de- 
gree hosts of images were to be found in the 
dwellings of both great and small. The Mexi- 
cans, with all the other polished natives of 
Andahuac, regarded the soul both of man and 
brutes as immortal. The number of priests 
corresponded with the multitude of gods and 
temples; ancient historians affirm that 5,000 
were attached to the great temple of the capi- 
tal, on the site of which now stands the cathe- 
dral. There were several different orders 
among the priests, the chief of all being the 
two high priests, whose dignity was conferred 
by election. The high priests anointed the 
king, and were the oracles consulted by him 
on all important state concerns. The sacer- 
dotal hierarchies of the several gods were quite 
separate, and had each a gradation of their 
own. The temples (teocallis) were of two 
kinds: low and circular, or high and pyrami- 
dal, on the tops of which the sacrifices took 
place. Torquemada estimates that there were 
upward of 40,000 throughout the empire, and 
other historians estimate their number much 
higher. There were hundreds in each princi- 
pal city, besides the great temple with several 
smaller ones within its precincts; in each out- 
lying quarter of the city were other small 
courts with as many as six temples; and there 
were temples on the mountains and at inter- 
vals along the highroads. They were solid 
pyramidal masses of earth cased with brick or 
stone, many of them more than 100 ft. square 
and of a still greater height. The ascent was 
by flights of steps on the outside, and on the 
broad flat summit were sanctuaries containing 
the images of the deities and altars on which 
fires were continually burning, Human sacri- 
fices, which they made on the most trivial 
occasions, formed the chief religious ceremony 
of the Mexicans and the most important duty 
of the priesthood. In later days the repetition 
of these sacrifices became mournfully frequent ; 
some Franciscan monks computed that about 
2,500 persons were annually slaughtered on the 
altars of Tenochtitlan and some of the adjacent 
towns; and ‘days had been observed,” writes 
Herrera, ‘‘on which above 20,000 had thus 
perished, reckoning all the sacrifices in several 
parts.” Within the temples were schools, col- 
leges, and apartments for the priests. A few of 
the priestesses took vows of perpetual celibacy. 
Some of the priests were permitted to marry; 
those of whom chastity was required were pun- 
ished with death for the slightest deviation from 
it. When achild of two years was dedicated to 
Quetzalcoatl, a priest with a knife made a slight 
cut on its breast, to confirm the dedication, 


MEXICO 


—Piercing the lips and nose for the insertion 
of various ornaments, and plucking the hairs 
of the nascent beard, were common practices 
among the Mexicans. For purposes of record 
and communication they had a species of pic- 
ture writing bearing some relation to the 
Egyptian hieroglyphics. (See Hizroeiypuics.) 
They had five books written in this way: the 
first treating of the seasons and years; the 
second of the days and festivals throughout 
the. year; the third of dreams, omens, and 
other superstitious observances; the fourth of 
baptism and the names of children (for they 
celebrated a baptismal ceremony much like 
the Christian rite, in which the infant’s lips 
and breasts were sprinkled with water); and 
the fifth of the ceremonies and prognostica- 
tions used at marriages. Historical knowl- 
edge was preserved by tradition aided by pic- 
ture writings; and there were, besides the mul- 
titudes of regular chronicles, certain men who 
kept important events, genealogies, &c., in their 
memory, and recited them when called upon. 
Translations of elaborate prose productions 
seem to show that eloquence and rhetorical 
effect were aimed at by Aztec scholars; but 
no original compositions have been preserved. 
Songs perpetuating their traditions, recited at 
the great festivals, formed one of the foremost 
branches of temple education. Their musical 
instruments included various kinds of trum- 
pets, whistles of bone and clay, horns of large 
sea shells, bamboo flutes, many varieties of 
drums, and a few stringed instruments. The- 
atrical performances were given on open ter- 
races in the market places, the stage being coy- 
ered with branches of trees; masks were indis- 
pensable; and the performances were insepa- 
rably connected with the religion. The plays 
were partly pantomimic and partly recitative. 
The art of prestidigitation was highly devel- 
oped. Farces and masquerades were frequently 
given at the temples by the merchants, disguised 
as frogs, beetles, birds, butterflies, &c., the en- 
tertainment ending with dancing. The Mexi- 
cans had a simple system of arithmetical nota- 
tion, in which the first 20 numbers were ex- 
pressed by a corresponding number of dots. 
The number 20 was expressed by a flag, and 
larger sums were reckoned by twenties and 
expressed by repeating the number of flags. 
The square of 20, 400, was denoted by a plume; 
and 8,000, the cube of 20, by a purse or sack. 
The year was divided into 18 months of 20 
days each, and both months and days were ex- 
pressed by peculiar hieroglyphics. Five com- 
plementary days were added to make up the 
365; and for the fraction over of nearly 6 
hours, required to make the full year, they 
added 13 days at the end of every 52 years or 
cycle, which they called winhmolpilli, ‘the ty- 
ing up of years.” A month was divided into 
4 weeks of 5 days each. The epoch from 
which the Mexicans computed their chronolo- 
gy corresponded with the year 1091 of the 
Christian era. They had no astronomical in- 


475 


struments except the dial, but their skill in the 
science of astronomy is shown by their know]l- 
edge of the true length of the year, of the cause 
of eclipses and of the periods of the solstices 
and equinoxes, and of the transit of the sun 
across the zenith of Mexico. Most of their astro- 
nomical knowledge was derived from the Tol- 
tecs. The physicians were skilful; they had 
knowledge of several thousand plants and of 
hundreds of species of birds, quadrupeds, fishes, 
insects, reptiles, and minerals; but they mysti- 
fied their cures with superstitious ceremonies. 
The Spanish conquerors attest the dexterity 
and success of the native surgeons in dressing 
wounds and in blood-letting. The merchants 
and military officers had a fair notion of geog- 
raphy; maps and charts of certain regions, of 
rivers, and of the whole coast, were accurately 
drawn or painted on eloth. Agriculture was 
in tolerable advancement, the want of ploughs, 
oxen, and other animals being supplied by sim- 
ple instruments and assiduous labor. irriga- 
tion by means of canals was very efficient. Of 
the various Mexican implements, almost the 
only ones described are an axe of copper or 
bronze, with just the amount of tin alloy to 
give it the greatest hardness attainable, and 
knives and swords, razors, and arrow and spear 
heads, of dtztli, or obsidian. They were ex- 
tremely skilful in the cultivation of gardens, 
in which they planted fruit trees, medicinal 
plants, and flowers, with much taste. Among 
their chief productions were maize, cotton, 
cacao, the maguey or aloe, chile, &c. The 
maguey alone furnished the poor with almost 
all the necessaries of life: paper, thread, 
needles, cloth, shoes, stockings, and cordage 
from the leaves, the thickest part of these with 
the trunk furnishing besides a substantial dish ; 
and pulqgue and mezcatl from the fermented 
juice. From the juice of the maize stalk they 
prepared sugar; from the cacao they made 
chocolate (Aztec, chocolatl), which they formed 
into tablets. In mining and metallurgy they 
were very expert. They exercised the arts 
of casting, engraving, chasing, and carving 
in metal, with great skill; and in looms of 
simple construction they made manta (cotton 
cloth) and other tissues, some of which were 
of exquisite fineness, interwoven with rabbit 
hair and feathers, their only substitutes for 
wool and silk, and painted or dyed in most 
gorgeous colors. With the feathers of birds 
tastefully disposed on fine cotton webs, they 
made garments of the utmost magnificence. 
Buying and selling, there being no shops, 
were carried on in public squares or market 
places. Earthenware of every description, and 
suited for every domestic use, was one of the 
chief Mexican industries; and many of the ar- 
ticles were painted in showy colors and de- 
signs. No beasts of burden were used, all car- 
rying being done either by water, chiefly on the 
lakes, where a marvellous number of vessels 
were employed, or on men’s backs. The mari- 
time commerce was probably very trifling. For 


476 


the rapid transmission of news, towers were 
erected at intervals of six miles along the high 
roads, where couriers were always in waiting 
for despatches, which were transferred from 
hand to hand at each stage. Despatches were 
thus carried 300 miles in aday. The different 
trades were commonly grouped into a species 
of guild. The women shared equally with the 
men as well in social festivities as in labor. 
The Mexicans were simple in dress, but given 
to an inordinate display of ornaments. The 
people were courteous and polished, and strict 
observers of the proprieties of life. Cowering 
was their posture of respect. In their ban- 
quets, which were frequent and costly, human 
flesh was often served as a special delicacy, 
particularly in feasts connected with their re- 
ligion.—The first European to visit the shores 
of Mexico was Francisco Fernandez de Cordova 
in 1517; but he only discovered the coast of 
Yucatan. The discovery was continued in the 
following year by Juan de Grijalva, in command 
of a squadron sent from Cuba by Velazquez, 
who sailed round the north coast as far as 
the mouth of the river Panuco, and landed 
on the islet on which now stands the castle 
of San Juan de Ulua. After his return, his 
brilliant account of his discovery excited the 
desire of conquest. On Good Friday, April 22, 
1519, Hernan Cortes landed at that part of 
the coast where Vera Cruz was afterward 
built, and founded a town, to which he gave 
the name of Villarica de Vera Cruz. On the 
very day of his landing occurred the first of 
a series of battles which only terminated with 
the taking of the city of Tenochtitlan, Aug. 
13, 1521, and the capture of the young and 
valorous Guatemozin, the last of the Aztec 
monarchs. (See CortTEs, GUATEMOZIN, and 
Montezuma.) The other smaller states were 
subdued after a short resistance. A military 
government was immediately established, Cor- 
tes taking the supreme command; but ayun- 
tamientos had already been formed, the first 
at Villarica, and these continued independently 
of the new military power. Many of the laws 
emanating from the ayuntamientos still exist in 
full force in the Mexican republic. By a de- 
cree of Charles V., Cortes was constituted gov- 
ernor of the new territory, which had been 
named New Spain, Oct. 15, 1522. The Indians, 
though converted, were distributed among the 
conquistadores and other Spanish officials and 
immigrants, and compelled as slaves to till 
the ground and labor in the mines. This sys- 
tem of repartimientos or distributions had 
already been applied and found fatal to the 
aboriginal inhabitants of the island of Hayti; 
but the Mexicans, a hardier people, did not so 
readily succumb. In 1528 was inaugurated the 
first audiencia, with Nufio de Guzman as presi- 
dent, and four auditors. The arbitrary and 
oppressive measures of this body caused con- 
siderable discontent in the colony; which, 
coming to the ears of the emperor, led to the 
suppression of the audiencias, and the estab- 


MEXICO 


lishment of a viceregal government in New 
Spain. The first viceroy, Don Antonio de 
Mendoza, ruled the country from 1535 to 1550, 
During his administration discoveries were ac- 
tively prosecuted in the north; the first money 
was coined in Mexico; the printing press, the 
first in the new world, was introduced; the 
university of Mexico and several colleges were 
founded; and numerous important reforms 
were effected. Of the 64 viceroys who suc- 
cessively governed the country till 1821, but 
one was of American birth, Don Juan de Acu- 
fia, a native of Lima (1722-34); and the most 
celebrated after Mendoza was Don Juan Vi- 
cente Guemes Pacheco, second count of Revi- 
llagigedo (1789-94). In his time were accom- 
plished many important improvements: the 
streets of the principal cities were drained, 
paved, and lighted, and provided with a tolera- 
bly efficient police; persons of known probity 
were placed in the public offices; and municipal 
revenues were introduced.—At the beginning 
of the present century, society in New Spain 
consisted of four classes, of opposite tendencies 
and interests: the pure-blooded Indians, the 
creoles or pure-blooded descendants of the ear- 
ly Spanish settlers, the mestizos or half-breeds, 
from the union of whites and Indians, and the 
Spaniards of European birth. The condition 
of the Indians had but little changed under the 
viceroys; they were compelled to pay tribute, 
and were held in a sort of tutelage which only 
ended in the tomb. The Indian nobles or ca- 
ciques were exempted from the degrading re- 
strictions which weighed upon the others. As 
for the creoles, whose numbers were continual- 
ly increasing, a policy due to ignorance of their 
real position in the community excluded them 
from all places of trust in the government, 
and even from the higher grades in the regular 
army. Upon such as had amassed great wealth 
titles of nobility were conferred, while con- 
ciliatory crosses were distributed to those of 
smaller fortunes; but the home government 
considered it imprudent to allow them to take 
part in the public administration, and placed 
it exclusively in the hands of the Spaniards. 
This, with other grievances, caused profound 
discontent among the creoles, who would prob- 
ably have resented it by open rebellion, had 
they not been restrained by the apprehension 
that the Indians, aided by the mestizos, might 
avail themselves of that event for the destruc- 
tion of all the whites. An ineradicable antip- 
athy had already sprung up between the cre- 
oles and the Spaniards, whom they distin- 
guished by the sobriquet of gachupines; yet 
probably no outbreak would have immediately 
ensued but for the events of-1808 in the Penin- 
sula. The usurpation of Ferdinand’s throne 
by a Bonaparte was unanimously protested 
against by both Spaniards and creoles in Mexi- 
co; but the public mind was agitated by intem- 
perate discussions concerning the provisional 
government which the state of things made it 
necessary to organize; and the excitement was 


MEXICO 


AUT 


not a little enhanced by the imprisonment of | ernment, called poder ejecutivo (executive 
the viceroy, Don José de Iturrigaray, suspect- | power), composed of Gens. Bravo, Victoria, 


ed of a design to seize the crown of Mexico 
(Sept. 16, 1808). After his arrest the prestige 
of Spanish authority sensibly declined among 
the Mexicans, who began to long for indepen- 
dence. A conspiracy was formed, and on 
Sept. 15, 1810, a revolt broke out in the prov- 
ince of Guanajuato, headed by a priest, Don 
Miguel Hidalgo, a man of much talent and con- 
siderable influence among the Indians. The 
insurrection soon assumed formidable propor- 
tions, Hidalgo having at one time 100,000 men 
under arms. He finally suffered several de- 
feats, was betrayed to his enemies {March 21, 
1811), and four months later shot in company 
with his companions in arms Allende, Aldama, 
and Jimenez. The contest was continued by 
Morelos, also a priest, who called a national 
congress, which met at Chilpanzingo in Septem- 
ber, 1813, and in November declared Mexico in- 
dependent. On Oct. 22, 1814, it promulgated 
at Apatzingan the first Mexican constitution, 
which is known by the name of that place. 
After several defeats Morelos was captured, 
carried to the city of Mexico, and executed as 
a rebel, Dec. 22, 1815. For several years the 
contest was a mere partisan warfare on the 
part of the patriots, of whom the principal 
chiefs were Victoria, Guerrero, Bravo, Rayon, 
and Teran. These were gradually driven from 
the field, and were killed, imprisoned, or ob- 
liged to hide in the mountains, so that long be- 
fore 1820 the authority of Spain appeared to 
be fully reéstablished in Mexico. But in the 
course of that year the news of the revolution 
in Spain, and of the proclamation of the con- 
stitution which Ferdinand VII. had been com- 
pelled to adopt, renewed the agitation among 
the Mexicans in favor of a liberal government. 
Don Agustin Iturbide, a native Mexican and a 
colonel in the Mexican army, who during the 
recent civil war had distinguished himself on 
the royalist side, now threw off his allegiance 
and began the second revolution by proclaim- 
ing Mexico independent, Feb. 24, 1821. The 
revolt of Iturbide was eminently successful. In 
the course of a few months the whole country 
recognized his authority, except the capital, 
and by a treaty signed at Cordova, Aug. 24, 
1821, with the viceroy, Don Juan O’Donoju, 
he obtained possession of Mexico on Sept. 
27, and instituted a regency, of which he was 
the head and O’Donoju one of the members. 
Eight months later, with the support of the 
army and the mob of the city of Mexico, Itur- 
bide was proclaimed emperor on the night of 
May 19, 1822, under the title of Agustin I. 
His reign was short. On Dec. 2 Santa Anna, 
seconded by Bravo, Guerrero, and other chiefs, 
proclaimed the republic at Vera Cruz; and 
Iturbide abdicated on March 19, 18238, rather 
than see the country again plunged into civil 
war. The congress, which had been dissolved 
by Iturbide, but reconvoked by him shortly 
before his abdication, appointed a new gov- 


Negrete, and Guerrero. Iturbide was con- 
demned to exile, and embarked at Vera Cruz 
for London in May of the same year, just 
twelve months after his exaltation to the throne. 
On Oct. 4, 1824, the congress promulgated a 
constitution closely resembling that of the Uni- 
ted States, and by virtue of which Mexico 
was formed into a republic with 19 states and 
5 territories. Gen. Don Felix Fernando Vic- 
toria, better known as Guadalupe Victoria, 
one of the most intrepid heroes of the war 
of independence, was the first president, and 
Gen. Bravo the first vice president. Iturbide, 
who had the temerity to venture back to Mex- 
ico in this year, was arrested and shot at Pa- 
dilla on July 19. In 1828 the candidates for 
the presidency were Gens. Gomez Pedraza and 
Guerrero; on the election of the former the 
opposite party took up arms, and a bloody 
contest ensued, which terminated in the down- 
fall of Pedraza’s government, and his flight 
from the country, Jan. 4, 1829. Guerrero as- 
sumed the executive functions on April 1. 
The year 1829 was marked by the recognition 
of the Mexican republic by the United States, 
and by an attempt made by Spain to regain 
possession of her lost colony. In July Brig. 
Gen. Barradas with 4,000 Spanish troops dis- 
embarked at Cabo Rojo near Tampico, but 
he was compelled to capitulate on Sept. 11, 
his troops being disarmed and sent to Havana. 
The vice president, Gen. Anastasio Busta- 
mante, who was commanding a reserve corps 
at Jalapa for the purpose of repelling the in- 
vaders, pronounced against Guerrero, and, hav- 
ing succeeded in deposing him, was himself 
elected president in his stead, Jan. 11, 1880. 
Revolutionary disturbances continued till Feb. 
14, 1831, when Guerrero, one of the principal 
leaders, was treacherously delivered up to his 
enemies and executed. His name is perpetu- 
ated in that of one of the present states of 
the republic. Bustamante was succeeded by 
Pedraza, who in turn was deposed by Santa 
Anna, the latter entering upon office on April 
1, 18338, little more than three months after 
the inauguration of Pedraza. Bustamante 
was compelled to go into exile, and with him 
several other personages of political notoriety. 
Congress now passed laws suppressing the 
convents, and abolishing the compulsory pay- 
ment of tithes. It also proposed to appropri- 
ate the property of the church to the payment 
of the national debt, but this measure led to 
insurrections and to further complications, 
which ended in 1835 in the abrogation of the 
constitution of 1824 and the conversion of the 
confederation of states into a consolidated re- 
public, of which Santa Anna was nominally 
constitutional president, and practically dicta- 
tor. This revolution was acquiesced in by all 
parts of the country except Texas, where sey- 
eral thousand American colonists had settled. 
The refusal of the Texans to submit to the cen- 


478 


tralized government, which they pronounced 
a usurpation, induced Santa Anna to march 
against them in the beginning of 1836 with an 
army, which was defeated and annihilated at 
San Jacinto, April 21, the Mexican president 
himself being taken prisoner. In the previous 
month a convention of delegates assembled at 
the town of Washington had declared Texas an 
independent republic. The captivity of Santa 
Anna threw Mexico again into confusion. Bus- 
tamante, who had returned from exile, became 
president April 19, 1837; but in the latter part 
of his term the power was virtually in the 
hands of Santa Anna, who, after a visit to Presi- 
dent Jackson at Washington, had been sent 
back to Mexico in a United States ship of war 
in 1887. He held office as revolutionary provis- 
ional president from March to July, 1839, when 
Nicolas Bravo became president for a week. 
A long period of confusion followed, during 
which the constitution was suspended, and the 
government became a dictatorship, at the head 
of which were alternately Santa Anna, Bravo, 
and Canalizo (the two last as substitutes du- 
ring the frequent absences of the first), from 
Oct. 10, 1841, to June 4, 1844. Constitu- 
tional government was resumed in 1844, with 
Santa Anna as president, under a constitu- 
tion promulgated June 12, 1843. He was de- 
posed and banished by a revolution, and was 
succeeded, Sept. 20, 1844, by Canalizo, who 
was deposed by a revolution in December. 
His successor, Herrera, was also driven from 
office by a revolution, Dec. 30, 1845. Herrera 
was succeeded by Gen. Paredes. During his 
administration war commenced with the United 
States, in consequence of the annexation of 
Texas to the American Union. In May, 1846, 
Gen Taylor crossed the Rio Grande, and 
after a series of engagements in which the 
American arms were uniformly successful, 
Santa Anna, who had returned from exile, re- 
gained the presidency, and taken personal com- 
mand of the army, was completely overthrown. 
By the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in 
February, 1848, the war was ended, and Cali- 
fornia and New Mexico were ceded to the 
United States. Santa Anna again left the 
country, but after the new administration of 
Herrera, and that of Arista, he was recalled in 
1853, and was for the fifth time elevated to 
the presidency, though for a short season only ; 
for having attempted to secure the office for 
life with the right to appoint at his death his 
own successor, he was deposed in August, 
1855, by a revolution under Alvarez, governor 
of Guerrero, who was at once appointed to 
take his place. The latter resigned in favor 
of Comonfort in December of the same year, 
and a series of revolutions ensued, chiefly in- 
stigated by the so-called church party, whom 
the president made his implacable enemies by 
a law recommended by him and adopted in 
June, 1856, for the sale of the church lands 
and the freedom of religious belief. In March, 
1857, a new and very democratic constitution 


MEXICO 


was promulgated by congress, and Comonfort 
was constrained to accept it; but, owing to 
strenuous opposition from the church party, it 
did not come into operation till May. Mean- 
time the repudiation of an acknowledged debt 
to Spain seemed likely to involve the republic 
in a war with that power; the president sought 
in vain for aid from the United States, and 
conspiracies multiplied on every side. Comon- 
fort, although confirmed in the presidency un- 
der the new constitution in September, an- 
nounced in December a change of government 
and of constitution; and in January, 1858, he 
was superseded by Zuloaga, who for a while 
had been his supporter, and was forced to take 
refuge in the United States. Zuloaga was im- 
mediately opposed by Benito Juarez, who, as 
chief justice of the supreme court, was by the 
provisions of the constitution the late presi- 
dent’s lawful successor. Juarez was defeated ; 
but he went to Vera Cruz, and there established 
himself as constitutional president on May 4. 
Zuloaga was constrained to abdicate in favor 
of Miguel Miramon, his own general-in-chief, 
Jan. 1, 1859. Miramon, a successful soldier 
rather than a good statesman, relied solely 
upon the fortune of arms for the subjection of 
Vera Cruz. Leaving Zuloaga as provisional’ 
president, he set out upon a series of cam- 
paigns, which terminated in that of Calpnilal- 
pam and the triumphal entry of Juarez into 
the capital on Jan. 11, 1861. Much of Juarez’s 
success was due to the recognition of him as 
the head of the government by the United 
States. While still at Vera Cruz he began the 
series of reforms which rendered his admin- 
istration so popular on the one hand, but on 
the other paved the way for foreign invasion. 
Among them stand most prominent the making 
marriage a civil contract, the abolition of per- 
petual monastic vows and of ecclesiastical tri- 
bunals, the suppression of monasteries, and the 
appropriation of church property to the ser- 
vice of the state, the total value of which was 
estimated at rather more than $300,000,000, or 
nearly one half the value of all the landed 
property in the country. These measures were 
soon followed by the complete separation of 
church and state. But the church party had re- 
solved upon the destruction of Juarez’s govern- 
ment, although national liberty should be sacri- 
ficed for its accomplishment. A favorable op- 
portunity soon offered. Spain, France, and 
England urged claims for the reparation of 
injuries and losses alleged to have been sus- 
tained by their subjects resident in Mexico; 
and no satisfaction having been obtained from 
Juarez, he was informed that a joint expedi- 
tion from the three powers would be sent to de- 
mand it, a measure agreed upon by the conven- 
tion of London, Oct. 31, 1861. In December 
Vera Cruz was occupied by Spanish troops from 
Cuba, commanded by Gen. Prim, and in Jan- 
uary, 1862, by French and British forces. But 
it was soon discovered that the English and 
Spanish claims could be settled by negotiation; 


MEXICO 479 


it was agreed that a portion of the customs 
receipts should be appropriated to their liqui- 
dation; and in May the forces of both these 
powers were withdrawn from the country. 
The French army remained in the republic, 
thereby tacitly avowing their intention to over- 
throw the existing form of government in Mex- 
ico. This determination appears to have been 
solely prompted by Almonte and other agents 
of the church party sent to Europe for that 
purpose, and it was readily concurred in by 
Napoleon III. The French refused to treat 
with Juarez, and war was declared on April 
16,1862. Almonte, appointed president by the 
Vera Cruz authorities, who had revolted against 
Juarez (June 3), was deposed and his govern- 
ment dissolved on Oct. 2 by a decree of Gen. 
Forey, the French commander. Hostilities 
began with an attack on Puebla by the French, 
who were then defeated, but who, after a num- 
ber of subsequent engagements of varying suc- 
cess, occupied Mexico city on June 10, 1863, 
Juarez and his ministry having removed to 
San Luis Potosi. A regency was formed on 
the 24th; on July 8 an assembly of notables 
was convened, with power to decide upon the 
form of the future government of Mexico; 
and on the 10th it resolved, by 250 votes against 
20, upon a hereditary monarchical government 
under a Roman Catholic emperor. The crown 
was accepted by the archduke Maximilian of 
Austria, with the title of Maximilian I., em- 
peror of Mexico. He arrived at the capital on 
June 12,1864. The republican president, con- 
tinually pursued by the imperialists, arrived 
by successive retreats at El Paso in September, 
1865, and remained there until the commence- 
ment of the following year. On March 25, 
1866, the Juarist troops captured Chihuahua, 
and that victory was followed by a number of 
others. After repeated remonstrances from 
the United States government, the French 
troops, under Bazaine, were withdrawn from 


~ Mexico early in 1867, the last detachment em- 


barking at Vera Cruz on March 16. Maxi- 
milian, now left to his own resources, deemed 
it expedient to leave the capital and proceed 
northward. Toward the end of February he 
set out at the ‘head of about 5,000 men, and 
reached Querétaro, which was at once besieged 
by Gen. Escobedo with an army of 20,000 
Juarists; Mexico, Puebla, and Vera Cruz being 
simultaneously invested by other divisions of 
the republican forces. The ill-fated emperor 
was captured (May 15), tried by court martial, 
condemned, and shot, together with his two 
generals, Miramon and Mejia, on June 19. 
Juarez reéntered the capital on July 16, and was 
reélected president in the following October. 
During his flight before the imperial forces in 
the north his term of office had expired; but 
he issued a decree prolonging his exercise of 
the presidential functions until it should be- 
come possible to summon the representatives 
for a new election. The work of reconstruc- 
tion was interrupted for a short time by an 
552 VOL. xI.—31 


attempt on the part of Santa Anna to occupy 
some of the gulf ports and promote a con- 
spiracy against Juarez, who had rejected his 
offer to assist him in driving out the invaders. 
He was captured at Sisal on July 12, 1867, tried 
at the castle of San Juan de Ulua, and con- 
demned to banishment for eight years. The 
years 1868 and 1869 were marked by insurrec- 
tions, pronunciamientos, and revolutions, the 
most formidable of which was the pronuncia- 
miento of Angel Santa Anna, who was taken, 
after four months of depredations and blood- 
shed, and shot, in company with his followers. 
President Juarez was again elected in 1871, 
the opposing candidates having been Gen. Por- 
firio Diaz and Don Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada. 
Juarez is remarkable as having been the first 
president of Mexico who held power during his 
full term of office. He died on July 18, 1872, 
and was succeeded by Lerdo de Tejada. The 
republic is at present (1875) in a state of com- 
parative peace; the laws are more faithfully 
observed, or at least less disregarded; the mili- 
tary seem to be reconciled to the idea of endu- 
ring a civilian at the head of the government; 
public education is in a prosperous condition ; 
internal improvements are in progress; brig- 
andage is gradually disappearing; and mining 
is likely to be extended before long by the 
adoption of suitable machinery.—See Solis, His- 
toria de la conquista de México (Madrid, 1684; 
new ed., Paris, 1858; translated into English, 
2 vols., London, 1724); Boletin de la sociedad 
de geografia de México (1854 et seq.); Pimentel, 
Cuadro descriptivo y comparativo de las lenguas 
indigenas de México (2 vols., Mexico, 1862); 
Orozco y Berra, Geografia de las lenguas de 
México (Mexico, 1864); Payno, Historia de 
México (Mexico, 1871); Clavigero, Storia antica 
del Messico (4 vols. 4to, Cesena, 1780-88; 
translated into English, 2 vols. 4to, London, 
1787; Spanish, London, 1824); Humboldt, Zs- 
sais politiques sur la Nouvelle Espagne (revis- 
ed ed., 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1827); Lord Kings- 
borough, ‘‘ Mexican Antiquities” (9 vols. fol., 
London, 1831-48); Prescott, ‘‘ History of the 
Conquest of Mexico” (1848; revised ed., 8 
vols., Philadelphia, 1874) ; Brantz Mayer, ‘‘ His- 
tory of the War between Mexico and the Uni- 
ted States” (New York, 1848), and “ Mex- 
ico, Aztec, Spanish, and Republican” (1852); 
Mansfield, ‘‘The Mexican War” (New York, 
1848); Kendall, ‘‘The War between the Uni- 
ted States and Mexico” (New York, 1851); 
Helps, ‘‘ The Life of Hernando Cortes, and the 
Conquest of Mexico ” (London, 1871). 
MEXICO, a state of the republic of the same 
name, bounded N. by Hidalgo, E. by Tlaxcala 
and Puebla, 8. E. by Morelos, 8. by Guerrero, 
and W. by Michoacan; area, 9,598 sq. m.; pop. 
in 1869, 650,663. Two great mountain chains 
traverse the state, and, with their branches, 
divide it into three picturesque and fertile val- 
leys, the principal of which is that of Mexico, 
and the other two are Tlaxcala and Toluca. 
The highest summits are those of the south and 


480 : MEXICO 


southeast, among which are Popocatepetl and 
Iztaccihuatl. The chief and only important 
river is the Lerma, which, rising in the lake of 
its own name, flows N. W. into Michoacan and 
falls into Lake Chapala. The most remarkable 
feature in the hydrography of the state is its 
lakes: Chalco, Xochimilco, Tezcuco, Xaltécan, 
San Cristébal, and Zumpango in the valley of 
Mexico, and Lerma in that of Toluca. The 
average elevation of the state is 7,500 ft. above 
the sea. Its climate is equal to the mildest, most 
equable, and most salubrious of the temperate 
zone; the mean annual temperature is 65° F., 
the thermometer never descending below 57°, 
while the maximum summer heat is 70°. There 
are really but two seasons, the rainy from June 
to October, and the dry during the remaining 
‘months. The metals found here are gold, sil- 
ver, lead, iron, and antimony; cinnabar and 
sulphur abound; some coal occurs; and litho- 
graphic stone and marbles of several varieties 
are plentiful. The soil is remarkably fertile, 
and the state, one of the most agricultural in 
the republic, produces maize, wheat, rye, barley, 
several kinds of beans, the sugar cane, plantain, 
and especially the maguey. Tropical fruits 
abound here, and all the fruits and vegetables 
of the temperate zones. The forest-clothed 
hills and mountains afford an abundance of 
timber of several varieties. The chief indus- 
tries are mining, agriculture, the manufacture 


other fabrics of Temoscaltepec and Tenancin- 
go being of superior quality), and glass and 
earthenware, some of which is not inferior to 
that imported from Germany. Cattle rearing, 
once a vast source of wealth, has materially 
dwindled of late years, the annual value of the 
stock not exceeding $3,000,000. The commerce 
is valued at $12,000,000 yearly. This state is 
traversed by the Mexico and Vera Cruz rail- 
way, and those of Tlalpan and Toluca, and by 
several lines of telegraph. The state is divided 
into 16 districts, and the capital and chief town 
is Toluca. In 1874 there were 388 primary 
public schools, of which 336 were for males, and 
the total attendance was 22,120, about 3,000 of 
whom were females. Of the 51 private schools 
34 were for males; the aggregate attendance 
was 2,529, and of these 1,027 were females. The 
only high school supported by the state govern- 
ment is the instituto literario, with 670 stu- 
dents, the annual outlay for which is $36,000. 

MEXICO, a city and the capital of the repub- 
lic and of the federal district (area, 85 sq. m.) 
of Mexico, situated in the centre of the valley 
of Mexico, and in the great central table land of 
the country, at an elevation of 7,469 ft. above 
the sea, according to Humboldt, or 7,602 ft. by 
Talcott’s measurement; lat. 19° 26’ N., lon. 99° 
7’ W.; pop. according to an official return in 
1869, 200,000; according to later authorities, 
about 250,000. Of the natives, the whites are 


of woollens and cottons (the cassimeres and | the least numerous element, the mestizos and 


— 


Plaza de Armas, Mexico. 


pure-blooded Indians forming by far the largest 
proportion; and there are besides many Ger- 
mans, French, Italians, Spaniards, and other 
Europeans, with some Americans. The Ger- 
mans are either manufacturers or brewers, or 
are engaged in the higher branches of com- 


merce; the French and Spaniards are mostly 
retailers, the former dealing in articles of fancy 
and luxury; the English are for the most part 
bankers, or, like the Americans, are connected 
with mechanical and engineering enterprises. 
The various public vendors, muleteers, water 


MEXICO 481 


carriers, domestics, &c., are commonly Indians 
or mestizos. Beggars are extremely numer- 
ous, and the ragged vagrants are called léperos 
or lepers. Mexico ranks among the largest 
cities in the western hemisphere, and, with its 
steeples, towers, and domes, presents, from 
whatever direction ap- 
proached, an aspect of 
grandeur and magnifi- 
cence unsurpassed . by 
any in the world. It is 
divided into 8 cuarteles 
mayores or large wards 
and 82 smaller, compri- 
sing 245 blocks or squares 
of. houses, 330 streets, 


and 1380 callejones or 


lanes. The streets are 
wide and straight, cross- 
ing each other at right 
angles, well paved, light- 
ed with gas, and fur- 
nished with spacious side- 
walks, a feature rarely 
met with in Spanish- 
American towns. The 


served as the residence of 30 viceroys. Facing 
the cathedral is the cabildo or city hall, in 
which is contained the merchants’ exchange ; 
and on the same side is the portal de los flores, 
an extensive arcade, similar to the portal de 
mercadores, which flanks the W. side of the 


houses, especially in the 
central and W. portions, 
are mostly of three sto- 
ries, strongly built of 
stone, often painted in brilliant colors, and hay- 
ing a balcony before every window. 
ico is lavishly supplied with public squares, 
the finest of which is the plaza de Armas, in 
the middle of the town; the centre is laid out 
in a garden with flower beds, shady trees, and 
benches, and a band is in attendance almost 
every evening. 
600 ft. wide. On the N. side, occupying the 
site of the ancient Aztec pyramid and teocalli, 
stands the cathedral, a majestic edifice, though 
the architecture is an irregular mixture of the 
Gothic and Italian styles. The front is deco- 
rated with carving, and there are two lofty 
towers ornamented with statues. The interior 
is rich and gorgeous, and the numerous cruci- 
fixes, candlesticks, reliquaries, &c., of gold and 
silver adorned with jewels, are said to be of 
immense value. In the vaulted roofing is a 
much admired painting by Juneiro. The c¢a- 
thedral is 500 ft. long by 420 broad. It was 
founded in- 1578 under the auspices of Charles 
V. and Pope Clement VII., and completed in 
1667. The E. side of the plaza is occupied by 
the government house, containing the presi- 
dent’s apartments, the various government of- 
fices, the chamber of representatives, and the 
ambassadors’ hall with full-length portraits of 
several Mexican patriots, headed by a magnifi- 
cent one of Washington. To the government 
house are attached several courtyards and a 
botanic garden; this edifice, erected in 1693, 
stands upon the spot occupied by the palace 
originally constructed by Cortes for himself, 
and which, until its destruction by fire at the 
hands of the populace in 1692, had successively 


Mex- 


The plaza is 810 ft. long by: 


a SS - = = 
The Cathedral, 


plaza, and before the numerous and showy 
shops in which are spread to view on stalls 
endless varieties of filigree work in gold and 
silver, and other ornamental articles. On the 
plaza de Santo Domingo are three noteworthy 
edifices: the convent of the same name, re- 
markable for its handsome chapel, the old in- 
quisition building, now the school of medi- 
cine, and the custom house. Other celebrated 
churches of Mexico are those of San Fernan- 
do, Loreto, Encarnacion, Jesus Maria, the 
chapel of Santa Teresa with a superb cypress 
in marble, and that of the Concepcion, all 
celebrated for the beauty of their architecture 
or their gorgeous and costly decorations. 
Mexico includes 14 parishes. Eight convents 
and 21 nunneries which were suppressed by 
President Juarez’s reform law of July 12, 
1859, have since been converted into school 
houses. Jn the mint were coined, from 1690 
to 1853, $1,702,650,087; .and the gold and 
silver coinage in 1867 amounted to $4,3804,- 
313 95. The national museum, on the N. 
side of the government palace, contains one 
of the finest and most extensive collections 
of paintings in America; and in the school 
of fine arts are preserved rare specimens of 
sculpture, painting, engraving, and design. 
In the courtyard of the national museum are 
exposed a circular monolith calendar attesting 
the high degree of civilization attained by the 
Toltecs, whose year almost exactly coincided 
with the Julian year; a ponderous statue of 
Huitzilopochtli, the Aztec god of war, bear- 
ing no semblance of human form or feature, 
but being a fantastic and heterogeneous group- 


489 MEXICO 


ing of death’s heads, hands interlaced, snakes, 
feathers, &c.; a sacrificial stone; and a num- 
ber of idols and other minor relics from va- 
rious parts of the country. Two other hand- 
some piles are the post office and the hotel Itur- 
bide, the latter having been for a short sea- 
son the residence of Agustin I. The prin- 
cipal promenade is the Alameda, shaded with 
stately beeches, embellished with nine foun- 
tains and eleven glorietas or summer houses, 
and tastefully laid out in spacious walks. This 
is a favorite resort on Sunday mornings, when 
a regimental band plays for two hours. Other 
paseos are those of the Viga, extending along 
the canal of that name, on which has been 
erected a colossal bust of Guatemozin, the last 
emperor of the Aztecs; and the paseo de 
Bueareli, with a superb bronze equestrian 
statue of Charles IV., modelled by Manuel 
Tolsa.—In 1874 Mexico had 218 public schools, 
77 of which were for females and 48 for both 
sexes; the average attendance was 16,915. 
These schools include the escuela preparatoria, 
formerly the college of San Ildefonso (under 
the rectorship of Sefior Lerdo de Tejada till 
1872), the schools of jurisprudence, medicine, 
agriculture, engineering, fine arts, commerce, 
arts and trades, deaf and dumb, and those sus- 
tained by the municipal government and the 
Lancasterian company, one or two by private 
individuals, and a number by benevolent socie- 
ties. The school of engineering has a fine col- 
lection of specimens in natural history, and a 
cabinet of mineralogy. The philharmonic so- 
ciety, with a subsidy from the government, 
supports a musical conservatory for both sexes. 
There are also a seminary for the education 
of priests, a school for the blind, and a night 
school for adults. The public has access to 
two libraries: the gran biblioteca nacional, 
with upward of 100,000 volumes and manu- 
scripts, and the biblioteca popular del cinco de 
Mayo. There are 21 societies, scientific, artis- 
tic, or commercial, including the geographical 
and statistical society, and the Humboldt socie- 
ty of natural history. The theatres are much 
more numerous than beautiful or commodious, 
and with a circus are the only public places of 
amusement in Mexico, the bull ring having 
been demolished in 1874. The city supports 
five hospitals, an insane asylum for males and 
one for females, and a house of correction. 
Two institutions of comparatively recent foun- 
dation take care of young children during the 
day, in order to leave their mothers at liberty 
to work. The principal cemeteries hitherto 
in use are now closed, being within the muni- 
cipal limits; their place has been supplied by 
the general cemeteries of La Piedad and Campo 
Florida, the French, and the Protestant ceme- 
teries. There are four very good markets, con- 
stantly stocked with an abundance of the pro- 
ductions of all the zones. All the fruits and 
vegetables generally regarded elsewhere as deli- 
cacies here come to market every day in the 
year, and the supply of tropical fruits is inex- 


haustible. Most of the vegetables and fruits 
are grown upon the chinampas or so-called 
floating islands on Lake Tezcuco, and brought 
to market in boats by the canal de la Viga; 
and prodigious quantities of flowers of most 
brilliant colors and most fragrant odors are 
daily brought to the city in the same way. A 
new abattoir was erected in 1874, at a cost of 
$500,000. The water supply reaches the town 
by two aqueducts of monumental proportions, 
one bringing agua gorda (thick water) from 
Chapultepec, and the other agua delgada (light 
water) from the southwest.—The climate is 
mild, equable, and very salubrious; the mean 
annual temperature is 70°. The more com-~ 


mon diseases are pneumonia, dysentery, and 


diarrhoea, and the average mortality is about 
3 per cent. of the population.—The chief oc- 
cupations of the inhabitants are agriculture, 
the manufacture of paper, earthenware, cot- 
ton, woollen, and silk fabrics, the preparation 
of tobacco, and the importation of the various 
products of the adjoining states and of manu- 
factured goods, wines, &c., from Europe, the 
United States, and the West Indies, especially 
the island of Cuba. The chief financial insti- 
tutions are the bank of London, Mexico, and 
South America, and numerous private banking 
houses; a government pawn office, with branch- 
es in several parts of the city; and 18 lotteries, 
with an aggregate risk capital of nearly $2,- 
500,000, and paying a mean annual license of 
$150,000 to the central government. The chief 
places of interest in the vicinity are Guadalupe 
Hidalgo, Tlalpan, San Angel, Mixcoac, Coyoa- 
can, Atzcapozalco, Churubusco, Tacuba, Tacu- 
baya, noted for its handsome private houses, 
and Papotla and Chapultepec. Almost all 
these places are reached by railway (with steam 
or horse power) or omnibus from Mexico, which 
is likewise connected by railway with Puebla, 
Orizaba, Cordova, and Vera Cruz; and a line 
is in process of construction to Toluca.—Mex- 
ico owes its chief historical interest to its situa- 
tion upon the site of the ancient city, the capi- 
tal of the Montezumas. The Aztecs or ancient 
Mexicans, after their migration from the north, 
wandered for a long time in the Mexican val- 
ley, till in 13825 they halted on the S. W. bor- 
ders of the lake of Tezcuco, and there beheld 
an eagle perched on the stem of a nopal, and 
devouring a serpent. An oracle having an- 
nounced the omen as auspicious, and as indica- 
ting the site of their future metropolis, they 
founded it upon, the islets of Lake Tezcuco, 
calling the place Tenochtitlan, “‘nopal on a 
stone,” in allusion to the omen. Its name of 
Mexico was subsequently derived from that of 
their god Mexitli. By the middle of the 15th 
century the city had become large and pros- 
perous, and in place of reeds and rushes were 
substituted stone and lime; and when on the 
evening of Nov. 7, 1519, its long lines of glit- 
tering edifices first met the eyes of Cortes 
and his followers, it looked, says Prescott, 
like a thing of fairy creation rather than the 


-_ 


MEXICO 483 


work of mortal hands. On their entry into 
Mexico next day the Spaniards found fresh 
cause for admiration in the grandeur of the 
city and the superior style of its architecture. 
The city was 9 m. in circumference, and the 
number of its houses was about 60,000, and of 
inhabitants probably 500,000. Though a few 
of the streets were wide and of great length, 
most of them were narrow and lined with mean 
houses. The large streets were intersected by 
numerous canals crossed by bridges, The pal- 
ace of Montezuma, near the centre of the city, 
was a pile of low irregular stone buildings of 
vast extent. Another palace, assigned to Cortes 
on his entrance into the city, was so large 
as to accommodate his whole army. But the 
most remarkable edifice of the city was the great 
teocallt or temple, completed in 1486. It was 
encompassed by a stone wall about 8 ft. high, 
ornamented on the outer side by figures of 
serpents in basso-rilievo, and pierced on its 
four sides by gateways opening on the four 
principal streets. Over each gate was an ar- 
senal, and barracks near the temple were gar- 
risoned by 10,000 soldiers. The temple itself 
was a solid pyramidal structure of earth and 
pebbles, coated externally with hewn:stones. 
It was square, its sides facing the cardinal 
points, and was divided into five stories, each 
of which receded so as to be smaller than 
that below it. The ascent was by a flight of 
114 steps on the outside, so contrived that to 
reach the top it was necessary to pass four 
times round the whole edifice; and the base 
of the temple is supposed to have been 800 
ft. square. The summit was a large area 
paved with broad flat stones. On it were two 
towers or sanctuaries, and before each was an 
altar on which a fire was kept continually 
burning. The top of this remarkable structure 
commanded a superb view of the city, lake, 
valley, and surrounding mountains. The po- 
lice of the city was efficient and vigilant; and 
1,000 men were daily employed in watering 
and sweeping the streets. As the lake that 
surrounded the city was extremely brackish, 
pure water for the supply of the people was 
brought by an aqueduct from the neighboring 
hili of Chapultepec, where Montezuma had a 
summer palace surrounded by vast and mag- 
nificent gardens. In the final siege by the 
Spaniards, Cortes, despairing of otherwise sub- 
duing a place where every house was a fortress 
and every street was cut up by canals, reluc- 
tantly determined to destroy the city, which he 
calls ‘‘the most beautiful thing in the world.” 
With the aid of his multitudinous Indian allies, 
whose hatred of the Aztecs led them to work 
with zeal, in a few weeks seven eighths of the 
city was levelled to the ground, and the canals 
filled with the rubbish. Soon after the termi- 
nation of the siege Cortes began to rebuild the 
city on its present plan, assembling for the 
work a host of Indians, estimated by a Mexi- 
can writer at 400,000. During its occupation 
by the Spaniards, from 1521 to 1821, the most 


remarkable events in the local history of Mex- 
ico were five great inundations in 1558, 1580, 
1604, 1607, and 1629, caused by the overflow- 
ing of the neighboring lakes. To prevent the 
recurrence of these inundations a great drain 
was dug through the hill of Nochistango, by 
which the waters of the river Cuautitlan were 
led out of the valley instead of falling into the 
lake of Tezcuco. This work, which was com- 
pleted in 1789, after more than 100 years of 
labor, is about 12 m. long, from 100 to 130 ft. 
deep, and between 200 and 800 ft. wide. Since 
the establishment of Mexican independence, 
the city has been the scene of several revolu- 
tions and insurrections, and a number of im- 
portant battles have been fought in the vicin- 
ity, the most noted being those of Contreras 
and Churubusco, Aug. 20, 1847, and of Chapul- 
tepec, Sept. 13, fought between the American 
army under Gen. Scott, and the Mexican army 
under Gen. Santa Anna. After this battle the 
Americans occupied the city, and held it un- 
til the ratification of the treaty of Guadalupe 
Hidalgo, in May, 1848. 

MEXICO, Gulf of, a basin of the Atlantic ocean, 
enclosed by the United States, the West In- 
dies, and Mexico, and measuring about 1,000 
m. from E. to W. and 800 m. from N. to §.; 
area, about 700,000 sq. m. The states of 
Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and 
Texas border upon it on the north, and the 
Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Vera Cruz, Ta- 
basco, Campeachy, and Yucatan on the west 
and south. Its entrance, between Cape Sable 
at the extremity of the peninsula of Florida 
and Cape Catoche at the extremity of the pen- 
insula of Yucatan, is about 450 m. in width; 
but midway across this mouth lies the island 
of Cuba, leaving a passage on either hand, 
viz.: the strait of Florida on the northeast, 
125 m. wide, communicating with the Atlan- 
tic, and the channel of Yucatan on the south- 
west, communicating with the Caribbean sea, 
115 m. wide. West of Yucatan extends the 
broad bay of Campeachy; on the coast of Texas 
are the bays of Corpus Christi, Aransas, Mata- 
gorda, and Galveston; in Louisiana are those 
of Vermilion, Atchafalaya, Barataria, Black, 
and Lake Borgne; in Alabama, Mobile bay ; in 
Mississippi, Mississippi sound; and in Florida, 
Pensacola harbor, Appalachicola, Appalachee, 
Tampa, and Charlotte bays, and the bay of 
Ponce de Leon. Besides these, the coasts, be- 
ing mostly low and marshy or sandy, are lined 
with numerous lagoons. There are few islands 
except some small ones belonging to Yucatan, 
a number near the delta of the Mississippi, and 
the Florida keys. The most important rivers 
of the gulf are the Suwanee and Appala- 
chicola in Florida; the Mobile in Alabama; 
the Pascagoula and Pearl in Mississippi; the 
Mississippi in Louisiana; the Sabine, Trinity, 
Brazos, Colorado, Nueces, and Rio Grande in 
Texas; and the Panuco, Coatzacoalcos, Tabas- 
co, and Usumasinta in Mexico. These streams 
are nearly all obstructed by bars at their 


484 MEYENDORFF 


mouths, and there are very few good har- 


MEYERBEER 


MEYER, Johann Heinrich, a German. writer on 


bors. Havana, Mobile, and Galveston are the | art, born at Stifa, on the lake of Ziirich, March 


most important ports; and Campeachy and 
Vera Cruz are two of the principal shipping 
points.—The depth of the gulf is believed 
not to exceed three quarters of a mile. The 
reefs and shoals of the N. shore of Cuba and 
about the Florida keys render the passage into 
the Atlantic exceedingly intricate, but else- 
where there are few banks; the only large 
one lies about lat. 27° N., lon. 86° W., 200 m. 
S. of Cape San Blas. Besides the N. E. and 
S. E. trade winds which prevail in the gulf, 
it is visited by violent northers, which occur 
af intervals from October to May; in some 
years they terminate in April. The most re- 
markable phenomenon connected with the gulf 
of Mexico is the Gulf stream (see ATLANTIO 
OoEAN), which enters it by the channel of Yu- 
catan, passes around it, and flows out by the 
Florida channel. The temperature of the gulf 
water is 8° or 9° higher than that of the At- 
lantic ocean in the same latitude. In its cen- 
tre are found large quantities of fucus natans 
or gulf weed, floating in parallel lines from 8. 
S. E. to N. N. W. 

MEYENDORFF, a Russian family, originating 
in Saxony, and including among its members 
Pope Clement Il. They settled in Livonia 
about 1200, and became Swedish barons in the 
17th century. Subsequently they acquired dis- 
tinction in the Russian military and diploma- 
tic service, especially Perer (1796-1863), who 
was ambassador in Vienna in 1850, and one of 
the negotiators of the convention of Olmiitz; 
ALEXANDER (died in 1865), a geographer and 
geologist, who promoted and accompanied in 
1840 Murchison’s and Verneuil’s exploration 
of northern Russia; Gore (died in 1863), who 
published Voyage d’Orembourg &@ Boukhara 
(Paris, 1826); and Ferxrx (died in Carlsruhe, 
Jan. 16, 1871), who in 1857 married the prin- 
cess Olga, a daughter of the late prince Michael 
Gortchakoff, became secretary of legation in 
Berlin, and in 1864 chargé d’affaires in Rome, 
his stormy interview with the pope, Jan. 1, 
1866, resulting in a temporary rupture be- 
tween the cabinet of St. Petersburg and the 
holy see. Subsequently he was chargé d’af- 
faires at Carlsruhe. 

MEYER, Felix, a Swiss painter, born in Win- 
terthur, canton of Zirich, Feb. 6, 1653, died 
May 28, 1713. He studied painting under Er- 
mels in Nuremberg, and gained reputation by 
his views of Swiss scenery. He was employed 
throughout Germany by princes and others in 
ornamenting their apartments in fresco. He 
also etched several plates of landscapes from 
his own designs. 

MEYER, Johann Georg, known as Mryrer von 
Bremen, a German painter, born in Bremen, 
Oct. 28, 18138. He studied at Disseldorf, and 
settled in Berlin in 1852. He acquired celeb- 
rity as a painter of childhood, and his works 
_ are popular in England, France, and the United 
States. Many of them have been engraved. 


16, 1759, died in Weimar, Oct. 14, 1832. He 
was a pupil of J. O. Fiissli, brother of J. H. 
Fuseli, and in 1786 visited Rome, where he 
formed so close an intimacy with Goethe that 
he was known as Goethe-Meyer. In 1797 he 
established himself in Weimar, and in 1807 
was appointed director of the academy of 
painting. Asa painter his productions were 
few and unimportant. He was the principal 
editor of Winckelmann’s works (8 vols., Dres- 
den, 1808-’20), and furnished most of the elab- 
orate notes, which he afterward arranged as 
a history of Greek art, under the title of Ge- 
schichte der bildenden Kiinste bei den Griechen 
(2 vols. 8vo, Dresden, 1824; vol. iii., 1836). 

MEYER, Leo, a German philologist, born at 
Bledeln, Hanover, July 3, 1830. He completed 
his studies in Géttingen, and under Bopp and 
the brothers Grimm in Berlin, and was pro- 
fessor in the university of Gottingen from 1856 
to 1865, when he was appointed to the chair 
of comparative philology at Dorpat. He has 
published numerous works on Greek philology 
and mythology, including Vergleichende Gram- 
matik der griechischen und lateinischen Sprache 
(2 vols., Berlin, 1861-’5), and Gedrdngte Ver- 
gleichung der griechischen und lateinischen 
Declination (1862). His most celebrated pro- 
duction is Die gothische Sprache: ihre Laut- 
gestaltung insbesondere im Verhdltniss zum 
Altindischen, Griechischen und Lateinischen 
(1869). 

MEYERBEER, Giacomo, a German composer, 
born in Berlin, Sept. 5, 1794, died in Paris, 
May 2, 1864. His original name was Jakob 
Meyer Beer. (See Brrr.) His parents be- 
longed to a wealthy Jewish family, distin- 
guished for a love of music. Giacomo dis- 


played from his earliest childhood remarkable | 


musical capacities; and it is said that in his 
fifth year he used to play little tunes spon- 
taneously on the piano. His first teacher on 


that instrument was Franz Lauska, an artist of * 


local reputation. In the theories of music he 
was instructed by Karl Friedrich Zelter, after- 
ward teacher of Mendelssohn. His perfor- 
mance on the piano soon elicited general admi- 
ration, but he preferred to devote himself to 
the study of dramatic composition. Bernhard 
Anselm Weber, his first instructor in that branch 
of the art, was succeeded in 1810 by the abbé 
Georg Joseph Vogler, one of the most eminent 
scientific musicians and the principal organist 
of Germany, who had opened in Darmstadt a 
school to which only young men of remarkable 
talent were admitted. While in this school he 
became acquainted with Karl Maria von We- 
ber, who, after composing several operas, had 
resumed his studies at Darmstadt. Meyerbeer 
and Weber lived together for nearly two years 
in the same room, and their intimate relation 
lasted until the death of the latter (1826), who 
left the last two acts of his opera, ‘‘ The three 
Pintos,” to be completed by his friend. While 


MEYERBEER | 485 


in Darmstadt Meyerbeer composed an oratorio, 
Gott und die Natur, which was received with 
great favor by the grand ducal family, and 
caused him to be appointed composer to the 
court. After about two years’ study he set out 
on a tour through Germany, in company with 
Vogler, under whose auspices he produced his 
opera ‘‘Jephthah” at Munich in 1812, This, 
on account of its scientific precision, gave so 
much satisfaction to his teacher, that he pro- 
nounced him to have reached the climax of 
musical science; and handed him his official 
diploma as “maestro.” But “Jephthah” had 
no elements of popularity, and was considered 
a failure. Discouraged by this reception, and 
at the same time impressed by the genius of 
Hummel, Meyerbeer now made his début as a 
pianist at Vienna, with brilliant success. The 
court of Vienna commissioned him to compose 
an opera, and he soon produced Die beiden 
Khalifen, which was no more successful than 
‘ Jephthah,” both operas being totally oppo- 
site to the popular taste, which at that time 
was delighted with the productions of Rossini 
and Italian music generally. His friend Salieri 
prevailed upon him to visit Italy. Meyerbeer 
on his arrival there witnessed the performance 
of Rossini’s ‘‘Tancred,” and his enthusiasm 
for the Italian school now became as great as 
his aversion for it had formerly been. He be- 
gan to imitate the Italian style, and composed 
in rapid succession a series of operas, which 
were almost all favorably received. His Ro- 


milda e Costanza was performed in Padua in 


1818; his Semiramide riconosciuta, after Me- 
tastasio, in Turin in 1819; and his Emma di 
Resburgo, based upon the same subject as 
Méhul’s ‘‘ Helen,” in Venice in 1820, in the 
same season with Rossini’s Hduardo e Cris- 
tina, the productions of the German and Ital- 
ian masters receiving the same share of enthu- 
siastic applause. ‘‘Emma” was translated 
into German and performed in the principal 
opera houses of his native country. In the 
mean time it had been received with great en- 
thusiasm by the fastidious audiences of the 
Scala in Milan, and paved the way for the fa- 
vorable reception there of his next opera, 
‘“‘Margaret of Anjou” (1822), in which Le- 
vasseur made his début on the Italian stage. 
This was ‘succeeded by L’Hsule di Granata 
(1823), the principal parts of which were 
written for Lablache and Pisaroni. But the 
procrastination in its performance, which did 
not take place before the carnival of that 
year, proved fatal to its reception. The first 
act was hissed, and the second would have 
shared the same fate but for a duet admirably 
sung by Lablache and Pisaroni. Subsequently 
the opera proved successful. “ Almanzor” 
was also composed in 1822, and intended for 
the opera of Rome; but owing to the illness 
of Carolina Bassi, who was to take the prin- 
cipal part, it was never brought out. The 
Crociato was given in Venice at the end of 
1825, and at the close of the performance 


Meyerbeer was called before the curtain and 
crowned amid the plaudits of the audience. 
He now made the tour of the different Italian 
cities, to attend personally to the production 
of his works. The Crociato may be taken as 
the best and most individual of his productions 
up to that time, the style of which had been 
marked by a successive improvement, and 
formed a turning point in Meyerbeer’s career. 
M. de La Rochefoucauld invited him’to Paris 
(1826), where the Crociato was received with 
considerable favor, and Paris was henceforth 
his headquarters. In 1826 he composed Robert 
le diable, which he sold in July, 1880, to M. 
Lubbert, director of the grand opera, and 
which made the fortune of his successor, M. 
Véron. After many rehearsals it was at length 
brought out in November, 1831. The excite- 
ment it created was unparalleled in the history 
of the Parisian stage. It combined in a sin- 
gular degree oriental gorgeousness, German 
thoughtfulness, French vivacity, and Italian 
brilliancy, and exhibited a breadth and depth 
of talent for which the preceding works of the 
composer, with the exception of some parts of 
the Crociato, had hardly prepared the public. 
The enthusiasm which greeted it in Paris was 
shared by nearly all Europe, but it found per- 
haps more admirers in Germany and France 
than in other countries, and never fully re- 
ceived recognition in England. The Germans 
especially were fascinated by an opera which 
in some respects reminded them of Goethe’s 
‘“‘ Faust,” and which combined in so remark- 
able a degree the convivial, picturesque, pa- 
thetic, and supernatural “elements. The most 
popular airs were soon transferred from the 
stage to the streets, and sung in the taverns. 
Jenny Lind won her brightest laurels in Lon- 
don by her personification of Alice, and Formes 
invested Bertram with an intellectuality almost 
equalling that of Goethe’s Mephistopheles. The 
melodies of ‘‘ Robert,” the best produced by 
Meyerbeer, are in the main formed upon the 
style of Rossini, with certain changes. It has 
Weber’s supernaturalism and the developed 
orchestration of the period, with the exten- 
sions proper to a long subject fully handled. 
The keen and subtle intellectuality of the com- 
poser is revealed throughout the whole work 
in his effort to make it in every sense accepta- 
ble to Parisian audiences. Hence his adoption 
of the extended musico-dramatical form, so 
popular in France; his attention to effective 
contrasts and sequences, which the French 
dramatists and lyrical composers treat with 
such consummate skill; his introduction of a 
vast range and variety of scenic accessories ; 
the sonority of the orchestra, so much insisted 
upon at the grand opera; and the selection of 
a libretto by Scribe, which rivets the attention 
of the audience through the whole of five long 
acts, without for a moment abating in interest. 
Meyerbeer reached the climax of his fame by 
his opera Les Huguenots. The admiration 
which this work elicited on its first appearance 


486 MEYERBEER 


in Paris in March, 1836, has not yet diminish- 
ed; and even in Berlin, where his productions 
had been subjected to the adverse criticism 
of jealous rivals and of antagonistic schools of 
music, all depreciating voices were hushed by 
the “ Huguenots,” and the friends and foes of 
the composer became for the first time unani- 
mous in their admiration of his genius. The 
dramatic character of the ‘‘ Huguenots” is not 
surpassed by any work of the lyrical stage, 
and the strife between the great religious 
parties in France was never before portrayed 
with such graphic power and thrilling effect. 
The ‘* Huguenots” is, above all, to be regarded 
as one of the first of the operatic achievements 
which derive their inspiration from the records 
of history; and it contributed to inaugurate the 
era of the lyrico-historic drama, in which the 
greatest effects that the musical and dramatic 
stage and its accessories are capable of are 
used to illustrate the most momentous conflicts 
of mankind. Like most great works, those of 
Meyerbeer required time in their elaboration, 
and 13 years elapsed before his next opera, 
Le prophéte, was ripe for performance. It ap- 
peared in 1849, and at once took a high place 
as a worthy successor of the ‘‘ Huguenots.” 
Although much less imposing in its historic 
groundwork and in its general effect, it shows 
the same largeness of musical and artistic 
treatment; and as a lyrical drama it derives 
great beauty from the admirable manner in 
which the maternal love of Fides is placed in 
contrast with the religious frenzy of her son, 
the prophet of Leyden. The scores in this 
opera, as in Meyerbeér’s other works, are won- 
derful in their elaboration, and may be com- 
mended to students for their careful dramatic 
portraitures, in which the orchestra is made to 
echo or anticipate the characterization of the 
scene. The extraordinary labor bestowed upon 
the mise en scéne of the ‘‘ Prophet” has been 
deemed superfluous by several critics, who 
regard this excessive elaboration of external 
effects as derogatory to the genius of the com- 
poser and to the intrinsic merits of his works. 
The “Prophet” was followed by Pierre le 
Grand (L’ Etoile du nord, 1854), and “ Dino- 
rah” (Le pardon de Ploermel, 1858). The 
former of these shows the versatility of the 
author, though its success cannot be compared 
with that of its great predecessors. ‘‘ Dino- 
rah,” which treats a rustic and pastoral theme, 
is variously criticised in Europe, and unfavor- 
ably as regards melody. Meyerbeer published 
a great number of miscellaneous musical com- 
positions, among which are Le camp de Silésie, 
an opera produced at Berlin; a Stabat, a Mise- 
rere, a Te Deum, eight of Klopstock’s canti- 
cles, a number of cantatas, many songs for 
solo voice with pianoforte accompaniment, and 
some minor orchestral works. He wrote also 
the incidental music for his brother’s drama of 
Struensee. He was for many years engaged 
upon the opera L’Africaine. This work was 
elaborated with the same indomitable care that 


MEYR 


the composer had bestowed on Robert le diable 
and Le prophéte, and exhibits the same char- 
acteristics of its author, a profound knowledge 
of all the elements of effect and labored detail 
rather than inspiration. Although it was com- 
pleted several years before his death, he delayed 
its production, waiting to find a prima donna 
who should satisfy his ideal of Selika. It was 
brought out in Paris in April, 1865, and in New 
York in December of that year.—See Meyer- 
beer et son temps, by H. Blaze de Bury (Paris, 
1865), and Giacomo Meyerbeer, sein Leben und 
seine Werke, by H. Mendel (Berlin, 1868). 
MEYERHEIM. I. Friedrich Eduard, a German 
painter, born in Dantzic, Jan. 7, 1808. He 
studied at Berlin, and became a professor in 
the academy there. Many of his genre pic- 
tures, chiefly relating to the life of the peas- 
antry, have been engraved, his ‘ Altenburger 
in the Corn Field” by himself. His best 
known picture is a little milkmaid sitting at 
the roadside counting her earnings, of which 
there is a chromo-lithograph. II. Wilhelm Al- 
exander, his younger brother, excels as a paint- 
er of horses, battles, and landscapes, and as 
an engraver. He exhibited in 1868 “Prince 
Frederick Charles at Liebenau” and ‘The 
King in the Battle of Sadowa.” Ii. Eduard 
Franz, son of Friedrich Eduard, born in Ber- 
lin in 1838. He studied under his father, and 
spent some time in Disseldorf. Among his 
genre pictures are “The Polisher of Arms” 
(1858), ‘Children with Cats” (1859), ‘‘ The 
Love-sick Girl” (1866), and Dornréschen and 
Schneewittchen (1870). IV. Paul Friedrich, 
brother of the preceding, born in Berlin in 
1842. He studied under his father, and spent 
over a year in Paris. He has produced many 
fine genre animal pictures, among others ‘‘ The 
Serpent Tamer in the Menagerie,” ‘‘ The Goat 
Market,” and ‘The Tribunal of Apes.” He 
has made designs for illustrated works, inclu- 


ding Reineke Fuchs (1870). 


MEYERS, a S. county of Dakota, bordering 
on Nebraska, recently formed, and not inclu- 
ded in the census of 1870; area, about 2,850 
sq. m. It is drained by the Keya Paha and 
affluents of White river. The surface consists 
of undulating prairies and plains. 

MEYR, Melchior, a German author, born near 
Nordlingen, June 28, 1810, died in Munich, 
April 22,1871. He studied at Anspach, Augs- 
burg, Munich, and Heidelberg, became known 
as a poet in 1835 and asa prose writer in 1838, 
resided in Berlin from 1840 to 1852, and after- 
ward chiefly in Munich. His principal works 
are his Hredhlungen aus dem Ries (2 vols., 
Berlin, 1856-60; 2d ed., Leipsic, 1868; sup- 
plement, Hanover, 1870); Gott wnd sein Reich 
(Stuttgart, 1860; sequel, Hmilie, 1863); Ge- 
sprache mit einem Grobian (Leipsic, 1866; 
2d ed., 1867); Duell und Ehre, a novel (2 
vols., 1870); and the posthumous Gedanken 
iiber Kunst, Religion und Philosophie, edited 
by Max count von Bothmer and Moritz Car- 
riere (Leipsic, 1874). 


MEZERAY 


MEZERAY, Francois Eudes de, a French his- 
torian, born at Ry, near Argentan, in 1610, 
died in Paris, July 10, 1683. He served for 
two campaigns as commissary in the army, 
after which he wrote his Histoire de France 
(3 vols., 1648-51). He received from the king 
the title of historiographer royal, and a pen- 
sion of 4,000 livres, which he forfeited in 
1668 by publishing an abridgment of his His- 
toire containing severe reflections on French 
taxation. He was also elected a member of 
the French academy, and in 1675 its perpetual 
secretary. His history of France has been 
continued down to 1830 (Paris, 1839), 

MEZIERES, a fortified town of France, cap- 
ital of the department of Ardennes, on a pen- 
insula formed by the confluence of the Meuse 
and Vence, and on a branch of the Eastern 
railway, 125 m. N. E. of Paris; pop. in 1866, 
5,818. It has an arsenal, an important maga- 
zine, aad manufactories of powder and marine 
projectiles. In the Franco-German war it ca- 
pitulated in January, 1871. 

MEZIERES, Alfred, a French author, born at 
Rehon, department of the Moselle, Nov. 19, 
1826. Like his father, Louis Méziéres (born 
in Paris, Nov. 28, 1793), he has distinguished 
himself by his writings on English and Italian 
literature, and he has been since 1864 profes- 
sor of foreign literature at the Sorbonne. On 
Jan. 29,1874, he was elected to the French 
academy. His Prédécesseurs et contemporaines 
de Shakespeare obtained a Montyon prize in 
1864, and his Pétrarque, written from new 
documents, received one in 1868. In 1873 
appeared his Goethe, les euvres expliquées par 
la vie: Derniéres années. 

MEZQUITE (Aztec, mizquitl), the Mexican 
name for prosopis glandulosa, which was for- 
merly placed in the genus algarobia, a tree 
of the mimosa suborder of the leguminosa. 
The mezquite seldom grows more than 380 
or 40 ft. high, and when well developed has 
a rounded head; but owing to the injuries 
caused by insects and the parasitic mistletoe, 
the trunk and branches are frequently irreg- 
ular and distorted. In its foliage it great- 
ly resembles the honey locust (@leditschia), 
having usually twice-pinnate leaves, which are 
glandular where the leaflets join the com- 
mon petiole, and have a pair of strong spines 
at their insertion upon the stem; the leaflets 
are narrow, somewhat curved, and an inch or 
more in length; the small greenish-yellow 
flowers are crowded in dense axillary spikes 
3 to 4 in. long; the pod or bean is 6 in. 
or more in length, straight or curved, com- 
pressed, and somewhat constricted between 
the numerous seeds. The tree has a wide 
range, being found as far north as the Canadi- 
an river and extending far south into Mexico; 
it makes its appearance a short distance from 
the coast in western Texas, and is the most 
abundant tree as far westward as the Colora- 
do and the gulf of California; it is exceed- 
ingly variable, sometimes appearing as a large 


MEZQUITE 487 


shrub forming dense thickets, which from the 
abundance of spines are impassable, and at 
other times growing singly with well devel- 
oped heads, and when viewed from a distance 
appearing like an apple orchard, so uniform 
are the trees in size. Were it not for the mez- 
quite, large tracts in Arizona and northern 
Mexico would present still greater difficulties 
to the traveller than they do, as this tree there 
affords the sole supply of fuel and forage. 
The wood is very hard, fine-grained, dark red- 
dish brown in the heart wood, and is some- 
times used by the Mexicans for furniture, but 
it is difficult to get pieces large enough to be 
valuable for lumber; its durability is probably 
not inferior to that of the locust. As fuel the 


‘mezquite has no superior; it makes a hard 


sonorous coal, a fire of which is almost as 
intense as one of anthracite; travellers across 
the desert country where it abounds rely 
upon it for fuel, the roots being found almost 


Mezquite (Prosopis glandulosa). 


everywhere; where frequent fires destroy the 
trees the roots remain untouched, throw up 
a yearly growth of small stems, and thus con- 
tinue to increase in size, while the growth 
above ground is destroyed every year or two; 
it very often happens that:a clump of bushes 
with stems only an inch or two in diameter 
will lead to the unearthing of roots as large as 
one’s leg. At a profitable silver mine in the 
state of Chihuahua, visited by the writer sey- 
eral years ago, the smelting of the ore was 
effected entirely with mezquite roots as fuel. 
The pods, or beans as they are generally 
called, at a certain state of maturity contain a 
sugary pulp, which often has a very pleasant 
flavor, and when quite ripe is mealy, dry, and 
highly saccharine, but with a mawkish taste 
that is to most persons disagreeable, though 
the Mexicans and Indians are fond of it; the 
dried pods are beaten in a mortar, and when 
the seeds and other matters are separated by 


488 MEZZOFANTI 


sifting a sugary meal is obtained, which is used 
for sweetening pinole (see Maize), and other- 
wise as a substitute for sugar. The great value 
of the pods is as a food for horses and catile, 
which eat them with the greatest avidity; in 
many places entirely destitute of grass the 
mezquite beans are most welcome to the trav- 
eller. It has been proposed in Utah and Colo- 
rado to employ the mezquite as a hedge plant, 
to which its thorny character would adapt it; 
but its great liability to be attacked by borers 
makes the experiment doubtful. The tree 
exudes a gum resembling gum arabic. (See 
Gum.)—The plant called by Americans the 
screw-pod or screw-bean mezquite, and by the 
Mexicans tornillo, is prosopis pubescens, to 
which the name strombocarpa has also been 
given; it has a similar general appearance to 
the mezquite, but is more slender ; its spines are 
smaller, and its leaves pubescent on the under 
surface; the pod is curiously twisted to form 


Screw Pod of Mezquite. 


a close spiral about 2 in. long; this also con- 
tains a sweetish pulp, but is less valuable as a 
food for animals than the mezquite. The tree, 
which is found from Utah and Nevada south- 
ward, is less abundant than the mezquite, and 
generally prefers a moister soil. 

MEZZOFANTI, Giuseppe Gaspardo, an Italian 
linguist, born in Bologna, Sept. 17, 1774, died 
in Rome, March 15, 1849. He was educated 
for the church, and was ordained in 1797. He 
had an extraordinary memory, and before the 
close of his university career had mastered the 
Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Coptic, Span- 
ish, French, German, and Swedish languages. 
At the age of 23 he was appointed professor 
of Arabic at Bologna; but on the annexation 
of that city to the Cisalpine republic, he was 
removed from his professorship for refusing to 
take the oath to the new constitution. After 
the conclusion of the concordat between Pius 
VII. and Napoleon, Mezzofanti was restored to 
the university, and named professor of oriental 


MIALL 


languages. The suppression of his professor- 
ship in 1808 left him mainly dependent on pri- 
vate tuition for his own support and that of his 
sister’s children. The wars of which north- 
ern Italy was so long the theatre had afford- 
ed him many opportunities of extending his 
knowledge. as a linguist. In the hospital of 
Bologna, to which he had attached himself as 
volunteer chaplain, were invalids from most of 
the countries of central and eastern Europe; 
and while administering to them he acquired a 
knowledge of their respective languages. In 
1812 he was appointed assistant librarian, and 
in 1815 head librarian of the university of 
Bologna. After the conclusion of peace, his 
reputation as a linguist rapidly extended. In 
1817 he could read 20 languages and write 18. 
Lord Byron, whom he is said to have beaten 
in talking English slang, pronounced him a 
monster of languages, a Briareus of parts of 
speech, and a walking polyglot. Havipg gone 
to Rome in 1831 as one of a deputation sent 
by the Bolognese to congratulate Gregory XVI. 
on his election, he was induced by the pope to 
accept a prebend in the church of St. John 
Lateran, and soon afterward a canonry in St. 
Peter’s. In 1833 he succeeded Angelo Mai as 
chief keeper of the Vatican library, an office 
which he held till 1838, when he was made a 
cardinal. During his residence in Rome he 
gained a knowledge of Irish, Welsh, Lappish, 
Sanskrit, Persian, Georgian, Armenian, Chi- 
nese, and several African tongues. His fami- 
liarity with the dialectical varieties and local 
idioms of the principal languages, as well as 
with their respective literatures, and his power 
of passing from one to another in conversation, 
were almost incredible. At the time of his 
death he is said to have been acquainted with 
114 languages. Mezzofanti, though a learned 
theologian and canonist, is almost unknown as 
an author, his only published work being a 
panegyrical ‘Memoir of Father Emanuel da 
Ponte,” a brother professor (Bologna, 1820). 
His life has been written by Charles William 
Russell, D. D., principal of Maynooth college 
(London, 1858; 2d ed., 1863). 

MEZZOTINTO. See Encraving, vol. vi., p. 6538. 

MIAKO. See Kioro. 

MIALL, Edward, an English journalist, born 
in Portsmouth in 1809. He was educated in 
the Protestant dissenters’ college at Wymond- 
ley, Herts, and for several years officiated as 
an Independent minister at Ware and Leices- 
ter. In 1841 he established the ‘‘ Nonconform- 
ist’? newspaper in London, in the interests of 
the ‘ anti-state-church”’ party, and is still its 
editor and proprietor. He was elected to par- 
liament for Rochdale in 1852, but lost his seat 
in 1857, and was returned for Bradford in 
1869. In parliament he has been a persistent 
advocate of manhood suffrage and other popu- 
lar reforms. He has published ‘“* The Noncon- 
formist’s Sketch Book” and ‘“ Views of the 
Voluntary Principle ” (1845) ; ‘ Ethics of Non- 
conformity” (1848); ‘‘The British Churches 


MIAMI 


in relation to the British People” (1849); 
‘‘ Bases of Belief” (1853); ‘Title Deeds of the 
Church of England to her Parochial Endow- 
ments” (1862); ‘Politics of Christianity ” 
(1863); and ‘‘An Editor off the Line, or 
Wayside Musings and Reminiscences ” (1865). 

MIAMI, a river of Ohio, which rises in Har- 
din co., flows 8. and 8. W. for a distance esti- 
mated at 150 m., passing Troy, Dayton, and 
Hamilton, and falls into the Ohio river at the 
S. W. corner of the state, 20 m. W. of Cincin- 
nati. It passes through a picturesque and 
fertile country, is rapid, and admits of naviga- 
tion for only a portion of its length. _ Its prin- 
cipal branches are the West branch and the 
Mad and Whitewater rivers. The Miami canal 
runs along the river for about 70 m., and to- 
gether they furnish extensive power for manu- 
facturing.—This river is sometimes called the 
Great Miami, in distinction from the Little 
Miami, which rises in Clark co., and after flow- 
ing S. W. 100 m., nearly parallel with the for- 
mer, falls into the Ohio 6 m. E. of Cincinnati. 

MIAMI. I. A W. county of Ohio, intersect- 
ed by the Miami river and drained by its 
branches; area, about 400 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 32,740. The surface in the E. part is 
rolling, in the W. more level, and the soil is 
very fertile. It is intersected by the Miami 
and Erie canal, and by the Pittsburgh, Cincin- 
nati, and St. Louis and the Dayton and Michi- 
gan railroads. The chief productions in 1870 
were 858,886 bushels of wheat, 1,293,096 of 
Indian corn, 379,415 of oats, 71,804 of barley, 
82,521 of potatoes, 40,221 of flax seed, 206,704 
Ibs. of flax, 71,529 of tobacco, 55,181 of wool, 
489,132 of butter, and 11,531 tons of hay. 
There were 8,126 horses, 6,208 milch cows, 
7,796 other cattle, 16,127 sheep, and 19,414 
swine; 1 manufactory of agricultural imple- 
ments, 11 of brick, 18 of carriages and wag- 
ons, 6 of lime, 2 of machinery, 9 of marble and 
stone work, 3 of linseed oil, 5 of sash, doors, 
and blinds, 3 of woollen goods, 3 iron founder- 
ies, 18 flour mills, 8 saw mills, 5 tanneries, 4 
distilleries, and 4 breweries. Capital, Troy. 
Ii. A N. county of Indiana, intersected by the 
Wabash and Eel rivers; area, 384 sq.m.; pop. 
in 1870, 21,052. It has a generally level sur- 
face, with elevations near the streams, and a 
fertile soil. It is intersected by the Toledo, 
Wabash, and Western, and several other rail- 
roads. The chief productions in 1870 were 
484,817 bushels of wheat, 417,930 of Indian 
corn, 100,757 of oats, 61,687 of potatoes, 66,- 
643 lbs. of wool, 372,457 of butter, and 17,- 
560 tons of hay. There were 6,509 horses, 
5,111 mileh cows, 7,156 other cattle, 20,706 
sheep, and 20,794 swine; 5 manufactories of 
agricultural implements, 18 of carriages, 5 of 
saddlery and harness, 3 of cigars, 2 of woollen 
goods, 2 iron founderies, 33 saw mills, 9 flour 
mills, and 1 brewery. Capital, Peru. JM. An 
E. county of Kansas, bordering on Missouri, 
and intersected by Osage river; area, 576 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 11,725. It is traversed by 


MIAMIS 489 


the Missouri river, Fort Scott, and Gulf rail- 
road, and by the Osage division of the Misscu- 
ri, Kansas, and Texas line. The surface is un- 
dulating and the soil productive. The greater 
portion of the county is prairie, but there is 
considerable woodland. ‘The chief produc- 
tions in 1870 were 54,596 bushels of wheat, 
764,145 of Indian corn, 268,500 of oats, 71,- 
242 of potatoes, 11,243 Ibs. of wool, 240,328 
of butter, and 14,147 tons of hay. There 
were 4,913 horses, 4,774 milch cows, 7,885 
other cattle, 3,929 sheep, 7,756 swine, and 8 
saw mills. Capital, Paola. 

MIAMIS, an Indian tribe of the Algonquin 
family. They comprised the Ouiatenon or 
Wea, Peanguichia or Piankeshaw, Pepikokia, 
Kilatak, and other bands. They were found 
by the French in 1658 near Green bay, and in 
1670 Allouez found a large village at the head 
of Fox river, under Tetenchoua, a chief who 
had a body guard and was treated with a 
respect unusual in the northern tribes. They 
then numbered 8,000 warriors, according to 
some accounts, lived in mat houses within a 
palisade, and were brave, civil, and well dis- 
posed. <A large body soon after congregated 
on the St. Joseph’s river. In 1688 they and 
their kindred the Illinois were attacked by the 
Iroquois; they maintained the war vigorously, 
although at the same time fighting the Sioux 
on the west. The presence of some French 
traders among the Sioux in 1686 brought them 
into collision with the French, and they nearly 
burned Nicolas Perrot at the stake. They sent 
a detachment to swell Denonville’s army, but 
began then to be very restless, joined the Iro- 
quois against the Hurons, menaced the Chip- 
pewas, and opened intercourse with the Eng- 
lish. Their losses in war were heavy; a whole 
village was carried off by the Sioux in 1700. 
In 1705, trouble having arisen between the 
Miamis and the Ottawas at Detroit, the former 
attacked the latter, and a general engagement 
ensued, the French officers having precipitated 
the war. Cadillac finally marched against the 
Miamis in 1707, but made a hollow peace which 
increased their insolence. They had at this 
time retired temporarily from Chicago and 
from the St. Joseph’s river. In 1721 the 
Miamis were on the St. Joseph’s and the Mi- 
ami, and the Wea band on the Wabash or Ohio. 
When the final struggle between England and 
France approached, they wavered; they at- 
tacked the Senecas, but met the English colo- 
nists at Lancaster, plundered the French posts, 
and allowed an English fort to be erected on 
their lands. In 1751 the French attacked them, 
killing several English and Indians. After the 
fall of the French power they prevented the 
English troops from crossing their country, 
but finally made peace, though they joined 
Pontiac and captured the British forts Miami 
and St. Joseph’s. During the revolution they 
sided with England; but when Clarke reduced 
Illinois and took Hamilton prisoner, and their 
own towns were ravaged, they made peace. A 


490 MIANTONOMOH 


hostile feeling remained against the advancing 
settlements. Hostilities prevailed for several 
years, and finally Gen. Harmar was sent against 
them in 1790. At this time they could put in 
the field 1,500 warriors. Led by Mishekone- 
quoh or Little Turtle, they defeated Col. Har- 
din, Oct. 19, and again at the Maumee on the 
21st. The next year the towns of the Weas, 
who were rapidly becoming civilized, were de- 
stroyed by Gen. Scott, but the main army un- 
der Gen. St. Clair was utterly routed by Little 
Turtle, Nov. 4, 1791, with the loss of 39 officers 
and 593 men killed. <A treaty was made the 
next year by Rufus Putnam, but the senate 
refused to confirm it. The Miamis continued 
the war; but having been disastrously defeated 
by Wayne under the guns of an English fort at 
Maumee rapids, Aug. 20, 1794, they made peace 
at Greenville in 1795. After that they rapid- 
ly declined. By a series of treaties between 
that date and 1809 they ceded lands extending 
from the Wabash to the Ohio state line, and 
the annuities proved fatal, introducing intoxi- 
cation, indolence, and violence. When Tecum- 
seh began his movement the Miamis refused to 
join it; but as the war with England went on, 
the tribe was gradually drawn in, and at last 
refused to attend the Americans in council. 
Gen. Harrison sent Lieut. Col. Campbell against 
them, and though, following their usual tactics, 
they assailed his line, he finally defeated them. 
The Miamis then sued for peace, and a treaty 
was made Sept. 8, 1815. War had broken up 
the progress they had made, and drunkenness 
again prevailed, leading to fights in which nearly 
500 perished in 18 years. In 1822 they num- 
bered between 2,000 and 3,000, on three reser- 
vations, and the Baptists were making an effort 
tosave them. The Wea and Piankeshaw bands, 
numbering 384, were removed in 1834~’5 to a 
reservation of 160,000 acres on the south side 
of Kansas river, and in 1838 the Miamis, then 
1,100 in number, sold to government 177,000 
acres in Indiana for $335,680, still retaining a 
large tract. By the treaties of 1888 and 1840 
they ceded all, and in 1846 were removed to 
the Marais des Cygnes in the Fort Leavenworth 
agency. They had dwindled to a wretched 
dissipated band of 250; each individual re- 
ceived an annuity of about $125. Their de- 
cline continued, the civil war in Kansas ex- 
posing them to encroachments of every kind. 
A few Miamis and some of the Weas, under 
the influence of Baptiste Peoria, reformed and 
made some progress; but when the remnants 
were removed to the Quapaw reservation about 
1873, they did not number more than 150. 
MIANTONOMOH, a sachem of the Narragan- 
setts, nephew of Canonicus, whom he succeed- 
ed in 1636. He maintained friendly relations 
with Massachusetts, and in 1637 aided in chas- 
tising the Pequots. Sequasson, one of his 
chiefs, having been attacked in 1642 by Uncas, 
the Mohegan, Miantonomoh with the consent 
of the governor of Hartford marched against 
Uncas with nearly 1,000 men, but was defeat- 


MICA 


ed and taken prisoner at Norwich. The victor 
took his captive to Hartford and left his fate 
in the hands of the commissioners of the Uni- 
ted Colonies, who advised his execution. He 
was tomahawked in 1643 on Sachem’s plain, 
the field where he was defeated. A monu- 
ment was erected on the spot in 1841. 

MIASMA. See Mararta. 

MIAULIS, Andros, a Greek admiral, born in the 
island of Negropont about 1770, died in Athens, 
June 23, 1835. His father, Demetrius Vokos, 
owned a felucca (Turk. miaul), and put his son 
in charge of it, whence his surname. The latter 
settled at Hydra, where successful commercial 
enterprise gave him influence. He joined the 
Greek revolution in 1821, and in 1822 became 
commander-in-chief of the national fleet. In 
the same year he defeated the Turks at Patras 
(March) and Spezzia (September) ; and in May, 
1825, he burned Ibrahim Pasha’s squadron at 
Modon# and inflicted further damage on the 
enemy’s fleet. In 1827, soon after Lord Coch- 
rane’s appointment as head of the navy, he 
retired from the service; but Capo d’Istria 
reinstated him and placed him also in charge of 
the portof Poros. After remonstrating in vain 
against the neglect of the navy, he joined the in- 
surrectionary government at Hydra in 1831, and 
burned the Greek ships at Poros (Aug. 13), to 
prevent them from being seized by the Russians. 
He was arraigned for treason by Capo d’Istria, 
whose death (Oct. 9, 1831) put an end to the 
proceedings. In the following year Miaulis 
was placed at the head of all the naval stations 
in the Archipelago. In 1832 he was a mem- 
ber of the deputation sent to Munich to offer 
the throne of Greece to Otho. Shortly before 
his death he was made vice admiral.—His 
son ATHANASIOS was prime minister of Greece 
from 1855 to 1862, and his administration 
contributed largely to the overthrow of King 
Otho. He died in Paris in May, 1867. 

MICA (Lat. micare, to sparkle), in mineralogy, 
the name of a group of the silicates, distin- 
guished by their remarkable lamellar structure, 
the elasticity of their laminew, and their half 
metallic lustre. The minerals crystallize in 
right rhomboidal prisms of 120°, which sepa- 
rate with the greatest facility in folie parallel 
with the base of the crystal. These may be 
subdivided till many thousand plates are re- 
quired to make the thickness of aninch. They 
are found usually transparent, elastic, and 
tough. Thecolors are various; the most com- 
mon are silvery white, grayish green, red, and 
black. The hardness of the mineral is 2 to 3; 
specific gravity 2°65 to 3°3. The different 
species are distinguished partly by their differ- 
ent optical characters as well as by their differ- 
ences of composition. They present two axes 
of double refraction, which, in the species de- 
signated by Dana as muscovite, and commonly 
known as Muscovy glass, vary in apparent in- 
clination between 44° and 75°; in the phlo- 
gopites, called also rhombic mica and mag- 
nesia mica in part, from 5° to 20°; and in 


MICAH 


the biotites below 5°. Prof. B. Silliman, jr., 
observes that the muscovites are confined to 
granitic and other igneous rocks, and the phlo- 
gopites to granular limestone and serpentine. 
The former generally contain potash or lithia 
and little magnesia, and the latter contain mag- 
nesia, and often but little alkali. The compo- 
sition of the most common micas, according to 
Dufrénoy, is from 45 to 50 per cent. of silica, 
82 to 88 of alumina, 10 to 15 of alkali (rarely 
soda), and 2 to 4 of fluoric acid. He considers 
the differences of composition too great to 
admit of any general formula. The micas are 
unisilicates, containing, besides silica and fluo- 
rine, alumina, iron, magnesia, potash, lithia, 
rubidia, and ceesia, the magnesia generally fail- 
ing in the varieties found in the granitic rocks. 
Lepidolite is a species distinguished for its oc- 
currence usually in granular masses made up 
of foliated scales of rose-red color, violet gray, 
yellowish, or whitish. Muscovite, the most 
familiar form of mica, is a constituent of gran- 
ite, gneiss, mica slate, and some other kindred 
rocks. It is found both disseminated and in 
veins, and in many of the stratified rocks it is 
an incidental constituent derived from the de- 
struction of the original formations to which 
it belonged. The mineral is thus seen to be 
very generally distributed; but certain locali- 
ties are distinguished for the production of 
large plates of it. In Siberia they have been 
found more than 8 ft. across, and they have 
been obtained of great size in Sweden and 
Norway. This is also the case at Acworth, 
Grafton, and Alstead, N. H.; and mica has 
been found in some of the other states and in 
Canada sufficiently large to be quarried for 
economical purposes. Mica is used mostly for 
the doors of stoves and the sides of lanterns, 
for which it is well adapted by its transparency 
and refractory character. It has been used as 
a substitute for window glass, and its tough- 
ness recommends it for this purpose on board 
vessels of war, in which the concussion from 
the discharge of heavy guns might occasion 
the fracturing of glass. It has also been used 
for spectacles, optical instruments, and bronz- 
ing powder, and is serviceable for holding 
small objects for microscopic examination. 
Very extensive mica mines were discovered in 
Mitchell co., N. C., in 1867, which have since 


been extensively worked. They had evidently 


been worked centuries ago. 

MICAH, one of the 12 minor prophets, who, 
according to the testimony of his book (i. 1), 
prophesied in the days of Jotham, Ahaz, and 
Hezekiah, kings of Judah (about 759-698 B. C.). 
He was a native of Moresheth of Gath. The 
prophecy of Micah consists of two parts, the 
first of which terminates with chapter v. It 
begins with a sublime theophany, the descent 
of the Lord to judge the nations of the earth, 
and then denounces the iniquities of the two 
Hebrew kingdoms, especially of the rulers and 
prophets, predicts the captivity of Israel, the 
fall of Judah, the destruction of Jerusalem, the 


MICHAEL ANGELO 491 


expatriation of the Jews, their return, and the 
celebrity of the tempie of Zion. Bloody wars 
are seen in the perspective, and after many 
calamities a ruler is seen to come forth from 
Bethlehem (v.). The second part consists of 
a discussion or controversy between the Lord 
and his people. The authenticity of the book 
is generally recognized ; only the last two chap- 
ters have been ascribed by Ewald to a young- 
er prophet. The style of Micah is sublime 
and vehement. Among the principal critical 
writings on Micah are those of Caspari, Micha 
der Moraschite und seine prophetische Schrift 
(Christiania, 1851); Hitzig, Aleine Propheten 
(8d ed., 1863); and Ewald, Propheten (vol. i., 
1867).—Micah, or Micaiah, was also the name 
of another prophet mentioned in the history 
of Ahab, king of Israel (1 Kings xxii. 8-28). 
_MICALI, Giuseppe, an Italian archeologist, 
born in Leghorn about 1776, died in Florence, 
March 28, 1844. He travelled extensively, 
and devoted himself to archeological studies. 
His Italia avanti il dominio de’ Romani (4 vols., 
Florence, 1810, with a map and 67 plates; new 
ed., 1831), won a prize, but incurred criticism, 
which induced the author to remodel it under 
the title Storia degli antichi popoli italiani 
(3 vols., 1882; 2d ed., Milan, 1886; enlarged 
ed., 4 vols., Florence, 1843 et seg. ; translated 
into French by Raoul Rochette). It was fol- 
lowed by Monumenti antichi, a volume con- 
taining 120 plates (Florence, 1844). 

MICA SLATE, a very abundant metamorphic 
rock, consisting of mica and quartz, and some- 
times feldspar, in which the mica predomi- 
nates, and by its arrangement in parallel planes 
gives to the aggregate a foliated structure. 
It belongs to the mica-bearing series, of which 
granite and gneiss are also members. Some 
authors classify it under the same head with 
mica schist, while others place it midway be- 
tween mica schist and clay slate. What is 
called mica schist sometimes contains numer- 
ous garnets imbedded in it, when it receives 
the name of garnet schist. It is prevalent 
along the banks of the Tay and about Dunkeld 
in Scotland, and also in the Blue Ridge moun- 
tains in the United States. 

MICHAEL (Heb., who is as God), the angel 
who had special charge of the Israelites as a 
nation (Dan. x. 13, 21), who disputed with 
Satan about the body of Moses (Jude 9), and | 
who with his angels carried on war with Sa- 
tan and his angels in the upper regions (Rev. 
xii. 7-9). The Jews regarded Michael as one 
of the archangels, and the Christian church 
early adopted this view. The representation 
of Michael, sword in hand, conquering the 
dragon, became a favorite symbol in the Ro- 
man Catholic church. <A festival of St. Michael 
was introduced by Pope Felix III. (4883-’92), 
and it was retained also in the Lutheran 
church. Mohammedans regard Michael like- 
wise as one of the archangels, and as guar- 
dian angel of the Jews. 

MICHAEL ANGELO. See Buonarortt. 


492 MICHAEL PALAZOLOGUS 


MICHAEL PALEOLOGUS. See Byzantine 
Emprre, vol. iii., p. 517. 

MICHAEL ROMANOFF. See Russia. 

MICHAELIS, Johann David, a German Biblical 
scholar, born in Halle, Feb. 27, 1717, died in 
Gottingen, Aug. 22, 1791. He graduated at 
Halle in 1739, and in 1743 began to deliver 
lectures there on the historical books of the 
Old Testament. In 1745 he was appointed pro- 
fessor of philosophy at Gottingen. For nearly 
20 years he edited the (6ttinger gelehrte An- 
zeigen. His principal works are: a translation 
of the Hebrew Bible; ‘‘Introduction to the 
New Testament,” translated into English by 
Bishop Marsh; and Das Mosaische Recht (2d 
ed., 5 vols., Géttingen, 1776-80), translated 
into English by Dr. Alexander Smith, under 
the title of ‘‘Commentaries on the Laws of 
Moses”’ (4 vols., London, 1814). 

MICHAELMAS, the feast of St. Michael the 
Archangel, Sept. 29. It is more celebrated for 
popular customs connected with it than for any 
peculiar religious observance. It was an old 
custom in England to mark the day by electing 
civil magistrates, perhaps in allusion to the 
analogy between the superintendence of magis- 
trates and that of guardian angels, of whom 
St. Michael was reputed the prince. A more 
famous custom is that of eating roast goose, 
which has been traced at least as far back as 
1471; and it is said that one of the strongest 
objections of the English commonalty to the 
reformation of the calendar was based on the 
confusion which would follow if Michaelmas 
day was not celebrated when stubble geese 
are in their highest perfection. 

MICHAUD, Joseph, a French author, born at 
Albens, Savoy, June 19, 1767, died in Passy, 
Sept. 30, 1839. In 1791 he published a Voyage 
littéraire to Mont Blane and the adjoining 
regions, followed by an oriental tale entitled 
Origine poétique des mines dor et d'argent, 
neither of which attracted much notice. He 
next became a defender of the monarchy; and 
for publishing an anti-revolutionary satire en- 
titled Déclaration des droits de Vhomme, he was 
obliged for a time to conceal himself. In Sep- 
tember, 1792, he established La Quotidienne, 
a daily journal in the royalist interest, the char- 
acter of the articles in which caused him to 
be condemned to death, but the efforts of his 
. friend Giguet preserved him from the guillo- 
tine. Adhering steadily to his opinions under 
the directory, he was banished after the 18th 
Fructidor (Sept. 4, 1797), and took refuge 
among the Jura mountains, whence he returned 
to France in November, 1799. 
the consulate with no less acrimony than he 
had shown toward the convention and the 
directory; and for an anonymous pamphlet, 
Adieux a Bonaparte (Paris, 1800), he was con- 
fined for a short time in the Temple. In 1801 
appeared his Histoire des progrés et de la chute 
de Vempire de Mysore, sous le regne d’ Hyder 
Ali et de Tippo Saib (2 vols. 8vo), followed by 
the Biographie moderne (4 vols. 8vo, Leipsic, 


He opposed: 


. MICHAUX 


1802), printed in Paris by the brothers Michand, 
a publishing firm established at the commence- 
ment of the century by himself, his brother 
Louis Gabriel, and Giguet. This publication 
was the germ of the later and more elaborate 
work, the Biographie wniverselle, publishéd by 
the same house. In 1803 he published Le prin- 
temps @un proserit, a poem written during his 
exile, which passed through many editions. 
His royalist views changed, and in 1810 he ad- 
dressed a congratulatory poem to Napoleon on 
occasion of his marriage with Maria Louisa, 
under the title of Mragment d’un treizieme livre 
de  Hnéide, and another in 1811 commemora- 
ting the birth of the king of Rome. His most 
important work, Histoire des croisades (1811 
et seg.) went through five editions in his life- 
time, the last being in 1840-’41 (6 vols. 8vo), 
and has been translated into the principal lan- 
guages of Europe. He published an abridg- 
ment of it (2 vols. 12mo, 1838), and in further 
illustration of the subject produced the bidlio- 
théque des croisades (4 vols.), and Correspon- 
dance @ Orient (7 vols.), the latter a record of his 
extensive travels in company with his pupil, 
Poujoulat, through those portions of the East 
traversed by the crusaders. After the over- 
throw of the empire Michaud reéstablished the 
Quotidienne, but during the hundred days it 
became a mere vehicle of news. He published 
an account of the hundred days, of little his- 
torical value, which passed through 27 editions, 
and continued until the close of his life, in 
spite of feeble health, to devote himself to his- 
torical researches. Among his last publica- 
tions were an edition of Hénault’s Abrégé chro- 
nologique de Vhistoire de France, with a con- 
tinuation to July, 1830, and a Collection de 
méemoires pour servir a Vhistoire de France, 
which was commenced in 1836, in conjunction 
with Poujoulat, and published in 34 vols. 8vo, 
His name has been most popularly associated 
with the Biographie universelle, published be: 
tween 1811 and 1828, which, with its supple- 
ment, 1834-40, comprised 85 vols. 8vo. He 
was a member of the French academy and of 
the academy of belles-lettres, and held other 
positions of honor and emolument.—His broth- 


er Louis Gasriet, known as Michaud the. 


younger (born in Bourg in 1773), had a large 
share in editing and writing the Biographie 
universelle, and commenced a new edition (vol. 


j., 1854), which was completed after his death 


(March 12, 1858) in 45 volumes. He also wrote 
several historical and biographical works. 
MICHAUX. I. André, a French botanist, born 
in Versailles, March 7, 1746, died in Mada- 
gascar, Nov. 13, 1802. He studied under Ber- 
nard de Jussieu, and was afterward a pupil at 
the jardin des plantes, and an associate of La- 
marck and Thouin in their botanizing excur- 
sions. After travelling in the Pyrenees and 
Spain he accompanied the French consul to 
Persia, and remained in the East for two years 
making botanical collections and observations. 
In the “‘ garden of Semiramis” near Bagdad 


MICHEL 


he discovered a Persepolitan monument, which 
he sent to the cabinet of antiquities in the 
royal library at Paris. Commissioned by the 
French government in 1785 to make a journey 
through North America, he traversed a great 
part of the continent from Florida to Hudson 
bay, established botanic gardens near Charles- 
ton and New York, and sent home an im- 
mense quantity of plants and seeds. The New 
York garden was really in Bergen co., N. J. 
The government allowance for the expense of 
this undertaking having ceased at the revolu- 
tion, he made use of his private purse until 
it was exhausted. On his voyage home he 
was shipwrecked and lost all that he possessed 
except four cases of specimens. He reached 
home in 1796, and found that the plantations 
to which he had contributed 60,000 young 
trees had been destroyed during the revolu- 
tion. In 1800 he joined the expedition to Aus- 
tralia under Capt. Baudin, but left it at the 
Isle of France, and went to Madagascar, where 
he was attacked by fever and died. He left 
an [Histoire des chénes de lV Amérique Septen- 
trionale (fol., Paris, 1801), and Flora Boreali- 
Americana (2 vols. 8vo, 1803). II. Frangois 
André, a French botanist, son of the preceding, 
born in Versailles in 1770, died at Vauréal, 
near Pontoise, Oct. 23, 1855. He-was employ- 
ed by the French government on a scientific 
mission to North America, to decide what 
species of the forest trees of that country might 
profitably be introduced into Europe, and made 
three voyages to the United States, whence 
he sent to France large quantities of valua- 
ble seeds. His principal work is Histoire des 
arbres forestiers de V Amérique Septentrionale 
(4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1810-713), of which an Eng- 
lish translation by the author was published in 
Paris and Philadelphia (4 vols. 8vo, 1817-’19), 
and another edition, translated by Hillhouse 
(Philadelphia, 1830). Three supplementary 
volumes were added by Thomas Nuttall in 
1842-9, which contained the trees not in- 
cluded in Michaux’s work, and the whole is 
now published in five volumes, two by Mi- 
chaux and three by Nuttall. He also pub- 
lished Mémoire, sur la naturalisation des ar- 
bres forestiers de Amérique (Paris, 1805), and 
Voyage & Vouest des monts Alleghanies (1804 ; 
English translation, London, 1805). 

MICHEL, Francisque Xavier, a French arche- 
ologist, born in Lyons, Feb. 18, 1809. He 
began his literary careerin Paris as a writer 
for the journals, and in 1832 published two 
historical novels, Job and Audefroi le bétard. 
His chief attention, however, was given to 
philosophical researches, and between 1830 
and 18383 he edited several publications writ- 
ten in medieval French, including La chronique 
de Du Guesclin, Les chansons de Coucy, Le 
lai @ Hawelok le Danois, &e. In 1835 he was 
commissioned by Guizot, then minister, to 
make researches into early French history and 
literature among the libraries of England, and 
in 1839 he was appointed professor of foreign 


tinue his lectures in the faculty of letters. 


aise (1838). 


MICHELET 493 


literature in the faculty of Bordeaux. Between 
1834 and 1842 he published in London or Paris 
more than 30 works in French, Saxon, or Eng- 
lish, written between the 11th and 14th cen- 
turies, many of which were then printed for 
the first time. Among the most important 
are: the Roman d’Hustache le Moine (1834); 
Tristan, a collection of poems of the 12th and 
18th centuries in French, Anglo-Norman, and 
Greek (2 vols. 12mo, London, 1835); Chro- 
niques anglo-normandes (3 vols. 8vo, Rouen, 
1836-40), illustrating the history of England 
and Normandy during the 11th and 12th cen- 
turies; La chanson de Roland (1887); Chro- 
niques des ducs de Normandie (4 parts, 1837- 
’40), by the troubadour Benoit; La chanson des 
Saxons, by Jean Bodel (2 vols. 8vo, 1839-’40), 
a narrative of the life of Wittekind; ‘‘ Chron- 
icle of the War between the English and the 
Scots in 1173 and 1174” (1840); Histoire des 
ducs de Normandie et des rois d’ Angleterre 
(1840); and Le roman du Saint-Graal, in 
verse (1841). He has also produced several 
original works of considerable erudition, in- 
cluding his Histoire des races maudites de la 
France et del’ Espagne (2 vols. 8vo, 1847); Le 
livre dor des métiers (2 vols. 8vo, 1851~-’4) ; 
Histoire des tissus de soie au moyen age (2 vols. 
4to, 1852-4); Le pays Basque (1857); Les 
Keossais en France et les Francais en Heosse 
(1862); and Histoire du commerce et de la navi- 
gation & Bordeaux, principalement sous Vad- 
ministration anglaise (1867). He has trans- 
lated several English works. 

MICHEL ANGELO. See Buonarortt. 

MICHELET, Jules, a French historian, born in 
Paris, Aug. 21, 1798, died at Hyéres, Feb. 9, 
1874, He studied in the collége Charlemagne, 
and after travelling in Germany was called in 
1821 to the chair of history in the collége 
Rollin, where he was also professor of the an- 
cient languages and of philosophy till 1826, 
publishing in that period his Zableaw chrono- 
logique de Vhistoire moderne (1825), and Ta- 
bleaua synchroniques de histoire moderne 
(1826). In 1827 he was made maitre des con- 
Jéerences in the normal school, and in 1880 chief 
of the historical section of the archives of 
France. In that year Guizot, who was divert- 
ed from literature to politics, chose him to con- 
His 
reputation was extended by a series of histori- 
cal works, and in 1838 he was appointed to the 
chair of history in the collége de France, and 
elected a member of the institute. Among his 
publications are: Précis de Vhistoire moderne 
(1828) ; Introduction &@ Vhistoire universelle 
(1831); a translation of Vico’s Scienza nuova, 
under the title of Principes de la philosophie 
de Vhistoire (1831); Histoire romaine (1831); 
Mémoires de Luther (1833); and Précis de 
Vhistoire de France jusqw a la révolution fran- 
In 1833 appeared the first por- 
tion of his most important work, the Histoire 
de France (16 vols. 8vo, completed in 1867). 
His academical lectures were distinguished for 


494 MICHELET 


appeals in favor of democratic ideas and for 
assaults upon the Jesuits. He embodied these 
tendencies in three books: Des Jésuites (1843), 
in collaboration with Quinet ; Du prétre, de la 
Semme et de la famille (1844); and Du peu- 
ple (1846). The government of Louis Philippe 
suspended his course. He was restored to his 
chair after the revolution of 1848, again de- 
clined public office as he had done in 1830, 
and gave to his lectures the design and char- 
acter of democratic propagandism, till his 
course was closed by the government of Louis 
Napoleon in March, 1851. He lost his place in 
the archives after the coup détat of Dec. 2, 
1851, by refusing to take the oath. He pub- 
lished the Procés des templiers (2 vols., 1841- 


52), a collection of unprinted documents, and 


Origines du droit francais cherchées dans les 
symboles et formules du droit universel (1837), 
founded upon Grimm’s work on German an- 
tiquities. After his retirement he published 
a series of volumes entitled LZ’ Oiseau (1856), 
LI’ Insecte (1857), LZ’ Amour (1858), and La fem- 
me (1859), remarkable for their poetical and 
suggestive speculations. The last two were 
translated into English by J. W. Palmer, M. D. 
(New York, 1859 and 1860). The Histoire de 
la révolution frangaise (6 vols., 1847-53), and 
Les femmes de la révolution (1854), form dis- 
tinct works. His later works are: La sorciére 
(1862); La Pologne martyre (1863) ; La Bible 
de Vhumanité (1864); La Montagne (1868); 
Nos fils, advocating compulsory education 
(1869); and Histoire du XIX™ siécle (1872). 
His more important publications have all ap- 
peared in English.—His second wife, AtTHa- 
NWAise Mroneet, who survives him, had been a 
teacher in St. Petersburg. She opened a cor- 
respondence with him arising from her ardent 
admiration of his ideas, and they became en- 
gaged before they had seen each other. She 
assisted him in his labors, and was preparing a 
new work, La nature, at the time of his death. 

MICHELET, Karl Ludwig, a German philoso- 
pher, born in Berlin, Dec. 4, 1801. He was 
educated at the university of Berlin, receiving 
the degree of Ph. D. in 1824. The principles 
contained in his inaugural dissertation were 
developed in his System der philosophischen 
Moral (Berlin, 1828). In 1825 he was ap- 
pointed professor of philology and philosophy 
in the French gymnasium, which post he held 
till 1850 ; and in 1829 he became professor of 
philosophy also in the university of Berlin. He 
published Die Ethik des Aristoteles (Berlin, 
1827), an edition of the Nicomachean ethics 
with a Latin commentary (2 vols., 1829-35), 
and a memoir entitled Examen critique du 
livre d@ Aristote intitulé Métaphysique (Paris, 
1836), which was crowned by the academy of 
moral and political sciences of Paris. From 
1832 to 1842 he was engaged as one of the 
editors of Hegel’s works, in illustration of 
whose system he wrote Geschichte der leteten 
Systeme der Philosophie in Deutschland von 
Kant bis Hegel (2 vols., Berlin, 1887-’8) ; 


MICHIGAN 


Entwickelungsgeschichte der neuesten Deutschen 
Philosophie mit besonderer Riicksicht auf den 
gegenwartigen Kampf Schelling’s mit der He- 
gelschen Schule (1843); and a controversial 
dissertation, Schelling und Hegel (1839). In 
1840 appeared his Anthropologie und Psycho- 
logie, in which in many respects he diverged 
from Hegelian principles. His own tendency 
is most decisively shown in his Vorlesungen 
uber die Persénlichkeit Gottes und die Unsterb- 
lichkeit der Seele, oder die ewige Persénlich- 
keit des Geistes (1841), and Die Hpiphanie der 
ewigen Persinlichkeit des Geistes (184452). 
He has also published Hine italienische Reise 
in Briefen (Berlin, 1856); Die Geschichte der 
Menschheit in ihrem Entwickelungsgange seit 
dem Jahre 1775 bis auf die neuesten Zeiten (2 
vols., 1859-’60); and Naturrecht, oder Rechts- 
philosophie als die praktische Philosophie (8 
vols., 1866). Since 1860 he has edited and 
largely contributed to Der Gedanke, the organ 
of the philosophical society of Berlin. 
MICHELIS, Friedrich, a German theologian, 
born in Minster, July 27, 1815. He was or- 
dained as a priest at Mtinster, became a private 
tutor, and held various positions till 1864, 
when he was appointed professor of philos- 
ophy at the lyceum of Braunsberg. In his 
writings he attempts to reconcile the teachings 
of Plato and those of modern science with the 
doctrines of the church of Rome, and in 18667 
he was prominent in the Prussian chamber as 
an opponent of Bismarck’s ecclesiastical policy. 
But he opposed the influence of the Jesuits 
and the dogma of papal infallibility in several 
pamphlets (1869-’70), which led to his excom- 
munication. His principal work is Die Phi- 
losophie Platon’s in ihrer innern Beziehung 
zur geoffenbarten Wahrheit (2d part, Minster, — 
1859-60); his latest is Der Organismus und 
die Kirche (Bern, 1874). He has written much 
against Darwin’s theories. For some time he 
has been editor of Der Katholik, an organ 
especially directed against the Jesuits. 
MICHIGAN, one of the western states of the 
American Union, and the 13th admitted under 
the federal constitution, situated between lat. 
41° 45’ and 48° 20’ N., and lon. 82° 25’ and 90° 
34’ W. It is bounded N. by Lake Superior; 
E. by St. Mary’s strait or river, Lake Huron, 
St. Clair river, Lake St. Clair, the Detroit river, 
and Lake Erie; 8. by Ohio and Indiana; and 
W. and §. W. by Lake Michigan and the Me- 
nominee and Montreal rivers, with the chain 
of lakes lying between their head waters. The 
bounding waters (except Lake Erie) on the 
north and east separate it from the province 
of Ontario, Canada; those on the west and 
southwest from Illinois and Wisconsin. The 
land area of the state is 56,451 sq.m. It is 
divided into 77 counties, viz.: Alcona, Alle- 
gan, Alpena, Antrim, Barry, Bay, Benzie, Ber- 
rien, Branch, Calhoun, Cass, Charlevoix, Che- 
boygan, Chippewa, Clare, Clinton, Crawford,* 
Delta, Eaton, Emmet, Genesee, Gladwin,* 
Grand Traverse, Gratiot, Hillsdale, Houghton, 


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MICHIGAN 


Huron, Ingham, Ionia, Iosco, Isabella, Jackson, 
Kalamazoo, Kalkaska, Kent, Keweenaw, Lake, 
Lapeer, Leelanaw, Lenawee, Livingston, Mack- 
inaw, Macomb, Manistee, Manitou, Marquette, 
Mason, Mecosta, Menominee, Midland, Missau- 
kee, Monroe, Montcalm, Montmorency,* Mus- 
kegon, Newaygo, Oakland, Oceana, Ogemaw,* 
Ontonagon, Osceola, Oscoda,* Otsego,* Ottawa, 
Presque Isle, Roscommon,* Saginaw, Sanilac, 
Schoolcraft, Shiawassee, St. Clair, St. Joseph, 
Tuscola, Van Buren, Washtenaw, Wayne, and 
Wexford. There are 88 cities, as follows: 
Detroit, the commercial metropolis of the 
state, having a population in 1874 of 101,255; 
Grand Rapids, 25,923; East Saginaw, 17,084; 
Jackson, 13,859; Bay City, 13,690; Saginaw 
City, 10,064; Adrian, 8,863; Muskegon, 8,505; 
Port Huron, 8,240; Flint, 8,197; Lansing (the 
capital), 7,445; Ann Arbor, 6,692; Monroe, 
Battle Creek, Marquette, and Ypsilanti, having 
each more than 5,000 inhabitants; Manistee, 
Ishpeming, Marshall, Niles, Grand Haven, and 


State Seal of Michigan. 


Coldwater, with more than 4,000 each; Alpe- 
na, Negaunee, Hillsdale, Pontiac, Wyandotte, 
Ionia, Greenville, and Big Rapids, with more 
than 3,000 each; Lapeer, Charlotte, Holland, 
Owosso, Ludington, Hastings, and St. Clair, 
with more than 2,000 each; and Corunna, 
with a population of 1,345. The principal vil- 
lages are Kalamazoo (pop. in 1870, 9,181), Al- 
legan, Escanaba, Fenton, Houghton, Hudson, 
Sault Ste. Marie, and Tecumseh.—The popula- 
tion of Michigan at the several federal decen- 
nial enumerations since its organization as a 
territory has been as follows: 


YEARS. White. Colored. Total 
vA LS A eae nee 4,618 144 4,762 
Lice) DSR OMB cesar 8,591 206 8,896 
BOOUee cs ee soc e creak ses 81,346 261 31,639 
Dacca te atau pe das indy 211,560 TT 212,267 
Ne ks bP o's oso atte a8 895,071 2,583 397,654 
BOOUeevions secs ch sheets 736,142 6,799 749,118 
G4 Ss a a 1,167,282 |. 11,849 1,184,059 
* Unorganized. 


VOL. xI.—382 


495 


The population in 1800 was 551; at the several 
territorial and state censuses it has been as fol- 
lows: 1884, 87,278; 1854, 509,374; 1864, 803,- 
745; 1874, 1,334,031. Included in the total 
for 1870 are 4,926 Indians, 1 Chinaman, and 1 
Japanese. In that year Michigan ranked 18th 
among the states in point of population, the 
gain since 1860 being 58°06 per cent. Of the 
inhabitants, 916,049 were native and 268,010 
foreign born, 617,745 males and 566,314 females. 
Of the natives, 507,268 were born in the state, 
231,509 in New York, 62,207 in Ohio, 28,507 
in Pennsylvania, 14,445 in Vermont, 12,140 in 
Indiana, 10,839 in Massachusetts, 8,033 in New 
Jersey, 7,412 in Connecticut, 6,055 in Illinois, 
5,986 in Wisconsin, 3,932 in Maine, 3,633 in 
New Hampshire, 1,984 in Virginia and West 
Virginia, 1,719 in Kentucky, 1,486 in Iowa, 
1,265 in Maryland, and 1,137 in Rhode Island. 
There were 65,720 persons born in the state 
living in other states and territories. Of the 
foreign population, 89,590 were born in Brit- 
ish America, 64,143 in Germany, 42,013 in 
Treland, 35,051 in England, 12,559 in Holland, 
8,552 in Scotland, 3,121 in France, 2,406 in 
Sweden, 2,116 in Switzerland, 1,516 in Nor- 
way, 1,854 in Denmark, and 1,179 in Bohemia. 
There were in the state 274,459 male citizens 
of the United States 21 years old and upward. 
The number of families was 241,006, with an 
average of 4:91 persons to each; of dwellings, 
237,036, with an average of 5 persons to each. 
There were 34,613 persons 10 years old and 
over who could not read, and 53,127 who could 
not write, of whom 22,547 were natives and 
30,580 foreigners, 48,649 whites, 2,655 colored, 
and 1,823 Indians. Of the white and colored, 
24,706 were males and 26,598 females; 8,391 
were between 10 and 15 years of age, 5,428 
between 15 and 21, and 37,485 (18,558 males 
and 18,927 females) 21 and over. The number 
of blind persons was 418; of deaf and dumb, 
455; of insane, 814; of idiotic, 613. The 
number of paupers supported during the year 
ending June 1, 1870, was 3,151, at a cost of 
$269,682; number receiving support on that 
date, 2,042, of whom 1,189 were foreigners. The 
number of persons convicted of crimes during 
the year was 835; number in prison June 1, 
1,095, of whom 416 were foreigners. Of the 
404,164 persons (346,717 males and 57,447 
females) 10 years old and upward returned 
as engaged in all occupations, there were em- 
ployed in agriculture 187,211, including 121,- 
558 farmers and planters and 64,885 agricul- 
tural laborers; in professional and personal ser- 
vices, 104,728, including 1,480 clergymen, 49,- 
005 domestic servants, 86,034 laborers, 1,167 
lawyers, 1,722 government employees and 
officials, 2,084 physicians and surgeons, and 
5,059 teachers; in trade and transportation, 
29,588; and in manufactures and mining, 82,- 
637, including 4,780 blacksmiths, 3,535 brick 
and stone masons, &c., 1,799 car, carriage, and 
wagon makers, 14,693 carpenters and joiners, 
2,045 cotton and woollen mill operatives, 1,075 


496 


fishermen, 1,314 iron and steel workers, 2,341 
jumbermen, raftsmen, and wood choppers, 1,180 
machinists, 1,585 millers, 3,426 miners, 2,727 
painters and varnishers, and 10,356 saw-mill 
operatives. The tribal Indians of Michigan in 
1874 numbered 8,923, viz.: Ottawas and Chip- 
pewas, 6,170; Chippewas of Saginaw, Swan 
creek, and Black river, 1,575; Chippewas of 
Lake Superior, 1,118; and Pottawattomies of 
Huron, 60. The Ottawas and Chippewas re- 
side in the N. part of the southern penin- 
sula and on the islands of Lake Michigan; the 
Chippewas of. Saginaw, &c., in Isabella co.; 
the Pottawattomies in Calhoun co.; the Chip- 
pewas of Lake Superior on L’Anse bay in 
Houghton co. The last named tribe depend 


for subsistence chiefly upon hunting and fish- - 


ing; the others are largely engaged in agricul- 
ture. They are well advanced in civilization, 
mostly hold land in severalty, and are entitled 
to the privileges of citizenship. The agent of 
the Michigan Indians is nominated by the 
Methodists. There are several schools among 
them under the auspices of the Roman Catho- 
lics and Methodists.—Michigan consists of two 
irregular peninsulas, which are separated from 
each other by the strait of Mackinaw (4 m. 
wide) connecting the N. ends of Lakes Michi- 
gan and Huron. The upper or northern pen- 
insula is bounded N. by Lake Superior, E. by 
St. Mary’s strait, S. by Lake Huron, the strait 
of Mackinaw, and Lake Michigan, and S. W. 
by Wisconsin. It is 318 m. in greatest length 
from E. to W., and from 30 to 164 m. wide, 
embracing about two fifths of the area of the 
state. It comprises the counties of Chippewa, 
Delta, Houghton, Keweenaw, Mackinaw, Mar- 
quette, Menominee, Ontonagon, and School- 
craft, and contains but a small portion of the 
population (61,814 in 1874). From its W. 
extremity the Lake Superior shore trends N. 
E. for a distance of about 160 m. to the end 
of Keweenaw point, a long peninsula running 
out into the lake. On the E. side of this point 
is Keweenaw bay. Thence to Whitefish point 
the coast line presents a regular undulation 
with scarcely any good harbors. At White- 
fish point it bends sharply S. and afterward E., 
enclosing with the Canada shore the deep basin 
known as Tequamenon bay, from the head of 
which flows St. Mary’s strait. The Lake Hu- 
ron shore, extending from the mouth of the St. 
Mary’s westward to the strait of Mackinaw, is 
much broken and lined with islets; it is sep- 
arated from Lake Michigan by the peninsula 
called Pointe St. Ignace. The shore of Lake 
Michigan is irregular, but offers no large inlets 
until Green bay is reached, which opens from 
the N. W. corner of the lake. More than half 
of the N. and W. shore of this bay belongs to 
Michigan, and just within its mouth are two in- 
lets extending northward, called the Big and Lit- 
tle bays de Noquet. The general aspect of the 
northern peninsula is rugged and picturesque. 
The portion E. of the meridian of Marquette 
is an undulating plateau, sinking gradually 


MICHIGAN 


toward the south and more rapidly toward the 
north, the watershed being much nearer Lake 
Superior than Lakes Huron and Michigan. The 
highest points do not rise more than 400 ft. 
above Lake Superior. Numerous lakes and 
marshes are scattered over this plateau. The 
surface is covered with forests, except where 
fires have destroyed the timber and transformed 
the region into adesert. Soft woods, including 
pine, are the prevailing growth, but fine groves 
of sugar maple and beech also occur. W. of 
the plateau the country is irregularly moun- 
tainous, interspersed with swamps and lakes. 
A few of the peaks attain a height of 1,400 
ft. above Lake Superior. The N. W. extrem- 
ity of the peninsula is occupied by the Mineral 
or Copper range, which properly consists of 
three ranges: the main or central range, ex- 
tending from Keweenaw point far into Wis- 
consin, flanked on the north by the Porcupine 
mountain range, and on the south by the South 
Copper range. The general trend of these 
ranges is N. 60° E. and S. 60° W. They do 
not attain so great a height as some of the 
peaks further E. The timber here, which is 
abundant and of excellent quality, is generally 
sugar maple; but little pine or other soft 
wood occurs. Immediately 8S. of the South 
Copper range is the Iron range. The northern 
peninsula contains most of the mineral wealth 
of the state, but the soil is generally sterile. 
The lower or southern peninsula, which is 
277 m. in length from N. to S., and 259 m. 
in greatest width, is in nearly every respect 
a contrast to the northern. It lies between 
Lakes Huron and Michigan, and is bounded S. 
E. by the St. Clair river, Lake St. Clair, De- 
troit river, and Lake Erie. The Lake Huron 
shore is broken by Thunder bay toward the 
north and Saginaw bay near its centre. There 
are also several inlets on Lake Michigan, the 
chief of which are Great and Little Traverse 
bays. The surface is generally level, although 
in the south there is an irregular cluster of 
conical hills from 30 to 200 ft. high. A low 
watershed, culminating at an elevation of 600 
or 700 ft., passes through the country from §. 
to N., much nearer the E. than the W. shore, 
with a very gradual and almost unbroken 
slope toward Lake Michigan, except near Au 
Sable river, where it partakes of a rugged char- 
acter. The shores on both sides are in many 
places steep and elevated, and on Lake Michi- 
gan especially there are numerous bluffs and 
sand hills from 100 to 800 ft. high. The soil 
of the southern peninsula, except in the N. 
part, is luxuriantly fertile. The principal isl- 
ands belonging to the state are Isle Royale and 
Grand island in Lake Superior; Sugar and 
Nebish islands in St. Mary’s strait, and Drum- 
mond’s island at its mouth; Marquette, Mack- 
inaw, and Bois Blanc islands in the N. part 
of Lake Huron, near the mouth of the strait 
of Mackinaw; and the Beaver, Fox, and Man- 
itou groups in the N. part of Lake Michigan. 
—The principal rivers are the Ontonagon and 


MICHIGAN 


Tequamenon, flowing into Lake Superior; the 
Cheboygan, Thunder Bay, Au Sable, and Sag- 
inaw, into Lake Huron; the Huron and Raisin, 
into Lake Erie; and the St. Joseph, Kalama- 
zoo, Grand, Muskegon, Manistee, Grand Trav- 
erse, Manistique, and Escanaba, into Lake 
Michigan. Most of these are small, but the 
streams are so numerous that all parts of the 
state are abundantly watered. The Grand, 
Saginaw, St. Joseph, and some others are 
navigable for short distances. Many small 
ponds are also scattered over the surface.— 
The lower peninsula is composed wholly of 
groups of the Devonian and lower carbonife- 
rous series of rocks, except the central’portion 
of the country, from which the streams flow 
on one side into Lake Huron, and on the other 
into Lake Michigan, which is occupied by the 
coal measures and permo-carboniferous series. 
Though this is the most elevated portion of 
the peninsula, the surface is little more than 
moderately rolling, the strata are horizontal, 
and the bituminous coal beds lie mostly too 
low to be worked without raising the water 
by pumping. The coal field, which embraces 
about 12,000 sq. m., is open to Lake Hurén by 
Saginaw bay, the shores of which are mostly 
in thisformation. It extends as far S. as Jack- 
son, on the line of the Michigan Central rail- 
road, where a bed 4 ft. thick is opened and 
worked 90 ft. below the surface. From the 
difficulty of obtaining the coal in large quan- 
tities, but little of it is shipped, and even the 
supplies for the Lake Superior iron works are 
carried chiefly from eastern Ohio. Around the 
coal field the underlying carboniferous lime- 
stone crops out in a narrow belt, and contains 
in some localities gypseous shales and some 
plaster of Paris. To this succeeds the wider 
outcrop of the slates and sandstones of the 
Portage and Chemung groups, which stretch 
along the shores of both Lake Michigan and 
Lake Huron. The limestones and other strata 
of the Helderberg and Niagara groups sur- 
round these, sweeping around into northern 
Ohio and Indiana and eastern Wisconsin, and 
forming the island of Mackinaw and the point 
of the peninsula S. of this island. The mineral 
productions found in these formations are of 
no great importance. The limestones give fer- 
tility to the soil, and are abundantly supplied 
for all the purposes they can serve. From the 
shores of Lake Huron, near Thunder bay, an 
excellent stone is quarried for grindstones; 
and near Saginaw: bay and in the valley of 
Saginaw river salt water is obtained by boring. 
The statistics of the production of salt, which 
is extensive and still increasing, are given be- 
low. The northern peninsula exhibits four 
geological formations: the lower Silurian; the 
copper-bearing rocks; the iron-bearing rocks, 
corresponding, it is assumed, with the Huronian 
system of Canada; and the granitic rocks, be- 
lieved to be the equivalents of the Laurentian 
of Canada. The Silurian underlies the E. pla- 
teau, and flanks the Copper range on the south, 


497 


forming also the valleys between the different 
members of that range. It is made up of va- 
rious sandstones and limestones. The copper- 
bearing rocks are confined to the Mineral or 
Copper range, but occur outside of the penin- 
sula on Isle Royale. This is the most produc- 
tive copper district in the world, except Chili. 
Silver is frequently found in connection with 
the copper. The N. and W. portions of the 
central region of the peninsula, bordering on 
Lake Superior and the copper-bearing series, 
are occupied by the Huronian formation, which 
consists of a series of extensively folded beds 
of diorite, quartzite, chloritic schists, clay and 
mica slates, and graphitic shales, among which 
are intercalated the extensive beds of magnetic, 
specular, and other iron ores, for which this 
region is famous. The rest of the peninsula is 
occupied by the Laurentian series. The cop- 
per mines are in Ontonagon, Houghton (which 
contains the richest mines), and Keweenaw 
cos. The iron mines are in Marquette co. Ac- 
cording to the census of 1870, there were 27 
copper mines, with 86 steam engines of 5,948 
horse power; hands employed, 4,188; capital 
invested, $5,866,374; wages paid, $2,346,585 ; 
value of product, $4,312,167 (total product of 
the United States, $5,201,312). The number 
of iron mines was 11, with 20 steam engines of 
922 horse power ; hands employed, 2,005 ; cap- 
ital invested, $3,810,000; wages paid, $1,270,- 
698; tons of ore obtained, 690,393; value, 
$2,677,965. The yield of iron ore was greater 
than that of any other state except Pennsy]l- 
vania. The yield of copper ore in 1873 was 
18,636 tons (2,000 lbs, each), and the aggregate 
product of the mines from their opening in 1845 
to the close of that year was 194,333 tons. The 
iron product of the state in 1873. was 1,250,000 
tons (2,240 Ibs.) of ore mined and 75,000 of 
pig iron manufactured. The total yield from 
the opening of the mines in 1856 to the close of 
1873 was 6,784,129 tons of ore and 428,580 of 
pig iron. (See Coprrr Minzs, and Iron ORE.) — 
Michigan abounds with natural objects and an- 
tiquities interesting to the traveller. Among 
the former the most noteworthy are the “‘ Pic- 
tured Rocks,” on the shores of Lake Superior, 
about 80 m. W. of Sault Ste. Marie. These are 
sandstone bluffs of various colors, worn by the 
action of the waters into grotesque forms re- 
sembling castles, temples, arches, colonnades, 
&c., which from a steamer on the lake have 
the appearance of a gorgeous picture. These 
rocks extend along the shore for about 12 m., 
and rise from 200 to 800 ft. above the water. 
Sometimes cascades shoot over the precipice 
so that a vessel may sail between the descend- 
ing waters and the natural wall of rock. In 
the northern peninsula and on Isle Royale 
there are the remains of very ancient mines 
and mining tools, and it is evident that a 
race well advanced in civilization occupied the 
country at some very distant period in the 
past, of which the Indians found in posses- 
sion by the early explorers from Canada could 


498 


give no account. Foster and Whitney (‘‘ Ex- 
ecutive Document No. 69,” 31st congress, 1st 
session) give an interesting chapter on this 
subject.—The climate of Michigan is one of 
extremes, but much tempered by the proximi- 
ty of the lakes. That of the southern penin- 
sula is comparatively mild, while that of the 
northern, especially in the winter season, is 
cold and rigorous. The mean annual tem- 
perature at Detroit (lat. 42° 20’, elevation 580 
ft.) from 1836 to 1854 was 47°25°; and at Fort 
Brady, near Sault Ste. Marie (lat. 46° 30’, ele- 
vation 600 ft.) from 1823 to 1854, 40°37°. 
These results illustrate the isothermal condi- 
tions of the two peninsulas, the difference in 
annual heat being nearly 7° F. The mean 


distribution of the heat to the seasons in the: 


same year was as follows: 


PLACES. Spring. | Summer. | Autumn. | Winter. 
Detroitev.qseseres oes 45°89° | 67°60° ; 48:°67° |; 26°84° 
POR GLE Viens yea 87°60° | 62°01° | 43°54° | 18°319 


At Detroit the greatest difference in the month- 
ly mean in any one year was 49°97° (21°95° to 
71°92°), and at Fort Brady 57°81° (13°19° to 
71°). The average annual rainfall at the two 
places was 30°07 and 31°35 inches respectively, 
and in the seasons as follows: 


PLACES. Spring. | Summer. | Autumn. | Winter. 
Dotroitie.c.o.cs0 ue toe 8°57 9°29 T°41 4°86 
Fort Brady............ B44 | 9-97 | 10°76 | 5-18 


The mean annual temperature at Grand Haven 
(lat. 43° 5’, elevation 616 ft.) for the year end- 
ing Sept. 30, 1873, was 44°6°; mean tempera- 
ture of the coldest month (January), 19°2°; 
of the warmest (June and August), 69°1°. The 
annual mean at Escanaba (lat. 45° 44’, elevation 
601 ft.) was 40°01°; coldest month (Decem- 
ber), 11°3°; warmest (June), 69°3°; total an- 
nual rainfall, 25-7 inches. At Marquette (lat. 
46° 33’, elevation 666 ft.) the annual mean was 
38°3°; coldest month (December), 12°; warm- 
est (August), 63°4; total annual rainfall, 23-46 
inches. The whole number of deaths in 1870 
was 11,181, of which 4,822 were from general 
diseases, 1,349 from diseases of the nervous, 
407 of the circulatory, 1,025 of the respirato- 
ry, and 1,800 of the digestive system. Among 
special diseases, there were 707 deaths from 
scarlet fever, 666 from enteric fever, 153 from 
intermittent fever, 97 from remittent fever, 
1,844 from consumption, and 702 from pneu- 
monia.—The northern peninsula with some ex- 
ceptions is rugged and has a poor soil. It is, 
however, well timbered with white pine, spruce, 
hemlock, birch, oak, aspen, maple, ash, and elm. 
Much of the southern is occupied by oak open- 
ings and prairie, with a large portion of forest, 
in which walnut, sugar maple, oak, hickory, 
ash, basswood, elm, linden, locust, dogwood, 
beech, sycamore, cherry, pine, hemlock, spruce, 
tamarack, cypress, cedar, and chestnut are the 


MICHIGAN 


prevailing growths. White pine forms the 
chief wealth of the N. half of this peninsula. 
The upper portion of the state is beyond the 
N. line of Indian corn, but here the hardier 
grains mature. The southern produces Indian 
corn and the winter grains abundantly, and 
is the great agricultural district of the state. 
The soils in this portion are deep, chiefly a 
dark loam, often mixed with gravel and clay, 
and very fertile. Apples are grown here in 
great quantities. Peaches are successfully 
raised on the shores of Lake Michigan, while 
pears, plums, cherries, blackberries, raspber- 
ries, strawberries, and quinces flourish through- 
out the state. The vine is cultivated on the 
shores of Lakes Michigan and Erie, and in the 
principal river valleys. The lakes and streams 
afford productive fisheries, among which are 
those of the far-famed whitefish. According to 
the census of 1870, Michigan was 10th among 
the states in the value of agricultural produc- 
tions, and 9th in the value of manufactures. The 
whole number of farms was 98,786, of which 
6,897 contained less than 10 acres each, 13,170 
from 10 to 20, 88,795 from 20 to 50, 27,687 
from 50 to 100, 12,175 from 100 to 500, 57 
from 500 to 1,000, and 5 more than 1,000 acres 
each. The number of acres of land in farms 
was 10,019,142, of which 5,096,939 were im- 
proved; cash value of farms, $398,240,578; 
of farming implements and machinery, $13,- 
711,979; wages paid during the year, inclu- 
ding the value of board, $8,421,161; estimated 
value of farm productions, including better- 
ments and additions to stock, $81,508,628; 
value of orchard products, $3,447,985; of 
produce of market gardens, $852,658; of for- 
est products, $2,559,682; of home manufac- 
tures, $338,008; of animals slaughtered or 
sold for slaughter, $11,711,624; of live stock, 
$49,809,869. The chief productions and live 
stock according to the census of 1870 and the 
state census of 1874 were: 


1870. 1874. 
Wheat.....bushels 16,265,773 | Wheat..... bushels 15,456,202 
KRyecere snc it 144,508 | Indian corn... “ 20,792,905 
Indian corn... “ 14,086,238 | Other grain... “ 18,209,758 

ata T reese ¢ “© 8,954,466 | Potatoes ..... “ 5,618,868 
Barley; eens. oy 834,558 | Wool......... Ibs. 7,729,011 
Buckwheat... “ 436,755 | Pork marketed “* 48,434,106 
Peasand beans ‘ 849,865 | Cheese....... “¢ 4,101,912 
Potatoes...... “ 10,818,799 | Butter ....... “27,972,117 
Clover seed... “ 49,918 | Maple sugar.. “*  4319,798 
Wioolseet see. Ibs. 8,726,145 | Fruit dried... “ 2,664,709 
Butterieseas “ 24,400,185 | Fruit and vege- 

Cheese........ = 670,804 | tablescanned “ 2,007,606 
HOps/s6 ew ‘ 828,269 | Cider, barrels..... 182,347 
Maxie ks - 240,110 | Wine, gallons..... 50,851 
Maple sugar.. “ 1,781,855 | Hay, tons........ 1,134,077 
HOuCy-cccce bg 280,325 | Apples....bushels 5,928,275 
Milk sold, gallons 2,277,122 | Peaches...... a { 

Sorghum mo- IPORYBi. « aeais's vs 40,857 

lasses....... oe 94,686 | Plums ....... se 8,667 
Hay, tons S.-4- ses 1,290,923 | Cherries...... * 66,746 
Horses on farms.. 228,302 |Strawberries.. “ 48,922 
Horses not on Currants and 

farms.ccc: eee 25.368 gooseberries ‘“ 40,562 
Milch cows ....... 250,859 | Grapes, cwts...... 29,601 
Working oxen .... 86,499 | Horses ........... 281,894 
Other cattle....... 260,171 | Working oxen.... 88,901 
Neat cattle not on Milch cows....... 321,732 

farms. de Grew dec. 87,605 | Other cattle....... 807,554 
SHOP icc ssepcsaes 1,985:906 | Sheep............. 1,649,199 
Swine scent. AV7,811 | Swine s20. 22... ..e bedi 


MICHIGAN 


—The number of manufacturing establishments 
in 1850 was 2,083, producing goods to the value 
of $11,169,002. In 1860 there were 3,448 es- 
tablishments; hands employed, 23,190: cap- 
ital invested, $23,808,226; value of products, 
$32,658,856. The whole number of establish- 
ments in 1870 was 9,455, having 2,215 steam 
engines of 70,956 horse power, and 1,500 
water wheels of 84,895 horse power; number 
of hands employed, 63,694, of whom 58,347 
were. males above 16, 2,941 females above 15, 
and 2,406 youth; capital invested, $71,712,283 ; 
wages paid, $21,205,355; value of materials 
used, $68,142,515; of products, $118,394,676. 
The statistics of the principal branches (1870) 
are shown in the following table: 


3 a g 
sag| os: Capital Value of 
SSD USTETES. ar ‘3 Stile Met = invested. | products, 
z of = am 
Agricultural implements..} 164 969 | $1,254,759 $1,569,596 
Blacksmithing ........... 904 | 1,997| 729,538) 1,581,857 
Boots and shoes ......... 765 | 2,494) 1,167,181) 2,552,981 
Bread and bakery products} 82 806) 291,672; 684,458 
BUICK fates oa ois Sais ss stele 136 | 1,584) 488,800} 681,480 
Carpentering and building} 756 | 2,930) 780,225) 3,976,383 
Carriages and wagons....| 531 ,289| 1,649,860! 2,893,828 
Cars, freight and passenger 3 823) 615,223) 1,488,742 
Clit Sot ces oeeg 5. 288 | 2,593] 1,085,650) 2,577,154 
UGeperage lees. scegessee 291 | 1,189} 488,165) 1,176,768 
Copper, milledandsmelted| 19 636} 1,591,000) 9,260,976 
Flouring and grist mill) . 
products as ccc es cies os 516 | 1,988) 6,962,675 21,174,247 
Furniture and chairs..... 245 | 2,864) 2,067,420} 1,958,888 
Gases. .st.s-.esanoeeees 13 111} 1,549,029) 522,329 
Iron, forged and rolled... 8 465} 725,000} 780,750 
“bolts, nuts, nails, &c. 2 5A 50,400} 164,200 
COMIDIS Fotis cows ore 1T | 1,625) 2,528,000} 2,911,515 
+ MCASUIDPS , fo, ote. x's 196 | 1,161) 1,571,447) 2,082,582 
Leather, tanned.......... 99 478; 897,047) 1,606,311 
SE CULTIEG StS a2's\<5 73 249| $95,493) 1,064,297 
Liquors, distilled......... 1 15 75,000; 105,000 
AMEE] tacan ce tee ces 128 481) 1,837,441] 1,216,286 
Lumber, planed ......... 70 518! 710,850) 1,181,845 
GR BAWEd.G eas ese 1,571 | 20,058 26,990,450 31,946,396 
Machinery (sr aiccs.5 24a 105 | 1,811) 1,628,979} 2,880,564 
Masonry, brick and stone.} 159 666 57,853) 655,905 
Meat packed, beef........ 8 8 12,000 96,050 
s See SOLK t o2c 3k 4 83} 170,000} 583,750 
Paneer. vaste seks cole te 108 453} 148,490] 493;752 
WADE pote Selene ais bp 6% sic 11 261! 876,000} 499,892 
Plaster, ground.......... 22 240} 687,100) 833,600 
Printing and publishing..| 65 726) 697,777) 1,071,523 
Saddlery and harness ....} 288 824) 460,436) 851,888 
Beltre ct carapace oie 65 858} 1,717,500) 1,176,811 
Sash, doors, and blinds...| 150 | 1,805) 1,279,200) 1,868,596 
Ship building, repairing, 
and ship materials...... 26 637) 547,000] 709,884 
Tin, copper, and sheet-iron 
“ose ee ee 260 835} 487,515} 967,972 
Tobacco and cigars....... 114 | 1,256) 1,801,202; 2,572,523 
Wooden ware and wood) 
WOEK 6.a-eeccs Weicscos 71 596} 596,975) 711,175 
Wool carding and cloth 
OECSSINE Nesp eces. sci 17 84} 155,850) 218,815 
Woollen goods........-... 88 | 585) 858,200) 996,208 


The total value of saw-mill products was great- 


er than that of any other state. In the quan- 
Exports of Exports of 
ee a Be renee ain beris: domestic products.| foreign products. 
Detroit c...2% $1,450,072 $3,240,839 $52,601 
Huarony.s.. 3.7 852,869 5,608,294 480,780 
Michigan...... 8,44. 14180 [eee 
Superior,...... 47,400 AT OO8O © file Pe eee. 
Totaligees cs $2,353,786 $9,043,248 $483,881 


499 


tity of laths and lumber produced Michigan 
stood first; in the quantity of shingles, next to 
Wisconsin; and in the value of staves, &c., 
next to Indiana and New York. The number 
of steam engines employed in the saw mills 
was 1,137, of 41,216 horse power; water 
wheels, 547, of 12,448 horse power; number 
of saws, 7,052; amount of wages paid during 
the year, $6,400,288 ; value of materials used, 
$14,347,661. The products were 304,054,000 
laths, 2,251,613,000 feet of lumber, 658,741,- 
000 shingles, and staves, shooks, headings, &c., 
to the value of $1,332,922. The whole num- 
ber of bushels of grain ground was 16,891,- 
910, and the products of the flouring mills in- 
tended for market (excluding flour, meal, &c., 
from grain ground for individual owners) were 
10,956 cwt. of buckwheat flour, 3,759 barrels 
of rye flour, 963,101 of wheat flour, 3,875 
bushels of barley meal, 610,103 of corn meal, 
and 1,508,180 ewt. of feed. There were 119,- 
415 tons of iron ore smelted, producing 
79,279 tons of pig iron. The quantity of salt 
manufactured was 38,981,316 bushels, more 
than was produced by any other state except 
New York and West Virginia. The quantity 
of lumber manufactured in 1873 amounted to 
2,886,351,027 feet, viz.: E. Michigan, 1,351,- 
878,286 feet; W. Michigan, 1,205,559,739 ; 
upper peninsula, 133,913,002; railroad and 
interior mills, 175,000,000. If the lumber cut 
into shingles were added, the aggregate would 
nearly reach 3,000,000,000 feet. The forests 
of the state are rapidly disappearing, but it is 
estimated that 33,000,000,000 feet of pine tim- 
ber is still standing in the lower peninsula. 
The product of the salt wells for 1874 was 
1,026,979 barrels. The total yield from the 
discovery of the wells in 1860 to the close of 
1874 has been 7,789,419 barrels. The lake 
fisheries are of considerable importance. The 
value of the catch according to the census of 
1870 was $567,576; the chief items were 2,165 
barrels of herring, 2,787 of pickerel, 47,436 of 
whitefish, and 14,268 of other fish.—Michigan 
is divided into four customs districts, viz.: 
Detroit, Huron (port of entry, Port Huron), 
Michigan (port of entry, Grand Haven), and 
Superior (port of entry, Marquette). The for- 
eign commerce (except under the act of July 
14, 1870, which permits the shipment of goods 
without appraisement to interior ports from 
the ports of first arrival) is carried on wholly 
with Canada, though an occasional vessel has 
been despatched from Detroit directly to Eu- 
rope. The following table exhibits the statis- 
tics for the year ending June 30, 1874: 


ENTRANCES. CLEARANCES, 
Vessels. Tons Vessels. Tons 
8,854 870,937 8,879 880,495 
612 485,423 644 490,640 
16 8.994 10 2,808 
200 59,963 185 57,417 
4,682 1,420,317 | 4,718 1,431,855 


500 


The exports consist chiefly of grain, flour, 
hogs, lumber, beef and pork and their pro- 
ducts, tobacco, cotton, and railroad cars. Of 
the exports through the district of Huron a 
large proportion is transported by land car- 


MICHIGAN 


4,835, with an aggregate tonnage of 1,357,462. 
The number of clearances in the same year was 
4,275, tonnage 1,340,332. The vessels engaged 
in the coastwise trade for the year ending June 
30, 1874, and the number built during the pre- 


riage. The number of entrances in 1873 was | vious year, were as follows: 
ENTRANCES. CLEARANCES. REGISTERED, &C, BUILT In 1878. 
DISTRICTS. 
Vessels. Tons. Vessels. Tons. Vessels. Tons. Vessels. Tons, 

Doetroite 7 eee 5,190 858,127 4,412 885,070 865 83,099 89 14,738 
Huron. esees 8,448 1,027,835 3,589 1,066,338 814 53,265 30 12,841 
Michigan....... 10,947 2,061,789 11,289 2,123,074 196 17,592 18 1,082 
Superior........ 2,184 944,070 2,194 943,040 64. 4,527 6 146 

Totals sicccias 21,769 4,886,321 21,484 | 5,017,522 989 158,488 93 28,802 


The vessels belonging or registered in the state 
consisted of 368 sailing vessels of 52,907 tons, 
358 steamers of 68,239 tons, and 213 unrigged 
vessels of 37,337 tons; those built included 
42 sailing vessels of 15,383 tons, 34 steamers 
of 8,834 tons, and 17 unrigged vessels of 4,585 


18,124 of 4,205,694 tons (4,783 of 2,056,040 
tons steamers); clearances, 18,436 of 4,300,173 
tons (4,855 of 2,070,157 tons steamers).—The 
number of miles of railroad in the state in 
1844 was 206; in 1854, 444; in 1864, 898. 
The lines in operation in 1874, with their ter- 


tons. 


The number of entrances in 1873 was 


mini and their mileage within the state, were: 


Miles in opera- 
RAILROADS. TERMINI. tion in the 
state. 
Chicago and Michigan Lake Shore...:............ New Buffalo, on Michigan Central railroad, to Pentwater.. 170 
Bianchat ; Holland to Grand Rapids.. oc0 ec whe sate coos ce eens 244 
ae ga at ee ages Muskegon to:Big Rapidsisn sence: -cy-at ae ele cee ere 55+ 
Chicago and Canada Southern............-..e200. Grosse Isle to Chicago, Ll. (250 m.); completed to Fayette. 70 
Chicago and Northwestern (Peninsula division)...}| Menominee to Escanaba. ...........ecceceececeeecse neces 644 
es st “ Escanaba to Lake Angeline mine................-.e-ceeee 68 
Branches 24a) eae ae soe en eee PO Mines Ae oc estes eee cea ate beter cia at ee eae 36 
Chicago, Detroit, and Canada Grand Trunk Junction! Port Huron to Detroit............cccccececcecccececees a 59 
Detroit and Bay City................. pies eet es Detroit 'to Bay City. 2a aie... cade en answers 20 42 eg meee ele rte 105 
Branch {cei Msc aes eee eee. eee Lapeer to Fish Lake. siete aac coe pee es 5 
Detroit and Milwaukee. 32, cise snes ee beds ee Detroit to Grand Vavenie. Wawa oeatde neds eee eee 189 
Detroit, Hillsdale, and Indiana..................- “‘Y pstlantl to Bankérsi less. s 9 eee wakes eee cane nee 65 
Detroit, Lansing, and Lake Michigan............. erty % Howard, foci deans saewan sien Sass Cesceina nen 164 
onia to} Stanton. se detoni eee een cel sene eae ae ee 23 
Branches .. 6... 6eesereee sere eee eee eres ens \ Kiddville toiBelding .1 hci buck th a itae be eee 2 
Detroit, Monroe, and Toledo*................0005 Toledo; Ohio, toxDctroit (654m) sees eee eee ee nee 544 
Flint and Pere Marquétte,.....0d6. css wees sneak Monroe to Ludington (255 m.); completed to Reed City... 207 
East Saginaw to-Bay Olty io),.0. Sor dscebecaseammenes och es 12 
Eiranchies 6... fr ces co carci ce hee meee ee Fliint'to Otter Lake , Wack 2. det can erences A er oor 19 
Saginaw, to St. Clair Junction... oe tee ee eee es 5 
Fort Wayne, Jackson, and Saginaw .............. Jackson to Fort Wayne, Ind. (100 m.).............000.005 46 
Grand Rapids and Indiana,...............00ce00: Fort Wayne, Ind., to strait of Mackinaw (352 m.); com- 
pleted.to Petoskey (682 mi.) .5..5 oe ee ove puke ees 272 
Grand Rapids, Newaygo, and Lake Shore......... Grand Rapids to Newaygo i)... .dd.sc ockeks ede euesuye eset 36 
Grand: Rivér Vabey+ does suse sta’k oye cete Jackson to Grand Rapida si... osu<eustee.-aseubeetinlass 84 
Heelg'and Torch’ Lakav.-.. cree 7. Peet tie eee Houghton county...... ae Sa Ae cie ticite date ein Cate 44 
Jackson, Lansing, and Saginawt..........200.005 J eer to strait of Mackinaw (295 m.); completed to Gay- 
TBS OTS VIROL So tae akg ace ateia roe eee 236 
Kalamazoo and South Havent...........sscseece Kalamazoo to South Haven..........-cecceccessscsrececs 39 
Kalamazoo and White Pigeon*...............00.. Kalamazoo to White Pigeon........ 20.0.0. sccecesvcecsees 88 
Kalamazoo, Allegan, and Grand Rapids*.......... Kalamazoo to Grand Rapids... s-cnerceeee eet eee 58 
Lake Shore and Michigan Southern.............. Buffalo, N. Y., to Chicago, Ill. (589 m.)......-.....c0eseeee 116 
Branches { Adrian to Jackaom;. .52 S00 ee wot ee ee ee 46 
cA reicig i Rec aha ahd OY a a eal dR Adrian to .Monroos.\o-ccs% oedema Pere en eee ees 834 
Marquette, Houghton, and Ontonagon............ Marquette te L7Anse.. 200) | (a eee re erty oe 63 
Branches. eigievelsxsjale'e cisions « folers rete aioe Cheese sate TO mines: oC i086 bey ek nees Pepe tae oe Oren Ee 234 
Michigan Air Lintet A, 0', 2 SSE he Pee ee Jackson to South Bend, Ind. (114 m.)..............00.0.- 108} 
Bitchi gan Len tral 6 «'9).i6 ts di slo wfiesGhean he eases Detroit to Calumet, Illy (270m. ke veec eee sees sas o- 221 
DlichigaN LEke: ShOrd,c4 cscs owe satsstis ceo osk wa Allegan to Maskégon -....2:252iese ce eee ene eats =< 57 
Mineralphanreen... ec ccs ae eee eee Copper Harbor to Ontonagon river (100 m.); completed, 
Hancock to..Calamet.:. i Acklaloeek ater ese aeean res ines 124 
Northern Central Michigan*...............0cce0 Jonesville'to Lansing....csuesss Minka een eee nt eee es. 60 
PR Wa OM ee selene cae soc Soins fe scone bee eneee Lawton, on Michigan Central railroad, to Paw Paw........ 4 
POTD ATS Ee mareRat Seite ele oa omen eed oben Oe Lansing. to Chicago, U5 (205105) scnneeeeree eee sees 108} 
Port Huron and Lake Michigant................. Port Huron to Lansing (1124 m.); completed to Flint..... 66 
Saginaw Valley and St. Louis.................... East Saginaw to Sti Louis 2g 22 4, ve denen «cum season nik as = 385 
St. Clair and Chicago Air Line...............0006 St. Clair to Jackson (120 m.); completed from Ridgeway, 
on Grand Trunk railroad, to Washington................ 22 
Toledo, Canada Southern, and Detroit............ Toledo, 0., to Detroiti(Obsmi.) anc sere; ee acei ieee sie wee 50 
TPAVGCRG CUES teen Rema raiah bale weir diaeo oe sok se Traverse City to Walton, on G’d Rapids and Indiana R. R... 26 
LOCAL is cat cnte MESES tA teat vie tee ac ce area odie Miove sis eats saps’ alereresie a Nei e Face toe seleete ais t5:6 gard 8,267 


* Operated by the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern railroad. 


+ Operated by the Michigan Central railroad. 


$ Consolidated in 1873 under the title of the Chicago and Lake Huron railroad. 


MICHIGAN 7 501 


The only canals used for transportation are 
the St. Mary’s ship canal and the Portage and 
Lake Superior ship canal. The former, about 
a mile long, around the falls of the St. Mary’s 
at Sault Ste. Marie, was opened in 1855, and 
has been of great importance in facilitating 
commerce between Lakes Huron and Superior. 
The latter is about two miles long, and con- 
nects Portage lake with Lake Superior on the 
W. side of Keweenaw point. By opening a 
navigable channel through the base of the pen- 
insula, it enables vessels to avoid the circuit 
around the point. It was completed in 1873. 
—In 1878 there were 77 national banks in the 
state, with a capital of $9,802,200, and an out- 
standing circulation of $7,139,217; 18 state 
banks, with a capital of $1,184,897 80; and 10 
savings banks, with a capital of $631,300, and 
deposits amounting to $4,000,000. There were 
31 mutual fire insurance companies and 3 
stock (1 fire and marine) of the state in opera- 
tion, besides 88 companies of other states and 
11 foreign companies authorized to do business 
in Michigan; also 87 life insurance companies, 
of which one, with a capital of $100,000, was 
a Michigan company.—The executive power of 
the state is vested in a governor (salary $1,000), 
lieutenant governor, secretary of state ($800), 
superintendent of public instruction ($1,000), 
state treasurer ($1,000), auditor general ($1,000), 
commissioner of the state land office ($800), 
and attorney general ($800), elected by the 
people for two years. The lieutenant: gov- 
ernor is ev officio president of the senate, and 
upon the death, resignation, or disability of 
the governor exercises the functions of that 
Office. The. secretary, treasurer, and commis- 
sioner of the land office constitute a board of 
state auditors, to examine and adjust claims 
against the state, and also a board of state 
canvassers, to determine the result of elections 
for state officers. The secretary, treasurer, 
and auditor are a board of internal improve- 
ments, and the lieutenant governor, auditor, 
secretary, treasurer, and commissioner of the 
land office form the state board of equaliza- 
tion. A commissioner of insurance, railroad 
commissioner, commissioner of immigration, 
and salt inspector are appointed by the govern- 
or with the consent of the senate, the last for 
six and the others for two years. The state 
board of health consists of seven members, 
including the secretary, and the state board 
of agriculture of the governor and president 
of the agricultural college ew officio, with six 
other members. The legislative power is vest- 
ed in a senate and house of representatives, 
elected every second year. There are 32 sen- 
ate districts, each of which elects one senator. 
The representatives, not fewer than 64 nor 
more than 100 in number (at present 100), are 
apportioned among the counties and represen- 
tative districts according to population. After 
each United States census, and also after each 
decennial state census (beginning in 1854), a 
reapportionment is made. Members of the 


legislature and the lieutenant governor receive 
$3 a day while in actual attendance, and 10 cents 
a mile in going to and from the seat of gov- 
ernment. The regular sessions are held bien- 
hially in odd years. No one holding a United 
States, state, or county office, with minor ex- 
ceptions, is eligible to a seat in the legislature. 
Appropriations for any religious sect or soci- - 
ety, or theological or religious seminary, are 
prohibited; and no act can be passed author- 
izing the granting of licenses for the sale of 
ardent spirits or other intoxicating liquors. 
The constitution forbids the granting of the 
credit of the state to or in aid of any person, 
association, or corporation, and declares that 
the state shall not subscribe to nor be interest- 
ed in the stock of any company, association, or 
corporation, nor engage in any work of inter- 
nalimprovement. The governor’s veto can be 
set aside by a two-thirds vote of both houses. 
The judicial power is vested in a supreme 
court, circuit courts, probate courts, and jus- 
tices of the peace, with such municipal courts 
as may be established by the legislature in cities. 
The supreme court consists of a chief justice 
and three associate justices (salary $4,000), 
elected by the people for eight years (one reti- 
ring every two years), and has appellate juris- 
diction. Four terms are held annually at 
Lansing. The state is divided into 20 judicial 
circuits, in each of which a circuit judge (sal- 
ary $1,500) is elected for six years. Circuit 
courts are held in each organized county, and 
have general original jurisdiction, civil and 
criminal, and appellate jurisdiction of judg- 
ments of inferior courts. A probate judge is 
elected in each county for four years, who 
holds a probate court with the usual powers. 
Four justices of the peace are elected in each 
township for a term of four years, with juris- 
diction in civil cases involving not more than 
$300, and such criminal jurisdiction as may be 
prescribed by law. The right of suffrage is 
conferred on all male citizens of the United 
States (including civilized Indians not mem- 
bers of any tribe) 21 years old and upward, 
who have resided in the state three months 
and in the township or ward where they offer 
to vote 10 days. General elections occur on 
the Tuesday after the first Monday of Novem- 
ber in even years. Any inhabitant engaging 
in a duel is disqualified from voting and from 
holding office. Amendments to the consti- 
tution must be proposed by two thirds of 
each house of the legislature, and ratified by 
the people. Once in 16 years, beginning with 
1866, the question of calling a convention to 
revise the constitution is to be submitted to 
the people. Treason is punishable with death ; 
murder in the first degree with solitary con- 
finement in the state prison at hard labor for 
life; other crimes with fines and various terms 
of imprisonment. A married woman may 
carry on business in her own name; her prop- 
erty is not liable for the debts of her husband, 
and she may deal with it and sue and be sued 


502 


respecting it as if unmarried. The principal 
grounds of divorce are adultery, impotence at 
the time of marriage, imprisonment for three 
years, desertion for two years, habitual drunk- 
enness, and extreme cruelty. The rate of in- 
terest is 7 per cent., but as high as 10 per cent. 
may be stipulated for in writing. Michigan 
-is entitled to two senators and nine represen- 
tatives in congress, and therefore has eleven 
votes in the electoral college.—The valuation 
of property, according to the United States 
censuses, has been as follows: 


ASSESSED VALUE. True value of 


YEARS. real and person- 
Real estate. |Personal estate. Total. al property. 
TROOP ae Pree cme ele Loni hee sais aifieleta fists iste e 5% 59,787,255 


The total taxation not national in 1870 was 
$5,412,957, of which $396,352 was state tax, 
$1,565,163 county, and $3,451,442 town, city, 
&ec. The total debt amounted to $6,725,231, of 
which $2,385,028 was state, $1,275,479 county, 
and $3,064,724 town, city, &c. The receipts 
into the state treasury during the year ending 


Sept. 30, 1873, were $2,192,431 52; balance. 


on hand at the beginning of the year, $977,- 
224 03; disbursements, $2,314,942 11; balance 
in treasury at the close of the year, $854,713 44. 
The items of receipt were as follows: from 
direct taxes, $982,230 50; specific taxes, $347, - 
554° 74, of which $211,239 56 were from rail- 
road companies, $113,131 84 from insurance 
companies, $18,778 37 from mining companies, 
$2,236 43 from telegraph companies, $2,016 54 
from express companies, and $152 from river 
improvement companies; sale of lands, $230,- 
760 42; interest on part paid lands, $78,602 45; 
St. Mary’s canal, $29,271 85; 5 per cent. from 
United States on sale of public lands, $28,- 
723 20; miscellaneous sources, $253,424 67; 
total cash receipts, $1,945,567 83; receipts in 
land warrants, $233,170 01; refundings and 
reimbursements, $13,693 68. The disburse- 
ments were as follows: for principal of state 
debt, $502,000; interest on state debt, $117,- 
748 48; interest on trust funds, $196,818 62; 
interest on part paid lands, paid to educational 
institutions, $55,490 39; state institutions, from 
appropriations, $380,756 50 (university $90,000, 
normal school $15,384 07, agricultural college 
$25,096, state public school $36,518 48, reform 
school $18,500, state prison $27,800, insane 
asylums $127,400, deaf and dumb and blind 
asylum $40,063); new state offices and new 
capitol, $129,143 76; on account of canal, 
$14,207 80; miscellaneous, $672,412 87 (in- 
cluding for printing and binding $88,247 96, 
paper and stationery $44,423 56, salaries $148, - 
557 89, pay and contingent expenses of legisla- 
ture $75,176 48); total disbursements in cash, 
$2,068,078 42; disbursements in land war- 
rants, $233,170 01; refundings and reimburse- 
ments, $13,698 68. The taxable value of prop- 


MICHIGAN 


erty in 1871, when the last assessment was 
made, was $630,000,000. The taxation for 
state purposes for the year ending Sept. 30, 
1874, was $982,230 50, or 15:59 cents on $100, 
The items are as follows: for agricultural col- 
lege, $37,398; insane asylums, $169,000; gen- 
eral purposes, $300,000; institution for deaf 
and dumb and blind, $46,000; military fund, 
$33,382 50; new state capitol, $200,000; state 
prison building, $50,000; state public school, 
$43,000; state reform school, $33,950; univer- 
sity, $69,500. The total taxation, not inclu- 


ding city taxes in the larger cities and special 


assessments (amounting probably to $1,000,- 
000), for the year ending Sept. 30, 1873, was 
$11,660,055 84, viz.: state, $829,976 05; coun- 
ty, $2,660,513 85; township, $1,963,113 22; 
highway, $2,537,807 27; school, $3,098,688 39; 
drain, $241,864 60; miscellaneous, $328,092 96. 
The total bonded debt of the state Sept. 30, 
1873, was $1,733,292 78, of which $1,699,000 
was interest-bearing, viz.: due Jan. 1, 1878, 
$353,000; due July 1, 1878, $111,000; canal 
bonds (guaranteed by state) due July 1, 1879, 
$73,000; due Jan. 1, 1883, $699,000; due May 
1, 1890, $463,000. The rate of interest on the 
last amount is 7 per cent.; on the rest, 6 per 
cent. The cash in the treasury applicable to 
the payment of this debt amounted to $412,- 
000 81. The trust debt was as follows: pri- 
mary school funds, $2,401,198 86; university 
fund, $331,234 03; agricultural college fund, 
$103,192 39; normal school fund, $50,138 22; 
railroad and other deposits, $4,227 46; total, 
$2,889,990 96.—The charitable, penal, pauper, 
and reformatory institutions are under the gen- 
eral supervision of a board of four commis- 
sioners (besides the governor ez officio), who 
are appointed by the governor with the con- 
sent of the senate for eight years, one reti- 
ring every two years. The state institutions 
under their charge are the state prison at 
Jackson, the state reform school at Lansing, 
the state public school at Coldwater, the asy- 
lum for the insane at Kalamazoo, and the in- 
stitution for the education of the deaf and 
dumb and the blind at Flint. The state prison 
was established in 1838. The grounds em- 
brace about 30 acres, of which 104 are enclosed 
within the prison walls. The number of cells 
is 648; they are built of stone, and each is 8 
ft. 4 in. long, 8 ft. 4 in. wide, and 7 ft. high. 
The prisoners labor an average of about nine 
hours each week day in workshops in the en- 
closure; their services are let to contractors, 
and they are employed chiefly in the manufac- 
ture of furniture, wagons, agricultural imple- 
ments, cigars, and boots and shoes. For the 
last few years the prison has been self-sustain- 
ing. The number of convicts in prison Sept. 
30, 1872, was 589; received during the year, 
287; discharged, died, &c., 221; remaining 
Sept. 80, 1873, 655. There is a library of 
about 2,000 volumes. The reform school for 
juvenile offenders was opened in 1856; it has 
a farm of 225 acres. The boys receive instruc- 


MICHIGAN 


tion in the elements of learning and are trained 
to habits of industry. Two family houses have 
recently been erected, affording accommoda- 
tions for 75 boys of the smaller and better 
class, where they may be free from the example 
of the more vicious, The number of inmates 
Sept. 30, 1872, was 218; received during the 
year, 101; released, 97; remaining Sept. 380, 
1873, 222. The state public school for neg- 
lected and dependent children was established 
by the act of April 17, 1871, and was opened 
May 22, 1874. The grounds embrace 27 acres, 


and the buildings comprise a large central struc- 


ture for school and industrial purposes and sev- 
eral cottages in which the pupils may be sep- 
arately classified, having accommodations for 
165 inmates; the number in the institution on 
Aug. 15, 1874, was 135. The children are kept 
in school 44 hours a day, and those that are 
old enough work three hours a day. It is es- 
timated that there are about 300 children in 
the state between the ages of 4 and 16 years 
who come within the design of this institution. 
The asylum for the insane was opened in 1859. 
The grounds embrace 195 acres, part of which 
is occupied as a farm and garden. With the 
new building to be completed in 1875 the in- 
stitution will have accommodations for 300 
patients in the female and 260 in the male de- 
partment. The expenses are defrayed chiefly 
by receipts from inmates and from counties for 
the support of poor patients, with appropria- 
tions by the legislature to meet deficiencies. 
The number of patients Dec. 1, 1870, was 305 
(156 males and 149 females); received during 
the succeeding two years, 155 (99 males and 
56 females); discharged, 155 (recovered 56, 
improved 82, unimproved 40, died 27); re- 
maining Sept. 30, 1872, 305 (157 males and 148 
females). The number in the institution on 
Aug. 14, 1874, was 465, of whom 232 were 
males and 233 females. The legislature in 
1874 appropriated $400,000 for the erection of 
another insane asylum, and Pontiac has been 
selected as,the site. The institution for the 
education of the deaf and dumb and the blind 
was organized in 1854. Workshops have re- 
cently been connected with it, in which the 
pupils are taught mechanical occupations. The 
mental training is similar to that given in oth- 
er institutions of the kind. The farm and 
grounds contain 94 acres. The number of pu- 
pils in attendance during the two years 1871 
and 1872 was 219, of whom 171 (93 boys and 
78 girls) were deaf mutes and 48 (25 boys and 
23 girls) blind. The number remaining Sept. 
30, 1872, was 164, of whom 137 were deaf 
mutes and 27 blind. The Detroit house of 
correction is a city institution, but it receives 
all females sentenced to the state prison and 
criminals convicted of misdemeanors from all 
parts of the state, for whose board payment 
is made by the state or counties. The prison- 
ers are principally employed in the manufac- 
ture of chairs and cigars, under the direction 
of the superintendent, and the earnings exceed 


503 


the expenses. Provision is made for the edu- 
cation of the inmates, and in the house of shel- 
ter connected with the institution a limited 
number of the girls are surrounded with the 
influences of a home. The number of prison- 
ers Jan. 1, 1873, was 448; received during 
the year, 2,409; discharged, 2,821; remaining 
Dec. 31, 1878, 531, of whom 416 were males 
and 115 females. Of those received during 
the year, 1,804 were from the city of Detroit, 
595 from other parts of the state, and 10 from 
other states (United States prisoners). The 
commissioners also have the general oversight 
of the county jails and poorhouses. The 
number of jails is about 50. They vary from 
cheap log structures to expensive and impo- 
sing edifices, some costing less than $100 and 
others $50,000 or $60,000. The estimated 
value of jail property is $400,000. The aver- 
age number of inmates is about 800; annual 
cost of maintaining jails, $50,000. There are 
51 poorhouses, each having a farm connected 
with it; but few of the buildings have been 
constructed especially for the purpose. The 
whole number of paupers received in the 
county poorhouses and Washtenaw and Wayne 
county asylums for the insane, during the year 
ending Sept. 30, 1878, was 38,798; average 
number maintained, 1,482; number under 16 
years of age, 577; number of persons tempo- 
rarily relieved outside the poorhouses, 13,785; 
whole amount expended from the poor fund, 
$403,096 18, of which $147,722 53 was for 
the maintenance of poorhouses, and $158,089 
25 for temporary relief outside; estimated 
value of farms and appurtenances, $698,554 
57; of paupers’ labor, $7,628 50; of products 
of the farms, $60,519 15. The whole num- 
ber of insane persons received was 412, aver- 
age number maintained 284; whole number of 
idiots 196, average number 178; whole num- 
ber of blind 47, average number 39; whole 
number of mutes 12, average number 1l. Of 
those received during the year, 1,551 were na- 
tive-born whites, 189 colored, 16 Indians, 36 
of unknown birth, and the rest foreigners.— 
Michigan has an excellent system of nearly 
6,000 free public schools. Districts having 
fewer than 80 children between 5 and 20 years 
of age are required, under a heavy penalty, to 
have three months’ free school annually; dis- 
tricts with 80 to 800 children, five months; 
and districts with over 800, nine months. The 
actual average length is a little over seven 
months. The state superintendent of public 
instruction has the general oversight and su- 
pervision of these and all other educational 
institutions of the state, including in some 
respects all the local and denominational col- 
leges. A county superintendent of common 
schools is elected in each county for two 
years, whose duty it is among other things to 
examine candidates for the position of teacher 
and grant certificates for his county. The 
state superintendent of public instruction may 
grant certificates effectual throughout the state. 


504 


A board of township school inspectors is 
elected annually, the township clerk being ex 
officio clerk of the board, with power to divide 
the township into districts. Each school dis- 
trict has a board elected by its voters, con- 
sisting of a moderator, a director, and an as- 
sessor, one being elected annually for three 
years. Any district having more than 100 
children of school age may by a two-thirds 
vote decide to have a board of six trustees, 
two being elected annually for three years. 
These boards, when directed by a vote of the 
people, have power to establish graded schools 
and high schools. For graded schools two 
or more contiguous districts having together 
more than 200 scholars may unite. The in- 
come of the primary school fund is appor- 
tioned by the superintendent of public instruc- 
tion to the townships and cities in proportion 
to the number of youth in each between the 
ages of 5 and 20 years. The act of April 15, 
1871, requires all children between 8 and 14 
years of age to be sent to the public schools at 
least 12 weeks in a year (six weeks at least of 
which shall be consecutive), unless taught at 
home or in a private school. According to 
the report of the superintendent of public in- 


struction Aus 1873, the number of school dis- | 


tricts was 5,521 ; children between 5 and 20 
years of age, 491 322; between 8 and 14, 181,- 
604; whole number attending school during 
the year, 324,615; number in attendance un- 
der 5 or over 20 years of age, 5,854; average 
attendance, 162,300; average length of schools, 
7 months; number of school houses, 5,572 (80 
stone, 641 brick, 4,246 frame, 605 log); seats, 
399,067; value of school houses and lots, $8,- 


105, 391 : number of teachers employed, 11, 950 | 


(3,010 males and 8,940 females) ; number of 
township libraries, 207, with 49,291 volumes; 

of district libraries, 1,099, with 115,331 vol- 
umes. Of the schools 311 were graded, with 
a total attendance of 118,616. The amount on 
hand at the beginning of the year was $530,- 
580 27; receipts, $3,212,772 48, viz.: township 

tax, $465, 912 84; primary school fund, $194. - 
479 58; tuition of non-resident pupils, $31,- 
199 81: district taxes, $2,095,220 17; other 
sources, $419, 253 87. The expenditures were 
$3, 148, 885 52, viz.: wages of male teachers, 
$681, 565 24 ; of female teachers, $1,071, 309 
43 ; construction and repairs, $597, 006 68; oth- 


er ‘purposes, $788,902 96; balance on hand at 


.the common schools; 


MICHIGAN 


the close of the year, $594,467 18; total debt of 
school districts, $1,707,700 16. The state nor- 
mal school at Ypsilanti was established by the 
act of March 28, 1849, and went into full oper- 
ation in the spring of 1853. This is managed 
by a state board of education, consisting of the 
superintendent of public instruction, who is ew 
officio secretary, and three members elected by 
the people for six years, one retiring biennially. 
There are three courses of study: one of two 
years, designed to prepare students to teach in 
another of three years, 
embracing higher English studies; and the third 
of four years, including ancient or modern 
languages. A model school is connected with 
the institution. Applicants for admission, if 
females, must be not less than 16, or if males 
not less than 18 years of age, and are required 
to sign a declaration of intention to devote 
themselves to the business of teaching in the 
schools of the state. Two students from each 
representative district are exempt from the pay- 
ment of tuition; others are required to pay 
$10 a year. The diploma of the school enti- 
tles the possessor to teach in the public schools 
without examination. The number of instruc- 
tors in 1878-4 was 14; of students in the 
normal department, 364; of pupils in the 
model school, 122; of volumes in the library, 
2,000. According to the United States census 
of 1870, the number of schools was 5,595, with 
2,999 male and 6,560 female teachers, 128,949 
male and 137,678 female pupils, and an income 
of $2,550,018 ($81,775 from endowment, $2,- 
097,122 from taxation and public funds, and 
$371,121 from other sources, including tui- 
tion). Of the whole number of schools, 5,414 
(3 normal, 37 high, 62 grammar, 570 graded 
common, and 4,742 ungraded common) were 
public, and 181 not public, having 582 teach- 
ers, 11,799 pupils, and an income of $385,529, 
of which $81,775 was from endowment, $77,- 
500 from taxation and public funds, and $226,- 
254 from other sources, including tuition. The 
schools not public were divided as follows: 
classical, 12 (9 colleges and 3 academies); pro- 
fessional, 3 (1 law, 1 medical, 1 theological) ; 
technical, 18 (1 agricultural, 6 commercial, 1 
for the blind and the deaf and dumb, 10 of 
music); day and boarding, 119; parochial and 
charity, 29.—The statistics of the colleges of 
Michigan for the year 1873-4 are contained 
in the following table: 


. 9 Date of or- ‘ No. of in- Volumes 
INSTITUTIONS, Location. Gablesitoa Denomination, ait ceed: Students. rope ten 
University of Michigan.......... Ann Arbor......... 1841 4s dled aR EAE 05.1. 80,000 
* Hillsdale college. yisscescsc0ee Hillsdale. igs sssnee +1855 Freewill Bapust...- cme. 7 606 4,500 
*Kalamazoo college..........-.-. Kalamazoo......... +1855 Baptists).2 accent seeemees 2 192 2,250 
*State agricultural college....... bansine ts. ites ens 1857 Nonetscs.. cade nekinse eee T 143 2,800 
Adrian (college. eeen cere. «ls +s: Adrignte eee reser 1859 Methodistir acc teens 10 174 400 
Olivet colleges, cee sserescesse Olivet streets +1859 Congregational and Pres..| 14 293 5,000 
Albionicollegemeecwye tev etes kel oe Albiony. Msutreseeee +1860 Methodist Episcopal...... 8 201 2,000 
ene ees iF spencers tes hee THollandy.ne.ecaueer 1866 RETOrMEeU see steer pels ete « 10 188 1,200 
oung ladies’ seminary and co 
Toalete ADREERTAL | Bert (} Monroe............ 1851 _/l' Noneentee ee: teres) 8 109 1,200 
Michigan female seminary....... Kalamazoo.......... 1856 Presbyterian..........0+- 10 57 500 
* 1872-3. + Date of reorganization under general law. 


MICHIGAN 505 


The state agricultural college was established 
by the act of Feb. 12, 1855, and was opened 
for the reception of students in May, 1857. 
Subsequently the land (240,000 acres) received 
by the state for the endowment of a college of 
agriculture and the mechanic arts, under the 
act of congress of July 2, 1862, was bestowed 
upon this institution; 64,598 acres have been 
sold, producing a fund of $207,500 74, the in- 
terest of which is applied to the support of 
the college. An annual appropriation is also 
made by the legislature. Tuition is free to 


students from the state; those from other 


states pay $20 a year. The institution has 
a farm of 676 acres (800 under cultivation), 
valuable collections of plants, animals, and 
minerals, a chemical laboratory and appara- 
tus, philosophical and mathematical apparatus, 
and a museum of mechanical inventions. The 
branches of study comprise logic and philoso- 
phy, elementary, analytical, and agricultural 
chemistry, chemical physics, meteorology, prac- 
tical agriculture, botany, horticulture, land- 
scape gardening, physiology, zoédlogy, entomol- 
ogy, geology, mathematics, physics, civil engi- 
neering, and English language and literature, 
with French in the senior year. The regular 
course is four years, upon the completion of 
which the degree of bachelor of science is con- 
ferred. Candidates for admission are required 
to be at least 15 years old, and to pass an 
examination in the common English branches. 
The students labor three hours a day on the 
farm or in the garden, for which they receive 
remuneration. Besides those mentioned in the 
table, the faculty of instruction in 1872-3 em- 
braced seven others, including farmers, gar- 
deners, steward, &c. The students were divi- 
ded as follows: resident graduates, 3; seniors, 
17; juniors, 22; sophomores, 24; freshmen, 
52; in special courses, 14; in chemical manip- 
ulation, 8; ladies, 3. For an account of the 
state university, see Micnican, UNIVERSITY OF. 
The other institutions in the table, except the 
last two, admit both sexes, and have a prepar- 
atory department, besides a collegiate depart- 
ment embracing usually a classical and a scien- 
tific course. Adrian and Olivet colleges have 
normal courses, and Adrian, Hillsdale, and 
Hope colleges theological departments. The 
Detroit medical college, founded in 1868, in 
1878-4 had 17 professors and 72 students, 
The Detroit homceopathic college was organ- 
ized in 1871, and admits both sexes. In 1874 
it had 8 professors.—The census of 1870 re- 
turns 26,768 libraries, containing 2,174,744 
volumes, of which 23,761, with 1,596,113 vol- 
umes, were private. Of those not private, 
there were 1 state, with 31,265 volumes; 423 
town, city, &c., 124,207; 49 court and law, 
10,359 ; 246 school, college, &c., 37,7384; 1,731 
Sabbath school, 239,471; 436 church, 81,891; 
and 116 circulating libraries, 53,704. The 
number of newspapers and periodicals was 
211, issuing 19,686,978 copies annually, and 
having a circulation of 258,774, viz.: 16 dai- 


ly, circulation 27,485; 8 tri-weekly, 5,000; 
174 weekly, 192,889; 2 semi-monthly, 1,300; 
16 monthly, 27,100. They were classified as 
follows: advertising, 2; agricultural and hor- 
ticultural, 1; benevolent and secret societies, 
2; commercial and financial, 8; illustrated, 
literary, and miscellaneous, 17; political, 167 ; 
religious, 7; technical and professional, 12. 
Five are printed in Dutch and 8 or 10 in Ger- 
man. The statistics of churches for 1870 are 
contained in the following table: 


. g a e Value 
DENOMINATIONS, F é 3 a Ei bs we 
Dis hl oa a Pe 
Baptist, regular, ....-.... 835 | 218 | 70,140 | $1,029,630 
Same OLRCT Sse ssters sac, 31 14 3, : 
Christiannts me onsite 388 18 4,625 51,550 
Congregational .......... 156 | 114 | 88,320 742,200 
HE ISCOPAlueer sede =o eetecs 100 79 | 26,750 911,250 
Evangelical Association... 15 11 2,850 24,600 
HH riond sve ace cinaecrist cnc aa 10 8 2,600 8,850 
POWISH cre tect a ie fs 6 5 8 1,300 51,000 
Lutheran, sse.ces eee 96 81 | 238,150 860,650 
Methodists waste 20 -teicetaee 864 | 469 | 140,290 | 2,856,906 
Moravianien, acces ie eas 1 1 100 
New Jerusalem.......... 3 8 970 12,000 
Presbyterian, regular..... 177 | 182 | 45,925 | 1,069,900 
OS others... 10 10 8,000 
Reformed (late Dutch Re- 
formed) .tsjt ecco ese. 26 24 8,700 120,150 
Reformed (late German 
Retormed)innc srs. 19 10 2,800 24,750 
Roman Catholic ......... 167 | 148 | 62,991 | 2,087,280 
Second Advent .......... 89 21 4,840 44,500 
Spiritualists. .a. ese ea dcc 85 5 1,190 15,050 
Wnitarian tessa eee q 4 1,700 42,500 
United Brethren in Christ} 69 19 4,225 40,800 
Universalist v4. <2 «0-0 83 20 5,550 92,200 
UNIONS senate sis once sce 8 38 750 6,000 
Totalay sceistassce sos 2,239 | 1,415 | 456,226 | $9,183,816 


—The name Michigan appears to be derived 
from the Chippewa words mitchi, great, and 
sawgyegan, lake, and was formerly applied to 
both Huron and Michigan, but is now re- 
stricted to the latter lake. The discovery and 
early settlement of the state are due to the 
French missionaries and fur traders. The site 
of Detroit was visited as early as 1610, and in 
1641 some French Jesuits reached the falls of 
the St. Mary. The first European settlement 
within the limits of the state was the mission 
at Sault Ste. Marie, which was founded by 
Father Marquette and others in 1668. Fort 
Michilimackinac (now:Mackinaw) was estab- 
lished three years later. In 1701 an expedition 
under Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded 
Detroit. From this period until the erection 
of the country into a territory of the United 
States, Michigan made slow progress. It came 
under the dominion of Great Britain with oth- 
er French possessions in 1763. On the ex- 
pulsion of the French the conspiracy headed 
by the Indian chief Pontiac, and designed for 
the extermination of the whites, broke out and 
involved the settlements in bloodshed. The 
garrison of Michilimackinac was butchered, 
and Detroit underwent a long siege. On the 
treaty of peace which closed the revolutionary 
war, Michigan was not at once surrendered, 


506 MICHIGAN 


and the Americans did not take possession of 
Detroit till 1796. At first it was included in 
the government of the territory northwest of 
the Ohio, and hence has always been amena- 
ble to the ordinance of 1787. Subsequently it 
formed part of the territory of Indiana. In 
1805 the territory of Michigan was constituted, 


Gen. William Hull being its first governor. 


During the war of 1812-15 it was exposed to 
great suffering. Detroit was taken by the 
British in August, 1812, under circumstances 
which led to Gen. Hull, the American com- 
mander, being sentenced to death by a court 
martial; the sentence was remitted, and facts 
afterward divulged materially relieved him from 
blame. Michilimackinac was also captured, and 
at Frenchtown in January, 1813, a number 


of American prisoners were massacred by the. 


Indians. The British were soon afterward 
driven out of the territory by Gen. Harrison; 
and in October, 1814, a truce was concluded 
with the Indians. The first land surveys entered 
upon were commenced in 1816, and in 1818 the 
lands were brought into market for public sale. 
From this period the prosperity of Michigan 
properly dates. In 1819 the territory was au- 
thorized by act of congress to send a delegate to 
that body, and the right of suffrage in this case 
extended to all taxable citizens. In 1819, 1821, 
and 1836 the Indians made important territo- 
rial cessions, and by this time all the lower 
peninsula and a part of the upper were freed 
from Indian title. In 1836 Wisconsin territory 
was formed from the W. portion of Michigan. 
This region had been annexed to the original 
territory of Michigan partly in 1818 and partly 
in 1834. Up to 1823 the legislative power was 
intrusted to the governor and judges; but in 
that year congress passed an act transferring it 
to a council, consisting of 9 persons selected 
by the president from 18 chosen by the citi- 
zens, and the judicial term was limited to four 
years. 1In1825 the council was increased to 13 
members selected as before, but two years later 
the law was so altered that the electors could 
choose their councillors without the further 
intervention of the president or congress. In 
May, 1835, a convention at Detroit formed a 
constitution by which Michigan claimed a strip 
of territory also claimed by Ohio. For a time 
a conflict seemed inevitable, but in June, 1836, 
congress passed an act admitting Michigan into 
the Union on condition that she relinquished 
her claim to the disputed territory, in place of 
which the region known as ‘“‘the upper penin- 
sula” was given to her. These conditions were 
rejected by one convention, but accepted by 
unother in December, 1836; and in January, 
1837, Michigan was admitted into the Union. 
By a legislative act of March 16, 1847, the seat 
of government was removed from Detroit to 
Lansing. In 1850 anew constitution was adopt- 
ed, which with subsequent amendments con- 
tinues in force. The number of men furnished 
by Michigan to the Union armies during the 
civil war was 90,747. The number of those 


MICHIGAN (Laxg) 


that fell in battle or died of wounds or of dis- 
ease in the service was 14,823, of whom 357 
were commissioned officers. The payments by 
the state for bounties, premiums for recruits, 
and other war purposes amounted to $2,784,- 
408; by counties, cities, and townships for the 
same purposes, $10,173,336 79; by counties 
for relief of soldiers’ families, $3,591,248 12; 
total, $16,548,992 91.—See “ Michigan Geo- 
logical Survey,” by Douglass Houghton (1st— 


| 4th annual reports, Detroit, 1838-41); and 


‘“‘ Geological Survey of Michigan: Upper Pen- 
insula, 1869-73,” by T. B. Brooks, Raphael 
Pumpelly, and Dr. C. Rominger (2 vols., with 
an atlas, New York, 1873). (See supplement.) 

MICHIGAN, Lake, one of the five great lakes 
of the United States, and the only one which 
is entirely included in these states. It lies in 
a N.and 8S. direction, extending from the N. W. 
corner of Indiana and the N. part of Illinois 
about 320 m. to Mackinaw, where it communi- 
cates with Lake Huron by a strait 4 m. wide in 
its narrowest part. The lake is bounded E. by 
the lower peninsula of Michigan. The upper 
peninsula bounds it N. W. In this portion is 
Green bay, which extends S. into Wisconsin ; 
this state and Illinois complete the western 
boundary of the lake. The following are its 
dimensions as given by Dr. Douglass Hough- 
ton: length, 320 m.; mean breadth, 70 m.; 
mean depth, 1,000 ft.; elevation above the sea 
level, 578 ft.; area, 22,400 sq. m., exceeding 
the area of Lake Huron by nearly 2,000 sq. m. 
The country around Lake Michigan is for the 
most part low and sandy; on the E. side par- 
ticularly the sands thrown up by the waves are 
blown inland and form hills, which sometimes 
are 150 ft. high. The rocks are the limestones 
and sandstones of the sub-carboniferous groups, 


lying in horizontal strata, and never rising into 
bold cliffs. 


On the Michigan side they belong 
chiefly to the Portage and Chemung groups, 
and on the Illinois side to the Helderberg lime- 
stone. Along the southern shores are post- 
tertiary beds of clay and sand lying a few feet 
above the level of the lake, and containing 
fresh-water shells like those living in its waters. 
This fact and the low watershed that separates 
the lake from the valley of the Illinois river, 
together with the great capacity of this valley, 
which appears as if worn by a mighty river, 
render it probable that the waters of Lake 
Michigan at some period found their way by 
the valley of the Mississippi into the gulf of 
Mexico. The lake at present is believed to be 
moving westward, gradually encroaching on the 
shores of Wisconsin and leaving those of Michi- 
gan. The existence of a lunar tidal wave was 
determined by the observations of Lieut. Col. 
James D, Graham at Chicago in 1858. The 
mean of 840 observations shows a difference 
of elevation of the lake surface between high 
and low water of 153 thousandths of a foot; 
and the mean of 24 semi-diurnal spring tides 
(i. e., one day before and two days after new 
or full moon) gives a difference of elevation of 


MICHIGAN (University oF) 


245 thousandths of a foot, or a little over 3 
inches. High water occurs half an hour after 
the meridian passage or southing of the moon. 
—This lake has few harbors and bays, and the 
only islands it contains are at its N. E. extrem- 
ity. It is not therefore very safe to navigate, 
especially as it is subject to severe storms at 
different seasons. But there is a large traffic 
on it, between Chicago and the lower lake 
ports. The straits of Mackinaw, which long- 
est retain the ice, are usually open between 
May 1 and Dec. 1. The fish of the lake are 
like those found in Lake Huron, and the fish- 
eries are for the most part concentrated about 
Mackinaw. The best harbors are at Little 
Traverse bay, and at Grand Haven at the 
mouth of Grand river on the E. shore of the 
lake. Chicago, near the head of the lake, has 
but an indifferent harbor, and the same may 
be said of those of Milwaukee and Sheboygan 
on the W. side. 
MICHIGAN, University 
of, an institution of 
learning at Ann Arbor, 
which owes its foun- 
dation to a grant of 
lands by congress in 
1826 to the territory 
of Michigan, including 


507 


or of any other collegiate institution who may 
desire to pursue advanced studies, whether for 
a second degree or not. The regular course in 
the medical department is two years. Stu- 
dents have the advantages of clinical instruc- 
tion in a well arranged hospital on the univer- 
sity grounds, under the charge of the faculty. 
In the law department the degree of bachelor 
of law is conferred upon candidates 21 years 
old and upward, who have completed the 
course of two years and have passed a satis- 
factory examination. A year’s course in an- 
other law school, or one term’s practice of law 
under a license from the highest court of gen- 
eral jurisdiction in any state, is accepted as an 
equivalent for the first year in this institution. 
The degree entitles the holder to an immediate 
license to practise in all the courts of Michi- 
gan. Candidates for admission to the aca- 
demic department must be at least 16 years 
of age, and to the law department 18. Both 


two townships contain- 


ing 72 entire sections, 


which on the admis- 


sion of the state were 


conveyed to it for the 
support of the univer- 
sity. The present insti- 
tution was established 
by a legislative act of 
March 18, 1887. It 


was first opened for 
students on Sept. 20, 
1842. The university 
consists of three de- 
partments: the department of literature, sci- 
ence, and the arts; the department of medi- 
cine and surgery, organized in 1850; and the 
department of law, 1859. Each has its own 
faculty of instruction, while the university 
senate is composed of all the faculties. The 
department of literature, science, and the 
arts embraces six regular courses of four years 
each, and two shorter special courses. The 
regular courses, with the degrees that are con- 
ferred upon their completion, are as follows: 
classical (bachelor of arts), scientific (bachelor 
of science), Latin and scientific (bachelor of 
philosophy), Greek and scientific (bachelor of 
philosophy), civil engineering (civil engineer), 
mining engineering (mining engineer). The 
special courses are one in analytical chemistry 
and one in pharmacy. On the completion of 
a two years’ course in pharmacy the degree of 
pharmaceutical chemist is conferred. Students 
may also pursue selected studies for any period 
not less than oneterm. Post-graduate courses 
are provided for graduates of the university 


University Hall, Michigan University. 


sexes are admitted to all departments, but the 
courses of lectures for women in the medical 
department are distinct from those for men. 
Students before entering any department are 
required to pay a matriculation fee of $10 if 
residents of Michigan, and of $25 if resident 
elsewhere. There is also an annual payment 
of $15 for residents of Michigan, and of $20 
for students from other states or countries. 
The members of faculties and other officers of 
the university in 1873-’4 numbered 44, viz. : 
president, 1; professors, 23; librarian, 1; as- 
sistant professors, 6; lecturers, 2; instructors, 
8; assistants, 8. The faculty of the depart- 
ment of literature, science, and the arts em- 
braced 14 professors, 6 assistant professors, and 
9 other instructors; medical faculty, 8 profes- 
sors, 2 lecturers, and 1 other instructor; law 
faculty, 4 professors. The number of students 
in the department of literature, science, and 
the arts was 484, of whom 52 were females, 
viz.: resident graduates, 9; seniors, 70; ju- 
niors, 96; sophomores, 90; freshmen, 118; 


508 MICHIGAN (Untversiry or) 


in selected studies, 33; in pharmacy, 68. Of 
those in the regular courses, 175 were pursuing 
the classical, 76 the Latin and scientific, 90 the 
scientific, and 33 the engineering course. The 
number of students in the medical department 
was 314, of whom 384 were females; in the 
law department, 314 (124 seniors and 190 ju- 
niors), of whom 5 were females; whole number 
in the university, deducting repetitions, 1,105. 
The number of degrees conferred at commence- 
ment in 1873 was 329, viz.: pharmaceutical 
chemist, 9; civil engineer, 11; bachelor of sci- 
ence, 12; bachelor of philosophy, 15; bachelor 
of arts, 40; doctor of medicine, 91; bachelor 
of law, 123; master of science in course, 8; 
master of arts in course, 19; master of arts on 
examination, 1. According to the last triennial 
catalogue, published in 1871, the whole number 


of alumni was 2,900, of whom 2,798 were living. 


The libraries accessible to the students contain 
about 30,000 volumes. These are the univer- 
sity library, 22,000; medical library, 1,500; 
law library, 8,000; and the libraries of two 
literary societies in the department of litera- 
ture, science, and the arts, and of the Chris- 
tian association connected with the university. 
The university museum contains valuable and 
constantly increasing collections, illustrative of 
natural science, ethnology, art, history, agri- 
culture, anatomy, and materia medica. The 
geological cabinet contains about 14,000 dis- 
tinct entries and 41,000 specimens, including 
a large and complete series of lithological and 
paleontological specimens obtained through 
the state geological surveys; the zodélogical 
cabinet, 11,500 entries and more than 45,000 
specimens, including a complete series of the 
birds that visit Michigan, with most of the 
mammals of the state, a nearly complete se- 
ries of the reptiles found E. of the Rocky 
mountains, 2,000 species of mollusca, and a 
considerable collection of fishes and radiata; 
the botanical cabinet, 9,000 entries, 5,000 spe- 
cies, and 45,000 specimens, including a col- 
lection of Alaskan plants, and 1,500 entries, 
1,175 species, and 9,000 specimens of the plants 
of Michigan. The mineralogical cabinet em- 
braces a valuable collection of the minerals of 
the state, and a collection of more than 6,000 
specimens, chiefly European, purchased of the 
late Baron Lederer. The collections in the de- 
partment of fine arts and history embrace a gal- 
lery of casts of the most valuable ancient statues 
and busts, a gallery of engravings and photo- 
graphic views executed in Italy and Greece, 
a collection of historical medallions, &c. In 
the department of archeology and relics the 
collections embrace among other specimens 
various articles of domestic and warlike use 
among the American Indians and the island- 
ers of the South Pacific. The astronomical 
observatory, erected by citizens of Detroit, 
was opened in 1854. The building consists 
of a main part, with a movable dome and two 
wings. It contains a fine large meridian circle, 
a sidereal clock, two collimators; a chrono- 


MICHOACAN 


graph, with Bond’s new isodynamic escape- 
ment, for recording observations by the elec- 
tro-magnetic method; and a refracting tele- 
scope, with an object glass 13 inches in diam- 
eter. The university grounds embrace 444 
acres. Besides the observatory, there are a 
central building, called University hall, for the 
department of literature, science, and the arts; 
buildings for the departments of law and medi- 
cine; a chemical laboratory, and residences for 
the president and professors. The entire cost 
of the buildings was about $230,000. Uni- 
versity hall has a front of 347 ft., with a depth 
in the centre of 140 ft. and on the wings of 40 
ft.; height from the basement to the summit 
of the dome, 140 ft. In the front of the second 
story there is a well arranged auditorium, with 
sittings for 8,000 persons. The receipts into 
the treasury for the year ending June 30, 1878, 
including $20,225 46 on hand at the beginning 
of the period, amounted to $124,468 52, of 
which $38,667 was received from the state on 
account of the university interest fund, $28,- 
000 from special state appropriations, $23,005 
from students’ fees, and the rest from miscel- 
laneous sources. The expenditures were $107,- 
416 81, of which $73,392 16 was for salaries 
and janitors’ wages, $2,250 for libraries, the 
rest for various purposes; balance, $17,051 71. 
The university fund, being the proceeds of the 
sale of the university lands, amounts to $543,- 
010 24. It is held in trust by the state, which 
pays interest thereon at the rate of 7 per cent. 
per annum. The university is under the con- 
trol of a board of eight regents, who are elect- 
ed by the qualified voters of the state for a 
period of eight years, two retiring every two 
years. They choose the president of the uni- 
versity, who is ex officio a member and presi- 
dent of the board. Previous to 1852, under 
the regulations then in force, there was no 
president of the university. Since that time 
the office has been filled as follows: Henry P. 
Tappan, D. D., 1852-63; Erastus O. Haven, 
D. D., 1863-’9; Henry 8S. Frieze, LL. D. (act- 
ing), 1869-71; James B. Angell, LL. D., ap- 
pointed in 1871 and still in office. 

MICHIGAN CITY, a town of Laporte co., Indi- 
ana, on the S. shore of Lake Michigan, at the 
mouth of Trail creek, 140 m. N. by W. of In- 
dianapolis, and 40 m. E.S. E. of Chicago ; pop. 
in 1860, 3,820; in 1870, 3,985. It is the prin- 
cipal lake port of the state, and is at the inter- 
section of the Michigan Central, the Louisville, 
New Albany, and Chicago, and the Indianapo- 
lis, Peru, and Chicago railroads. Its trade is 
considerable. The Michigan Central railroad 
has here extensive repair and locomotive 
shops. The town is the seat of the northern 
state prison, and contains a national bank, a 
high school, and ten other public schools, a 
weekly newspaper, and seven churches. 

MICHILIMACKINAC. See Macxinaw. 

MICHOACAN, or Mechoacan, a maritime state 
of Mexico, bounded N. by Jalisco, Guanajuato, 
and Querétaro, E. by Mexico, 8. by Guerrero, 


MICIPSA 


S. W. by the Pacific, and W. by Colima and 
Jalisco; area, 21,609 sq. m.; pop. in 1868, 
618,240. The face of the country is extremely 
mountainous, being traversed in every direction 
by the Sierra Madre and its branches; there are 
several peaks of considerable elevation, espe- 
cially in the §. portion, where, among other 
voleanoes, is that of Jorullo. (See Jorutto.) 
The culminating point is the Cerro de Santa 
Rosa, in the district of Tlapujahua, about 17,000 
ft. Between the ridges stretch elevated and 
fertile valleys, watered by several rivers, the 
principal of which are the Lerma and Mescala 
or Balsas, and a great number of mountain 
torrents. Of the 11 lakes, those most note- 
worthy are Chapala, about 60 m. long by 20 m. 
in width, and the Patzcuaro, 30 m. in circum- 
ference. Along the coast line, 100 m. in ex- 
tent, the only ports are those of San Telmo, 
Buceria, and Maratua; the first was formerly 
open to foreign and coasting trade, but did 
not prosper owing to the want of suitable 
shelter for shipping. Michoacan has a great 
variety of climates, from extreme cold to ex- 
cessive heat; but it is in general very healthy. 
The mean annual temperature at Morelia is 71° 
F. The mineral productions are silver with an 
admixture of gold, copper, cinnabar, iron, coal, 
lead, emery, sulphur, copperas, lithographic 
stone, marble, &c. The mines, now com- 
paratively few, yield annually $1,175,300, of 
which silver is about one third. The soil, 
wherever accessible, is extremely fertile ; 
maize in most parts yields 400 fold. Cattle, 
horses, mules, asses, and hogs are extensively 
reared; and the lakes and rivers abound in ex- 
cellent fish, the taking of which forms an im- 
portant industry. Among the manufactures 
are rebozos, sarapes (Mexican shawls), blan- 
kets, and silver ware of various kinds; and 
there are numerous flour mills, a glass factory, 
andin Morelia a steam weaving factory. The ex- 
ports embrace gold, silver, copper, cabinet and 
dye woods, coffee, indigo, and silk, mostly sent 
to the states of Mexico, San Luis Potosi, and 
Durango, and to Guatemala. There are good 
roads in the state; and in 1872 Morelia was 
placed in communication with the principal 
telegraph lines of the republic. The value of 
real estate in 1869 was estimated at $18,498,- 
951 10; and the government expenditure in 
the same year was $382,917 66. Michoacan 
has a state college, 53 schools for males and 
28 for females, with an attendance of 11,426. 
There are several benevolent institutions. The 
state is divided into 17 districts. The capital 
is Morelia (formerly Valladolid); and the chief 
commercial towns are Morelia, Puruandiro, 
Zamora, Ario, Zacambaro, and Tarétan. 

MICIPSA. See Jucurrua. 

MICKIEWICZ, Adam, a Polish poet, born in 
Novogrodek, Lithuania, in 1798, died in Con- 
stantinople, Nov. 27, 1855. He studied phys- 
ics and chemistry at the university of Wilna, 
but finally devoted himself almost exclusively 
to literature and poetry, and became professor 


MICKIEWICZ 509 


of literature at Kovno. In 1822 he published 
at Wilna two small volumes of poetry, after- 
ward augmented, which contained some of the 
finest ballads in the Polish language, a his- 
torical epic, Gragyna, and under the title of 
Dziady a romantic autobiographical drama. 
This publication raised Mickiewicz to the 
highest rank in Polish poetry. He was idol- 
ized by the revolutionary youth of Poland, 
particularly after he was tried for participa- 
tion in the secret associations of Zan, impris- 
oned in the Basilian convent at Wilna, and 
finally condemned in 1824 to perpetual ban- 
ishment from his native country. He was 
removed to St. Petersburg, where he became 
familiar with the most distinguished Russian 
liberals, and subsequently to Odessa, whence 
he was allowed to make a tour through the 
Crimea. This he partly described in his 
“Sonnets,” which were followed by his sec- 
ond epic, Wallenrod, published in 1828 at 
St. Petersburg, whither he had received per- 
mission to return. This poem, the theme of 
which is the struggle of the Lithuanians in 
the 14th century against their oppressors, the 
Teutonic knights, was favorably received in 
Russia, being also translated into the Russian 
language, and the author was even allowed to 
enter upon a tour through Germany and France 
to Italy for the restoration of his health. At 
Rome he received the news of the outbreak of 
Noy. 29, 1830; but he did not reach the con- 
fines of his native country until the struggle 
had ended, and he never again entered Poland. 
He went to Dresden, and there wrote the sec- 
ond part of Dziady (Paris, 1832), in which he 
described his imprisonment and the cruelties 
perpetrated by Russian tyranny on Poland. 
His next publication was (stegi narodu pol- 
skiego 4 pielgreymstwa polskiego (‘‘ Books of 
the Polish Nation and the Polish Pilgrim- 
age,” 1832), which was followed by another 
poetical work, Pan Tadeusz (‘‘ Sir Thaddeus,” 
1834), a picture of Lithuanian life and society 
in 1812 at the approach of Napoleon's in- 
vasion. He had lived for some years in Paris 
when in 1839 he accepted a professorship of 
classical literature at Lausanne; but in a year 
he returned to Paris to fill the chair of Slavic 
literature in the collége de France. He was 
now known as a Zealous advocate of Roman 
Catholicism, from which he hoped for a regen- 
eration of his country, as well as of Panslavic 
tendencies, which were not shared by all of 
his fellow exiles. His ‘‘ Lectures on Slavic 
Literature,” published both in French and 
German, gradually developed still more sur- 
prising phases. The inspiring genius of the 
poet was now a fanatical Polish priest, Towi- 
anski, who had mesmerized Mme. Mickiewicz 
in a dangerous illness in 1841, from which she 
recovered, and who, pretending to be enlight- 
ened by celestial visions, was followed by 
Mickiewicz as the Messiah of a new religion, 
in which the memory of Napoleon received 
almost divine honors. In order to gain over 


¢ 


510 MICKLE 


Pius IX. to his schemes of national regenera- 
tion, he went to Italy in 1848, and at Florence 
received a flattering ovation. In 1851 he was 
appointed by Louis Napoleon sub-librarian of 
the library of the arsenal at Paris; and on the 
outbreak of the war against Russia he headed 
a Polish deputation to the French emperor, call- 
ing upon him to turn the great movement in 
favor of their oppressed country. Soon after 
he was sent on a secret mission to Constanti- 
nople, where he ended his career. His works 
have passed through numerous editions, and 
have been partly translated into other lan- 
guages. His correspondence has been pub- 
lished in Paris (8 vols., 1870 e¢ seq.). 

MICKLE, William Julius, a Scottish poet, born 
at Langholm, Dumfriesshire, Sept. 29, 1734, 
died at Wheatley, Oxfordshire, Oct. 25, 1788. 
After pursuing various occupations and becom- 
ing bankrupt, he became in 1766 corrector of 
the Clarendon press at Oxford, and produced 
* Pollio,” an elegy, and ‘‘The Ooncubine,” a 
moral poem, the title of which was afterward 
changed to “Syr Martyn.” He published a 
translation of the first book of the ‘ Lusiad ”’ 
in 1771, and in 1775 completed the work 
which has passed through many editions. His 
most popular productions are ‘‘ Cumnor Hall,” 
which suggested ‘‘ Kenilworth” to Scott, and 
the song ‘‘ There’s nae luck about the house,” 
the authorship of which has been disputed. 

MICMACS, the most easterly branch of the 
Algonquin family of Indians, spread over 
northern New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape 
Breton, Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, 
and Gaspé. They were called by the early 
French writers Souriquois, and by the neigh- 
boring Indians ‘‘Salt Water Indians,” as they 
always cling to the seacoast. The Indians 
taken to England by Cabot in 1497, and to 
France by Aubert in 1508, were apparently 
Micmacs. From a very early period they 
waged fierce war with the Little Esquimaux 
north of the St. Lawrence. They were expert 
canoe men, and lived by fishing and hunting. 
They knew maize and tobacco, but there was 
no cultivation of maize among them, or indeed 
east of Saco. When the French under De 
Monts began to settle Canada, the Micmacs 
were estimated at 3,000 or 3,500, and their 
greatest chief was Membertou, who is said to 
have seen Cartier. Missions were soon be- 
gun, and the French secured permanently the 
friendship of the Micmacs. They figure in 
many of the border wars, and after the Eng- 
lish established Annapolis, the Micmacs de- 
stroyed Capt. Pigeon’s force at Bloody Creek 
in 1711. They constantly plundered English 
vessels on the coast, in 1722 taking several 
in the bay of Fundy, and 18 in the harbors. 
They cruised along in their prizes, and actu- 
ally engaged two British armed vessels sent 
out against them. They attacked Annapolis in 
1724 and 1744, Port Lajoie in 1746, and the 
fort at Mines in 1749, capturing a lieutenant 
and 18 men; and in 1751 they took Dart- 


MICMACS 


mouth, opposite Halifax. Band after band 
made peace, but it was not till 1760 that the 
Richibucto Micmacs, the most warlike and for- 
midable, laid down their arms. A series of 
treaties followed, and the Micmacs submitted 
to English rule. From 1783 to 1841 reserva- 
tions were allotted to them in New Bruns- 
wick, and in other colonies attempts were 
made to induce them to become agricultural ; 
but they were strongly averse to it, and in 
1844 New Brunswick began a series of acts 
for selling the land. Nova Scotia and Cape 
Breton did the same, investing the proceeds 
for the benefit of the Indians. Catholic mis- 
sions have existed among them from early 
times, and Protestant missions have been ac- 
tively maintained for several years past. In 
1873 the Micmacs were estimated at 1,765 in 
Nova Scotia, and 1,386 in New Brunswick; 
there were 400 on Cape Breton in 1861, and 
70 in Newfoundland; so that they are about 
as numerous as they were 270 years ago. The 
Micmacs worshipped the sun. Papkootparout, 
the governor and ruler of the land of souls, 
was their great benefactor, having given them 
corn and tobacco. Glooscap is another great 
mythical character. Le Clercq, toward the 
close of the 17th century, found at Gaspé 
great reverence for the cross, and many theo- 
ries were based on the fact; but Lescarbot 
many years before mentions their setting up 
crosses in imitation of the French. They 
made no pottery, had no hemp like neighbor- 
ing tribes, made breech cloths and mantles of 
skins, strings for bows and fishing lines of 
intestines, and lodges of bark or skins. They 
had a system of hieroglyphics more compre- 


Z I or we; .Q thou; § he; ¢€ they; 
é= we are; 7 they are; 
fp, our Father; £ e, his father or who 
is father; x light, heaven; a. again ; 
Coo snoter WN enow: 2, to-day ; 
© earth; 2 may ; zt also. 


Micmac Characters. 


hensive than has been found in other northern 
tribes. Le Clercq, seeing boys take down the 
prayers he was teaching them, adopted and im- 
proved these hieroglyphics, and as finally estab- 
lished they are still employed. Three books 
in this character have long been in use among 
them in manuscript, and one was recently 
printed at Vienna. A grammar of the Micmac 
language, by the abbé Maillard, revised by Bel- 
lenger, was printed at New York in 1864; and 
portions of Scripture, tracts, and books of devo- 
tion have been printed in the language, some in 
phonetic characters and some in ordinary type. 


MICROMETER 


MICROMETER (Gr. jixpoc, small, and pérpov, 
measure), an instrument applied to telescopes 
and microscopes for measuring minute spaces 
and objects.— Telescope Micrometers. A paper 
by Mr. Townley in the ‘“‘ Philosophical Trans- 
actions ” for 1667 describes a micromenter with 
a movable wire which was constructed by a Mr. 
Gascoigne in England about 1640, and used by 
him in measuring the diameter of the moon 
and some of the planets. Gascoigne was killed 
in the civil wars in 1644, and as he left no ac- 
count of his invention, it only became known 
through Mr. Townley, into whose possession 
one of the telescopes had fallen. This instru- 
ment was afterward improved by the cele- 
brated Dr. Hooke, who is said to have added 
parallel hairs. A similar micrometer was af- 
terward made by Azout, and another by the 
marquis of Malvasia. The instrument now in 
use under the name of the filar micrometer is 
constructed upon the same principles as either 
of the above, and may be understood by refer- 


[39 7 
UU 


pp Weekes sacs 


ring to figs. 1 and 2, drawn from instruments 
by Troughton of London. Fig. 1 represents a 
section transverse to the axis of the telescope. 
Two forks, % and 7, are moved in a plane per- 
pendicular to the axis of the telescope by means 
of the fine micrometer screws 0 and ». Each 
of these forks has stretched across it a spider’s 
web which is placed in the focus of the objec- 
tive. These webs are parallel, and being made 
to embrace any object, as the disk of a planet 
or the distance between two stars, the number 
of turns of the screws, which may be read by 
the graduated circles uw wu, will indicate the 
space measured, the value of a revolution of 
the screws having been ascertained by the time 
occupied by a known star in passing from one 
line to the other when placed at the distance 
of a certain number of revolutions, or by the 
measurement of some known space. Another 
web is stretched across the centre of the field, 
perpendicular to the other two. The position 
of these lines may be revolved about the axis 
of the telescope by means of the endless screw 
554 VOL, XI.—33 


indicate the diameter of the object. 


S11 


w, fig. 2, which being held by the arms 2 2, 
attached to the box holding the spider webs, 
turns by means of the fixed toothed circle g h. 
The instrument is used as follows. Suppose it 
is desired to measure the angles of position and 
distance of two stars. The telescope is set 
on the objects, and the screw w is turned until 
the line s ¢ bisects the two stars. The milled 
heads m m are then turned until the webs car- 
ried by the forks bisect each a star. The dis- 
tance is indicated by the number of revolu- 
tions and parts of revolutions of the screws 
which separate the movable lines. The posi- 
tion is ascertained by a comparison of the read- 
ing of the position circle, g h, with its reading 
of the zero of position, which is when the lines 
are so placed that the image of a star will trav- 
erse the field from side to side, bisected by 
one of the lines, the telescope being at rest and 
the star passing by the diurnal motion of the 
earth. <A modification of the filar micrometer 
is the most useful and accurate adaptation for 
reading the divisions on the limbs of large as- 
tronomical and geodetic circles. Huygens used 
a micrometer which employed a circular dia- 
phragm in the focus of the eye glass, and whose 
angular value was ascertained by the time it 
took a star to pass across it. By using wedge- 
shaped plates of brass, some part of which ex- 
actly covered the disk of the planet, its diam- 
eter was found by a comparison with the size 
of the aperture. Fraunhofer’s suspended annu- 
lar micrometer is an ingenious, accurate, and 
convenient instrument, much used for objects, 
such as comets, faint stars, and asteroids, which 
will not bear the illumination necessary to 
render visible the lines in.a filar micrometer. 
It is shown in fig. 3, and con- 
sists of a disk of plate glass 
having in its centre a round 
hole about half an inch in 
diameter, to the edges of 
which a ring of steel is 
cemented, and afterward 
turned truein alathe. When 
the disk is mounted in a 
brass tube and adjusted in 
the focus of the eyepiece of the telescope, the 
steel ring is alone visible, and appears as if sus- 
pended in the atmosphere. Itis used to estab- 
lish the position of an unknown object by com- 
parison with one whose place is known, the 
transits of each being taken by turns, as it 
passes across the ring.—There are several other 
forms of micrometers, constructed upon vari- 
ous principles, and with reference to particular 
uses. The more important of these are the 
double-image micrometers, in which two single 
refracting lenses or semi-lenses are made to 
produce double images. When the centres of 
two images of the sun, moon, or any of the 
planets are separated so that the disks touch 
each other, the separation of the lenses will 
Roemer 
is said to have been the first to suggest such 
an instrument, which had two whole lenses. 


519 MICROMETER 


Dollond’s improvement consists in placing two 
half lenses side by side upon a sliding frame, 
and was called the divided object-glass mi- 
crometer. Other double-image micrometers 
are made of double-refracting crystals. This 
invention is ascribed to the abbé Rochon, 
rock crystal being the substance preferred by 
him on account of its transparency and hard- 
ness. Arago employed Rochon’s micrometer 
in taking more than 3,000 of the diameters of 
the planets. A micrometer with double images 
was devised by Porro of Paris in 1842, which 
consists of a parallel plate of glass placed with- 
in the telescope so that part of the rays from 
the object pass through it and another part be- 
yond it. An inclination of the plate will pro- 
duce two images of the object, whose diameter 
may be measured by the amount of rotation 
given to the glass to produce certain alterations 
in the position of the image. A recent method 
for taking the positions and distances of stars, 
double or in clusters, isto photograph the tel- 
escopic field in collodion on glass, and then to 
measure the impression on the stage of an in- 
dependent micrometer constructed for the pur- 


ling. _ | 
ANS 
HNTNS 
ts 
HL 7 Sik Me 
lox BBY j O————— 
| er a 
ii TT a me mu ii 
| aes il 
| p >i! I a ca ATT 
Ht — ——— 
h Ww == in : 
oN (Oe Tm oa 
ee al fl Ban en “Ss = 
i i ay ll in mu — | 
I a —- 
Ml = =, 
== = Qa 
— eS i 
Za => 


Fic. 4.—Rutherfurd’s tenses 


pose. The great advantages of this method 
are that all the careful micrometer work can be 
done by an assistant who is not a professional 
astronomer; that it can be done during day or 


MICRONESIA AND MELANESIA 


night, and repeated at will, the photographs 
being imperishable; and that when done it is 
most accurate. An instrument of this kind, 
which has undergone several stages of improve- 
ment, was designed and constructed by Lewis 
M. Rutherfurd of New York several years ago. 
A sketch of the instrument as now in use at 
his private observatory is given in fig. 4, It 
stands upon a tripod, which may be accurately 
levelled by the milled head screws attached to 
the feet. The photographic plate, , to be mea- 
sured (five inches square), is clamped upon the 
circular glass stage 4, which is supported by 
and revolves with the graduated position circle 
g, the verniers being read by the reading glasses 
h.h. The compound microscope a is directed 
perpendicularly to the plate, and can be moved 
in two directions at right angles to each other 
and parallel to the plate, on the slides e and d. 
The quantity of such movement is read by the 
microscopes ¢ and 6 upon glass scales of equal 
parts, m. (The scale read by 6d is not seen in 
the figure.) The fractions of a division are 
read by the filar micrometer seen at the eye 
piece of c. The eye piece of the microscope 
a contains a cross of spider lines by which 
it is centred upon the image of any star to 
be measured.—Microscope Micrometers. Most 
telescope micrometers may be used for mi- 
croscopes when the eye glass has considerable 
focal length. Objects of known diameter are 
used, as lycopodium seed, or wire whose diam- 
eter has been measured by winding it many 
times around a cylinder, and dividing the length 
of the cylinder by the number of turns. A 
convenient micrometer was constructed by Dr. 


Fic. 6. 


Wollaston, consisting of a scale, fig. 5, made of 
wires ;, in. diameter, which po the place 
of the object, and a lens of about +, in. focal 
length in the cap of the instrument. The ob- 
ject, placed beneath this between two glass 
slides, is moved laterally across the field by 
means of the milled head a. (See Mroroscopr.) 

MICRONESIA AND MELANESIA (Gr. pcxpéc, 
small, péAac, black, and viooc, island), terms 
derived from the size and complexion of the 
inhabitants, and applied by some geographers 
to arbitrary divisions of the islands of the 
Pacific ocean. These divisions are both com- 
prehended in the better defined, more conve- 
nient, and better understood terms Australasia 


MICROPHONE 


and Polynesia. 
westernmost island of the Hawaiian group to 
near Japan and the Philippines, and reaches S. 
of the equator, comprehending the Marshall 
and Gilbert groups, the Ladrones, and the 
Carolines. Melanesia embraces the Feejee 
islands, the New Hebrides, Solomon’s islands, 
New Caledonia, New Britain, New Ireland, 
and Papua. 

MICROPHONE. See supplement. 

MICROSCOPE (Gr. pxpdc, small, and oxoreiy, 
to see), an optical instrument for the examina- 
tion of minute objects. Microscopes are of 
two kinds, simple and compound. With the 
former, the object is viewed directly, either by 
means of a single lens or a set of lenses em- 
ployed in the same manner as a single lens. 
With the latter, an enlarged image of the ob- 
ject is formed by a single lens or a set of 
lenses, termed the object glass or objective; 
this image is viewed and further amplified by 
means of an eye piece or “ocular.” Each 
form is valuable in its place, but as a general 
instrument of research the compound form, 
with all the modern improvements, is greatly 
superior. The invention of the simple micro- 
scope is not claimed by any one, but that of 
the compound has been warmly disputed; it is 
claimed by the Italians and the Dutch. The 
compound microscope of the present day, 
however, is a very different instrument from 
the disputed invention, and to this last and 
best form we purpose to devote the most of 
our attention.—The earliest magnifying lens 
known, if indeed it was used for this purpose, 
is the rude one found by Mr. Layard in the 
palace of Nimrud; it is made of rock crystal, 
and is far from perfect. Seneca (Questiones 
Naturales, lib. i., cap. vi.) alludes to the magni- 
fying power of a glass globe filled with water; 
he ascribes the effect to the water, and appears 
to refer to objects immersed in the water; 
this was about the middle of the Ist century. 
‘‘ Burning spheres,” as they are termed by Aris- 
tophanes, were sold in the shops of Athens in 
his day, about 400 B.C. There is no evidence 
that lenses were employed at this early date 
for magnifying, at least otherwise than as read- 
ing glasses. It is not until the 17th century that 
we find powerful magnifiers of glass actually 
employed for scientific investigation. The 
names of Malpighi, Lieberkiithn, Hooke, Leeu- 
wenhoek, Swammerdam, Lyonnet, and Ellis 
are closely connected with the history of the 
simple microscope; and their important dis- 
coveries attest the value of even this form of 
the instrument. Most of the magnifiers em- 
ployed by the early observers were minute sin- 


gle lenses of glass; often small spheres formed. 


by melting threads of glass in the flame of a 
spirit lamp. The small single lenses of high 
power are usually plano-convex, the plane side 
toward the object; when carefully made, hay- 
ing a focal length of from +; to 45 of an inch, 
and well set in shallow blackened cells, with 
the proper aperture, they perform on ordinary 


Micronesia extends from the 


MICROSCOPE 513 


objects tolerably well; much better than the 
minute glass spheres, as the latter are difficult 
to obtain free from bubbles. The writer has 
succeeded better by melting a fragment of 
plate glass in a small hole in a German silver 
cup, by means of the blowpipe, and has formed 
lenses in this way, ready mounted for use, 
quite equal to those ground and polished by 
hand. The German silver is blackened by the 
heat. In order to diminish the spherical ab- 
erration in the high magnifier of a single re- 
fracting substance, Sir David Brewster suggest- 
ed the employment of gems; and Mr. Pritch- 
ard of London, under the patronage of Dr. 
Goring, ground lenses of garnet, sapphire, and 
diamond, all of which proved superior to glass 
lenses of equivalent focus. The diamond lens- 
es upon the whole were inferior to the sap- 
phire; the latter, though not as highly refrac- 
tive, were free from the veins which rendered 
several of the diamond lenses useless, though 
still affected, in common with the diamond, 
by double refraction. The garnet lenses are 
free from this latter defect, and when very 
minute are much superior to glass; the color 
is not objectionable when the lenses are 
very smal]. All the magnifiers composed of 
single lenses, glass or gems, are surpassed by 
the doublets and triplets. The invention of 
the doublet in its best form is due to Dr. | 
Wollaston; it appears, however, to have been 
a chance discovery. It consists of two plano- 
convex lenses, having their plane sides to- 
ward the object; the posterior lens (that near- 
est the eye) is three times the focal length of 
the anterior, and the distance between them 
is twice the focal length of the shorter. It is 
evident that the front lens of the doublet must 
be approached much nearer to the object than 
if it had been used alone, and the amplification 
is also less than that of the front lens alone; 
hence the working distance is much less than 
that of an equivalent single lens. The great 


‘and surpassing advantage of the doublet is the 


enlarged angle of aperture and diminution of 
spherical aberration. By ‘‘angle of aperture” 
is meant the angular breadth of the cone of 
rays proceeding from the object, and refracted 
through the lens or set of lenses. Evidently, 
with a single lens, having an aperture equal to 
its focal length, the angle will be about 55° ; 
in other words, the lines drawn in the same 
plane from a point to the margin of the lens, this 
point being in the axis of the lens, and at a 
distance from its convex surface equal to the 
diameter of the lens, will be 55°; no single 
lens, however, will admit anything like this 
aperture. In the doublet the front lens is 
approximated much closer to the object than it 
possibly could be if employed alone, and hence 
it admits a wider angle; the reduction of mag- 
nifying power, at the same time, diminish- 
es spherical aberration, which is still further 
reduced by the peculiar relations of the cur- 
vatures. The doublet thus becomes a very 
superior instrument, and, when well made and 


514 


carefully used, surpasses all but the most im- 
proved forms of the compound instrument. 
Doublets of gems are far superior to those of 
glass. Triplets are superior to the doublets; 
and for a simple microscope the achromatic 
triplets now furnished by the French and Ger- 
man opticians, as objectives for the compound 
microscope, will be found very effective. Es- 
sentially, the English and American achromatic 
objectives are triplets, but the peculiar mount- 
ing of these instruments prevents their use as 
simple microscopes. So great has been the 
improvement, that the best modern objectives 
will transmit angular pencils of 170° to 178°. 
We may notice here the so-called ‘‘ Codding- 
ton lens,” or grooved sphere. It is an inven- 
tion of Sir David Brewster, and when proper- 
ly made is almost free from spherical aberra- 
tion, and the chromatic aberration is almost 
insensible. ‘It consists of a spherical lens, 
or sphere with a deep concave groove cut 
round it, so as to cut off the marginal pencils, 
and thus give a wider field and more perfect 
image.”’ The lenses usually sold under this 
name are simply cylinders of glass having 
spherical ends, and of course have none of the 
advantages of large field and freedom from 
spherical aberration proposed by Dr. Brewster. 
When the curvatures of this cylindrical lens 
are unequal, and such that, the most convex 
* being turned toward the eye, an object placed 
on the other convex surface is in the proper 
focus of the lens, it is called a ‘Stanhope 
lens ;” its use is limited to such objects as can 
be directly applied to the surface. When of 
considerable power it may be advantageously 
employed in searching for diatomacee; the 
drop of water supposed to contain them may 
be examined by applying it to the less convex 
surface.—All the simple microscopes, and es- 
pecially the higher powers, require some kind 
of a stand or carrier. The lower powers and 
single lenses are usually attached to the end 
of a jointed rod, which can be moved up and 
down a stem inserted into a solid base. The 
most convenient mounting for. an inch or half- 
inch lens, for preliminary examinations or bo- 
tanical dissections, is that of Messrs. Powell 
and Lealand of London, and is employed as the 
mounting of the small condenser for their com- 
pound instrument. The movements are com- 
plete, and one can place the lens, whatever 
may be the position of the object, in such a 
relation to it as will insure the best view. For 
the higher powers, }to 4, of an inch, a steady 
well made stand will be required, and some 
means of adjusting the focus delicately, either 
by rackwork or screw. Various forms have 
been devised; perhaps, upon the whole, that 
known as the “ Raspail” is most simple, and 
at the same time of great excellence. It con- 
sists of a brass pillar, up and down which a 
large circular stage is moved by rackwork; a 
large mirror, one side plane, the other concave, 
swings freely below, and serves to direct the 
light upon the object; at the top of the brass 


MICROSCOPE 


pillar is placed the lens holder, movable for- 
ward by means of a screw, and laterally by 
swinging round a pin inserted in the top of a 
pillar; into the opening of the stage is fitted a 
glass plate, or it may be made to hold dissect- 
ing troughs with glass bottoms. It is often 
convenient, or absolutely necessary, for the 
examination and dissection of opaque objects, 
to have the lens inserted in a silver cup or 
Lieberktthn, which, receiving the light from 
the mirror below, reflects it back, condensed, 
upon the object. These Lieberkihns are usu- 
ally made of silver. The very simple micro- 
scope employed by Ellis in his researches on 
coralline, in which all the adjustments were 
effected by sliding by the hand, was fitted with 
these silver cups. Although the Lieberktthn 
is very commonly applied to the low power 
achromatic objectives, it is now seldom to be 
obtained with any form of simple instrument, 
unless by special order; it will be found of the 
greatest service in minute dissection.—In using 
lenses of moderate focus, three fourths to one 
eighth inch, the most extended distinct field 
is obtained when the convex side is presented 
to the object; but the sharpest vision of a mi- 
nute point or small object, in the centre of the 
field, is when the flat side is presented to the 
object. In estimating the magnifying power 
of single lenses, an arbitrary standard of the 
nearest distance at which the healthy unassist- 
ed eye can view distinctly minute objects is 
assumed ; this distance has been placed at from 
5 to 10 in. The latter is the standard adopt- 
ed by most opticians and authors; Sir David 
Brewster alone adopts 5 in. The magnifying 
power is obtained by dividing 10 in. by the 
solar focal length of the lens, and is usually 
expressed lineally, or as ‘‘so many diameters.” 
Thus, when the magnifying power is stated 
to be 40, it is meant that the diameter is in- 
creased 40 times, but of course the area would 
be increased 1,600 times. The following ta- 
ble exhibits the linear and superficial magni- 
fying power, adopting the standard of 10 in.: 


Linear magnifying 


Focal lengths in Superficial magnifying 
inches. power. power. 
2 5 25 
14g 6°6 43°5 
jt 10 100 
% 13°3 176°8 
ig 20 400 
(A 40 1,600 
Vy 80 6,400 
1s 100 10,000 
- | 200 40,000 


As it is difficult to measure exactly the solar 
focal length of small lenses, a sufficient approxi- 
mation may be had by the method proposed by 
Mr. Ross, which answers admirably for doub- 
lets and triplets. It consists in ‘“‘ viewing the 
image of some distant object formed by the 
lens in question, through another lens of one 
inch solar focal length, keeping both eyes open, 
and comparing the image presented through 
the two lenses with that of the naked eye. 


MICROSCOPE 


The proportion between the two images so 
seen will be the focal length required. The 
panes of glass in a window, or courses of bricks 
in a wall, are convenient objects for this pur- 
pose.” The comparative focal lengths of two 
lenses, or sets of lenses, may be determined by 
holding them at the same distance from the 
eye and estimating the size of the image formed 
by each of the same object; thus, if one lens 
forms the image half the size of the other, 
lineal measure, its focal length is half that of 
the other. The same method applies to eye 
pieces.—For a history of the earlier forms 
of the compound microscope, the reader may 
consult the elaborate works of Quekett and 
Harting and the older works of Adams and 
Baker. Essentially it consists of two parts, 
the object glass and the eye piece. The for- 
mer is now made by 
a combination, usual- 
ly, of three sets of 
achromatic doublets, 
arranged to give the 
greatest freedom from 
spherical and chro- 
matic aberration; the 
latter, of two plano- 
convex lenses, with 
the plane sides to the 
eye, the lens nearest 
to the object, or ‘‘ field 
lens,” being almost 
exactly double the fo- 
cal length of the eye 
lens, and the distance 
between them a little 
more than the focal 
length of the field 
lens; the ratio is va- 
ried somewhat by dif- 
ferent makers. In fig. 
1, the object placed 
at P, on the stage T, 
is illuminated by con- 
verging rays, 0, 0, b, 
b, reflected from the 
mirror 8. At L is 

the compound achro- 
matic object glass. © is the field lens, and 
A the eye lens of the eye piece. With the eye 
lens one views the image of the object, P’, 
formed by the object glass. The eye piece 
thus formed is termed a “ negative eye piece,” 
or the “‘Huygenean.” The eye piece of Kell- 
ner is a decided improvement; it is termed 
“ orthoscopic,” and the eye lens is achromatic 
or nearly so; these eye pieces are supplied by 
the Messrs. Grunow of New York, with their 
best instruments; the field of view is large, 
free from distortion, and well defined through- 
out the whole extent. The orthoscopic eye 
piece supplied by Mr. Charles A. Spencer of 
Canastota, N. Y., and more recently as im- 
proved by R. B. Tolles of Boston, has both eye 
and field lens achromatic, and is exceedingly 
perfect; it is, however, more expensive than 


515 


the Kellner eye piece. Mr. Tolles has intro- 
duced a solid, orthoscopic, negative eye piece, 
of remarkable clearness and definition through- 
out, especially fitted for micrometric use, the 
engraved scale being cemented in the body of 
the solid eye piece, and perfectly protected 
from all dust or interference with definition, 
so noticeable in the use of the eye-piece micro- 
meter in the ordinary way. Mr. Tolles has. 
also introduced what is termed an amplifier, 
being an achromatic concave of peculiar con- 
struction, which is introduced within the body 
of the microscope by means of an adapter. 
The corrections of the objective are not in the 
least disturbed by this arrangement, but the 
power is doubled. A low eye piece thus gives 
ag much amplification as a higher one, and with 
the very great advantage of almost perfect flat- 
ness of field. The object glasses, or ‘ objec- 
tives” as they are now very commonly termed, 
derive their denominations, 1 inch, 4 inch, 4 
inch, &., from the fact that the combined 
sets of lenses give a magnifying power the 
same as a single lens of the same name. Thus, 
a+ object glass should give the same amplifi- 
cation as though a single lens of + inch was 
used in its place. This term does not refer at 
all to the working distance, for, as is the case 
with doublets, the working distance with all 
powers higher than the 2 inch is considerably 
less than that of the equivalent single lens; it 
will be apparent that for any given focus the 
working distance will, in general, be diminished 
by an increased angle of aperture; a i of 90° 
will have in this respect a very great advan- 
tage over ai of 140°. <As regards the merits 
of the large angle objectives, there are various 
opinions. Dr. Carpenter is decided in his con- 
demnation, considering that depth of penetra- 
tion cannot be had at the same time with en- 
larged angle. The skill of the first opticians, 
Spencer, Tolles, and Wales in America, Ross, 
Powell and Lealand, and Smith, Beck, and Beck 
in England, have proved the contrary. Nor 
is Sir David Brewster’s assertion true of large 
angle objectives, that they give a distorted 
view. The definition, clearness, and perfect- 
ness of vision with Powell and Lealand’s 1, 
having an angle of 176°, when employed with 
a low eye piece so as to give the same ampli- 
fication as a + with a higher, is greatly supe- 
rior to that of the 4. The chief advantage of 
the small angle has been considered to be the 
sort of general view it would give of the whole 
of a minute object; the working distance 
being so great that the minute elevations and 
depressions in the object itself, being but a 
very small fraction of the whole distance, 
would not perceptibly affect the focus. In 
many respects this might be a desirable qual- 
ity; but the microscopist would quite as often 
find it a source of error in his interpretation 
of what he might observe, and he will find 


it safer to decide as to the elevations and de- 


pressions of an object by the removal and ap- 
proach required to be given to the object glass, 


516 


in order to bring successively these elevations 
and depressions into distinct view. In minute 
and elaborate investigations the high angle ob- 
jectives are the most trustworthy. Moreover, 
the skill of the opticians named has enabled 
them to increase the angle without diminishing 
so very much the working distance. The +, of 
Mr. Ross, and we believe the ;4 of Powell and 
Lealand, will work through glass;1, of an inch 
thick.—In speaking of the objectives of the 
prominent makers, we do not desire to indicate 
any order of precedence ; they are all excellent, 
and all have peculiarities of their own. We 
must, however, be permitted to notice a little 
more fully the American artists. The oldest 
optician, and the one who has been most known 
in connection with the microscope in the Uni- 


ted States, is Mr. Charles A. Spencer of Ca-: 


nastota, N. Y. The object glasses furnished 
by him, particularly the later ones, are of the 
highest order; they range from 38 in. to s 
in. By many of our most experienced mi- 
croscopists they are considered superior to the 
best objectives of the London opticians; they 
are certainly equal to them. Mr. Spencer, in 
the earlier days of high angle objectives, no 
doubt surpassed in this respect all the English 
opticians; his rare skill and nice manipulation 
enabled him to perform wonderful feats in 
this direction, far in advance of anything be- 
fore accomplished. Mr. Robert B. Tolles, for 
some time connected with Spencer, but now 
by himself at Boston, has devoted himself to 
the perfection of the achromatic objectives 
with enthusiastic zeal and unparalleled success. 
His recent objectives are quite equal in de- 
fining and penetrating power to the very best 
of the London opticians, both with central and 
oblique illumination, and greatly superior to 
them in the latter case, as regards chromatic 
aberration; this is true also of Mr. Spencer’s 
objectives. Mr. Tolles’s objectives range from 
3 in. to + inch; the latter objective is a 
marvel of optical art. Messrs. J. and W. 
Grunow of New York have sent out some 
very fine objectives, ranging from 2 in. to +, 
in. They have not attempted generally so 
high angles as Spencer and Tolles, but have 
devoted great attention to the mechanical 
arrangement and efficiency of their stands, and 
the accessory apparatus. Mr. William Wales 
came to this country in 1862, and settled at 
Fort Lee, N. J. His objectives are known the 
world over for their excellence; and among 
Tolles, Wales, and Powell and Lealand it is 
now impossible to assign any superiority in 
the performance of their lenses. The supe- 
rior workmanship and elegant form of the 
stands made by Mr. Joseph Zentmayer of 
Philadelphia are perhaps not equalled, certain- 
ly not surpassed, by the production of any 
other maker. (See fig. 2.) Among other im- 
provements given by this artist to the work- 
ing microscopist we would specially mention 
the remarkably thin and steady stage of his 
‘grand American microscope,” his invaluable 


MICROSCOPE 


glass stage, and his mechanical finger for pick- 
ing up and arranging diatoms. The latter 
invention, described in the ‘‘ American Journal 
of Science” for May, 1870, is an improvement 
on the invention of the distinguished American 
microscopist Prof. H. L. Smith, described in 
the same journal for May, 1866. Of English 
opticians, the name of Andrew Ross has al- 
ways been placed foremost, being connected 
with the greatest improvement of the objec- 
tive, without which the higher powers of large 
angle would be almost valueless; we allude 
to the adjustment for cover. First of all the 


Fic, 2. 


opticians Mr. Ross made his objectives so per- 
fectly corrected for spherical and chromatic 
aberration, that a new source of difficulty, 
apparently almost insurmountable, presented 
itself. He found that these aberrations, so 
nicely balanced, were disturbed by each vary- 
ing thickness of the thin covering glass over 
the object. The expedient he devised to rem- 
edy this, was to alter the distance between the 
first set and the two posterior sets of achro- 
matics composing the objective, by means of 
a delicate screw collar. This grand and capi- 
tal improvement, for which Mr. Ross deserves 
the rank assigned him, has been adopted by all 


MICROSCOPE 517 


the American and English opticians, and more 
recently by the French and German. The 
English uniformly, if we except the amateur 
efforts of Mr. Wenham, make the front set 
movable; the American opticians generally 
move the two posterior sets, the front being 
immovable; the latter method is better, the 
object being kept easier in view during the 
adjustment, and there being no danger of 
bringing the front lens in contact with the 
object. The objectives of Mr. Ross have al- 
ways maintained a high character, and have 
been more expensive than those of Powell and 
Lealand, or Smith, Beck, and Beck, though 
they probably do not surpassthem. The busi- 
ness is now conducted by Mr. Thomas Ross 
and Mr. Wenham. Mr. Ross’s objectives range 
from 8 in. to 34, inch. Messrs. Powell and 
Lealand, so far at least as the objectives and 
accessories are concerned, are quite equal to 
any living opticians. Both the low and high 
powers of this firm are of the finest character. 
While the general plan is the same, there are 
some peculiarities in their high power objec- 
tives worthy of notice. The front set is triple, 
and the front lens, being of crown glass, is less 
liable to injury from wiping, or accidental con- 
tact with the object, than the soft flint of oth- 
er opticians; but as it is a very thin plano- 
convex, merely cemented to the concave, and 
not burnished in, it is liable to injury by part- 
ing the cement. Messrs. Smith, Beck, and Beck 
(now R. and J. Beck) are more widely known 
in this country than the other firms. Their 
‘students’ ” and ‘‘ educational microscope” are 
the forms usually sold by the dealers. As 
opticians, for the lower power objectives, they 
stand side by side with the others named. 
They did not until lately furnish objectives 
higher than 4, of 125° angle. We can only 
mention the names of Nachet, Oberhauser, and 
Kellner, whose objectives are excellent, but 
inferior to the American or English; they are, 
however, much cheaper, and the mechanical 
work upon their instruments is very excellent. 
The name of Prof. Amici of Modena was long 
associated with the microscope. The objec- 
tives made by him consisted of six series, with 
angles varying from 26° to 160°; the higher 
powers had no adjustment for cover, but the 
front lens was slightly concave, and a drop of 
water introduced between the cover and the 
objective, thus in a measure rendering the ad- 
justment unnecessary. The marked advan- 
tage in the plan of Prof. Amici, of introducing 
a stratum of water between the front lens of 
the object glass and the thin glass covering the 
object, was fully shown by its originator 12 
or 14 years ago; but it was only after Nachet 
of Paris adopted the idea and thereby greatly 
improved the working of his objectives, that 
opticians viewed Amici’s principle with favor. 
E. F. Hartnack of Paris, the successor of Ober- 
hauser, at once adopted the ‘ immersion.” 
system, as it is called, and soon came to the 
very front of all objective makers, The ad- 


vantage of this system is well stated by Har- 
ting: “As the water is a stronger light-re- 
fracting medium than air, the reflection of 
the rays of light is much diminished at the 
under surface of the objective; indeed it al- 
most entirely ceases. Hence more rays of light 
pass into the microscope, and the thin stra- 
tum of water has nearly the same effect as an 
enlargement of the angle of aperture. This 
favorable modification influences chiefly the pe- 
ripheral rays, which fall most obliquely. The 
peripheral rays have most influence on the for- 
mation of the image, which takes place in front 
of the eye piece; and as, by their passing through 
a transparent object, they are for the most 
part deflected from their course, and the slight 
deviations thus caused become visible in the 
image, the defining power of the microscope 
must necessarily be increased by the stratum of 
water.” The magnifying power as well as the 
angle of aperture is increased by the, stratum 
of water in which the objective is immersed, 
for the water acts like the cover glass, and the 
lenses must approach each other in proportion 
to its thickness. The advantage of an immer- 
sion lens over the ordinary dry objectives can- 
not be better shown than by the following ex- 
perience of Dr. J. J. Woodward, United States 
army. He had three superior lenses, all made 
by Powell and Lealand: a 5 and a », dry 
lenses, and a ;/, immersion lens. The former 
lenses could resolve only the 15th band on 
Nobert’s 19-band test plate, but the 31, immer- 
sion lens not only resolved into lines this 15th 
band, but also the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 19th 
bands. Finally, we must not omit to name 
Mr. Lister, who first pointed out some pecu- 
liarities possessed by a combination of three 
achromatics with their plane sides toward the 
object, the crown and flint being cemented 
together, and which were the basis of sub- 
sequent improvements. The peculiar form 
adopted by Lister has long since been aban- 
doned; but the principles are the same.—The 
stands furnished by the principal. makers ex- 
hibit a great variety of patterns, and combine 
various excellences. The most desirable points, 
viz., freedom from tremor, ease of illumina- 
tion, particularly oblique illumination, facility 
in the application of the accessory apparatus, 
and delicacy of adjustment, are nearly equal 
in the first-class stands of the principal opti- 
cians; but perhaps, on the whole, the best are 
those of Mr. Zentmayer and of R. and J. Beck. 
Their large stands mounted on two pillars are 
remarkably steady. The stage, thin but sub- 
stantial, is large, and its movements are very 
smooth and delicate. The illuminating and 
accessory apparatus is carried by a sub-stage 
below, and most easily applied. The illumi- 
nating mirror is large, and so mounted as to 
give very oblique illumination. The rackwork 
of the quick adjustment is always of the 
smoothest and best character in all of the in- 
struments made by these firms, and the slow 
adjustment very delicate. The greatest fault 


518 MICROSCOPE 


in their stands is the attachment of the slow 
movement at the lower part of the tube of the 
microscope itself. In this respect the stands 
of Ross, Powell and Lealand, Spencer, Tolles, 
and the Messrs. Grunow are superior. With 
the high powers, the springing of the tube 
when the finger is applied, and the shaking 
when the adjustment for cover is attempted, 
are disagreeable. The larger students’ micro- 
scope made by Beck is a very fine instrument; 
the stage movements and adjustments are very 
complete. The stands furnished by Ross are 
heavy and cumbersome; they are, however, 
exceedingly steady, and finished*with extreme 
care. Those supplied by Powell and Lealand 
_ are much lighter, and have some peculiar ad- 
vantages. The accessories supplied by this 
firm are more complete than those of any 
other; the stage of their new and largest in- 
strument is very thin, and allows greater ob- 
liquity of illumination than that of Beck. 
Their achromatic condenser is beautifully fin- 
ished; it has an angle of 170°. The stand 
itself is not as steady as that of Beck, but the 
fine adjustment is more conveniently placed. 
The stands furnished by Messrs. Grunow are 
of different patterns, but all excellent in beauty 
of finish, smoothness of adjustment, and steadi- 
ness, comparing most favorably with the Eng- 
lish work. The stands furnished by Spencer 
and Tolles have many excellences, and are 
very steady.— All good instruments should 
have a graduated draw-tube within the main 
tube, and the latter should be not less than 1°4 
inch in diameter. The draw-tube is absolutely 
necessary for micrometry, and is very conve- 
nient to receive the analyzing prism, erector, 
or Tolles’s amplifier. Two adjustments for 
focus are also necessary, one quick by rack- 
work and pinion, the other very delicate by 
screw. The pinion heads should be large, to 
allow of most delicate movement, and Messrs. 
Beck and Zentmayer graduate the head of the 
screw of the fine adjustment, so that the thick- 
ness of covering glass may be measured. A 
skilful observer may dispense with the rack 
movement, and produce the approximate ad- 
justment by sliding the tube. This is the 
method adopted in most of the French instru- 
ments, and in the “educational” of Beck. 
The stage movements should be smooth, and 
but slightly disturb the adjustment when in 
focus. The adjustment for wear in the Eng- 
lish instruments is by spring, in the American 
by screws; the former involves more work 
for the maker, but is better. The lever stage, 
though performing finely when first from the 
hands of the maker, is much more liable to 
derangement than that in which the motions 
are produced by rack and screw. In the Beck 
instruments the rack and screw are both so 
low that the latter passes entirely under the 
bottom of the stage, which is consequently 
much thinner than it can be made when the 
screw is introduced between the movable 
plates; the milled heads themselves are thus 


dropped below the level of the stage, and this 
is deemed of great importance; this is also the 
case with Powell and Lealand’s large micro- 
scope.—One of the most important of recent 
improvements in the microscope has been the 
adaptation of the instrument to stereoscopic 
binocular vision. The binocular microscope, 
as we now have it, is the result of gradual 
progress in the application of Prof. Wheat- 
stone’s discovery of the stereoscope, from the 
year 1851, when Prof. Riddell of New Orleans 
first attempted the production of micro-ste- 
reoscopic relief, to the recent simple and uni- 
versally used invention of Mr. Wenham. M. 
Nachet, Prof. H. L. Smith, Messrs. Powell and 
Lealand, Mr. Tolles, and Dr. Barnard have also 
devised special plans to obtain the same effects. 
Some of them have their own special advan- 
tages, but Mr. Wenham’s recent invention is 


Fic. 3 


so simple that it has been almost universally 
adopted by American and English makers. 
We will therefore only describe here his in- 
vention, and refer the reader who desires in- 
formation of the plans of the above named 
gentleman to Beale’s ‘How to Work with 
the Microscope” (London, 1868); to Carpenter 
‘*On the Microscope” (London, 1868); and to 
the report of Dr. F. A. P. Barnard “On Ma- 
chinery and Processes of the Industrial Arts, 
and Apparatus of Precision,” exhibited at 
the Paris exposition of 1867. The pencil of 
rays which has passed through the objective 
im is cut in half by the interposition of a tra- 
pezoidal prism a, as shown in fig. 3, A; half 
of the rays of the pencil pass up the tube as 
usual, and the other half enter the anterior 
face of the prism and are reflected from the 
lateral surfaces 6 and c, and emerge at d to 


MICROSCOPE 


proceed up the secondary tube 2, as shown in 
fig. 8, B. To obtain stereoscopic effect it is 
absolutely necessary, on account of the cross- 
ing of the rays of the pencils in the objective, 
that those rays which have emanated from the 
right-hand half of the cut pencil should enter 
the left eye, and vice versa. If this does not 
take place, we shall have, instead of stereo- 
scopic relief, a pseudoscopic effect; that is, 
elevations will appear as depressions and de- 
pressions as elevations. This was the case 
with Prof. Riddell’s invention and with the 
first plan adopted by Mr. Wenham. In Mr. 
Wenham’s recent invention, which we have 
just described, this is avoided by causing the 
rays reflected from the face ¢ of the prism to 
cross those going directly up the ‘tube, so that 
the right eye receives the left half of the pen- 
cil, and the left eye the right half. The dis- 
tance between the oculars*1 and 2, fig. 8, A, is 
adapted to different eyes by means of racks and 
a pinion, by which they are moved inward or 
outward. There are two great advantages in 
using the binocular microscope: first, the eyes 
are subjected to equal work, and thereby are 
not so liable to fatigue and injury; secondly, 
with low powers we obtain an insight into the 
three dimensions of a body, for in the stereo- 
scopic binocular we see into the depth of a 
body as well as view its length and breadth. 
This is very important in the study of tissues, 
as we see how they are arranged in order of 
distance from the surface of the body.—The 
usual accessories accompanying the microscope 
are: an achromatic condenser, a bull’s-eye con- 
denser, small condenser, stage and eye-piece 
micrometers, polarizing apparatus, camera lu- 
cida, animalcule cage, stage forceps, glass para- 
bola, erector, Lieberktithns and dark wells, frog 
plate, &c. The name of achromatic condenser 
has been given to an illuminating apparatus 
consisting of an achromatic objective of large 
angle, furnished with a wheel of diaphragms 
and central stops; when the latter are used, 
oblique illumination is obtained. This con- 
denser is exceedingly useful in the ordinary 
studies by the microscope. With the proper 
adjustment it affords a fine achromatic illumi- 
nation, revealing the structure of the object 
with great beauty and clearness; but in un- 
skilful hands it will be of little service. So 
far as oblique illumination is concerned, we 
prefer unilateral light, though some particu- 
lars of structure are best revealed by aid of 
the achromatic condenser. The condenser is 
placed below the main stage, and can be ad- 
justed by independent rackwork, so as to give 
the best illumination. The condenser of 170° 
angle, introduced by Powell and Lealand, is 
spoken of very highly by the English micro- 
scopists; the delicate markings of navicula 
rhomboides, when viewed with their ~; objec- 
tive, are said to be as well defined as those of 
pleurosigma hippocampus viewed. with a 4. 
The achromatic condenser of Beck has an an- 
gle of about 100°. When used with the central 


519 


stops, the proper point for adjustment may be 
determined by removing the eye piece, after 
the objective has been brought into focus, 
looking down the tube, and moving the con- 
denser by means of its own rack and pinion, 
until the black stop appears sharply defined in 
the centre of the field, and a bright illuminated 
ring around it. If the stop is removed, the 
whole field will appear brightly illuminated,. 
unless the objective be of much greater angle 
than the condenser. A condenser of greater 
angle than 100° cannot be used unless the ob- 
ject be placed upon very thin glass; all diffi- 
cult test objects should be mounted in this 
manner on a slip of mahogany, or on a per- 
forated glass slide. The condenser itself, or 
the carrier, should have some means of adjust- 
ment to make its axis coincide with that of 
the objective; the front set of lenses is gen- 
erally made to be removed, thus affording an 
illuminator of lower angle, to use with thicker 
glass and objectives of low power. In using 
the achromatic condenser by lamp light, the 
bull’s-eye condenser is employed to render the 
rays parallel, and the plane side of the mir- 
ror is used. The bull’s-eye condenser consists 
of a thick plano-convex lens, of short focus, 
mounted upon a stand so that it can be used 
for the illumination of opaque objects. Very 
excellent oblique illumination may be obtained 
by condensing the flame of a candle or lamp, 
placed about two feet from the stage, upon 
the under surface of the slide, the light being 
placed in front, and the stage slightly turned up 
to receive it; or, the microscope being placed 
horizontal, the light may be off at one side, ac- 
cording to the obliquity desired. As the thick- 
ness of the stage will not ordinarily allow illu- 
mination at amuch greater distance than 60° 
from the axis, asub-stage, attached to the upper 
plate of the main stage, but carrying the slide 
entirely below it, is furnished by Messrs. Gru- 
now and by Powell and Lealand, and may be 
readily attached to any microscope; this allows 
illumination of any obliquity. In using the 
bull’s-eye condenser for this purpose with a 
lamp, the plane side must be presented toward 
the object; and if the flame be flat, its edge 
must be presented. The small condenser is 
used in the same way asthe bull’s-eye. Where 
very intense illumination is desired, the bull’s- 
eye is placed near the source of illumination, 
with the plane side toward it, so as to render 
the rays nearly parallel, and then this beam of 
light is further condensed by the small con- 
denser. An achromatic lenticular prism of 
short focus is very valuable for illumination. 
The prism should be so mounted that it can be 
placed to reflect converging rays on the object 
at any angle, and in any position, both below 
and above the stage. Experience in its use 
will to a great extent supply the need of an 
achromatic condenser.—The stage micrometer 
is a slip of glass ruled into ‘01” and -001” of 
an inch; it is used in conjunction with the 
camera lucida, or to determine the value of the 


520 MICROSCOPE 


divisions of the eye-piece micrometer. The 
French scale is the millimétre divided into 100 
or 200 parts. The eye-piece micrometer, known 
as Jackson’s micrometer, is a finely ruled glass 
scale, introduced by means of an opening be- 
tween the field and eye lens of the eye piece, 
so as to be in the focus of the eye lens. The 
value of the scale is determined by placing the 
stage micrometer on the stage, and viewing the 
divisions with the given objective and eye 
piece; thus, if 10 divisions of the eye microm- 
eter corresponded with one (‘01’) of the stage 
micrometer, then the value of one division of 
the eye-piece micrometer would be :001” with 
that particular object glass and eye piece. The 
stage micrometer being replaced by any object, 
its dimensions may be readily ascertained by 


noticing how many divisions of the scale are’ 


subtended by it. The micrometers of this de- 
scription are very convenient, and, when care- 
fully used, accurate. The definition is slightly 
injured, however; this objection is obviated 
by Mr. Tolles’s solid micrometer eye piece. If 
the observer has only a stage micrometer, the 
divisions may be projected on paper by means 
of the camera lucida; then, with the same ob- 
jective and eye piece, the image of any object 
being projected on the paper, its dimensions 
are at once ascertained. Messrs. Powell and 
Lealand furnish a cobweb micrometer suscepti- 
ble of great accuracy ; it is similar to that used 
for astronomical purposes. Messrs. Grunow 
have somewhat improved upon Powell and 
Lealand, and their cobweb micrometer with 
orthoscopic eye piece is very delicate. They 
also furnish Fraunhofer’s stage micrometer, 
which has the advantage of giving the absolute 
dimensions of the object, without reference to 
the power of the objective or eye piece. With 
careful use the eye-piece micrometer is as ac- 
curate as any of these, and much less expen- 
sive.—The polarizing apparatus consists of two 
Nicol’s prisms of cale spar with revolving fit- 
tings, one (called the polarizer) designed to be 
placed below the object, the other (termed the 
analyzer) above, either directly over the eye 
piece, where it generally cuts off part of the 
field, or at the lower end of the draw-tube; 
here, if the prism be good and not too long, it 
will not much affect the definition, and will 
allow the whole field to be visible. Very much 
depends upon these prisms. Those supplied by 
the Messrs. Grunow are very large and fine, 
and the analyzer is placed by them directly 
above the objective; it is too large, however, 
to be placed so low down without injury to 
the definition. Beck’s analyzer is much shorter 
than Grunow’s, and may be used either over 
the eye piece or placed in the end of the draw- 
tube. There is much difference in these prisms; 
some scarcely injure the definition at all, and 
others are very poor. The polarizer is usually 
somewhat larger than the analyzer. The calc 
spar is very soft, and, if not protected by thin 
glass covers, liable to injury. A set of revolv- 
ing selenites, to go below the object, between 


it and the polarizer, accompanies the prisms. 
There is not much choice in the method of 
mounting and revolving these prisms; perhaps 
Grunow’s is the most elaborate, but, when the 
revolving selenites are included, we think Beck’s 
arrangement the most complete. <A ‘selenite 
stage” is often employed, simply placed under 
the object, on the stage of the microscope. Mr. 
Darker has contrived a stage of this kind, in 
which the selenites revolve. A complete po- 
larizing apparatus is very important, and should 
be attached to every good instrument. Some- 
times tourmalines are used instead of the prisms 
of calc spar; they are objectionable on account 
of their color, but placed over the eye piece 
do not at all obstruct the field of view.—The 
camera lucida furnishes the means of drawing 
or sketching outlines of objects viewed in the 
microscope, some provision for which is abso- 
lutely necessary. Often this is merely a plate 
of neutral tint glass, which, placed in front of 
the eye piece, at an angle of 45°, when the 
microscope is turned horizontal, reflects the 
image to the eye, and at the same time pencil 
and paper upon the table may be viewed 
through the glass. A better contrivance than 
this is the steel disk of Sdémmering, made 
slightly smaller than the pupil of the eye; 
this, when placed in front of the eye piece, 
enables one to view object and paper at the 
same time. In these contrivances, and also in 
the Nachet drawing prism, the object, being 
viewed after but one reflection, is reversed 
right and left. Where it is necessary to finish 
a drawing by the eye, this is a serious diffi- 
culty; it is therefore preferable in all cases to 
use the Wollaston prism, which is applied so 
as to give an unobstructed view of the whole 
field, and with which the drawing is precisely 
as it appears in the microscope without the 
prism. A little practice is required to use it 
well, but if the observer will take care to have 
the paper strongly illuminated, while the ob- 
ject is only enough illuminated to be seen dis- 
tinctly, no great difficulty will be found. But 
whoever does much original work with the 
microscope should not depend on drawings 
made with the camera lucida, but should learn 
to photograph the objects he has discovered, or 
the histological preparations he hasmade. ‘The 
eminently successful work of Drs. Edward Cur- 
tis and J. J. Woodward, at the army medical 
museum in Washington, should encourage all 
who have the means to adopt this accurate 
method of permanently securing the results of 
their labors.—The animalcule cage is a simple 
contrivance by means of which a drop of water 
may be retained between two glass plates, 
which may be approximated so as to just con- 
fine the object, without allowing, if it be liv- 
ing, too much freedom of movement; it is 
often made to serve the purpose of a com- 
pressor, for crushing soft bodies more or less 
during the examination.—The stage forceps is 
exceedingly useful for the examination of small 
insects. At one end is usually placed a bit of 


= 


MICROSCOPE BOL 


cork, enclosed in a brass cylinder pierced with 
holes, to receive an insect pin, in case it be de- 
sirable to examine cabinet specimens. The 
forceps should have free movement in all direc- 
tions. The recent ones supplied by Beck have 
a ball and socket movement; they are attached 
to the upper stage plate, and thus are moved 
by the rack and screw of the stage.—The 
parabola was originally contrived by Mr. Wen- 
ham, and was composed of a siiver reflector ; 
it is now made of glass, the outer surface hav- 
ing the form of a parabola. The rays of light, 
entering the glass through a plane surface 
below, suffer total reflection, and emerge with- 
out refraction, the upper surface of the trun- 
cated parabola being concave, so that each re- 
flected ray strikes upon the surface perpen- 
dicularly. The glass parabola has a small hole 
in the axis, carrying a sliding rod, with a small 
disk, which may be elevated or depressed ac- 
cording to the angle of aperture of the objec- 
tive, until the direct light is excluded ; the ob- 
ject is then exhibited entirely by oblique light 
on a dark field. The polycystina are beauti- 
fully shown by this illumination, and also parts 
of insects with the lower powers.—The erec- 
tor consists of two plano-convex lenses, to be 
inserted into the lower end of the draw-tube; 
by means of these the object is seen without 
being inverted. The magnifying power is 
much diminished, and the definition injured ; 
and one who intends to dissect under the com- 
pound microscope, had better at once learn to 
manipulate without it. The ingenious erect- 
ing prism of Nachet may be used, which does 
not in the least injure the definition. In this 
case the upright stand of Nachet will be found 
very steady and corlvenient.—The upright po- 
sition of the continental stand, with its short 
tube and low stage, is better adapted for real 
work, in dissection and in mounting objects, 
than the more elaborate English and American 
instruments; while the latter are superior for 
the resolution of test objects and for the study 
of tissues already prepared and mounted under 
the low vertical instrument.—Lieberkihns are 
polished silver specula fitted to the lower 
powers, the polished surface being presented 
to the object; they are used in conjunction 
with what are termed dark wells, which con- 
sist of a slender rod carrying at the summit a 
blackened cap of brass, and are placed directly 
under the object so as to cut off the direct 
light ; where the object itself is mounted on an 
opaque background, they are unnecessary. The 
light reflected from the mirror below, falling 
upon the Lieberkiihn, is condensed upon the 
object. There are many opaque objects which 
cannot be well seen without this kind of illumi- 
nation, and it is justly considered. a very im- 
portant addition to the apparatus.—The frog 
plate is a flat mahogany or metal plate, having 
a slightly elevated glass platform, and the edge 
of the plate pierced with holes or furnished 
with split pins. By means of threads tied to 
the toes of the frog, the web may be spread 


td 


out on the plate, the body of the frog being 
enclosed in a bag and strapped to the plate; 
care must be taken not to draw the string too 
tightly around the mouth of the bag where 
the leg protrudes, as it stops the circulation. 
The bag may be dispensed with by holding the 
frog a moment or two in water of 120° F., 
when it becomes perfectly rigid and apparently 
insensible. In this condition it may be opened, 
and the circulation of the blood in the veins 
and arteries of the mesentery most beautifully 
exhibited; care must be taken to keep the 
parts moist. For minute dissection we have 
found the eye instruments exceedingly useful. 
Fine scissors and forceps are made for this 
purpose, of most excellent quality, by Char- 
riére of Paris.—In working with the monocu- 
lar microscope, one should acquire the habit 
of keeping both eyes open. If the eyes are 


‘allowed to rest easy, and then the focus care- 


fully adjusted to suit while thus resting, no 
great fatigue will be experienced in using the 
microscope; if, however, the focus is only ap- 
proximated, and then distinct vision obtained 
by forcing the eye, severe pain and headache 
will ensue. The writer has worked with a 
bright light for six or eight hours, with but 
slight intermission, without fatigue. Long ex- 
perience and great caution are requisite in in- 
terpreting the phenomena revealed by the mi- 
croscope, and one soon learns that things are 
not always what they seem. This, however, 
cannot be justly urged against its use. When 
directed by skilful hands, and guided by expe- 
rience, its revelations are of the most exalted 
and truthful character. No one can hope to 
succeed in the department of natural history 
who is not a skilful microscopist. A north 
light, coming from the left hand, the stage 
movements being at the right hand, is the best 
light for day. At night, the naphtha or coal 
oil lamp, as now made by Beck, gives the most 
intense and steady flame. The gas jet is difficult 
to manage for delicate work.—A simple and 
very effective arrangement for illumination is 
that used by Dr. Edward Curtis of New York: 
‘““A small petroleum lamp is placed in a 
cigar box, which stands on one of itsends. On 
one side of the box is cut a small aperture, 
in which is placed a piece of blue glass, to 
soften the light as it passes to the microscope 
mirror. Another larger opening is made in the 
front of the box, and is occupied by three dif- 
ferent glasses. The one nearest the lamp is a 
square piece of ground glass; the next one is 
also square and flat, but colored blue. . Finally, 
a plano-convex lens of long focus is placed at 
such an inclination as to condense the rays 
of light, thus softened, on to the work-table 
for use in dissecting or in arranging prepara- 
tions.”—Many of the ‘‘test objects” have been 
so long known that it seems almost unneces- 
sary to mention them. The markings on the 
silicious shells of diatoms have been highly 
recommended, As general tests, they are no 
doubt very serviceable, but they are not en- 


522 


tirely to be relied upon unless the same speci- 
men is used in comparisons, on the same stand, 
and with the same illumination. In the fol- 
lowing table the usual tests, both for direct and 
oblique illumination, are given: 


eee Pomel? Direct light. Oblique light. 
2 or 1 20° |Sectionsofechinus.; ...... 
i Of Woodsen "= yan Se 
1 28° | Pollen grains, &c. | Pinnularia viridis. 
2% 33° | Trachee of insects.} Cocconema lanceo- 
y latum. 
lg 80° | Pleurosigma atten-| Pleurosigma fasci- 
uatum. ola. 
1% 100° | Pleurosigma strigo-| Hyalodiscus Cali- 
sum. fornicus. 
X¥ 140 Pleurosigma fasci-| Navicula rhom- 
ola. boides. 
1,90r 1/44; 170° | Do. do. Grammatophora , 
subtilissima of 
Providence. 


The following table exhibits the lineation of 
different species of diatomacew which have 
been employed as tests; the measurements are 
those of Messrs. Sullivant and Wormley: 


Strize in 1-1000 
ee of an inch. 
Deis os | Pleurosigma formosum. 36 diag. 
Di potas savers | e strigile. 30 trans. 
OP adore Balticum. ape 
= cae 4 attenuatum. Sle ky 
Ogee eee rs hippocampus. Som ise 
De erarsiatets . strigosum. 42 diag. 
(dsaer | * quadratum. 45 * 
Seetncs| 2 elongatum, 48“ 
Wan esce | i lacustre. 42 trans. 
HDs ee stains a angulatum. 50 diag. 
1G hr ats ee fasciola. 56 trans. 
12........; Navicula rhomboides. TOMS 
We era oe Nitzschia sigmoidea. Ome 
4 eee tee | Colletonema vulgare. (evo 
Lote rece Grammatophora subtilissima, 
Greenport. 70 to 75 trans. 
Do. do. Providence. io t0280) 
TOF Races: Synedra capitata, hoop of. said to be 75 * 
Ten week | Amphipleura pellucida. 130 ts 


J. D. Moller of Wedel, in Holstein, who is-well 
known for his beautiful mountings, furnishes 
a plate on which are mounted, in a line, the 
following 20 diatoms, in the order designated 
by Dr. Grunow: 1, triceratium favus ; 2, pin- 
nularia nobilis ; 8, navicula lyra, var.; 4, na- 
vicula lyra ; 5, pinnularia interrupta, var. ; 6, 
Stauronéis phenicenteron ; 7, grammatophora 
marina (more coarsely marked than Bour- 
goyne’s variety); 8, pleurosigma Balticum ; 
9, pleurosigma acuminatum ; 10, Niteschia 
amphioxys ; 11, pleurosigma angulatum ; 12, 
grammatophora oceanica subtilissima(marina) ; 
13, swrirella gemma; 14, Niteschia sigmoidea ; 


15, pleurosigma fasciola, var.; 16, surirella 


gemma (longitudinal lines and beads); 17, 
cymatopleura elliptica ; 18, navicula crassiner- 
vis, frustulia Saxonica ; 19, Niteschia curvu- 
la; 20, amphipleura pellucida. Dr. Wood- 
ward has photographed surirella gemma, and 
has obtained the longitudinal strize as ‘‘rows 
of minute hemispherical bosses. The fine trans- 
verse strie counted longitudinally at the rate 
of 72 to the 555 of an inch. Transversely 


MICROSCOPE 


these lines were resolved into beaded appear- 
ances, which counted laterally 84 to the =, 
of an inch.” (‘‘ American Journal of Science,” 
May, 1871.) But all organic markings are va- 
riable as to dimensions and visibility, and hence 
are not comparable except when one and the 
same object is used in the comparison of the 
efficiency of two lenses. Mr. Nobert has suc- 
ceeded in giving comparable test objects to 
microscopists by ruling on glass plates bands 
of parallel lines, the distances between the lines 
of successive bands constantly decreasing. His 
most recent plate contains 19 bands. The 
distance between the lines in the first band 
is 45, of a Paris line, and decreases by 54, 
in each to the 19th, in which it is zpt)5. 
The lines in the higher orders of bands are as 
close together as those of the diatoms whose 
markings are difficult to resolve. M. Schultze 
resolved the 15th band, and subsequently Dr. 
H. Frey resolved the 17th, with a Hartnack 
immersion No. 11. In 1869 Dr. Woodward 
resolved the 18th and 19th bands with an 
immersion ;!, of Powell and Lealand, and Dr. 
Edward Ourtis photographed them. Dr. Wood- 
ward says (‘‘ American Journal of Science,” 
September, 1869): ‘‘The photograph of Dr. 
Curtis was taken without an eye piece and with 
such a distance that the immersion +; gave 
1,000 diameters. The illumination was by sun- 
light passed through the ammonio-sulphate of 
copper, a + objective of 148° angle of aperture 
being used as the condenser, without diaphragm 
or stop, and obliquity of light obtained by 
means of the centring screws of the second- 
ary stage. . . .. Returning now to this immer- 
sion ;!,, it may be remarked that the work just 
done with it has an important bearing on the 
question of the real limits of microscopic vision. 
Nobert, in sending me the plate above de- 
scribed, wrote me that in his opinion the 15tb 
band was the limit of possible microscopic vi- 
sion. He based his opinion upon Fraunhofer’s 
formula with regard to the spectra of gratings, 
and upon the known wave length of light undu- 
lations. Dr. Barnard of Columbia college, New 
York, after reading Nobert’s letter, writes me 
that in his opinion Fraunhofer’s formula does 
not apply to the visibility of fine lines when 
observed with a modern microscope of high 
power, since the great angle of aperture of the 
objective permits oblique rays to reach the 
eye, and Fraunhofer’s formula applies only 
when the eye is perpendicular to the grating. 
Dr. Barnard is therefore of the opinion that the 
limit suggested by Nobert has no real exis- 
tence. In his letter, which I should mention 
was written before he was aware that I had 
satisfactorily resolved any of the bands beyond 
the 15th, he proposed that a trial should be 
made, to resolve the test plate with monochro- 
matic light, of colors longer than the violet 
which I had been using. Accordingly, obtain- 
ing monochromatic light by a prism on which 
aray of sunlight was thrown, I succeeded after 
some trials in satisfactorily resolving the 19th 


MICROSTHENES 


band with each of the colors of the spectrum, 
from the violet to the red. It may therefore 
be concluded that the present limit to micro- 
scopic vision is simply the goodness of the 
objective; and the rapidity of recent improve- 
ments may well lead us to hope for a still fur- 
ther advance.” Subsequently Nobert ruled, 
for the scrutiny of Drs. Barnard and Wood- 
ward, lines approximated even closer than the 
19th band, but the test has exceeded as yet the 
resolving power of their lenses. In judging of 
the merits of an objective, it appears to us that 
oblique illumination has been too much dwelt 
upon. The angle of aperture having been as- 
certained, the general merits will be much 
more apparent by use of tests, Nobert’s lines 
for example, with the best central illumina- 
tion. If the scale of podura plumbea is em- 
ployed, select a medium-sized rather than a 
large one. The wedge-shaped dots should be 
sharply defined, without fog or mist. The 
scales of the American podura are not dotted 
but lined, and are not so suitable.—See Quekett 
““On the Use of the Microscope” (London, 
1848; last ed.,1865); Robin, Du microscope (Pa- 
ris, 1849); Harting, Het Mikroskoop (Utrecht, 
1852; translated into German by Dr. Theile, 
Brunswick,1859) ; Wythes, ‘‘The Microscopist” 
~(Philadelphia, 1853); Schacht, ‘‘The Micro- 
scope,” edited by Currey (London, 1855); Grif- 
fith and Henfrey, ‘‘ Micrographic Dictionary : 
Introduction” (London, 1856); Gosse, ‘‘ Even- 
ings at the Microscope” (London and New 
York, 1859); West, ‘‘ Half Hours at the Micro- 
scope’? (London, 1859); Beale, ‘‘ Application 
of the Microscope to Clinical Medicine” (2d 
ed., London, 1859); Clarke, ‘‘ Objects for the 
Microscope” (London, 1859); Hogg, ‘ The 
Microscope”? (London, 1867); Beale, ‘‘ How 
to work with the Microscope” (London, 1868) ; 
Carpenter, ‘‘On the Microscope, its Revela- 
tions, and its Uses” (London and Philadelphia, 
1868); Woodward, ‘‘Photo-micrography,” in 
the ‘“ American Journal of Science,” vols. xlix. 
‘and 1.; F. A. P. Barnard, ‘‘ Microscopes,” in his 
“Report on the Apparatus of the Exact Sci- 
ences exhibited in the Paris Exposition, 1867 ;” 
H. Frey, ‘“‘The Microscope and Microscopical 
Technology,” translated from the German and 
edited by George Cutter, M. D. (New York, 
1872); ‘‘ Transactions of the Microscopical So- 
ciety of London;” and “ Quarterly Journal of 
Microscopical Science” (London). 

MICROSTHENES. See MeGAsTHENEs. 

MICROTASIMETER. See supplement. 

MIDAS, the name of several mythical kings 
of Phrygia. Rawlinson remarks in a note to 
Herodotus: ‘“‘In the royal house of Phrygia, 
the names Midas and Gordius seem to have 
alternated perpetually, as in that of Cyrene 
the names Battus and Arcesilaus. Every 
Phrygian king mentioned in ancient history is 
either Midas, son of Gordius, or Gordius, son 
of Midas. Bouhier reckons four kings of 
Phrygia named Midas, each the son of a Gor- 
dius. Three of these are mentioned in Herod- 


MIDDLEBURY 593 


otus.” Duncker, in Geschichte des Alterthums 
(4th ed., Leipsic, 1874), places the reign of the 
first Midas in the middle of the 8th century 
B. C., and supposes the dynasty to have be- 
come extinct in the 6th, with the successors of 
the third Midas, King Gordius and his son 
Adrastus. The following is the principal myth 
connected with the name of Midas. Midas con- 
ferred a favor on Bacchus, and the god desired 
him to ask whatsoever he pleased. Midas re- 
quested that everything touched by him might 
become gold. The request was granted, but as 
his food underwent the metamorphosis as well 
as all things else, he was reduced to a state of 
starvation, and implored the god to recall his 
grant. Bacchus bade him bathe in the Pacto- 
lus; and Midas having done so, instantly his 
touch lost its auriferous power in the case of 
all things essential to life, while the sands of 
the river were converted into gold. Midas 
was once chosen umpire in a musical contest 
between Pan and Apollo; he awarded the palm 
to Pan, in revenge for which Apollo changed 
his ears into those of an ass.. Midas, to hide 
this deformity, used to wear a lobed cap; but 
the slave whose business it was to cut his hair 
became privy to the secret, which so troubled 
him that, afraid to reveal it to a fellow mor- 
tal, and unable to keep it to himself, he dug 
a hole in the earth, and whispered into it: 
‘King Midas has asses’ ears.” He then filled 
up the hole, but a reed sprung up on the spot, 
which, as often as the wind blew, whispered 
his words to the world. Midas is said to have 
killed himself by drinking the blood of an ox. 

MIDDELBURG, a town of Holland, capital of 
the province of Zealand, situated near the cen- 
tre of the island of Walcheren, 82 m. 8. W. of 
Amsterdam; pop. in 1871, 16,580. The town 
is circular, and surrounded by a ditch and a 
bastioned mound, the top of which forms a fa- 
vorite public promenade. It has a gymnasium, 
an academy of design, a clinical school, a thea- 
tre, and various manufactures. The town hall 
was built by Charles the Bold in 1468, and is 
ornamented with 25 colossal statues of counts 
and countesses of Flanders. The town was 
founded in 1182, belonged for some time to 
the Hansa, and was taken by the Dutch from 
the Spaniards in 1574. The British lost 7,000 
men here from the effects of the climate du- 
ring the famous Walcheren expedition in 1809. 

MIDDLE AGES. See Aczs. 

MIDDLEBURY,’ a town and the capital of Ad- 
dison co., Vermont, on Otter creek at Middle- 
bury falls, and on the Rutland division of the 
Central Vermont railroad, 85 m. 8. of Burling- 
ton, and 83 m. §. W. of Montpelier; pop. in . 
1870, 8,086. It is surrounded by attractive 
mountain scenery. Fine white and variegated 
marble is found here, and large quantities are 
quarried and exported. The town contains 
a cotton factory, a woollen factory, an iron 
foundery, a national bank, a weekly newspa- 
per, 14 public schools, including a high school, 
and five churches. It is the seat of Middle- 


524 MIDDLESBOROUGH 


bury college, under the control of the Congre- 
gationalists, opened in 1800. It occupies three 
large buildings, and in 1873-’4 had 8 professors, 
52 students, a cabinet of zodlogy, botany, and 
mineralogy, and a library of 11,000 volumes. 
MIDDLESBOROUGH, a town of Yorkshire, 
England, in the North riding, on the Tees, 34 
m. from its mouth and 29 m. §. 8S. E. of New- 
castle-on-Tyne; pop. in 1871, 39,585. The 
population of the township in 1821 was only 
40; in 1831, 154; in 1841, 4,500; in 1851, 7,431. 
The rapid increase is attributable to the rise of 
the coal trade, consequent on the opening of 
the Stockton and Darlington railway, from the 
collieries of south Durham. The town was 
regularly and substantially built by a joint- 
stock company, as a port for loading colliers. 
In 1873 it had 81 places of worship. There is 
also a national school, and an observatory. 
The number of vessels entering the port in 
1871 was 1,278, tonnage 247,927; cleared 1,407, 
tonnage 288,952. There are important manu- 
factories of sail cloth and rope, an extensive 
pottery, iron works, and ship yards. 
MIDDLESEX. I. A N. E. county of Massa- 
chusetts, bordering on New Hampshire, bound- 
ed S. E. by the Charles river and drained by 
the Merrimack, Nashua, and Concord rivers, 
and other streams; area, 888 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 274,353. The immense water power sup- 
plied by a number of streams is largely em- 
ployed in manufactures. Several railroads in- 
tersect the county. The chief productions in 
1870 were 20,350 bushels of rye, 190,965 of 
Indian corn, 56,302 of oats, 14,880 of barley, 
443,099 of potatoes, 520,136 Ibs. of butter, and 
74,678 tons of hay. There were on farms 5,836 
horses, 16,887 milch cows, 2,107 working oxen, 


7,260 other cattle, 983 sheep, and 8,104 swine. » 


The total number of manufacturing establish- 
ments was 1,878, employing $43,528,466 cap- 
ital, and having an annual product of $113,- 
147,270. The chief establishments were 7 for 
bleaching and dyeing, 154 manufactories of 
boots and shoes, 15 of boot and shoe findings, 
2 of carpets, 54 of men’s clothing, 20 of cotton 
goods, 6 of drugs and chemicals, 21 of flouring 
mill products, 50 of furniture, 5 of glassware, 
15 of hardware, 7 of hosiery, 5 of India-rub- 
ber and elastic goods, 21 of iron in various 
forms, 70 of leather, 3 of liquors, 48 of lumber, 
52 of machinery, 25 of soap and candles, 6 of 
straw goods, 55 of tin, copper, and sheet-iron 
ware, 1 of watches, 22 of woollen goods, 12 of 
worsted goods, and 4 cotton and woollen print 
works. Capitals, Cambridge and Lowell. 
A §. county of Connecticut, bordering on Long 
Island sound and intersected by-the Connec- 
ticut river, which also forms a part of the E. 
boundary; area, about 430 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 
35,722. The surface is somewhat uneven, and 
the soil generally fertile. Several streams fur- 
nish water power. The New Haven and New 
London railroad passes through the S. part. 
The chief productions in 1870 were 5,841 bush- 
els of wheat, 17,101 of rye, 85,451 of Indian 


1870, 45,029. 


It. 


MIDDLESEX 


corn, 40,352 of oats, 176,231 of potatoes, 609,- 
327 lbs. of tobacco, 13,644 of wool, 404,620 of 
butter, 39,882 tons of hay, and 2,035 gallons of 
sorghum molasses. There were 1,888 horses, 
5,031 milch cows, 3,988 working oxen, 5,502 
other cattle, 4,785 sheep, and 2,869 swine. In | 
1870 the county contained 429 manufacturing 
establishments, employing 4,503 hands, and 
having'a capital of $4,614,630, and an annual 
product of $7,719,537. The principal manu- 
factories were 2 of agricultural implements, 10 
of bells, 10 of men’s clothing, 17 of cotton 
goods, 2 of edge tools and axes, 28 of hardware, 
3 of hooks and eyes, 9 of iron castings, 4 of 
turned ivory, 2 of musical instruments, 3 of 
printing paper, 8 of plated ware, 1 of pumps, 
2 of sewing machines, 12 of tin, copper, and 
sheet-iron ware, 1 of washing machines, 4 ship 
yards, 11 flour mills, and 13 saw mills. Capi- 
tals, Middletown and Haddam. If. A central 
county of New Jersey, intersected by the Rar- 
itan river and bounded E. by Raritan bay and 
Staten Island sound; area, 399 sq. m.; pop. in 
The surface is level toward the 
S. E. and undulating in the N. and N. E.; and 
the soil, which varies from a light sand to a 
deep clay, is generally fertile. It is intersected 
by the Camden and Amboy, the New Jersey, 
and the Freehold and Jamesburg railroads. 
The chief productions in 1870 were 106,158 
bushels of wheat, 15,967 of rye, 423,843 of In- 
dian corn, 271,332 of oats, 248,830 of Irish and 
12,391 of sweet potatoes, 418,434 lbs. of butter, 
and 37,160 tons of hay. There were 4,888 
horses, 6,185 milch cows, 3,728 other cattle, 
3,449 sheep, and 6,453 swine; 32 manufacto- 
ries of brick, 1 of freight and passenger cars, 1 
of drugs and chemicals, 3 of India-rubber and 
elastic goods, 2 of iron castings, 1 of paper 
hangings, 3 of sash, doors, and blinds, 2 of 
stone and earthen ware, 12 flour mills, 4 saw 
mills, 5 tanneries, 8 distilleries, 4 ship yards, and 
1 cork-cutting establishment. Capital, New 
Brunswick. IV. An E. county of Virginia,. 
bordering on Chesapeake bay, at the mouth of 
the Rappahannock river, which forms its N. E. 
boundary, and bounded 8S. W. by the Pianco- 
tank river; area, 170 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 4,981, 
of whom 2,522 were colored. The chief pro- 
ductions in 1870 were 19,650 bushels of wheat, 
86,967 of Indian corn, 11,420 of oats, and 
13,754 lbs. of butter. There were 426 horses, 
777 milch cows, 1,189 other cattle, 1,277 sheep, 
and 2,810 swine. Capital, Saluda. 
MIDDLESEX, a S. W. county of Ontario, 
Canada, watered by the Thames, Aux Sables, 
and Sydenham rivers; area, 1,228 sq. m.; pop. 
in 1871, 82,595, of whom 28,464 were of Eng- 
lish, 26,569 of Irish, 20,354 of Scotch, 2,888 of 
German, and 1,075 of Dutch origin, and 1,278 
were Indians. It is traversed by the Grand 
Trunk, the Great Western, and the London and - 
Port Stanley railways. Capital, London. 
MIDDLESEX, a S. E. county of England, 
bordering on Hertfordshire, Essex, Kent, Sur- 
rey, and Buckinghamshire; area, 283 sq. m.; 


MIDDLE THIBET 


pop. in 1871, 2,538,882. It is the smallest 
county in the kingdom except Rutland, but 
the greatest in population, wealth, and impor- 
tance, as it comprises the greater part of Lon- 
don, which occupies 51 sq. m. of the county. 
Much of the land is devoted to market garden- 
ing, though more of it is in meadow and pas- 
ture. The chief towns, besides London, are 
Brentford, the capital, Hounslow, and Uxbridge. 

MIDDLE THIBET. See Lapaxu. 

MIDDLETON, the name of a family noted in 
the history of South Carolina. I. Edward, its 
founder, was a native of Twickenham, Eng- 
land, where he inherited a large property. He 
removed to South Carolina, and was a member 
of the council under the lords proprietors in 
1680, 10 years after its settlement. He evinced 
decided republican tendencies, and maintained 
popular rights in opposition to the govern- 
ment. II. Arthur, son of the preceding, was a 
member of the council in 1712. His influence 
was exerted in favor of popular claims, op- 
posing the close borough system of the lords 
proprietors, and finally he headed the revolu- 
tion which threw off the proprietary govern- 
ment and placed the colony under the imme- 
diate protection of the crown (1719). He was 
governor of the colony from 1725 to 1781, 
after which he remained in the royal council. 
Tif. Henry, son of the preceding, was an aged 
man at the outbreak of the revolution, but was 
sent as a delegate from South Carolina to con- 
gress, of which body he was president in 1775. 
IV. Arthur, son of the preceding, born at the 
family seat on Ashley river in 1748, died Jan. 
1, 1787. He was educated at Harrow and 
Westminster schools, and the university of 
Cambridge, and became a revolutionary leader. 
He was one of the most efficient members of 
the first council of safety. In 1776 he was 
sent as a delegate of the state to congress, and 
as such affixed his signature to the Declaration 
of Independence. He held his seat in con- 
gress till 1777, declined the governorship of 
South Carolina in ‘1778, took the field for the 
defence of Charleston in 1779, saw his planta- 
tion devastated by the British, was made a pris- 
oner after the fall of Charleston in 1780, and 
was one of the leading citizens who were con- 
fined as hostages. His estate was sequestered, 
and he was confined in the castle of St. Au- 
gustine, and afterward in the Jersey prison 
ship. Exchanged in the latter part of 1780, he 
served till the close of the war as a delegate in 
congress, and was afterward elected to the 
state senate. He was a stenographer, and took 
down many of the debates in which he par- 
ticipated. He wrote effective political essays 
under the signature of ‘‘ Andrew Marvell.” 
V. Henry, son of the preceding, born in 1771, 
died in Charleston, June 14, 1846. He was a 
member of the state legislature from 1801 to 
1810; was governor of the state in 1810-12; 
a representative in congress from 1815 to 1819; 
and in 1820 was appointed minister to Russia, 
which post he held till 1831. 


MIDDLETON 525 


MIDDLETON, Conyers, an English clergyman, 
born in Richmond, Yorkshire, Dec. 27, 1683, 
died at Hildersham, Cambridgeshire, July 28, 
1750. He graduated at Trinity college, Cam- 
bridge, in 1702, was ordained deacon, was 
elected a fellow of his college in 1706, and in 
1708 signed the petition against Bentley, the 
master. This was the beginning of a contro- 
versy between them, long continued in the 
university and in the courts, Middleton being 
twice convicted of libel. The office of prin- 
cipal librarian of the university was created 
for him. In 1726 Middleton published an at- 
tack upon the medical profession, entitled 
De Medicorum apud Veteres Romanos degen- 
tium Conditione Dissertatio. In 1729 ap- 
peared his “Letter from Rome” (which he 
had visited in 1724), in which he attempted to 
show that ‘the religion of the present Romans 
was derived from their heathen ancestors.” 
He also attacked the miracles of the Roman 
Catholic church in a way which awakened 
a suspicion of his disbelief in the miracles of 
the New Testament. A letter to Dr. Water- 
land published in 1731 gave still more serious 
offence to the clergy, and Middleton found 
it necessary to publicly avow his belief in 
Christianity. In 1785 he published ‘A Dis- 
sertation concerning the Origin of Printing 
in England,” and in 1741. his most popular 
work, “The History of the Life of M. Tullius 
Cicero” (2 vols., London), from the profits 
of which he purchased a small estate at Hil- 
dersham, 6 m. from Oambridge, where he 
passed the rest of his days. The “ History” 
was followed by a translation of the corre- 
spondence of Cicero and Brutus, together with a 
defence of its authenticity (1743), and a “‘ Free 
Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers which are 
supposed to have subsisted in the Christian 
Church from the Earliest Ages” (1749), which 
exposed him again to the charge of infidelity. 
In 1750 appeared his ‘‘ Examination of the 
Bishop of London’s [Dr. Sherlock’s] Discourses 
concerning the Use and Intent of Prophecy.” 
His works, with the exception of the “‘ Life of 
Cicero,” were collected and published in 1752, 
in 4 vols. 4to, and subsequently in 5 vols. 8vo. 

MIDDLETON, Thomas, an English dramatist, 
born in the latter part of the 16th century, 
died in July, 1627. In 1620 he was appointed 
chronologer or city poet of London. He was 
associated with Jonson, Fletcher, Massinger, 
and Rowley in the composition of several 
plays. ‘‘A Mad World, my Masters,” “The 
Mayor of Queenborough,” and ‘The Roaring 
Girl,” are in Dodsley’s collection. His ‘‘Game 
at Chess,” performed in 1624, gave umbrage 
to the court on account of its allusions to the 
king and ambassador of Spain, and Middleton 
and the players were brought before the privy 
council and censured for their audacity in 
‘bringing modern Christian kings upon the 
stage.” From his play called ‘“‘ The Witch” 
Shakespeare has been supposed to have bor- 
rowed the witch incantations in ‘‘ Macbeth.” 


526 MIDDLETON 


MIDDLETON, Thomas Fanshawe, an English 
scholar, born at Kedleston, Derbyshire, Jan. 
26, 1769, died in Calcutta, July 8, 1822. He 
was educated at Christ’s hospital, London, 
and Pembroke hall, Cambridge, took orders, 
and while curate of Gainsborough in 1792 he 
edited a periodical called the ‘‘ Country Spec- 
tator.” His principal work is ‘The Doc- 
trine of the Greek Article applied to the Criti- 
cism and Illustration of the New Testament ” 
(London, 1808). He was prebendary of Lin- 
coln in 1809, archdeacon of Huntingdon in 
1812, and consecrated as first bishop of Calcutta, 
May 8, 1814. His sermons, charges, and tracts 
were collected and published with alife by Dr. 
Henry Kaye Bonney (London, 1824), and his 
life was also written by the Rev. Charles 
Webb Le Bas (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1880). 

MIDDLETOWN, a city, port of entry, and one 
of the shire towns of Middlesex co., Connecti- 
cut, on the right bank of the Connecticut river, 
30 m. above its mouth, 24 m. N. E. of New 
Haven, and 15 m. 8. of Hartford; pop. of the 
city in 1870, 6,928, exclusive of 4,208 in the 
town. It is situated at the intersection of a 
branch of the New York, New Haven, and Hart- 
ford railroad with the Connecticut Valley and 
the New Haven, Middletown, and Willimantic 
lines. The city has a gradual ascent from the 
river, with which the principal streets run par- 
allel, crossed at right angles by others; it is well 
built, chiefly of brick, and has many fine situ- 
ations and elegant mansions in the environs. 
It has a custom house built of Portland free- 
stone, and a court house. The wharves have 
10 ft. of water, and can accommodate such 
vessels as can cross the bar. During the year 
ending June 380, 1873, there were 229 en- 
trances, tonnage 231,675, and 7 clearances, ton- 
nage 720, all coastwise. There were belong- 
ing in the district 115 sailing vessels of 11,008 
tons, 25 steamers of 5,815 tons, and 7 barges 
of 1,234 tons. There are four national banks, 
with an aggregate capital of $969,300, two 
savings banks with more than $8,000,000 of 

deposits, and important manufactures, embra- 

cing cottons, foundery products, britannia ware, 
hardware, silver-plated ware, rules, chisels, 
sewing machines, pumps, webbing, tape, guns, 
screws, leather, &c. The city has a daily and 
two weekly newspapers, and a bi-weekly, a 
high school and six other public schools, and 
15 churches. It is the seat of the insane asy- 
‘lum, the state industrial school for girls, Wes- 
. leyan university (see WEsteyan UNIVERSITY), 
and Berkeley divinity school (Episcopalian). 
The last named institution was established in 
1854, and in 1873-’4 had 5 professors, 34 stu- 
dents, and a library of 14,000 volumes. 

MIDDLETOWN, a village of Orange co., New 
York, at the intersection of the Erie, the New 
York and Oswego Midland, and the New Jersey 

Midland railroads, 21m. W. by S. of Newburgh, 
and 55 m. N. N. W. of New York; pop. in 
1870, 6,049. Itisin the midst of a wide un- 
dulating plain, partly between and partly upon 


MIDLAND 


several gradually sloping hills. The view to 
the north and south is unbroken, while on the 
west it is bounded by the Shawangunk moun- 
tains and on the east by the Highlands along 
the Hudson and the mountains beyond. Inthe 
S. W. part of the village is Hillside cemetery, 
containing 50 acres, handsomely laid out and 
adorned. The streets are broad, clean, well 
shaded, sewered, lighted with gas, and bor- 
dered with flagged sidewalks. Water is sup- 
plied from a reservoir of 80 acres, 2 m. from 
the village, elevated from 100 to 200 ft. above 
its level. It has a fire department, a police 
force, and a board of health. There are many 
substantial business blocks, a fine masonic hall, 
neat cottages, and handsome residences. The 
state homceopathic asylum for the insane oc- 


‘| cupies a building capable of accommodating 


from 80 to 100 patients, with a wing in course 
of construction (1874) designed to accommo- 
date 175 more. Middletown is surrounded by 
a rich dairy and stock-raising district, from 
which it derives a large and profitable trade. 
It has manufactories of saws, files, hats, fur- 
naces, carpet bags, agricultural implements, 
lawn mowers, gloves, blankets, patent medi- 
cines, flavoring extracts, &c. There are sey- 
eral hotels, an opera house, public halls, two 
national banks, a savings bank, five brick school 
houses with a system of graded schools, a fe- 
male seminary, several private schools, a libra- 
ry and reading room, a daily and three weekly 
newspapers, and nine churches. 

MIDGE, a small fly. See Diprera. 

MIDHAT PASHA. See supplement. 

MIDIANITES, a2 nomad or half-nomad people 
of northern Arabia, who in the time of the early 
history of the Hebrews dwelt in the vicinity 
of the Arabian gulf and Dead sea, especially 
between Mt. Sinai and Moab. They are de- 
rived in Scripture from Midian, the son of Abra- 
ham by Keturah, and appear occasionally as 
merchants, and more frequently, like Bedouins, 
making raids into the neighboring territories 
of the Hebrews. Moses, who was himself the 
son-in-law of a Midianite priest, Jethro, waged 
a war of extermination against those of their 
tribes who in conjunction with the Moabites 
had enticed the Hebrews to idolatry when they 
were approaching Canaan. Gideon seems to 
have broken their power by his great victory 
over them and their allies the Amalekites. 
Some critics, to remove difficulties arising 
from apparently contradictory Scriptural state- 
ments, distinguish between Abrahamite and 
Cushite tribes of the same name, the former 
of whom, descendants of the same Semitic 
stock, lived in hostility to the Hebrews, while 
the daughter of Jethro is identified with the 
Cushite wife of Moses, mentioned in another 
part of his history (Num. xii. 1). 

MIDLAND, an E. central county of the 
southern peninsula of Michigan, intersected by 
Tittibawassee river and drained by its branches, 
the Chippewa, Salt, and Pine rivers; area, 550 
sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 3,285. The surface is 


MIDLOTHIAN 


level and the soil fertile. The Flint and Pére 
Marquette railroad passes through it. The 
chief productions in 1870 were 3,640 bushels 
of wheat, 6,838 of rye, 11,224 of oats, 23,408 
of potatoes, 31,175 Ibs. of butter, and 2,498 
tons of hay. There were 257 horses, 315 
milch cows, 409 other cattle, 298 sheep, and 
254 swine. Capital, Midland. 

MIDLOTHIAN. See EprnpurcusHire. 

MIDSHIPMAN, the lowest grade of officers in 
the line of promotion in the naval service. The 
number of midshipmen in the United States 
navy in 1874 was about 100, and no one can 
be appointed unless he is a graduate of the 
naval academy at Annapolis. The members 
of this institution are denominated ‘ cadet 
midshipmen,” and the appointments are dis- 
tributed by law among the states and terri- 
tories which have not their relative proportion 
on the navy list; and it is further required 
that the appointments from each state shall be 
apportioned as nearly as practicable equally 
among the several congressional districts there- 
in; that the person appointed shall be an ac- 
tual resident of the congressional district from 
which he is appointed, and be recommended 
by the member of congress for that district. 
Since the revival of the apprentice system in 
1864, 10 apprentices from the school ships are 
annually eligible by competitive examination 
to appointments in the naval academy, and of 
late several of the congressional appointments 
have been made from the apprentices. Can- 
didates must be over 15 and under 18 years 
of age at the time of the examination for ad- 
mission; must be free from deformity, disease, 
or imperfection of the senses; must be of good 
moral character, able to read and write well, 
writing from dictation and spelling with cor- 
rectness, and to perform with accuracy. the 
various operations of the ground rules of arith- 
metic. The examinations to which they are 
subjected are, first, by a board of three sur- 
geons, and then by one of professors. If 
found qualified, they become members of the 
academy ; their actual travelling expenses from 
their place of residence to the institution are 
paid by the government, and they are placed 
upon a pay of $500 per annum. The course 
of instruction at the naval academy, which now 
embraces a period of six years, includes mathe- 
matics, astronomy, navigation and surveying, 
ethics and English studies, natural and experi- 
mental philosophy, French and Spanish, draw- 
ing, artillery and infantry tactics, practical sea- 
manship, naval gunnery both theoretical and 
practical, the steam engine, &c. During the 
academic course two cruises of about three 
months each are made in a ship of war for in- 
struction. Warrants as midshipmen are con- 
ferred upon the graduates of the academy, who 
take rank in the order of merit. By the act of 
March 8, 1865, when on sea duty they receive 
pay at the rate of $800 a year. After two years 
of actual sea service, midshipmen, if they pro- 
duce a favorable testimonial from their com- 

555 VOL, XI.—34 


MIERIS OY 


manders, are entitled to a final examination for 
promotion, which is made by a board com- 
posed of three captains and two commanders. 
This examination is on the practical branches 
of the profession, and includes seamanship and 
naval tactics, practical navigation, gunnery, 
and the steam engine. Having passed this, 
they receive new warrants as ensigns, with 
increased pay; and promotion to the higher 
grades of the service is open to them.—In the 
British navy, young gentlemen intended for 
commissioned officers are educated, in the first 
instance, at the royal naval college; and after- 
ward, while serving at sea and until their pro- 
motion to a higher grade than midshipman, 
they are obliged to devote a portion of their 
time to study under a competent instructor. 
They begin actual service as naval cadets, pro- 
ceed as midshipman, and after 54 years of ser- 
vice, if they pass a proper examination in sea- 
manship and navigation, and are 19 years of 
age, they are promoted to lieutenants. They 
are considered as the principal petty officers, 
rank comparatively with ensigns in the army, 
and their pay is £34 4s. a year. In smaller 
vessels some of the senior midshipmen are in- 
trusted with the watch; they take charge of 
boats and small parties of men going ashore, 
pass the word of command, and see that the or- 
ders of their superiors are carried into effect. A 
midshipman’s share of prize money is the same 
as that of a petty officer, a cadet’s equal to that 
of the captains of the tops; and both receive 
the rations of seamen, but may provide a mess 
at their own expense.—The French aspirants 
de marine perform similar duties to those of 
midshipmen. They are of two classes, are 
especially educated for their profession at the 
naval academy in Brest, and undergo a strict ex- 
amination before receiving their appointment 
afloat, where they serve from the age of 12 to 
20 years. They are not entitled to command 
a ship till they have attained the age of 21. 

MIDWIFERY. See OxssteErTRIcs. 

MIEL, or Meel, Jan, called by the Italians Gio- 
vanni della Vite, a Flemish artist, born near 
Antwerp in 1599, died in Turin in 1664. He 
was employed in decorating the Vatican, be- 
came a member of the Roman academy, and 
was appointed first painter to the court of 
Savoy. His easel pictures of fairs, carnivals, 
hunting parties, market scenes, gypsies, &., 
are his best works. He etched several plates 
from his own designs. Some of his best pic- 
tures are in the imperial gallery in Vienna. 

MIERIS. I. Frans, the elder, a Dutch paint- 
er, born in 1685, died in Leyden in 1681. He 
was a pupil of Gerard Douw, and painted genre 
pictures and occasionally portraits, all remark- 
able for delicacy of finish, accuracy of drawing, 
and correctness of design. His pictures are 
not numerous, and bring very large sums. Ho 
died a prisoner for debt, in consequence of an 
extravagant course of life. I. Willem, son of 
the preceding, born in Leyden in 1662, died 
there, Jan. 24, 1747. He was the pupil of his 


528 MIEROSLA WSKI 

father, and equalled him perhaps in delicacy of 
finish, though he was inferior in color, drawing, 
and design. He attempted historical subjects 
in combination with landscape, and his picture 
of ‘Rinaldo asleep on the lap of Armida” 
was repeated by him in several copies. His 
domestic subjects are held in high estimation. 
Ill, Frans, the younger, son of the preceding, 
born in Leyden, Dec. 24, 1689, died there, 
Oct. 22, 1763. He studied painting with his 
father, and executed similar subjects, although 
in a much inferior manner. He also made 
numerous copies of the works of his father and 
grandfather, which frequently pass for origi- 
nals with inexperienced purchasers. He was 
an industrious student of history, and wrote 
several works relating to the Low Countries, 
including Historie der nederlandsche vorsten (8 
vols. fol., the Hague, 1732-5), and Groot char- 
terboek der graven van Holland, Zeeland en 
Vriesland (4 vols., Leipsic, 1753-6). He was 
engaged upon a history of Leyden at his death. 

MIEROSLAWSKI, Ludwik, a Polish revolution- 
ist, born at Nemours, France, in 1814, died 
Nov. 18, 1878. He was the son of a Polish 
officer in the French service, and was educated 
at the military school in Kalisz. He joined the 
revolutionists in 1830, served in the campaigns 
of the following year, and after the fall of 
Warsaw removed to Paris. He published va- 
rious books in Polish and French, and among 
others a critical military history of the Polish 
revolution. He was selected by the democratic 
organization of the Poles at Paris as principal 
leader for the next rising of Poland. This 
failed, however (1846), and Mieroslawski was 
arrested, tried at Berlin, and imprisoned under 
sentence of death. The Berlin revolution of 
March, 1848, opened his prison, and he im- 
mediately hastened to the duchy of Posen, and 
armed for another Polish rising. A bloody 
conflict was the result. The Poles gained a 
signal victory at Miloslaw; but after some re- 
verses Mieroslawski resigned his command, and 
the insurgents were disarmed (May). Early 
in 1849 he was summoned to Sicily to take 
command of the revolutionary forces; but 
after being wounded in the defence of Cata- 
nia (March), he resigned his post. Once more 
he took command of a revolutionary army in 
Baden, but after a few encounters with the 
Prussians he was obliged to retire to the for- 
tress of Rastadt, which surrendered soon after 
(July), and he returned to Paris. He took a 
brief part in the Polish insurrection of 1868, 
his command being disastrously defeated at 
Raziejewo on Feb. 22. He again returned to 
France, where he afterward published several 
works on the political dissensions among the 
Polish emigrants. 

MIFFLIN, a central county of Pennsylvania, 
intersected by the Juniata river; area, 375 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 17,508. Itis traversed by sev- 
eral high mountain ranges; the valleys are fer- 
tile. The Pennsylvania canal and the Pennsyl- 
vania railroad, with its Lewistown division and 


MIGNE 


Mifflin and Centre county branch, pass through 
it. The chief productions in 1870 were 322,835 
bushels of wheat, 365,806 of Indian corn, 322,- 
487 of oats, 73,211 of potatoes, 20,457 lbs. of 
wool, 415,115 of butter, and 15,005 tons of hay. 
There were 4,378 horses, 3,908 milch cows, 
4,944 other cattle, 7,552 sheep, and 8,449 
swine; 10 manufactories of clothing, 1 of edge 
tools and axes, 2 of pig iron, 3 of iron castings, 
1 of engines and boilers, 9 of saddlery and har- 
ness, 4 of woollen goods, 6 flour mills, 4 saw 
mills, and 11 tanneries. Capital, Lewistown. 
MIFFLIN, Thomas, an American revolution- 
ary general, born in Philadelphia in 1744, died 
in Lancaster, Pa., Jan. 20, 1800. He was by 
birth and education a Quaker, entered public 
life in 1772 as a representative from Philadel- 
phia in the colonial assembly, and in 1774 was 
a delegate to the first continental congress. 
In June, 1775, he accompanied Washington to 
Cambridge as his first aide-de-camp, with the 
rank of colonel. Subsequently he was adju- 
tant general, and in the spring of 1776 was 
commissioned as a brigadier general. He dis- 
tinguished himself in the battle of Long Island, 
and in the latter part of 1776 raised considera- 
able reénforcements in Pennsylvania for Wash- 
ington’s army. In 1777 he was made a major 
general, and became an active member of the 
‘“Conway cabal.” The project of making 
Gates commander-in-chief failing, he resigned 
his commission, and in 1783 was elected to 
congress, of which he became president at the 
close of the year. In 1785 he was speaker 
of the Pennsylvania legislature, and in 1787 a 
member of the convention which framed the 
federal constitution. In October, 1788, he suc- 
ceeded Franklin as president of the supreme 
executive council of Pennsylvania; and in 1790 
he was chosen governor of Pennsylvania, which 
office he held till shortly before his death. 
MIGNE, Jacques Paul, a French editor, born at 
Saint: Flour, Oct. 25, 1800, died in November, 
1875. He was ordained priest in 1824, and in 
1883 founded in Paris the journal L’ Univers 
religieuz. This he sold in 1836, and undertook 
to publish a collection in 2,000 volumes of 
ecclesiastical authors ancient and modern, at 
low prices, to be called Bibliotheque du elergé. 
From 1840 to 1845 he issued simultaneously, 
in 28 volumes each, the Scripture Sacre 
Cursus Completus and the Theologie COursus 
Completus. He next founded at Petit Mont- 
rouge an immense establishment uniting all 
the branches connected with printing, and em- 
ploying hundreds of workmen, besides a large 
staff of clergymen as assistant editors. From 
this were issued complete collections of the 
Latin and Greek church fathers, the medieval 
writers, modern controversialists, and pulpit 
orators. He also published Encyclopédie théo- 
logique (171 vols. 8vo, 1844~’66), comprising 
three series of dictionaries on subjects con- 
nected with religion. Archbishop de Quélen 
of Paris, deeming such an undertaking a mere 
commercial speculation, forbade the abbé Migne 


MIGNET 


to continue it, and as he did not comply with- 
drew his sacerdotal faculties. Migne had also 
founded the daily independent journal Za Vé- 
yité, which ceased in 1856, and reappeared as 
a weekly ecclesiastical record in 1861. In 1868 
his immense establishment was burned. 

MIGNET, Frangois Auguste Marie, a French his- 
torian, born in Aix, May 8, 1796. He was 
educated at Avignon, and in 1818 was called 
to the bar. In 1820 he obtained a prize offer- 
ed by the academy of Nimes for an essay on 
Charles VII. The acquisition in 1821 of a 
more important prize proposed by the acade- 
my of inscriptions and belles-lettres, for a dis- 
sertation on the state of the government and 
legislation of France during the age of Louis 
IX., induced him to abandon law for literature, 
and he removed to Paris. His liberal polit- 
ical views recommended him to the editor of 
the Courrier Frangais, to the staff of which 
he was attached for more than ten years; and 
about the same time he began a course of his- 
torical lectures at the Athénée which gained 
him a considerable reputation. In 1824 ap- 
peared his first important publication, Histoire 
de la révolution francaise de 1789 a@ 1814 (2 
vols. 8vo), frequently reprinted in France, and 
translated into the principal European lan- 
guages. In 18380 he was associated with Thiers 
and Armand Carrel in the establishment of the 
National newspaper, and, having codperated 
in the overthrow of the Bourbon dynasty, was 
appointed by Thiers upon his accession to office 
councillor of state and director of the archives 
in the ministry of foreign affairs. In 1832 he 
was elected a member of the academy of moral 
and political sciences, of which in 1887 he be- 
came the perpetual secretary; and in the same 
year he was admitted to the French academy. 
His political views were so distasteful to the 
government of Lamartine in 1848, that he was 
removed from his offices of director of the 
foreign archives and of councillor of state. 
Among his most important works are a series 
of documents entitled Négociations relatives a 
la succession d’ Espagne sous Louis XIV., with 
an introduction (4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1886-’42), 
constituting a complete history of the reign of 
Louis XIV.; Antonio Perez et Philippe II. 
(8vo, 1845); Vie de Franklin (1848); Histoire 
de Marie Stuart (2 vols. 8vo, 1851); and Charles 
Quint, son abdication, son séjour et sa mort 
au monastére de Yuste (1854). In 1843 he 
published several biographical papers under 
the title of Notices et mémoires historiques 
(2 vols. 8vo); and he has since published 
Lloges historiques (8vo, 1863). In December, 
1874, he submitted to the academy his Notice 
historique de la vie et des euvres du duc de 
Broglie, who died in 1870. For many years 
he has been engaged upon a history of the 
reformation. 

MIGNONEITE (Fr. mignonnette, diminutive 
of mignonne, darling), the common name for 
reseda odorata, a very popular garden annual. 
Though we derive our garden name as above 


MIGUEL 529 


indicated, the French use réséda as the common 
name. This genus and a few others form the 
small family resedacee, which in a systematic 
arrangement occupies a place between eruci- 
Jere and violacew. The resedas are natives 
of Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia, 
and are herbaceous or somewhat shrubby plants, 
with alternate leaves, and greenish yellow or 
white flowers in long terminal spikes; the four- 
to seven-parted calyx is never closed, even in 
the bud; the petals as many as the calyx divi- 
sions, unequal, some or all deeply cleft or di- 
vided; stamens 10 to 40, borne on a glandular 
disk; ovary and pod of three to six carpels 
united, not quite to the top, to form a three- to 
six-lobed or three- to six-horned, one-celled 
pistil, which opens at the top long before the 
seeds are matured. The common mignonette 
(R. odorata) is much cultivated for the fra- 
grance of its greenish white, inconspicuous 


Mignonette (Reseda odorata). 


flowers. In north Africa it is a perennial, but 
it is usually cultivated as an annual; the seeds 
are sown where the flowers are to bloom, and 
it springs up abundantly from self-sown seeds. 
For greenhouse culture, several seeds are sown 
in a pot and the plants thinned to three. What 
is called tree mignonette is only the ordinary 
kind which, by nipping off the flower buds, is 
prevented from blooming until it has formed 
a strong tree-like plant. By selection several 
improved strains have been produced. Mi- 
gnonette is much used by florists to impart 
fragrance to bouquets of showy but inodorous 
flowers. The white mignonette (A. alba), with 
long spikes of odorless flowers, is rarely seen 
in gardens, and weld or dyer’s mignonette (2. 
luteola) is sparingly naturalized. (See WELD.) 

MIGUEL, Dom Maria Evaristo, a Portuguese 
prince, born in Lisbon, Oct. 26, 1802, died at 
Brombach, Baden, Nov. 14, 1866. He was 
the third son of John VI. of Portugal and Car- 
lotta Joachima, a daughter of Charles IV. of 


530 MIKADO 


Spain, and spent his early life with his pa- 
rents in Brazil, returning with the royal fam- 
ily to Portugal in 1821. When his elder 
brother Dom Pedro became emperor of Bra- 
zil, and his father established a constitutional 
monarchy in Portugal (1822), Dom Miguel, in- 
stigated by his mother, and aided by several of 
the nobility and clergy and by a large part of 
the troops, formed plots against the new con- 
stitution. He rebelled in 1828, and in 1824, 
with his mother, was expelled from the coun- 
try. He went first to Paris, and then to Vi- 
enna. His father died on March 10, 1826, and 
his sister Isabella Maria was for a short time 
regent of Portugal. Dom Pedro relinquished 
the throne of Portugal (May 2) to his daugh- 
ter, Dona Maria (afterward Dona Maria II. da 
Gloria), then in her seventh year, offering ler 
hand in marriage to her uncle Dom Miguel, 
who was appointed to the regency July 3, 1827, 
and took the oath to maintain the constitution 
(Feb. 26, 1828). Soon afterward he defeated 
the garrisons of Oporto and other places which 
declared for Dom Pedro, convened new cor- 
tes, imprisoned or exiled the legislators who 
were likely to oppose him, and was proclaimed 
absolute king on June 25. He consolidated his 
power by the most despotic methods. Those 
implicated in the Oporto insurrection were 
mercilessly punished, and the prisons of the 
country filled with liberals; an expedition was 
sent against Madeira and the Azores, whose in- 
habitants had refused to acknowledge him, and 
the islands were subdued with the exception 
of Terceira in the Azores. Dom Miguel’s cruel 
administration soon became odious to the peo- 
ple. Terceira continued to hold out against 
him, and the leaders of the constitutional par- 
ty gathered there, established a regency in the 
name of Dona Maria, and collected a. fleet and 
army with which Dom Pedro, who had abdi- 
cated the throne of Brazil (1831), sailed in 
June, 1832, for Oporto, which he took without 
bloodshed. In the following year his fleet, 
commanded by Sir Charles John Napier, de- 
stroyed that of Dom Miguel, and the army ad- 
vanced to Lisbon, which declared unanimously 
for Dona Maria. Dom Miguel was abandoned 
by most of his followers, and in May, 1834, 
concluded at Evora a convention by which he 
agreed to quit Portugal. He went to Genoa 
and to Rome, and subsequently spent several 
years in London, where he was noted for de- 
bauchery. In 1851 he married the German 
princess Adelheid von Liwenstein-Wertheim- 
Rosenberg, by whom he had a son (Miguel, 
born in 1853) and four daughters. 

MIKADO, a term of doubtful etymology, used 
to designate the emperor of Japan. The word 
does not occur in the most ancient Japanese 
books, but is the one, out of many names 


given to the emperor, which has obtained the 


greatest currency. The derivation of mikado 
usually accepted by the Japanese is from mi, 
honorable, august, and kado, a gate, equivalent 
to the Turkish title Sublime Porte. Another 


MIKLOSICH 


derivation, given by Satow, is from mika, grand, 
awful, and to, place. It originally meant the 
palace of the sovereign, but by a figure of 
speech especially common in Japanese, it is. 
used for the sovereign himself, just as dairi, 
the palace, with the suffix sama, is also used. 
Other terms applied to the emperor are Kotez, 
judge of the world, or ruler over nations; 
tenshi, son of heaven ; kinri, the forbidden in- 
terior; dairi, the inner interior; chote2, hall 
of audience; and tenno, heaven-king. Tenno 
is the official designation now used, and all Jap- 
anese ministers and consuls are accredited as 
representatives of ‘‘his imperial majesty the 
tenno of Japan.” The first mikado, Jimmu 


.Tenno, who is usually regarded as a historical 


character, began to reign about 660 B. C., since 
which time 123 emperors have occupied the 
throne. The mikado claims divine descent 
from the gods or kami who created heaven 
and earth (or Japan). He has no family name, 
and no mikado ever takes the name of any of 
his predecessors. The reigning mikado (1875) 
is Mutsuhito, second son of the emperor Ko- 
mei Tenno and the empress Fujiwara Asako. 
He was born in 1850, succeeded his father Feb. 
3, 1868, and married Haruko, daughter of Ichijo 
Tadaka, a noble of the second degree of the 
first rank, born in June, 1850. (See Japan, 
vol. ix., pp. 542-6.) The ‘unbroken line of 
descent through 25 centuries” claimed for the 
mikado has been made possible and even prob- 
able by the existence in Japan of the custom 
prevalent in Asiatic nations of adoption and 
concubinage. The mikado is allowed 12 niogo 
or concubines, though the number is rarely 
filled up. As an additional safeguard against 
failure of issue, four cadet families of the im- 
perial blood called the shishinwo have long 
been set apart, from which heirs to the throne 
might be chosen. The present mikado, aban- 
doning the habits of seclusion practised by his 
ancestors, appears in public, and gives audience 
to members of the diplomatic corps in Japan, 
to his own officers, and to the foreigners em- 
ployed in the government service. He dresses, 
eats, rides, and acts like a European sovereign. 
The real governing power in Japan, however, 
resides in the dai jo kuan, or supreme council. 

MIKLOSICH, Franz von, a Slavic philologist, 
born at Luttenberg, Styria, Nov. 20, 1813. 
He studied philosophy and jurisprudence at 
Gratz, and became a teacher in 1837. He was 
a member of the Austrian parliament in 1848- 
9, and afterward became Slavic professor in 
the high school of Vienna. In 1862 he was 
made a life member of the Reichstag. He 
has published Radices Lingue Paleoslovenice 
(Leipsic, 1845); Lexicon Lingue Paleoslove- 
nice (Vienna, 1850; 2d ed., 1865); Formen- 
lehre der altslowenischen Sprache and Laut- 
lehre der altslowenischen Sprache (1850); Ver- 
gleichende Grammatik der slawischen Spra- . 
chen (1852-71) which is his principal work; 
Chrestomathia Paleoslovenica (1854 and 1861) ; 
Die slawischen Elemente im Neugriechischen 


MILAM 


(1870); and Beitrige zur Kenntniss der slawi- 


MILAN 531 


that of the outer wall 10 m., the latter area 


schen Volkspoesie, including Die Volksepik der | comprising, besides the city proper and its 


Kroaten (1870) and Albanische Forschungen 
(3 parts, 1871). With J. Miller he edited 
Acta et Diplomata Greca Medii Afvi (8 vols., 
1860 ef seq.). 

MILAM, a central county of Texas, bordered 
N. E. by the Brazos river, intersected by Lit- 
tle river, and drained by its tributaries the San 
Gabriel, Brushy creek, and others; area, 1,048 
sq: m.; pop. in 1870, 8,984, of whom 2,977 
were colored. The surface is generally roll- 
ing, in some places hilly and broken, and the 
soil is mostly fertile. 
in 1870 were 201,117 bushels of Indian corn, 
21,391 of sweet potatoes, 21,881 lbs. of wool, 
37,549 of butter, and 5,148 bales of cotton. 
There were 4,548 horses, 


suburbs, a great number of gardens and or- 
chards. The principal gates are the porta 
Principe Umberto, opened in 1865, through 
which all travellers by rail enter the city, and 
the porte Garibaldi, Nuova, Venezia, Vittoria, 
Vigentina, Ludovica, Romana, Ticinese, Ver- 
cellina (now Magenta, built to receive Napo- 
leon when he came to assume the iron crown), 
and Tenaglia. The last leads to the Sim- 
plon, and opens upon an esplanade called piaz- 
za di Castello. The street running all round 


The chief productions |} outside the city is called strada di Circonval- 


lazione. Some of the streets are narrow and 


winding, but they are generally well paved, 
and some of the thoroughfares are admirable, 


4,106 milch cows, 24,706 


other cattle, 6,498 sheep, 


and 16,672 swine. Capi- 


tal, Cameron. 


MILAN (Ital. Milano ; 


Ger. Maitland). I. A prov- 


ince of Italy, in Lombar- 
dy, bordering on Como, 
Bergamo, Cremona, Pia- 
cenza, Pavia, and Nova- 
res area,r 1, 165° >sqs)m:: 
pop. in 1872, 1,009,794. 
The surface in the north 
is hilly, falling away grad- 
ually to the plains of the 
south. The river Adda 
bounds the province part- 
ly on the E., and the Ticino 
on the W.; along these 
streams the land is low 
and marshy, but on the 
whole the soil of the prov- 


ince is remarkably fertile. 


It is divided into the dis- 
tricts of Abbiategrasso, 


Gallarate, Lodi, Milan, and 


Monza. II. A city (anc. 


Mediolanum), capital of 
the province, in lat. 45° 
yeaNesloni9> 11! E.2155 
m. W. of Venice, and 78 
m. N. E. of Turin; pop. in 1872, 199,009. It 
lies in a fertile plain 8. of the Alps, between 
the small streams Lambro and Olona, which 
connect by the Naviglio Grande canal with the 
Ticino and by the Mortesana canal with the 
Adda, establishing a communication with the 
Lago Maggiore, the lake of Como, and the Po. 
By railway it is connected with the principal 
cities of Italy. Unlike other celebrated Italian 
cities, Milan combines remarkable natural and 
architectural attractions with appearances of 
comfort and material prosperity; and it is 
justly regarded as one of the pleasantest cities 
_ of Europe. It is nearly circular. The length 
of the canal which forms the circumference of 
the most densely populated part is 5 m.; the 
whole circuit of the modern city is 8 m., and 


Cathedral of Milan. 


Many streets parallel to and in the immediate 
vicinity of the canal retain the name of terrazzi 
or terraces. The piazza Borromeo is adorned 
with a statue of that saint. The piazza di 
Castello or esplanade was much embellished 
by Eugéne de Beauharnais during his viceroy- 
alty. The castle is now used as a barrack, and 
on the N. E. side is the piazza d’Armi. The 
arco della pace, opening into it, is second only 
to the are de Vétoile in Paris; it is a magnifi- 
cent white marble triumphal arch, principally 
the work of Cagnola, begun in 1807 and com- 
pleted in 1888. Close by the piazza d’Armi is 
the Arena, used for shows and races, and capa- 
ble of accommodating 30,000 spectators. The 
most fashionable promenades are the streets 
called corsi, which lead to the principal gates. 


532 


The corso Vittorio Emanuele, beyond the por- 
ta Venezia, is the most beautiful and the most 
frequented. Near by is the new public garden, 
beautifully laid out, and adorned with a bronze 
statue of Cavour. A magnificent equestrian 
statue of Napoleon III. was erected in one of 
the public squares in 1875.—The houses of Milan 
are generally from three to five stories high. 
There are not as many sumptuous mansions as 
in Genoa, Rome, and Florence, but the Vis- 
conti, Belgiojoso, Annone, and Belloni palaces 
are fine architectural monuments, containing 
many works of art. The archiepiscopal pal- 
ace, the palazzo della Corte (the residence of 
the king when he visits Milan), the palazzo 
Marini or of the treasury, the palace of justice, 
that of the government, the palace of science 
and art (Brera), the mint, and the famous 
monte di stato or public loan bank, are among 
the most remarkable public buildings. But 
they are all eclipsed by the duomo or cathe- 
-dral, next to St. Peter’s the largest church in 
Italy. It is almost in the centre of the city, in 
the piazza del Duomo. It was begun by Gio- 
vanni Galeazzo Visconti in 1387, but is not yet 
finished, although Napoleon I. gave a powerful 
impulse to its completion. Though the main 
design has been carried out, the details present 
inconsistencies and anachronisms. The inte- 
rior is crowded with monuments of prelates 
and princes and relics of saints. In fretwork, 
carving, and statuary, it is said to eclipse all 
other churches in the world; and the orna- 
mentation is so profuse that much of the val- 
ue of the details is lost in the mass. (For its 
dimensions and general description see CaTHE- 
DRAL, Vol. iv., p. 118.) One of the most re- 
markable churches is that of St. Ambrose, re- 
nowned for its antiquity and as the scene of 
ecclesiastical councils, political conflicts, and 
the coronation of sovereigns. In the refec- 
tory of the ancient Dominican convent, the 
present church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, is 
the celebrated fresco of the “ Last Supper” 
by Leonardo da Vinci. The church of Santa 
Maria, near that of San Celso, in the Borgo 
San Celso, is noted for its beauty. The 
church of San Carlo Borromeo, begun in 1838 
and opened in 1847, built after a design of 
Amati, is surmounted by a dome only second 
in size to that of the Pantheon, and contains a 
marble group of the dead Saviour and the Vir- 
gin by Marchesi; but the interior is unfinished. 
Among other notable churches containing cel- 
ebrated pictures and monuments are San Fi- 
dele, San Lorenzo, San Marco, and San Vittore 
al Corpo, formerly the Basilica Porziana, which 
vies in dignity with the duomo. Milan abounds 
with charitable institutions, which possess prop- 
erty to the amount of $40,000,000. The prin- 
cipal of them is the great hospital, 880 ft. long 
by 360 ft. in depth, founded by Francesco 
Sforza in the 15th century, open to all appli- 
cants, and containing a free dispensary ; among 
other endowments, it has received two legacies, 
respectively of $600,000 and $1,800,000, from 


MILAN 


private individuals. Among the other hospi- 
tals are the large foundling hospital; the Tri- 
vulzi hospital, for the relief of the aged, found- 
ed in 1771 by Antonio Trivulzi, who devoted 
his palace to the purpose; and the lazaretto, 
the most extensive of them all, situated out- 
side of the walls, founded in 1461 and com- 
pleted at the end of the century, for the 
plague-stricken, and consisting of four ranges 
of buildings, each nearly 1,200 ft. long, which 
enclose an area of more than 30 acres.— 
Education is represented in Milan by the 
archiepiscopal seminary, two lyceums, three 
gymnasiums, and a number of colleges and 
schools, including one for deaf mutes, one for 


veterinary surgeons, and one for the techno- 


logical sciences. There are an institute of sci- 
ence, a geographical military institute noted 
for issuing excellent maps, a collection of zodlo- 
gy and paleontology in the museo municipale 
di storia naturale, and other establishments 
and societies for the promotion of science, lit- 
erature, and art. The intellectual activity of 
the city has been rapidly increasing since the 
overthrow of the Austrian rule in 1859, and is 
particularly evident in the great number of 
newspapers and periodicals published there. 
Probably more books are issued in Milan than 
in any other city of Italy. The Milanese 
school of engravers has acquired a high repu- 
tation within the last 40 years. The acade- 
my of fine arts is one of the most celebrated 
institutions of its kind in Europe, and the 
palazzo delle scienze e delle arti, in which it 
is situated (commonly called the Brera from 
having originally been a Jesuit college called 
Santa Maria in Brera), is one of the chief 
ornaments of the city. It contains an exten- 
sive gallery of paintings, rich in works by 
Lombard and Bolognese artists; the public 
library of nearly 190,000 volumes, including 
the works bequeathed to it by Haller; a num- 
ber of medals and an archeological library ; 
a collection of casts; a botanic garden, and 
an observatory, one of the best in Italy. 
The new Victor Emanuel gallery was opened 
by the king, Sept. 15, 1867. Besides several 
other special libraries in the Brera, Milan is 
the seat of the world-renowned Ambrosian 
library, founded by Cardinal Borromeo, and 
carefully explored by Cardinal Mai, who made 
there important discoveries of palimpsests. 
(See AmBrostan Liprary.) The most exten- 
sive private library in Milan is in the palazzo 
Trivulzi, which contains also a valuable collec- 
tion of coins, and of Greek, Roman, and me- 
disval antiquities. The theatres and theatri- 
cal entertainments at Milan are numerous and 
excellent. La Scala can accommodate between 
3,000 and 4,000 persons. Attached to it is an 
academy of dancing, and it also contains a sala 
di ridotto for concerts and balls. Among the 
other principal theatres are the Canobiano, the 
Carcano, the Teatro Re, and the Filodramatico, 
conducted exclusively by amateurs. The city 
contains fine coffee houses, club houses, hotels, 


MILAN 


elegant shops, and a magnificent bazaar (gal- 
leria di Cristofero). Milan has been the seat 
of an archbishop since the time of the last Ro- 
man emperors. The fortifications, consisting 
of a bastioned wall and other works, form an 
irregular polygon, and are not strong enough 
to withstand a siege. In the inland trade, the 
commercial activity is greater than that of any 
other city in Italy. The principal articles of 
commerce are silk, grain, rice, and cheese. 
The manufactures of silk goods, ribbons, felt 
and silk hats, turners’ work, cutlery, and por- 
celain are important.—Ancient Milan (Medio- 
Janum) was the chief place of the Insubres in 
Cisalpine Gaul, and for a long time the capital 
of that province. It fell into the hands of the 
Romans about 222 B.C. Under the empire 
it advanced rapidly in prosperity and in polit- 
ical and intellectual importance. It became 
the central point from which the high roads of 
northern Italy radiated ; its admirable position 
midway between the Alps and the Po made 
it the natural capital, and it was the imperial 
residence of Maximian and some of his suc- 
cessors for the greater part of the 4th century. 
By his edict issued at Milan in 313 Constantine 
granted tolerance to the Christians. St. Am- 
brose was bishop of Milan more than 22 years, 
till his death in 397, and his personal influence 
made his metropolitan see paramount in Chris- 
tendom. Several councils were held there in 
the 4th century, and several others in later 
times. In 452 the city was plundered by At- 
tila. It next became the capital of the Gothic 
kings, and was recovered by Belisarius in 537, 
but retaken by the Goths in 539, and almost 
entirely destroyed and nearly depopulated. In 
569 it was occupied by the Lombards, and in 
774 it came into the possession of Charlemagne. 
Several of his successors assumed either at Mi- 
lan or at Pavia the iron crown. After the coro- 
nation of Otho I. in 961 Milan formed part of 
the German empire, and its governors were 
appointed by the emperors. The city was be- 
sieged by Conrad II. in the early part of the 
1ith century, on account of the attempt of 
Archbishop Heribert and others against the im- 
perial authority. In the 12th century, wher 
Milan was the most wealthy, populous, and in- 
fluential city in Lombardy, it became the princi- 
pal opponent of the German emperors, and was 
twice besieged by Frederick Barbarossa (in Au- 
gust and September, 1158, and again from May, 
1161, to March, 1162); and after the second siege 
it was almost entirely destroyed. Recovering 
from the effects of this calamity, it was declared 
a free city after the victory of the Lombard 
league at Legnano in 1176; and although pledg- 
ing itself by the treaty of Constance (1183) to 
recognize the German emperors as chief feu- 
datories and magistrates, it was permitted to 
withhold from them the revenues of the im- 
mense municipal domains. The efforts of the 
citizens to liberalize their institutions were 
thwarted by the conflict between the Guelphs 


533 


divided between the family Della Torre, the 
representatives of the former, and the Viscon- 
ti, of the latter party. The Della Torre were 
successful in monopolizing the office of po- 
desta or chief magistrate from 1237 to 1811, 
when a revolt against the emperor Henry VII. 
brought the Visconti into power. Matteo 
Visconti and his successors extended the pow- 
er of Milan over almost all parts of Lom- 
bardy, and in 1395 it became the capital of 
the duchy of Milan, the first duke being Gio- 
vanni Galeazzo Visconti. After the extinction 
of the male line of the Visconti family (1447), 
Francesco Sforza, the husband of an illegiti- 
mate daughter of the last of the Visconti, se- 
cured the duchy for himself and his descen- 
dants. The claim of France upon Milan, de- 
rived from intermarriage with the Visconti, 
was taken up by Louis XII. (1499), and more 
strongly by Francis I., who was opposed by 
the emperor Charles V.; and the duchy was 
alternately in the hands of the French and of 
Sforza until Francis was obliged to relinquish 
his pretensions by the treaty of Madrid (1526). 
Francesco Sforza II. having received Milan in 
fief from Charles V., it reverted to that em- 
peror after the extinction of the male line of 
the Sforzas (1535); he gave it to his son Phil- 
ip II., and it remained in the power of Spain 
for nearly two centuries. From the end of 
the 14th to that of the 16th century Milan was 
celebrated for its manufactures of arms and 
armor. The city was equally renowned for 
the elegance and tastefulness of its finery, and 
became so noted as a leader of fashions in 
Europe that the English word milliner origi- 
nated from Milaner, an importer of fashion- 
able articles from Milan. In 1576 the city 
was desolated by the plague. At the close of 
the war of Spanish snecession the duchy was 
allotted to Austria (1714), and constituted to- 
gether with Mantua the Austrian portion of 
Lombardy. After the invasion of the French 
in 1796 it became part successively of the Cis- 
alpine republic (1797), of the Italian republic 
(1802), and of the kingdom of Italy (1805). In 
1814 it became a province of Austria and part 
of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. : Soon 
after the French revolution of 1848 Milan be- 
came the scene of disturbances; and after the 
departure of the viceroy, Archduke Regnier, 
a violent insurrection broke out, in conse- 
quence of which Gen. Radetzky, commander 
of the citadel, was compelled to evacuate the 
city, which was occupied by the Piedmontese, 
who established a provisional government. 
After the defeat of Charles Albert at Custozza 
(July 25) the republicans of Milan overthrew 
the provisional government; but on Aug. 5 
the city was compelled to submit to Radetzky, 
who entered it with 50,000 men, and kept it 
in a state of siege till December. The dis- 
turbances of March, 1849, and the rising of Feb. 
6, 1858, were speedily suppressed. The rule 
of Austria was brought to a close in 1859 by 


and Ghibellines, the political influence being | the French and Sardinian armies; and tho 


534 MILAZZO 

Austrian troops evacuated Milan June 5, the 
day after the battle of Magenta. Napoleon 
III. and Victor Emanuel made their entry into 
the city June 8, and by the peace of Villa- 
franca (July 11) Milan and the rest of Lombar- 
dy were ceded by Austria to France, to be 
transferred by the latter to Sardinia. The 
city was the scene of some disturbances by 
Neapolitan soldiery, April 29 and 30, 1861, 
but these were soon suppressed. 

MILAZZO, or Melazzo (anc. dfyle), a seaport 
town of Sicily, on the N. coast, in the province 
and 18m. W. of the city of Messina; pop. about 
7,000. Itis built on a promontory which forms 
a spacious bay, the Basilicus Sinus of the an- 
cients, affording excellent anchorage, and is 
divided into two parts, one on the promontory 
strongly fortified, and the other at the harbor 
near the bottom of the bay. The exports are 
fish, wine, oil, olives, and fruits of every kind. 
The tunny fishery is considerable. The plain 
of Milazzo, bounded by the mountains of Pe- 
Jorum, is noted for its beautiful scenery. The 
promontory of Myle was the scene of a vic- 
tory of the Roman fleet over that of the Car- 
thaginians in the first Punic war, 260 B. C., 
gained by means of the grappling implements 
called corvi, then used for the first time. In 36 
Agrippa, the commander of Octavius’s fleet, 
defeated there that of Sextus Pompey. In 
1719 Milazzo was unsuccessfully besieged by the 
Spanish army. On July 20, 1860, Garibaldi 
here defeated the Neapolitans, a victory which 
resulted in giving him possession of Messina. 

MILBURN, William Henry, an American cler- 
gyman, born in Philadelphia, Sept. 26, 1823. 
In early childhood he lost the sight of one eye 
wholly and of the other partially, and in later 
life consulted the most eminent oculists in Eu- 
rope and America, but without avail. At the 
age of 20 he became a Methodist Episcopal 
_ clergyman, and during several years of itiner- 
acy travelled more than 200,000 miles in the 
United States. In 1856 he was chaplain of 
the house of representatives at Washington. 
In 1859 he visited England in company with 
Bishop Simpson and the Rev. Dr. McClintock, 
and delivered lectures in the principal cities. 
Subsequently he was ordained in the Protestant 
Episcopal church, but in 1872 he returned to 
Methodism. He has published “ Rifle, Axe, and 
Saddle Bags” (1857); ‘Ten Years of Preacher 
Life” (1859); and ‘“ Pioneers, Preachers, and 
People of the Mississippi Valley” (1860). 

MILDEW (Ang.-Sax. mildedw ; Ger. Wehl- 
thau, meal dew), a name applied to various 
minute fungi, especially by agriculturists and 
horticulturists to those which are found upon 
and are injurious to their crops. The name 
was originally applied to the white moulds; 
in common use it is not restricted to these, 
but designates also dark-colored fungi, and 
those of different genera and sub-orders. (See 
Foner.) One of the most widely disseminated 
mildews is that which attacks the grape vine, 
uppearing as grayish spots upon the under sur- 


thority in cryptogam- 


MILDEW 


face of the leaves, the young shoots, and the 
stems of the fruit; it often destroys the foliage, 
and consequently the fruit fails to ripen. It 
has produced incalculable damage to the vine- 
yards of Europe as well as of this country, and 
though some varieties are more susceptible to 
its attacks than others, almost all in certain 
seasons are affected. An English gardener, 
Mr. Tucker, gave special attention to the sub- 
ject, and the fungus, in acknowledgment of his 
services, was called otdiwm Tuckeri, a name by 
which it is generally 
known in horticultu- 
ral works; but Dr. 
Berkeley, a high au- 


ic botany, considers it’ 
not an vidiwm, but a 
form of an erysiphe, 
a very polymorphous 
genus, in which there 


are five different == 
kinds of  fructifica- J 
tion. Whether this Grape-vine Mildew. 


view be correct or 

not, the plant is now quite well understood, 
as are the means of combating it. With 
grapes grown under glass, where the cultivator 
can control the humidity of the atmosphere, 
mildew is easily managed; but in the open 
vineyard it demands constant vigilance, and 
the vineyardist should daily examine the vines 
most liable to its attacks, and at the first indi- 
cation of its presence apply sulphur. In some 
of the wine-growing districts of Europe sul- 
phuring is practised systematically, whether 
mildew appears or not. With a view to de- 
stroy the spores, the vines before the buds 
swell and the trellises are sprinkled with a 
solution of 84 oz. common salt and 4 oz. salt- 
petre in 86 oz. of water, and 10 drops each 
of oil of rosemary and lavender are added; 
one part of this is mixed with 100 parts of 
water and thoroughly applied by means of a 
syringe. As soon as the leaves expand they 
are well dusted with flowers of sulphur, for 
the application of which a bellows has been 
especially contrived which blows the sulphur 
as a cloud of dust, and when the bellows is 
properly handled every part of the vine will 
be powdered with it. A similar application 
is made when the vines are in blossom, another 
when the grapes are as large as a pea, and 
a fourth when they begin to color. In this 
country the grape growers generally content 
themselves with using sulphur at the first ap- 
pearance of the trouble. Its efficacy is well 
established, provided it be applied in time. 
Mildew usually appears upon the grape in pro- 
longed warm and damp weather, and it often 
follows a sudden change of temperature.— 
Rose growers are sometimes great losers by 
mildew; the leaves become parched and blis- 
tered, and the young stems and unexpanded 
buds are misshapen and covered with a gray 
mould; this is attributed to a different plant 


MILDEW 


from that upon the grape, spherotheca pannosa. 
A similar blight comes upon hop vines, often 
seriously affecting the crop. Cucumbers, let- 
tuce, and other succulent vegetables are injured 
in a similar manner in unfavorable seasons; 
and in this country a late crop of peas is al- 
most impossible by reason of an erysiphe which 
covers the foliage in such abundance that the 
plants appear as if dusted with a white pow- 
der; the European pea mildew or blight is Z. 
Marti, but we are not aware that our species 
has been identified as the same. The pea is 
also attacked by another fungus, peronospora 


Pea Mildew (Leaflet natural size, Fungus magnified). 


vici@. Near large cities immense quantities of 
lettuce are forced under glass, to supply the 
demand during winter; were there no difficul- 
ties to contend with, this would be an exceed- 
ingly profitable culture, but often the grower 
finds his crop, just as it is nearly ready for mar- 
ket, rendered almost worthless by the. advent 
of amildew or mould. Peronospora ganglifor- 
mis is one of the destructive lettuce fungi, but 
it is probably not the only one. As with other 
plants under glass, lettuce is usually attacked 
by mildew after a sudden change of tempera- 
ture, and all the grower can do is to preserve 
the proper conditions of heat and moisture as 
preventives, for when it is established there is 
no remedy.—The most important of these mi- 
‘nute fungi is the wheat mildew, or rust as it 
is more generally called in this country, puc- 
cinia graminis, of which figures are given in 
the article Funer. This obstacle to successful 
wheat growing has been known from very 
early times, but its real nature was only dis- 
covered early in the present century. Witha 
view to destroy any spores that may be with 
the grain, it is common to treat the seed wheat 
with a solution of sulphate of copper.—There 
is scarcely a cultivated or wild plant which 
is not in some seasons the host of these fun- 
gi, which are so minute that their structure 
can only be seen by the aid of strong magni- 
fiers; in one sense they are among the most 
important plants to the cultivator, and often 
determine his success or failure; the minute 
mildew of the grape in the wine regions of 
Europe has brought ruin to whole neighbor- 
hoods and driven families to emigration.— 
Another set of fungi attacks dead vegetable 
matter. When linen or cotton fabrics are kept 
in a damp place or laid away before they are 
perfectly dry, they become covered with dark 
spots which the housekeeper knows as mil- 


MILETUS 535 


dew; this is a species of cladosporium, which 
in some of its forms attacks the leaves of the 
apple and pear, and also produces the dark 


Paper Mildew (magnified). 


blotches sometimes found on otherwise fair 
specimens of the fruit. Paper, whether upon 
damp walls or stored in a damp place, is at- 
tacked by a chetomium, an ascotricha, or some 
other form of mildew, and similar fungi appear 
upon damp plastered walls. (See Funai.) 

MILE (Lat. mille passuum, 1,000 paces of 
5 ft. each), a measure of length or distance. 
According to the estimates of the length of 
the Roman foot, the ancient mile must have 
been 1,614 or 1,618 English yards, while the 
English statute mile amounts to 1,760 yards or 
5,280 ft. There are 69°16 statute miles to a 
degree of the equator, and the English geo- 
graphical mile is », of a degree, or 11527 
statute mile. The distance expressed by the 
term mile varies; the following are its values 
in some countries: 


COUNTRIES. Yards Statate 

miles. 

Modern Roman: mile;s4. ce. eon ace 3 1,628 0-925 
PIB MUONS cece ectcatedee oe eee ciclo ie eee 2,240 1°273 
German) Short miles —-. 22 7e5 cae. oes en 6.£59 8°897 
German geographical mile............. 8,23T 4°611 
SWiss; M16, se.) haa c a alee aecieteonet oe 9,153 5:201 
German) long millones ie oastietee aeere 2 ote 10,126 5-753 
Swedish mile.,.......... Waa aisie viatale pete 3 11,700 6° 648 


MILETUS, an ancient city of Asia Minor, sit- 
uated in the northern part of Caria, but politi- 
cally belonging to the Ionian confederacy. It 
stood at the northern extremity of a promon- 
tory formed by the Grium range, opposite Priene 
and the headland of Mycale, and commanding 
the entrance of the Latmic bay, into which the 
Meander flowed. Miletus had four harbors, 
protected by a group of islands, the principal of 
which was Lade. It is difficult to determine the 
precise position of the now ruined city, owing 
to the continued changes produced in the bay 
and its surroundings by the action of the Mean- 
der, which, bringing down immense masses of 
soil, has filled up the northern portion of the 
water basin, and changed Lade and the other 
islands into parts of the continent. The terri- 
tory of Miletus extended round the bay as far 
as the promontory of Mycale on the north and 
Cape Posidium on the south. The earliest in- 


habitants were Carians, Leleges, and Cretans, 


and it derived its historical name from Mile- 
tus, a leader of the latter, being also called 


536 MILFORD 


Pityusa and Anactoria. It was subsequently 
settled by Ionians from Greece under the lead 
of Neleus, the younger son of the last Athenian 
king, Codrus. It was celebrated as an indus- 
trial and commercial city, and in the early por- 
tion of Grecian history it was the foremost 
maritime power, extending its commerce and 
colonies all over the shores of the Mediterra- 
nean, the Propontis, and the Euxine. Among 
its colonies were Naucratis in the delta of 
Egypt, Sinope in Paphlagonia, Panticapeum in 
the Taurian peninsula (Crimea), and Odessus, 
Olbia, Tomi, and Istropolis, on the W. shores 
of the Euxine. At the same period it also 
occupied a dignified place among the most en- 
lightened cities of Ionia, being the birthplace of 
the philosophers Thales and Anaximander, and 
of the historians Cadmus and Hecatzus. It 
successfully defended its independence against 
Sadyattes and Alyattes of Lydia, but succumbed 
to the last monarch of that kingdom, Creesus; 
and after his fall it was subdued by the army 
of the Persian conqueror under Harpagus. 
Under Aristagoras, the brother-in-law of its 
governor Histisus, it revolted with the other 
Ionian cities against Darius Hystaspis, receiv- 
ing aid from the Athenians, but was finally 
subdued and destroyed by the Persians (494 
B. C.), the great revolt leading to the first in- 
vasion of Greece. Recovering under the later 


MILFORD HAVEN 


Persian kings, it vainly defended the cause of 
the last of them against Alexander (834), and 
suffered a new ruin. Having belonged for 
about a century to the Seleucide, it was annexed 
to the territories of Rome after the defeat of 
Antiochus the Great, and shared the fate of 
the other cities of the province of Asia, dwin- 
dling away under the Byzantine rule, until it 
was totally destroyed by the Turks. For some 
years excavations have been conducted at the 
cost of the Rothschilds, who in 1873 presented 
to the administration of the fine arts in Paris 
several columns and sculptures from the temple 
of Apollo Didymus. Remains of an aqueduct 
and of several temples have been found. 
MILFORD, a town of Worcester co., Massa- 
chusetts, on the Milford branch of the Boston 
and Albany, and on the Milford and Woon- 
socket and the Hopkinton railroads, 30 m. 8. 
W. of Boston; pop. in 1870, 9,890. It is one 
of the largest boot manufacturing towns in 
New England, and contains machine shops and 
other manufactories, a national and a savings 
bank, a weekly newspaper, and six churches. 
MILFORD HAVEN, a harbor of Pembroke- 
shire, Wales, the deepest, safest, and most com- 
modious in Great Britain, formed by an inlet 
of St. George’s channel, N. W. of the entrance 
to Bristol channel. Its opening is toward the 
south, but after penetrating a short distance 


Milford Haven. 


inland it changes its direction and runs east, 
branching off into numerous bays, creeks, and 
roads. It is about 10 m. long and from 1 to 2 
m. wide, and is defended by two batteries. 
The tides rise from 28 to 30 ft., and at low 
water it contains as great an area of deep an- 
chorage as the aggregate of Plymouth, Port- 
land, and Holyhead. It has substantial docks 


and piers, and is a great resort for shipping. A 
royal dockyard was established here in 1790, 
but it was removed to Pembroke in 1814. The 
number of entrances at the port in 1871 was 
31, tonnage 8,190; clearances 5, tonnage 2,183, 
The imports from the United States in 1871 
were valued at £2,051, from other countries 
£24,355. Milford (pop. in 1871, 2,836) is a 


MILFORT 


modern place, and is engaged chiefly in ship 
building. It is connected by rail with the 
South Wales line. ; 

MILFORT, Le Clere, a French adventurer, born 
in Méziéres about 1750, died there in 1817. He 
came to America, travelled through the British 
colonies, and about 1776 visited the Creek na- 
tion. Here he attached himself to the Creek 
chieftain, Alexander McGillivray, whose sister 
he married. He was made a war chief by the 
Indians, and performed active service against 
the whigs of Georgia during the American 
revolution. He remained with the Creeks for 
20 years. In 1796, having lost his wife and 
his friend and brother-in-law McGillivray, he 
returned to France, and was made a general of 
brigade by Bonaparte. He married again in 
France, distinguished himself in 1814 by a gal- 
lant defence of his own house in Vouziers, 
whither he had removed from Méziéres, against 
a party of Russians, and soon afterward re- 
turned to Méziéres. He published Mémoires, 
ou coup Weil rapide sur mes voyages dans la 
Louisiane, et mon séjour dans la nation creeke 
(8vo, Paris, 1802). 

MILHAU. See Mirrav. . 

MILITARY FRONTIER (Ger. Militdrgrenze ; 
Hung. Hataror-vidék), a region, and formerly 
a political division, of the Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy, between lat. 44° and 47° N., and 
lon. 14° and 238° E., bounded N. by Carniola, 
Croatia, Slavonia, and Hungary, E. by Tran- 
sylvania and Roumania, 8. by Servia, Bosnia, 
and Dalmatia, and W. by the Adriatic; area, 
about 13,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 1,041,123. 
Its breadth is greatest in the W. part, which 
is traversed by continuations of the Julian 
Alps, branches of which are the Great and 
Little Capella ranges, and by the Dinaric Alps, 
while the easternmost division is crossed by 
offshoots of the 8. E. Carpathians. The middle 
parts are mostly level and exceedingly fertile. 
The highest elevations are Mounts Gugu (7,700 
ft. high) and Sarka (7,300 ft.), near the Tran- 
sylvanian boundary, and Mount Klek or Ogulin 
Head (Ger. Oguliner Kopf), near Zengg on the 
Adriatic (6,900 ft.). The principal rivers are 
the Danube, which traverses the country in a 
S. E. direction between Peterwardein and Sem- 
lin, continuing its course E. on the southern 
frontier as far as Orsova, and receiving the 
waters of the Theiss, the Bega, and the Temes; 
the Save, which separates the Military Frontier 
from Bosnia and Servia, and falls into the Dan- 
ube between Semlin and Belgrade in Servia; and 
the Kulpa and the Unna, affluents of the Save, 
flowing respectively on the confines of Croatia 
and Bosnia. There are some mountain lakes 
in the W. part. Of mineral waters, the sulphur 
springs of Mehadia, near the confines of Wal- 
lachia, are most celebrated, the place being also 
famous for picturesque scenery. The climate 
is very mild in the level country, but severe in 
the mountains. The principal productions are 
the various kinds of grain, maize, tobacco, flax, 
hemp, fruits, and wine; and of minerals, silver, 


MILITARY SCHOOLS 537 


iron, copper, lead, and some gold. The inhab- 
itants are mostly of Slavic race, Croats, Slavo- 
nians, Serbs, &c.; but there are also Wallachs, 
Magyars, Germans, Greeks, Jews, Clementines 
(Albanians), and gypsies. The predominant 
religions are the Greek and the Roman Catho- 
lic, the former having its centre at Carlovitz on 
the Danube, the seat of a patriarch or arch- 
bishop. There are few towns, but some of 
them, as Peterwardein, Carlovitz, Semlin, Pan- 
esova, and Old Orsova, all on the Danube, Zengg, 
Carlopago, and Brod, in the western division, 
and others, are important on account of their 
situation.—The country was originally formed 
into a military organization by Ferdinand I. 
(died in 1564) as a barrier against the Turks, 
and it was reconstituted in 1807 and again in 
1850. Under the military organization almost 
the entire male population above 20 years old 
was formed into 14 regiments of infantry, 1 
of hussars, and 2 battalions of boatmen. All 
agricultural estates were the common property 
of the Frontier communities, the rural build- 
ings being partly inalienable and partly indi- 
‘vidual property. Arms, accoutrements, and 
ammunition, and all necessaries during military 
service, were supplied by the government, and 
in all military respects the frontiersmen were 
subject to the rules of the Austrian army. 
Before the reorganization of Austria in 1867 
the Military Frontier was a separate crown 
land of the empire. By that reorganization its 
reunion with the crown of Hungary was vir- 
tually established; and at the meeting of the 
delegations of Cisleithan Austria and Hungary 
in 1869, it was resolved to abolish gradually 
the peculiar institutions of the Military Fron- 
tier, and to incorporate one of the two mili- 
tary commanderies with Hungary proper, and 
the other with Croatia. The transformation 
was nearly completed in 1874. 

MILITARY LAW. See Court Martiat, and 
Martiat Law. 

MILITARY SCHOOLS, institutions in which 
soldiers are instructed or youths educated for 
the army. Of the former class, the “soldier 
schools” of Prussia, established in every regi- 
ment or battalion, in which the privates are 
taught the common rudimentary branches, and 
sometimes singing also, are the most remark- 
able. There are similar schools in the Austrian, 
British, and other European armies. Academies 
of the second class, intended to educate officers, 
were not unknown in antiquity, and are now an 
indispensable part of the military system of 
all great nations. The first military school in 
France was established by Louis XV. at Vin- 
cennes in 1751; it had 500 pupils, all of whom 
were young noblemen. Soon after its estab- 
lishment it was removed to the edifice built for 
it in the Champ de Mars, Paris, and it is still the 
principal military school of France. The fa- 
mous school of St. Cyr, near Versailles, was ori- 
ginally founded by Bonaparte at Fontainebleau 
in 1802, but was a few years later removed to 
its present location, and still retains the prin- 


538 MILITARY SCHOOLS 


cipal features of its first organization. It has 
350 pupils between 18 and 20 years of age, who 
after a course of two years are sent, some to 
the école d@état-major, others to the cavalry 
school at Saumur, and the rest to the army as 
sub-lieutenants of infantry. There is also an 
important military school at La Fléche, founded 
by Louis XV. in 1764. Even before the seven 
years’ war the French had an artillery school 
in every town where a regiment of that arm 
was garrisoned, and their example has been 
followed by Germany and Austria. In Prussia 
the education of officers is provided for by high 
schools for each arm in every army division, 
and by the royal military school at Berlin, 
founded by Frederick the Great, to which the 
most deserving young officers are admitted from 
the line. In Great Britain the royal military 
college at Sandhurst, which comprises a cadets’ 
college and a staff college, and the royal mili- 
tary academy at Woolwich, designed as an ar- 
tillery and engineer school, enjoy a high repu- 
tation. The United States military academy 
at West Point, founded in 1802, ranks second 
to no institution of the kind in the world. 
Cadets are admitted on the recommendation of 
members of congress and the president of the 
United States, and the act of congress of Feb. 2, 
1872, increasing the congressional representa- 
tion of the several states, enlarged the corps of 
cadets from 293 to 342, the present legal num- 
ber. The education and subsistence are gratu- 
itous, which is not the case at Sandhurst, Wool- 
wich, St. Cyr, &c. The course of study, under 
a superintendent and 40 professors and instruc- 
tors, 82 of whom are army officers, covers a 
period of four years. Since 1866 the standard 
of qualifications has been raised, and appoint- 
ments to cadetships must now be made one year 
previous to admission. To the end of 1873 
about 2,500 had graduated at West Point, and 
the total cost of the school since its establish- 
ment was less than $9,000,000. Apart from 
West Point, military instruction in the United 
States is provided for as follows: The act of 
July 28, 1866, authorized the president, ‘for 
the purpose of promoting knowledge of mili- 
tary science among the young men of the Uni- 
ted States,” to detail officers of experience to 
act as professors in institutions of learning hay- 
ing upward of 150 male students; and several 
institutions have availed themselves of such in- 
struction. By the same act provision is made 
for the instruction of enlisted men in the com- 
mon English branches of education, and espe- 
cially in the history of the United States, at 
every post, garrison, or permanent camp. In 
1867 an artillery school was organized at For- 
tress Monroe, to which one battery from each 
of the five regiments of artillery is ordered 
every year, for theoretical and practical in- 
struction in that branch of military tactics. In 
nearly every military department there are now 
schools of instruction in military signalling and 
telegraphy, and for this service there is special 
recruiting. The Virginia military institute, at 


MILITIA 


Lexington, was organized in 1839; in 1878 it 
had 19 instructors and 260 students; it owns 
property valued at $300,000, and received an 
annual appropriation of $15,000 from the state, 
which appoints a certain number of the cadets. 
Its course of instruction is similar to that of 
West Point. The Kentucky military institute 
at Frankfort, was organized in 1846; in 1878 it 
had 6 instructors and 78 students; it owns prop- 
erty valued at $75,000, and is controlled by a 
board of visitors appointed by the governor of 
the state. Two or three American colleges, 
like the university at Norwich, Vt., are under 
a partial military organization, and in several 
of the private schools throughout the country 


the pupils wear a uniform and are drilled in 


the manual of arms. 

MILITIA (Lat. miles, a soldier), a body of 
armed citizens trained to military duty, who 
may be called out in certain cases, but may not 
be kept on service, like standing armies, in time 
of peace. It differs from the levée en masse 
in having a regular organization at all times. 
Something equivalent to a militia seems to have 
existed in England in the time of the Saxons. 
The ceorles or peasants held their lands on 
condition of military service, every five hides 
of ground in most counties being charged with 
the equipment of one man, and were banded 
in bodies or companies, the command of which 
was given to the ealdormen elected by the 
people in the folkmotes. The peasants were 
enrolled under the banners of their immediate 
lords, but in case of rebellion or invasion the 
state had a paramount claim upon their ser- 
vices, and the lords had no further authority 
over them than the privilege of leading them 
in battle. The organization of this species of 
militia has been attributed to Alfred, but it 
seems eertain that a national force called the 
Jyrd, regulated probably by similar principles, 
existed before his time. Under the Normans 
the fyrd continued to be maintained simulta- 
neously with the feudal armies, and ultimately 
it became the source both of the modern Brit- 
ish militia and of the sheriff’s posse comitatus. 
It was not till the reign of Edward III. that 
a statute was passed providing that no militia- 
man should be sent out of his own county ex- 
cept in case of invasion or other grave danger 
to the realm, nor out of the kingdom in any 
case. In the fifth year of Henry IV. a law 
was enacted empowering the king’s ‘‘ commis- 
sioners of array’’ to array and train all men- 
at-arms, to cause all able-bodied men to arm 
themselves according to their substance, to 
amerce those unable to bear arms, and to re- 
quire the services of persons so armed at the 
seashore or elsewhere in season of danger. 
The command of the militia was often given to 
the persons charged with these commissions of 
array, but more frequently it rested with the 
sheriffs or high constables, each in his own 
county. Such was the organization of the 
militia when the parliament of Charles I. in 
1642 passed a bill vesting the control of this 


MILITIA 


force, as well as the command of all the forts, 
castles, and garrisons, in certain commissioners 
in whom they could confide. The king refused 
his assent to the bill; and when the parliament 
thereupon declared the kingdom in danger and 
issued orders to muster the militia, he issued 
commissions of array to some of the nobility 
for the same purpose. Thus began the civil 
war. After the restoration, the peculiar state of 
things which had sprung from feudal tenures 
no longer existed, and the militia was reorgan- 
ized mainly on its present basis. The king was 
acknowledged as its sole supreme commander, 
and no other army was recognized by the law. 
Lords lieutenant of counties were charged with 
raising the force, as they had been indeed since 
the time of Queen Mary; every man who pos- 
sessed a landed estate of £500 a year, or person- 
al property to the amount of £6,000, was bound 
to provide, equip, and pay one horseman; every 
man whose property was one tenth of either of 
those amounts was charged with one pikeman 
or musketeer; and smaller proprietors united 
to furnish a soldier, each contributing accord- 
ing to his means. But it was not until 1757, 
when a bill to reconstruct the militia was 
passed, that the force acquired much vitality. 
The act then passed, though amended several 
times, is in its main features stillinforce. The 
able-bodied men of each parish between the 
ages of 18 and 35 are enrolled annually, and 
by ballot a certain required number are to be 
selected for service. Certain classes are ex- 
empted: peers, yeomanry, resident members 
of universities, clergymen, parish schoolmas- 
ters, articled clerks, apprentices, seafaring men, 
crownemployees, free watermen of the Thames; 
in England any poor man with more than one 
child born in wedlock; in Scotland any man 
with more than two lawful children and not 
possessed of property to the value of £50; in 
Ireland any man with more than three lawful 
children, who pays less than £5 a year rent, 
or has less than £10 of property. Substitutes 
may be accepted for the men chosen by ballot, 
and for many years it has been customary to 
suspend the ballot, and make up the requisite 
number by volunteering. The time of service 
is five years. The command is in the lord 
lieutenant of the county and his deputies un- 
der commission by the crown. The militia 
are required to assemble for 27 days’ training 
each year, but in time of peace the require- 
ment is not strictly enforced. The mutiny law 
is applicable while they are under arms. The 
militia cannot be compelled to march out of 
their respective counties except in case of in- 
vasion or actual rebellion, nor in any case to 
march out of the kingdom. Their pay while 
in service is the same as that in the regular 
army: In 1873-4 the militia force of the king- 
dom consisted of 133,952 men and 5,066 com- 
missioned and non-commissioned officers, of 
whom only about one half appeared on the day 
of inspection. There are also volunteer organ- 
izations consisting of: 1, yeomanry cavalry, 


539 


numbering about 15,000; 2, infantry, artillery, 
&c., including enrolled pensioners, numbering 
195,750. These are only liable to be called 
out in case of actual or apprehended invasion, 
for service within the kingdom.—In France 
all able-bodied males are liable to military 
duty from the age of 20 to that of 40; the 
first five years in the active army, then four 
years in the reserve, then five years in the ter- 
ritorial or district army, and then six years in 
the territorial army of the reserve. Exemp- 
tions are made as follows: the eldest of or- 
phans having neither father nor mother; the 
only or oldest son or grandson of a widow 
or wife separated from her husband, or of 
a father more than 70 years old; the elder 
of two brothers liable to service at the same 
time; the younger of two brothers when the 
elder brother is actually in service in the 
army; the younger son of a family, whose 
elder brother has died in the service, or been 
discharged for wounds or illness contracted 
in the field. There are also partial or condi- 
tional exemptions of pupils, teachers, ecclesi- 
astics, &c.; and the local authorities may 
grant further exemptions, subject to the revi- 
sion of the military councils, of young men 
who contribute to the support of their fam- 
ilies, and who are engaged in studies or ayoca- 
tions which would suffer from the interrup- 
tion. (See Guarp, Nationat.)—In Switzer- 
land a standing army is forbidden by the con- 
stitution. Military instruction is given in the 
schools, though not made compulsory. The 
military forces are divided into: 1, the Bundes- 
auszug, or federal army, consisting of all able- 
bodied males between the ages of 20 and 30; 
2, the army of the reserve, consisting of all be- 
tween the ages of 31 and 40 who have served 
in the first class; 3, the landwehr, or militia, 
embracing all the men from 41 to 45. Their 
numbers in 1872 were: of the first class, 84,- 
369; of the second, 50,069; of the third, 65,- 
981; total, with the staff added, 201,257. The 
federal army and the army of the reserve are 
drilled once a year in their respective cantons, 
and they also meet once or twice a year in 
general muster. In Belgium the militia in- 
cludes all males able to bear arms between-the 
ages of 21 and 40, and they number about 
125,000 regular militia and 275,000 reserves. 
The regular army is supplied by conscription, 
to which citizens become liable at 419. In the 
Netherlands the regular army is kept up by 
conscription of those who have reached the 
age of 20. The militia consists of those be- 
tween 25 and 55, who for the first ten years 
are called active, and afterward the “ resting” 
militia. In Denmark all able-bodied males 
who have reached 21 are liable to serve eight 
years in the regular army and afterward eight 
years in the army of the reserve. The na- 
tional militia of Sweden is raised and paid by 
the landowners, assisted to some extent by the 
income of state domains. The infantry prac- 
tise a month annually, and the cavalry 45 days. 


540 


—The militia system of the German empire is 
the most complete and effective in the world. 
Every subject becomes liable to military duty 
on reaching the age of 20, and he must serve 
three years in the regular army, and afterward 
four years in the army of the reserve. After 
this, at 27, he enters the landwehr or militia, 
where he remains for five years, liable to be 
called upon for regular drill, and in case of 
war to be incorporated in the regular army. 
Finally, at the age of 32, he is enrolled in the 
Jandsturm, where heis subject to military duty 
within the realm in case of invasion. The re- 
serve, when necessary, are capable of being 
mobilized for service in two weeks’ time. On 
a war footing the army, according to the latest 
returns, falls a little short of 1,300,000.—In 
the Austro-Hungarian monarchy the standing 
army is formed by conscription of those who 
have reached the age of 20, and those drawn 
serve three years in the regular army and sev- 
en years in the army of the reserve. The 
obligation to serve in the landwehr is general, 
and the period of service is 12 years, but is 
limited to the respective divisions of the em- 
pire from which the body is drawn. There is 
also the landsturm, corresponding to that of 
Germany, but enrollment in it is not compul- 
sory except in Tyrol and on the exposed 
frontier. The army in 1873 numbered on a 
peace footing 278,470, and on a war foot- 
ing 838,700.—In Russia all who have reached 
the age of 21 are liable to conscription for 
seven years’ service in the regular army, and 
eight years in the reserve. The regular ar- 
my in 1872 consisted of 765,872 on a peace 
footing, and 1,213,259 on a war footing. In 
peace only so many are kept embodied as are 
necessary to keep the army on the proper 
peace footing, and the remainder are on fur- 
lough. Besides these, the militia is organized 
whenever emergencies render it necessary. 

The Cossacks perform military service in lieu 
of the payment of taxes, and in case of neces- 
sity every man from 15 to 60 is liable to serve. 
—In Italy the regular army is kept up by con- 
scription of those of the age of 21, and those 
not drawn pass into the army of the reserve, 
where they practise annually for 40 days, and 
then are on furlough, subject to be called upon 
in the event of war. Thestrength of the army 
is about 200,000 on a peace footing and 450,- 
000 on a war footing.—In Turkey every man 
is liable to serve four years in the regular 
army, and then for two years longer to remain 
subject to summons for like service; after- 
ward he enters the first reserve for three 
years, and then the second reserve for three 
years, after which he passes into the sedenta- 
ry army, liable to be called out only in time 
of war. The total available force in time 
of war is estimated at 700,000.—The militia 
system of the United States, like that of 
Great Britain, had its origin in jealousy of 
standing armies, and the purpose of its estab- 
lishment was to provide a military force that 


MILITIA 


should be ready and effective for all sudden 
emergencies, but only required to serve when 
the emergency should arise. The constitution 
of the United States confers upon congress 
authority to provide for calling forth the 
militia to execute the laws of the Union, sup- 
press insurrection, and repel invasion, and also 
to provide for organizing, arming, and dis- 
ciplining the militia, and for governing such 
part of them as may be employed in the service 
of the United States, reserving to the states 
respectively the appointment of the officers 
and the authority of training the militia ac- 
cording to the discipline prescribed by con- 
gress. It also makes the president command- 
er-in-chief of the militia of the several states 
when called into the service of the United 
States. Acting under the provisions of the 
constitution, the congress of 1792 passed an 
act for the enrollment in the militia of all able- 
bodied white male citizens of the age of 18 and 
under 45, excepting the judicial and executive 
officers of the federal government, members 
and officers of congress, custom-house officers 
and clerks, persons employed in the postal 
service, inspectors of exports, pilots and mari- 
ners, and such persons as should be exempted 
by state laws. Each person was to be provided 
with suitable arms and accoutrements, which 
were made exempt from taxation, and from all 
process for the collection of debts. The or- 
ganization was to be effected within one year, 
under state laws and under officers of state 
appointment. The act provided that in the or- 
ganization there should be infantry, cavalry, 
and artillery in suitable proportions, and desig- 
nated the number and grade of officers for each 
division, brigade, regiment, battalion, and com- 
pany. Another act, passed Feb. 28, 1795, 
empowered the president, in case of invasion 
or imminent danger thereof, to call forth the 
militia of the state or states most convenient 
to the place of danger or scene of action, as 
he might judge necessary, and in case of in- 
surrection in any state against the government 
thereof, on the application of its legislature or 
of its executive when the legislature could not 
be convened, to call forth such militia of any 
other state or states as he might deem neces- 
sary to suppress such insurrection. The presi- 
dent was also empowered by the same act, 
whenever the laws of the United States should 
be opposed or the execution thereof obstruct- 
ed in any state by combinations too powerful 
to be suppressed by the ordinary course of 
judicial proceedings, or by the marshals, to call 
forth the militia of such state, or of any other 
state or states, as might be necessary, to sup- 
press such combinations and cause the laws to 
be duly executed; and while in service the 
militia were to be subject to the rules and 
articles of war, as in case of regular troops. 
These provisions still remain in force, except 
that in providing who shall be_enrolled the 
word “white” was stricken out by act of 
March 2, 1867. The act of 1795 limited the 


MILITIA 


period of service which the militia might be 
compelled to perform under such call to three 
months, but by act of July 29, 1861, when 
called out to suppress insurrection or assist in 
enforcement of the laws, it was provided that 
their continuance in service should not extend 
beyond 60 days after the commencement of the 
next regular session of congress, unless con- 
gress should expressly by law provide there- 
for. And the act of July 17, 1862, provided 
that: whenever the president should call forth 
the militia he might himself fix the period of 
service, not exceeding nine months. All these 
acts contemplate that the officering and dis- 
ciplining of the militia shall be by state au- 
thority, and the states have assumed this duty, 
and made provisions for its discharge. The 
exemptions from military service under state 
laws are few, and are confined in the main to 
members of the executive and legislative de- 
partments of the government, judges and clerks 
of courts, clergymen, teachers, regular physi- 
cians and surgeons, superintendents of hospi- 
tals, &c., justices of the peace, and active fire- 
men. The state constitutions will be found in 
general to recognize the value of a well regula- 
ted militia in a free government, and to require 
the passage of laws for organizing, arming, 
equipping, and disciplining the freemen of the 
state who are subject to military duty. Every 
state has laws for that purpose. The governor 
is the commander-in-chief, and under him are 
the usual officers, chosen by different modes in 
different states; in some by the governor alone, 
in some by the governor with consent of the 
senate, in some by the legislature, and in some 
by the persons liable to military duty. For 
many years it was customary to have annual 
drill or training days for the whole body of the 
militia in the several states, and they were 
called out for the purpose and compelled to at- 
tend under penalty; but for 30 years or more 
the conviction has been spreading that these 
annual trainings were of little value, and that 
they accomplished almost nothing in fitting 
men for active military duty. The conse- 
quence has been that the laws providing for 
them have generally been either repealed or 
allowed to fall into disuse, and in their place 
have been substituted provisions under which 
voluntary organizations are formed, which 
select their own uniforms and the branch of 
service to which they will attach themselves, 
and which are encouraged by small state 
bounties to perfect their drill and keep them- 
selves in readiness at all times for prompt and 
effective action. These organizations compose 
but a small part of the whole body of the 
militia, but they are ample for all the needs of 
government in ordinary times, and in extra- 
ordinary emergencies they serve as the nucleus 
of an army until the unorganized militia, or 
such portion thereof as may be called for, can 
be put into the field. The militia of the United 
States at the present time therefore consists of 
these voluntary organizations, fully officered, 


MILK 541 
armed, equipped, and drilled, and also all other 
able-bodied male citizens of the age of 18 and 
under 45, with the exceptions provided by na- 
tional and state laws, all of whom are subject 
to be summoned to perform military duty 
according to the laws of congress or of their 
respective states.—The militia has sometimes 
performed a conspicuous part in the military 
history of the country, though not always to 
the satisfaction of those who are disposed to 
rely upon it as the chief protection of the 
government. During the revolution the militia 
of the several states was often called out, but 
the want of discipline, which could not be 
adequately supplied during the short periods 
of their service, rendered them an unsatisfac- 
tory reliance. The ‘“ whiskey insurrection,” 
as it was called, of 1794, was put down by a 
levy of militia from Pennsylvania, New Jersey, 
Maryland, and Virginia. During the war with 
Great Britain of 1812—15, the inefficiency of 
the militia was increased by disputes between 
the national and state authorities regarding 
the right of the president to determine finally 
whether an emergency had arisen which au- 
thorized his calling them out, the right to place 
them under officers of the president’s appoint- 
ment, and the right to march them beyond the 
limits of the state. The militia of Massachu- 
setts and Connecticut, when called out, were 
refused payment by the general government 
because they had not been placed under the 
orders of the federal officer, and the militia of 
Vermont were at one time summoned home by 
the governor because in his opinion no cause 
existed which justified the president in de- 
manding their services. The judicial decisions 
were in favor of the right of the president to 
decide finally and conclusively whether the 
militia should be summoned (Martin v. Mott, 
12 Wheaton, 19); and his right to place them 
under the command of a federal officer rank- 
ing their own officers is now undisputed. 
On the breaking out of the civil war in 1861, 
the militia organizations of some of the states 
proved of the very highest importance, as 
they enabled a formidable force to be placed 
in the field much earlier than would otherwise 
have been possible. The first call of the pres- 
ident for 75,000 men was mainly filled from 
this source. Afterward volunteers were re- 
lied upon in the main, and when the supply 
from this source proved insufficient, conscrip- 
tion was ordered. As the laws now are, the 
great majority of all the persons liable to per- 
form military duty in the United States are 
unlikely to be summoned for discipline, or 
even to organize for the purpose, unless the 
military needs shall require a heavy force in 
the field, in which case, if summoned at all, it 
will be by conscription. 

MILK, the liquid secreted by the mammary 
glands of female mammals. Its color is gen- 
erally yellowish white, but sometimes bluish 
white, and it is quite opaque. Its specific grav- 
ity, according to Scherer, varies from 1°018 to 


D42 


MILK — 


1:045. According to Simon, the average spe- | of all mammals; and it contains all the ele- 


cific gravity of human milk is 1°032. There 
is a difference of opinion among chemists as 
to whether normal milk has an acid or an 
alkaline reaction. According to Berzelius, 
Peligot, and Lassaigne, it is acid; Simon and 
others regard it as alkaline, and attribute the 
acid reaction found by others to its having ac- 
quired acidity by standing, or to disease. Nu- 
merous examinations, however, seem to indi- 
cate that healthy milk may be alkaline, neutral, 
or acid, according to the food of the animal. 
D’Arat and Petit say that the milk of stall- 
fed animals is always acid, and becomes alka- 
line only when they are turned out to grass. 
Hermbstiidt found milk that had remained long 
in the udder acid. Fraas had a cow milked 
six times a day, and found the milk at each 
time feebly alkaline. After an interval of 24 
hours she was again milked, when the first 
portion of the milk was found alkaline and 
the last portion acid. The opacity of milk de- 
pends upon numerous yellow microscopic glob- 
ules of a fatty substance from zsh 55 tO spay 
of an inch in diameter,.shown in fig. 1. <Ac- 
cording to Chevréul, cow’s butter is composed 
of stearine, margarine, and oleine, with small 
quantities of buty- 
rine, caproine, and ca- 
prine; but late analy- 
ses by Heintz and 
others deny the ex- 
istence of margarine, 
saying that it con- 
sists of palmitine and 
a small quantity of 
stearine, together with 
small quantities of 
glycerides, yielding by 
saponification myris- 
tic and butic acids. (See Burrer.) In regard 
to the size of the butter globules observers 
differ. Dr. Carpenter gives their diameter as 
aziao tO spy, and Dr. Dunglison adopts this 
measure. Dr. Dalton says: ‘‘The largest of 
the globules are not over g,/55, the greatest 
number of them being about z4 95 Of an inch 
in diameter.” According to Dr. Bennett, their 
diameter varies from ys455 to zs455 of an inch. 
There has recently been considerable discus- 
sion as to the existence of an envelope, or 
‘“membrane” as some term it, around the 
globules. Dr. Von Baumhauer and F. Knapp 
assert that they have none, and others concur 
with them. Dr. Bennett and others maintain 
that either a caseous or an albuminous enve- 
lope exists, and experiments are cited as sus- 
taining this opinion. The taste of milk is bland 
and sweetish, and it has a peculiar animal 
odor, depending somewhat upon the animal, 
but perhaps still more upon the food. Gar- 
lic, even if the plant is partaken of in very 
small quantities, is distinctly perceptible by the 
smell as well as by the taste. Milk has al- 
ways been an article of man’s diet, and forms 
the entire nourishment of the early existence 


ments necessary for the growth of the animal 
framework.—In comparing milk of the same 
animal under different conditions of age, health, 
food, length of time after parturition, &c., as 
remarkable differences in the proportions of the 
ingredients will be observed as when samples 
of the average milk of several different species 
of mammalia are compared. The following 
table exhibits the composition of several kinds 
of milk, the first column presenting the aver- 
age result of ten analyses by Prof. Poggiale, 
the next four being furnished by Messrs. Henri 
and Chevalier in the Journal de Pharmacie, 
vol. xxv., and the last by Dr. Samuel R. Perey 
of New York as the composition of the milk 
of a healthy woman. The albumen in these 
analyses is reckoned with the caseine. 


CONSTITUENTS. | Cow Ass Goat Ewe. |Woman.|Woman. 
Waters cect es 86°28) 91°65! 86°80) 85-62) 87.98 | 89°20 
Butter......... 4°38, O-11/ 8°32' 4-20] 3°55 2°60 
Sugar of milk..| 5°27) 6°08) 5:28; 5-00} 6°50 6-00 
Caseine,....... 8°80} 1°82} 4°02) 4°50) 1°52 2-00 
Various salts...| 0°27) 0°34) 0°58! 0-68} 0°45 0°20 

Totalie.s. ss 200700 100°00/100°00 100°00;100°00 |100°00 


An analysis by Volcker is given in the article 
CuHEEsE, and also one of the cheese made from 
the milk. Of these constituents the most uni- 
form in its proportions is the sugar, but this 
may be materially increased by the use of sac- 
charine food, as is found in feeding cows upon 
carrots and beets. The sugar of milk is crys- 
tallizable, but it is less sweet and less soluble 
in water than cane sugar. Milk from unhealthy 
animals often exhibits an increased proportion 
of phosphate of lime in the ash. When milk 
is exposed to a warm temperature it ferments, 
and lactic acid is generated, which has the same 
ultimate composition as sugar of milk. Under 
certain conditions the vinous fermentation may 
now take place, the sugar of milk be converted 
into grape sugar, and a spirituous liquor be 
produced, as is practised by the Tartars. (See 
Kumiss.) Various circumstances affect the 
quality and composition of milk. That called 
colostrum, given by the cow immediately after 
calving, is yellowish, thick, and stringy; for 
several days it is unfit for use. Examined by 
the microscope, it is seen to contain numerous 
large and granular corpuscles. Milk drawn 
from the cow in the morning is thought to be 
better than that of the afternoon; and a re- 
markable difference is perceived in the propor- 
tion of cream in the first and last portions of 
the milking, the latter containing twice as much 
cream as the same quantity of milk of the for- 
mer. In the udder of the cow the cream seems 
to rise as it does when the milk is collected in 
a vessel.—Some of the methods of testing the 
quality of milk are noticed under GALAoTom- 
ETER. By this the specific gravity is ascer- 
tained both of the whole milk and skimmed 
milk; but as these data are of little value with- 
out a knowledge of the proportion of cream, 


MILK 


another instrument, invented by Sir Joseph 
Banks, and called the lactometer, is used in 
connection with the galactometer. Itis a tube 
about 4 in. in diameter, and 10 in. of its length 
graduated in tenths of an inch. When filled 
with milk, the tube is set aside for 12 hours 
for the cream to rise. The proportion of this 
is then read off in the number of divisions 
occupied by the upper stratum. The thick- 
ness of this stratum is very variable with 
different sorts of genuine milk; but its gen- 
eral range is from 9 to 14 of the divisions, 
indicating as many percentages. Dr. Hassall 
thinks the average of pure milk does not ex- 
ceed 94 of cream. Dr. Normandy rates it at 
8 to 84. The proportion of cream is also 
determined by an instrument invented by M. 
Donné of Paris, called the lactoscope, the prin- 
ciple of which is based upon the opacity of the 
fluid caused by the buttery particles. A few 
drops of the milk are introduced between two 
plates of glass, so set in an ocular tube that 
they can be brought close together or separated 
by means of a graduated screw, and thus en- 
close at their base a thinner or thicker stratum 
of milk. The observer then looks through the 
tube at a light set 3 ft. off, and gradually sepa- 
rates the plates of glass, increasing the depth 
of the layer of milk, till this at last becomes 
so opaque that the light is lost to view. The 
figure to which an index on the instrument 
then points refers to a table, upon which the 
corresponding quality of the milk as to quan- 
tity of cream is designated. As the large glob- 
ules of cream are the first to rise, if this is re- 
moved the remaining skim milk will contain 
only the smaller globules; and this has been 
used in Germany as a means of ascertaining 
whether milk has been skimmed.—Milk is 
easily adulterated by substituting various cheap 
materials for the natural ingredients, thereby 
seriously affecting its quality, while the fraud 
can be detected only by the skilful examina- 
tion of the chemist. The nourishing cream is 
removed and water is substituted. This in- 
volves the addition of white thickening sub- 
stances to disguise the cheat, and of other 
strange ingredients to restore or retain the 
sweetness and saltness of the milk. Large 
cities are almost hopelessly exposed to these 
frauds; but worse than all, a large portion of 
the milk with which they are supplied is that 
of diseased cows kept in crowded stables and 
fed with cheap unwholesome food, especially 
the swill of distilleries, The evil became so 
serious that several years ago the attention of 
medical men in New York was directed to the 
subject, and in 1859 a careful investigation was 
made into the character and properties of the 
milk of cows fed upon the swill of distilleries, 
the results of which are embodied in a report 
of S. R. Percy, M. D., and published in the 
“Transactions of the New York Academy of 
Medicine,” vol. ii., part iv. The following are 
some of the analyses of healthy and diseased 
milk in that report: 


556 VOL, XI.—35 


543 
CONSTITU- ’ 

BES a | One n oAg ety hl Olah Rone: 
Water....| 85°26! 85:86 85-6] 87-0] 92-4| 93-01 87-7] 86-9 
Butter....) 4°40} 4°42) 4:7) 8°5) 1°9) 1°8]/ 1-9] 4:0 
Bugar....), 8°97) 1°79} 4°8) 1°5|- 1:0) 0:8) 1°38} 4°92 
Caseine...| 5-71] 7-081 4:3] 6-81 3:6 8-41 7-4! 4-4 
Salts......| 0°66} 0-85! 0-6] 1-2| 1-411 tol 4-71 o-5 

Total. . .|100°00,100-00 1000 100-0 100-0 100-0 100-0|100-0 


No. 1 is the milk of a cow kept for family use 
in New York; No. 2, of swill-fed cows from 
distillery stables in New York; both the analy- 
ses are by Dr. Doremus. The following are 
by Dr. Percy: No. 8, country milk furnished 
by a dealer to customers in New York; No. 4, 
milk as drawn from the cows in a Brooklyn 
distillery stable; No. 5, sample of same deliv- 
ered to customers; No. 6, another sample of 
the same as sold to customers; No. 7, milk 
from a sick cow, Brooklyn distillery stables; 
No. 8, sample of the milk used by Gail Bor- 
den for preparing the ‘‘condensed milk.” 
Healthy milk was observed by Dr. Percy to 
have an alkaline reaction, while that from 
diseased animals was always acid. The same 
observation had been made’ by Gay-Lussac, 
Berzelius, and others; and the effect is found 
to be induced in a short time in animals shut 
out from the light of day, and in those con- 
fined in bad air and supplied with bad food. 
In the analyses, the bad milk is at once recog- 
nized by its unduly large proportion of caseine, 


‘while the sugar and often the butter is as dis- 


proportionately small. The large amount of 
saline matter found in bad milk is caused by 
the addition of salt made for the purpose of 
disguising the adulteration with water. But 
the proportions of the ingredients, though suf- 
ficient to expose the character of the milk, 
cannot indicate the poisonous qualities of the 
worst sorts, nor the evil effects that may fol- 
low their use. In organic compounds, such as 
we use for food, as in the air we breathe, the 
most dangerous poisons may lie concealed be- 
yond the power of detection of the most deli- 
cate tests or the most powerful microscopes, 
and their existence is brought to light only by 
their effects upon the human system. Thus 
the real nature of the distillery milk is most 
properly shown in the report by citation of 
several cases of disease in young children 
traced directly to its use.—Milk may be impure 
from natural as well as artificial causes. The 
microscope affords a pretty good test in both 
cases, starch granules and chalky particles be- 
ing easily detected, the latter especially on the 
addition of a little acid. The simplest cases of 
diseased milk are those caused by feverishness 
inthe cow. This causes the globules to assemble 
in groups, as if they possessed a certain degree 
of vitality somewhat resembling that of blood 
globules. Fig. 2 shows the microscopic appear- 
ance of the globules in feverish milk. Fig. 3 
gives the appearance of a sample of milk from 
a distillery stable in Brooklyn, examined by 
Dr. Percy. It was taken from a cow very ill 


544. MILK 


with high fever and inflammation of the bow- 
els. The milk was scanty and blue, and con- 


tained, in addition to the broken-down butter 


[e) 
7 at 
. i KN 
Nop Ren 
© f = Ne ‘ 
Ds BIE 
0 Panes 
a = (G teens: 
. eel eae! te Q 
| 2, e 
rt es Xe: mop ele Ss y 
= zs 
e 


globules and spores of confervx, blood glob- 
ules which are not shown in the drawing. Fig. 
4 is a sample of the same milk after standing 
closely corked for 24 
hours. The spores of 
conferve have grown 
to perfect plants, 
with branching stems. 
These drawings were 
given in the ‘‘ Report 
of the New York State 
Medical Society” for 
1860.— Prof. James 
Law of Cornell uni- 
versity has made some 
investigations in re- 
lation to fungi in 
cows’ milk, of much practical interest. He 
arrived at the conclusion that several of the 
low forms of vegetable life were introduced 
into the water of which the cows drank, as he 
found the same forms in the water-and also in 
the blood of the animals. The experiments 
were made in such a manner as to preclude the 
possibility of the introduction of the organisms 
from any other source. The details are given 
in a pamphlet reprinted from the ‘ Lens,” and 
also in an address on poison cheese before the 
American dairyman’s association in 1872 by L. 
B. Arnold of Ithaca, N. Y. Prof. Gerlach of 
Hanover has recently made a series of investi- 
gations in regard to the effect of a diet of milk 
from tuberculous cows, which would lead to 
the conclusion that tuberculosis may be trans- 
mitted in this manner from the bovine to the 
human race. The subject is at the present 
time undergoing examination in this country, 
but no conclusive results have yet (January, 
1875) been arrived at.—The preservation of 
milk from putrefaction is an object of no little 
importance. In France this is accomplished 
by causing the solid portion of the milk to 
combine with other matters, and thus separate 
in a solid form from the aqueous portion; but 
the compound is not properly milk. It is also 
evaporated down to the consistency of sirup, 
and then by the addition of sugar made into a 
solid compound of milk and sugar; and by a 
third method it is preserved by expelling the 
air from it, and hermetically sealing the bottles 


Fic. 4. 


SUGAR OF MILK 


while they are under a steam heat of about 
100° C. In this way milk has been preserved 
perfectly fresh for 54 years. In the United 
States a patent was granted in 1856 to Gail 
Borden, jr., for another method, which he suc- 
cessfully conducted in Litchfield co., Conn., 
and afterward in Texas, supplying what is 
called ‘‘ condensed milk ” to consumers through- 
out the country. By his process the milk 
when drawn from the cow is immediately 
cooled to about 60° F., in order to check its 
changing. It is soon after rapidly heated in a 
vat surrounded with hot water to 180° or 190°, 
when refined white sugar is added in the pro- 
portion of about one part to nine of milk. It 
is kept in the hot water vat about 30 minutes 


after adding the sugar, and is then removed to 


vacuum pans in which evaporation of the water 
is effected at a temperature not exceeding 160°. 
When it is sufficiently concentrated, the pans 
are quickly cooled down by passing cold water 
in the place of steam through the heating pipes. 
The milk, converted into a paste, can then be 
removed from the pans without adhering to 
their sides. Another preparation, known as 
‘‘ solidified milk,” is also made by a process like 
one of the French methods above referred to. 
To 112 lbs. of fresh milk 28 lbs. of sugar are 
added, together with a teaspoonful of bicarbon- 
ate of soda, merely enough to neutralize any 
slight acidity. The mixture is then evapora- 
ted by the heat of a water bath carefully regu- 
lated, and the process is hastened by a cur- 
rent of air made to pass over the surface. An 
apparatus is kept in operation gently stirring the 
mixture during the evaporating process, until 
at last the milk and sugar are reduced to a 
creamy-looking powder. This when cooled in — 
the air is weighed out into pound parcels, and» 
compressed by machinery into the shape and 
size of small bricks, These, covered with tin 
foil, are ready for sale, and are well adapted 
either for preservation during long voyages 
or for immediate domestic use. The prepara- 
tion of condensed milk is conducted upon a 
large scale in Switzerland. 

MILK, Sugar of, or Lactine, one of the constit- 
uents of milk. It is prepared in Switzerland 
as an article of food, and is used by home-' 
opathists as the vehicle for their medicines, 
and in other practice as an article of food for 
infants in teething, being less apt to produce 
acidity than cane sugar. It is also recommend- 
ed as a non-nitrogenous article of diet in pul- 
monary diseases. It is prepared from the whey 
obtained from milk coagulated with a little 
dilute sulphuric acid, and left several weeks in 
a cool place to crystallize. The crystals of 
sugar of milk are collected and decolorized by 
animal charcoal and repeated crystallizations. 
They consist of OosHis90104+5HO. They are 
hard and gritty, rather insoluble in water and 
alcohol, slightly sweet, and not easily ferment- 
able. When converted into grape sugar by 
the action of dilute acids, sugar of milk may 
furnish a spirituous liquor, as noticed in the 


MILK LEG 


article Mirx. By the homeopathists sugar of 
milk is regarded as the substance most inert 
upon the system, and for this reason as well as 
on account of its great hardness, which causes 
it to reduce to extreme fineness the substances 
with which it is ground, they esteem it as the 
best medium for their medicines, and are by 
far the largest consumers of it. 

MILK LEG, or Phlegmasia Delens, an obstruc- 
tion of the veins and lymphatics, causing a 
painful, non-cedematous swelling in one or both 
lower extremities. It is most common in 
women after parturition, but it sometimes oc- 
curs in unmarried women, and sometimes in 
males. In the case of lying-in women it usual- 
ly commences about a week or ten days after 
delivery, but may take place immediately after 
labor, or at any time during the next five or 
six weeks. 
is liable to be followed by rapid absorption, by 
which morbific matter contained in the uterus 
may be taken into the contiguous veins. The 
pathology consists in inflammation and ob- 
struction of. the iliac and femoral veins. The 
symptoms attending the condition are fever, 
headache, thirst, nausea, and pain, especially in 
the lower abdominal and pelvic regions, at- 
tended by extreme prostration. The attack 
may commence with a chill, and within 24 or 
36 hours the foot or lower part of the leg may 
begin to swell, the process extending upward. 
The acute stage lasts about two or three weeks, 
and after recovery many deep veins remain 
obliterated, while the more superficial ones be- 
come enlarged and tortuous. The limbs usually 
remain useless for many months, and often 
never recover their former condition. As the 
disease is attended with feebleness, the appli- 
cation of leeches and other forms of blood- 
letting are generally inadmissible. The most 
rational treatment is the administration of 
tonics and diffusive stimulants, combined with 
alkaline medicines, a bland and nourishing 
diet (wine and eggs, beef tea, &c.), with the 
external application of liniments and emol- 
lient and alkaline applications, such as soap 
liniment, bran poultice, and solution of bicar- 
bonate of soda or ammonia. 

MILK TREE. See Cow TREE. 

MILKWEED, the popular name for plants of 
the genus Asclepias (named in honor of Aiscu- 
lapius), which includes about 40 species, half 
of which are North American and the remain- 
der natives of Central and South America. 
They are all herbaceous plants, with thick deep 
roots, and mostly with a copious milky juice, 
bearing their flowers in simple umbels. Few 
plants present flowers in which the ordinary 
floral structure is so obscure, and it is not easy 
to explain them without numerous elaborate 
diagrams; in general terms it may be said that 
the parts of the flower are in fives; the five- 
parted calyx is’ persistent; the deeply five- 
parted corolla is reflexed; immediately within 
the corolla is a curious structure called the 
crown, made up of appendages to the stamens, 


Any great drain upon the system. 


MILKWEED BAB 


which are themselves united into a tube by 
their filaments; behind each anther is borne a 
curious erect hood-like appendage, from which 
projects a small horn; these appendages are 
petal-like, and together form a conspicuous 
portion of the flower; the anthers closely sur- 
round and partially adhere to the broad stig- 
ma; each anther cell contains a pear-shaped, 
waxy mass of pollen, and two adjacent masses 
from two contiguous anthers are suspended by 
a stalk from a blackish adhesive gland which 
is borne on the margin of the broad stigma; 
these pollen masses, by means of the adhesive 
glands, stick to insects which visit the flow- 
ers for honey, and are thus dislodged and 
borne to other flowers; bees are frequently 
quite disabled by these pollen masses, which 
adhere to their legs in such numbers as to 
prevent them from climbing upon their combs, 
and they fall down and perish. The ovaries 
are two, ripening into two large follicles, 
which open and expose the flattened seeds im- 
bricated over a large placenta, each furnished 
with a tuft of long, beautiful silky hairs, by the 
aid of which it may be wafted to a distance 
by the wind; on account of these silky hairs 
‘the plant is frequently called silkweed. The 
flowers in most species are showy and fragrant, 
and some are cultivated as ornamental plants; 
the young shoots of our common species are 
valued by many as a substitute for asparagus ; 
the bark of their stems is very tenacious, and 
various partially successful attempts have been 
made to obtain from them a textile fibre and 
a paper stock; the plants are not abundant 
enough in the wild state to afford any consid- 
erable supply, and no experiments have been 
made to ascertain whether their cultivation as 
a fibre-producing plant would be profitable. 
The beauty of the silky down of the seeds early 


Common Milkweed (Asclepias Cornuti)—1. Flower. 2. 
Pollen Masses. 8. Pod. 4. Seeds imbricated on the 
placenta. 


attracted attention, and many attempts have 
been made to utilize it; but the hairs are very 
weak and brittle, and without the roughness or 
angularity which makes it possible to spin oth- 
er fibres; when mixed with cotton it has been 
spun and woven into fabrics which have a silky 


546 MILK WEED 


lustre and take brilliant dyes, but the manufac- 
ture has not been prosecuted; the principal 
use made of the down is in the stuffing of pil- 
lows.—The common milkweed (A. Cornutt) is 
the most abundant species, and is to be found 
in rich grounds almost everywhere; although 
it is a native of America, Linneeus called it A. 
Syriaca, a name which has been properly su- 
perseded ; in the southern states it is known as 
Virginia swallowwort and Virginian silk. The 
purple milkweed (A. purpurascens) is a dark- 
flowered species; A. variegata has nearly 


Variegated Milkweed (Asclepias variegata). 


white flowers; A. incarnata, with fine rose- 
purple flowers, is very common in wet grounds, 
and is known as the swamp milkweed; the 
blunt-leaved milkweed (A. obtusifolia) is a 
common species, readily recognized by its 
clasping, sessile leaves, and its single umbel of 
large but dull-colored flowers; the four-leaved 
milkweed, the most delicate of the genus, 
blooms in woods in June, and is well marked 
by having one or two whorls of four leaves; 
A, verticillata, very common on dry hills, has 
whorled leaves, which are so narrow as to give 
the plant a very different aspect from other 
species. The most showy of all our native 
milkweeds is A. twberosa, more generally called 
butterfly weed and pleurisy root; it is quite 
common, especially southward; the root is 
large, fleshy, and white; the stems are more or 
less decumbent and roughly hairy, very leafy, 
and branching at the summit, where it bears 
numerous umbels of bright orange-colored 
flowers, which are exceedingly showy and al- 
low the plant to be distinguished at a great 
distance; in this species the juice is scarcely 
milky. As one of its popular names indicates, 
the plant is used in medicine, the root being 
the officinal portion; its action is diaphoretic 
and expectorant without being stimulant, and 
in large doses is purgative. This plant is much 
valued abroad as an ornamental one, and its 
roots are a part of the regular stock of the 


MILL 


growers of bulbs and tubers; in this country it 
is seldom seen in gardens, but there is no flow- 
er of its color capable of producing a more 
brilliant effect. Several of our common spe- 
cies are valued in European gardens, as is A. 
Douglasii, a conspicuous plant from California, 
with large leaves, very white with woolly hairs, 
and large lilac-purple fragrant flowers. A. 
Ourassavica, from South America, naturalized 
in Florida, with flowers of orange scarlet, is a 
common greenhouse plant, and is frequently 
set out in the border for summer blooming; 
this has emetic properties, and is used in the 
West Indies under the incorrect name of ipe- 
cacuanha. Active properties pervade the ge- 


| nus, and several of the species have a reputa- 


tion among the herb doctors.—The genus is 
the typical one of the Asclepiadacee, which 
includes more than 180 genera and over 1,000 
species. Of the other native genera, the green 
milkweeds, of the genus acerates, differ from 
the true milkweeds in the absence of a horn to 
the stamineal hood. A twining plant, vince- 
toxicum nigrum, with very dark purple flowers, 
has escaped from cultivation in some places, as 
has the Grecian silk, periploca Greca, which is 
often seen in gardens as an ornamental climber. 
From Pennsylvania southward are found sev- 
eral species of gonolobus, which are twining 
herbs of little beauty. Among cultivated ex- 
otics of this family are the wax plants (Hoya 
carnosa and other species), with fleshy oval 
leaves and umbels of beautiful but artificial- 
looking flowers; Stephanotis floribunda, one of 
the most valued greenhouse climbers, with fine 
foliage and pure white fragrant flowers; and 
the singular stapelias, with cactus-like stems 
and lurid flowers with the odor of carrion. 

MILKY WAY. See Garaxy. 

MILL. I. James, a British philosopher, born 
in Logie Pert, near Montrose, Forfarshire, 
April 6, 1778, died in Kensington, June 23, 
1836. He was educated at the grammar school 
of Montrose and the university of Edinburgh, 
where he excelled in Greek and metaphysics. 
He was licensed to preach in 1798, but aban- 
doned the profession, removed to London in 
1800, became editor of the ‘Literary Jour- 
nal,” which was soon discontinued, and was 
an occasional contributor to the principal Brit- 
ish reviews. He soon attracted the notice of 
Jeremy Bentham, was for several years do- 
mesticated in his house, and was the chief ex- 
positor of his opinions in England. On the 
establishment of the ‘‘ Westminster Review” 
in 1824 by Bentham, Mill became one of its 
principal contributors, writing for it important 
articles on the ‘‘ Formation of Opinions,” the 
‘ Ballot,” ‘¢ Aristocracy,” and other subjects. 
For ten years much of his time was occupied in 
writing his ‘‘ History of British India” (3 vols. 
Ato, 1817-718; continued to 1835 by Prof. H. H. 
Wilson, 9 vols. 8vo, 1840-46). It was without 
a rival as a source of information; and though 
he censured the conduct of the East India com- 
pany, his ability and familiarity with its affairs 


MILL 


caused the directors in 1819 to introduce him 
into their home establishment, where he man- 
aged their correspondence with India in the 
revenue branch of the administration; and he 
became in time head of the department of In- 
dian correspondence. His official duties did 
not preclude the continuance of his labors as 
an author, and he contributed to the supple- 
ment to the earlier editions of the ‘‘ Encyclo- 
peedia Britannica.” His articles on colonies, 
education, government, jurisprudence, law of 
nations, liberty of the press, and prison disci- 
pline were reprinted in a volume (1828), and 
are among his most effective writings. His 
‘““Elements of Political Economy” (1821-’2) 
presented the views of Ricardo in a precise 
and clear style. His most elaborate work is 
his ‘‘ Analysis of the Phenomena of the Hu- 
man Mind” (2 vols. 8vo, 1829), an ingenious 
exposition of the sensational philosophy. His 
last publication was a fragment containing a 
severe criticism on Sir James Mackintosh’s dis- 
sertation on the progress of ethical philosophy 
(1835). HI. John Stuart, an English philoso- 
pher, son of the preceding, born in London, 
May 20, 1806, died in Avignon, France, May 
9, 1873. He was educated by his father in 
a singularly pedantic manner, and for many 
years subjected himself to the severest intel- 
lectual training, while pursuing a wide range 
of studies. In 1823 he became a clerk in the 
India house, in which after a series of pro- 
motions he received in 1856 the appointment 
of examiner of Indian correspondence, a post 
which had been held by his father, and which 
he retained till the extinction of the East India 
company in 1858. He was selected to edit 
Bentham’s ‘Rationale of Judicial Evidence ” 
(1827), to which he added notes and supple- 
mentary chapters. He was a frequent con- 
tributor to the journals in favor of advanced 
liberal views during the agitation of the reform 
bill. In the ‘London and Westminster Re- 
view,” which he conducted from 1834 to 1840, 
appeared his masterly articles on Bentham 
and Coleridge, in which his aim was to inter- 
pret between their respective admirers, critici- 
sing his own party and reporting truths which 
it might learn from its opponents. He also 
wrote for the ‘‘ Edinburgh Review ” and other 
leading periodicals. He first became widely 
known by the publication of his ‘System of 
Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive” (2 vols., 
1848), in which the whole character of his phi- 
losophy appears. The predominance which 
he gives to sensation in psychology involves 
the predominance of induction in logic. He 
denies the existence of a priori truths, affirms 
that knowledge is limited to phenomena, and 
ignores causation beyond phenomenal condi- 
tions. His ‘‘ Essays on some Unsettled Ques- 
tions of Political Economy” (1844) was pre- 
liminary to his second great work, entitled 
“Principles of Political Economy, with some 
of their Applications to Social Philosophy ” 
(1848), a subject peculiarly fitted to his adroit- 


54T 


ness in the treatment of positive problems 
and palpable interests. He aimed, like Adam 
Smith, to associate the exposition of general 
principles with their practical applications, and 
also to introduce the new ideas, especially re- 
specting currency, foreign trade, and coloniza- 
tion, which had been elicited by discussions 
subsequent to the publication of the ‘‘ Wealth 
of Nations;” to maintain a course of strict 
scientific reasoning while exhibiting the eco- 
nomical phenomena of society in their relation 
to the best social ideas of the present time. 
His ‘‘ Dissertations and Discussions, Political, 
Philosophical, and Historical,” collected chiefly 
from the “ Edinburgh” and ‘ Westminster ” 
reviews (2 vols., 1859; vol. iii., 1867; vol. iv. 
in preparation, 1874), embrace his views on the 
most important topics. He maintains that sci- 
entific certainty is only relative, and that theol- 
ogy can have no firmer basis than an inference 
from the analogies of experience; that moral- 
ity is but a means to an end, which is hap- 
piness, that approximation to an ideal standard 
of inward harmony is the method of attaining 
that end, that the realization of this harmony 
is not a moral but an esthetical achievement, 
and that the utilitarian is entirely different 
from the selfish view of life; that poetry, 
music, painting, and sculpture have great so- 
cial value and educative power; that political 
questions should be decided by the deliberately 
formed opinions of a select few, specially edu- 
cated for the task, whose rectitude of purpose 
should be secured by rendering them respon- 
sible to the many; that the ideal of a rational 
democracy is not that the people themselves 
govern, but that they have security for good 
government; that there is no essential differ- 
ence between the powers of woman and man, 
and that she should be his partner in all actual 
and intellectual enterprises, and in all social 
and political privileges and responsibilities ; 
and that all history is a progressive chain of 
causes and effects, the complex facts of each 
generation being caused by that which pre- 
ceded it, and moulding that which follows it. 
He published also in 1859 a work ‘‘On Lib- 
erty,” the object of which is to show that our 
age manifests an increasing despotism of so- 
cial and political masses over the moral and 
intellectual freedom of individuals, that the 
supremacy of public opinion discourages the 
strength or intensity of any well marked type 
of character, that energetic characters on any 
large scale are becoming merely traditional, 
and that the only guarantee against the decline 
of our civilization is to erect by common con- 
sent every individual human mind into an im- 
pregnable and independent fortress, within 
which no social authority shall have any juris- 
diction. In his ‘‘Thoughts on Parliamentary 
Reform” (1859) he recommends the extension 
of the electoral suffrage to all householders 
without distinction of sex, on condition of 
proving their ability to read, write, and cal- 
culate, and a considerable extension to persons 


548 MILL 

of certain educational qualifications; advocates 
cumulative voting; and opposes the use of the 
ballot. His later works are: ‘‘ Considerations 
on Representative Government” (1861); ‘‘ Utili- 
tarianism ” (1862); ‘‘ Auguste Comte and Posi- 
tivism” (1865); ‘‘ Examination of Sir William 
Hamilton’s Philosophy ” (1865); “ England and 
Ireland” (1868); ‘‘The Subjection of Women” 
(1869); ‘Chapters and Speeches on the Irish 
Land Question” (1870); and ‘ Autobiogra- 
phy” (posthumous, 1873; German translation 
by Karl Kolb, Stuttgart, 1874). In 1865 Mr. 
Mill was elected to parliament from Westmin- 
ster, and acted with the advanced liberals. In 
1867 he presented a petition for woman suf- 
frage, and moved an amendment to the reform 
bill striking out the words limiting the electo- 
ral franchise to males. In 1868 he lost his seat. 
He was chosen rector of the university of St. 
Andrews in 1867, and his inaugural address 
was published in the same year. His posthu- 
mous “‘ Three Essays on Religion: Nature, the 
Utility of Religion, Theism,” appeared in 1874. 
—See “John Stuart Mill: His Life and Works” 
(1873), 12 sketches by J. R. Fox Bourne, W. 
T. Thornton, Herbert Spencer, and others. 

MILL, John, an English scholar, born at Shapp, 
Westmoreland, about 1645, died in Oxford, June 
23, 1707. He graduated at Oxford in 1669, 
where, after receiving various ecclesiastical 
preferments, he was made in 1685 principal 
of St. Edmund’s hall. He became prebendary 
of Canterbury in 1704. His most important 
work is his edition of the Greek Testament, to 
the preparation of which he devoted the last 
30 years of his life. It was undertaken at the 
suggestion and expense of Dr. Fell, bishop of 
Oxford; but after that dignitary’s death Mill 
continued it at his own cost, and paid back 
to Fell’s executors the money advanced. He 
finished the work only 14 days before his 
death, and it was published the same year. It 
adopts the received text of Robert Stephens, 
and contains over 30,000 various readings col- 
lected from the works of former commenta- 
tors, the writings of the fathers, and ancient 
uncollated manuscripts. 

MILLAIS, John Everett, an English painter, 
born in Southampton, June 8, 1829. When 
nine years old he gained a medal from the so- 
ciety of arts, and was placed in Mr. Sass’s pre- 
paratory school of art in London, whence at 
the age of 11 he was transferred to the antique 
school of the royal academy. In 1843 he 
gained the medal for drawing from the an- 
tique. In 1846 he exhibited his first picture 
at the academy, ‘‘ Pizarro seizing the Inca of 
Peru,” and in 1847 obtained the gold medal 
for the best oil picture, his subject being ‘‘ The 
Tribe of Benjamin seizing the Daughters of 
Shiloh.” At this period he was induced to re- 
ject the academic rules which then prevailed, 
and to adopt the principles of the ‘ Pre-Ra- 
phaelite school,” of which he was one of the 
original members. The first picture painted 
by him in the new style was “Isabella,” from 


MILLARD 


Keats’s poem, exhibited in 1849. In 1850 ap- 
peared his ‘‘ Ferdinand lured by Ariel,” and a 
mystical picture of Christ, and in 1851 ‘“ Mari- 
ana in the Moated Grange,” ‘‘ The Return of 
the Dove to the Ark,” and ‘‘The Woodman’s 
Daughter.” So rigorously did he follow the 
realistic principles involved in his new concep- 
tions of art, that the simplicity at which he 
aimed was decried as an evidence of baldness 
and poverty, and his pictures were declared 
to be utterly deficient in the sense of beauty. 
But their unquestioned power challenged at- 
tention, and it was conceded that the natural- 
ism which the artist sought to embody in his 
works was of a higher order than the literal 
reproduction of nature. His efforts at religious 
symbolism found few admirers, and were not 
repeated. ‘‘The Huguenot” and ‘ Ophelia,” 
exhibited in 1852, increased his reputation; 
and in the succeeding year his ‘ Proscribed 
Royalist ” and ‘Order of Release.” Some of 
his later works are: ‘‘ A Dream of the Past: 
Sir Isumbrus at the Ford ” (1857); ‘‘ The Here- 
tic” (1858); ‘Vale of Rest” and “Spring 
Flowers” (1860); ‘‘The Black Brunswicker” 
(1861); ‘My First Sermon” (1863); ‘‘ Char- 
ley is my Darling” (1864); ‘‘Joan of Arc” 
and ‘The Romans leaving Britain” (1865); 
“Sleeping,” ‘‘ Waking,” and ‘‘ Jephthah ” 
(1867); and “ Winter Fuel” (1874). Millais 
was a contributor to the ‘‘Germ” (1850), a 
short-lived periodical, devoted to an exposi- 
tion of the views of the pre-Raphaelites. He 
has sometimes been engaged in the illustration 
of books and periodicals. In 1863 he was 
elected a member of the royal academy, hay- 
ing been an associate since 1853. He married 
the former wife of John Ruskin, who had pro- 
cured a divorce in Scotland. ; 

MILLARD, a W. county of Utah, bordering 
on Nevada; area, 6,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
2,753. It contains Sevier lake, and is inter- 
sected by Sevier river. The W. part is mostly 
unexplored. The settlements are in the E. 
part, in the valleys along the W. base of the 
Wasatch mountains. Valuable minerals are 
supposed to exist. The chief productions in 
1870 were 29,267 bushels of wheat, 6,853 of 
Indian corn, 9,714 of potatoes, 4,038 Ibs. of 
wool, 23,437 of butter, 14,3825 of cheese, and 
909 tons of hay. There were 1,555 horses, 
2,041 milch cows, 2,915 other cattle, 3,722 
sheep, and 151 swine. Oapital, Fillmore City. 

MILLARD, David, an American clergyman, 
born in Ballston, N. Y., Nov. 24, 1794, died in 
Jackson, Mich., Aug. 83,1873. He was brought 
up a farmer, but became a teacher when 17 
years old. In 1815 he entered the ministry 
of the Christian denomination, and from 1818 
to 1832 was pastor in West Bloomfield, N. Y., 
where he wrote ‘‘The True Messiah in Scrip- 
ture Light” (1818). He also edited for sever- 
al years a monthly magazine called the “‘ Gos- 
pel Luminary.” In 1837-40 he was pastor 
in Portsmouth, N. H. In 1841 he visited the 
Mediterranean and the East, and in 1848 pub- 


MILLAU 


lished ‘Travels in Egypt, Arabia Petrasa, and 
the Holy Land.” On his return he settled 
again at West Bloomfield, made frequent lec- 
turing tours, and from 1845 to 1867 was pro- 
fessor of Biblical antiquities and sacred geog- 
raphy in the Meadville theological seminary. 
His life has been written by his son, the Rev. 
D. E. Millard (1874). 

MILLAU, Milland, or Milhan, a town of Lan- 
guedoc, France, in the department of Aveyron, 
on the Tarn, 85 m. N. E. of Toulouse; pop. in 
1866, 13,663. It has a communal college and 
a chamber of commerce. The chief manufac- 
tures are woollen cloth, leather, gloves, and 
silk twist. A brisk trade is carried on in tim- 
ber, cattle, wool, wine, and other agricultural 
products. In the religious wars of France the 
town became famous as one of the strongholds 
of the Huguenots, and in 1629 its ancient castle 
and the walls were demolished by Louis XIII. 

MILLEDGE, John, an American soldier and 
statesman, born in Savannah, Ga., in 1757, 
died at the Sandhills, near Augusta, Feb. 9, 
1818. He was one of the party which cap- 
tured Gov. Wright (June 17, 1775), the first 
bold revolutionary act performed in Geor- 
gia. He was at the unsuccessful siege of Sa- 
vannah under the count D’Estaing and Gen. 
Lincoln, and also at the siege of Augusta. In 
1780 he was appointed attorney general, and 
he served frequently in the state legislature. 
In 1802 he was elected governor of Georgia, 
and served two terms. He was a representa- 
tive in congress from 1792 to 1802, except 
one term, and United States’ senator from 1806 
to 1809. He was the principal founder of the 
university of Georgia. 

MILLEDGEVILLE, a town and the county seat 
‘of Baldwin co., Georgia, and formerly capital 
of the state, on the W. bank of the Oconee 
river, at the intersection of the Macon and 
Augusta and the Milledgeville and Eatonton 
railroads, 85 m. 8. E. of Atlanta, and 145 m. 
W.N. W. of Savannah; pop. in 1870, 2,750, of 
whom 1,547 were colored. It is surrounded 
by a beautiful and fertile cotton region, and 
contains several handsome residences. The 
governor’s mansion and the state house are in 
good preservation, and are still the property 
of the state. Two weekly newspapers are pub- 
lished. Itis the seat of the state lunatic asylum 
and of the state penitentiary. Milledgeville 
was entered by the forces of Gen. Sherman on 
Nov. 23, 1864, who burned the magazines, 
penitentiary, arsenals, depot buildings, bridges, 
and about 1,700 bales of cotton. The capital 
was removed to Atlanta in 1868. 

’ MILLEDOLER, Philip, an American clergy- 
man, born at Rhinebeck, N. Y., Sept. 22, 1775, 
died on Staten Island, Sept. 23, 1852. His 
father, a Swiss, came to America about 1751. 
The son graduated at Columbia college in 1798, 
studied theology, and in 1795 became pastor 
of the German Reformed church in Nassau 
street, New York, where he preached both 
in German and English. In May, 1800, he 


MILLENNIUM 5A 


became one of the pastors of the collegiate 
Dutch Reformed church in New York, but 
soon after accepted the pastorate of the Pine 
street Presbyterian church in Philadelphia. In 
1801 he was elected secretary of the board of 
trustees of the Presbyterian church. In 1805 
he accepted a call from the then collegiate Pres- 
byterian churches in New York, with special 
reference to the church in Rutgers street, where 
he was installed on Nov. 19. In 1818 he be- 
came pastor of the collegiate Dutch church in 
New York. In 1825 he was appointed pro- 
fessor of didactic and polemic theology in the 
seminary at New Brunswick, N. J., and at the 
same time president of Rutgers college, both 
which offices he retained till 1835. His last 
residence was in New York. He published 
many sermons and addresses, and a ‘ Disser- 
tation on Incestuous Marriages” (1848). 
MILLE LACS, an E. central county of Minne- 
sota, drained by Rum river, and containing the 
S. portion of Lake Mille Lacs; area, 684 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1870, 1,109. The surface consists of 
rolling prairies, with timbered bottom lands 
along the streams. The chief productions in 
1870 were 7,920 bushels of wheat, 9,572 of 
Indian corn, 9,131 of oats, 5,163 of potatoes, 
22,667 lbs. of butter, and 1,917 tons of hay. 
Value of live stock, $33,869. There were 2 
saw mills and 1 flour mill. Capital, Princeton. 
MILLENNIUM (Lat. mille, 1,000, and annus, a 
year), a period of 1,000 years. In theology 
this term generally designates the doctrine of 
a return of Jesus Christ in person before the 
end of the world, of a first or particular resur- 
rection of the just, who are to reign with Christ 
on earth, and of the destruction of Antichrist. 
Those who hold such views are called mille- 
narians or chiliasts (Gr. y:Acdc, a thousand). It 
is admitted on all sides that millenarian views 
were, if not general, at least very common in 
the ancient church. The belief was generally 
founded on Ps. xc. 4 and 2 Pet. iii. 8, accord- 
ing to which a thousand years are before the 
Lord as‘one day, compared with the account 
of the creation as given by Moses, the six days 
of creation being taken as designating 6,000 
years of toil, and the subsequent sabbath 1,000 
years of rest and happiness. Rey. xx. 1-6 is 
especially quoted by millenarians in support of 
their views. Millenarianism prevailed chiefly 
among the Jewish Christians, who retained 
after their conversion the hope of the Jewish 
nation that they would rule over all other na- 
tions under a royal Messiah. The Ebionites, 
the Nazareans, and the Cerinthians all strongly 
advocated it; and Montanus and his followers 
regarded it as a fundamental doctrine of the 
Christian religion. The early fathers of the 
church also declared themselves generally in 
favor of the doctrine; Papias, Justin, Irenus, 
and Tertullian all clearly teach it; and Papias 
appealed in support of his view to apostolic 
traditions. The epistles of Clement of Rome 
and Ignatius of Antioch, and the epistle to 
Diognetus, are silent about it. Justin, though 


550 MILLENNIUM 


himself a believer in the millennium, knew 
many orthodox Christians who were not; yet 
none of the apostolic fathers openly opposed 
it. The first opponent of whom we know was 
the Roman presbyter Caius, who designated 
the doctrine as an invention of the arch-heretic 
Cerinthus. Origen first gave a more rational 
idea of the millennium, which according to 
him would consist in the reign of Christian 
truth throughout the world, and in the volun- 
tary submission paid to it by all secular pow- 
ers. This view was upheld by the Alexandrine 
school. Still the old view continued to find 
advocates during the 3d century, among whom 
. Tertullian, Nepos, bishop of Arsinoé, and Me- 
thodius, bishop of Tyre, were prominent. In 
the 4th century, though it had still many ad- 
herents among the people, it found no longer 
any advocate of note among the Christian 
writers; yet Jerome, who did not believe in 
it himself, did not dare to condemn it. From 
the 5th century millenarianism began to die 
out. It was temporarily revived, toward the 
close of the 10th century, by the popular be- 
lief in the approaching end of the world, and 
at later periods by the abbot Joachim de Floris, 
the Spirituals, the Apostolic Order, Peter de 
Oliva, and other heretics of the middle ages; 
but it never regained great strength.—The ref- 
ormation of the 16th century gave a new im- 
pulse to millenarian views. Common opinion 
identified the pope with Antichrist, and re- 
garded the expected downfall of papacy as 
foreshadowing the approach of the millennium. 
But when the Anabaptists assumed about 1534 
to erect the new Zion, both the Lutheran and 
Reformed churches declared themselves against 
this caricature of the old Christian doctrine. 
Yet it was preached with enthusiasm by many 
sects and theologians of the 16th and 17th 
centuries, among whom were Weigel and the 
Moravian bishop Comenius in Germany, Jurieu 
in France, the Labadists in the Netherlands, 
and Joseph Mede and Jane Lead (died 1704) in 
England.—Johann Albrecht Bengel. reintro- 
duced millenarianism into Protestant theology, 
where it has ever since been advocated by 
many prominent theologians. The ingenious 
prelate Oetinger (died 1782) brought it into 
connection with his favorite theosophic views. 
Hahn (founder of a pietistic sect in Wirtem- 
berg), Stilling, Lavater, and Hass gave it a 
wide circulation among the lower classes of 
the people in Germany and Switzerland. With 
Rothe (Theologische Hthik, vol. ii.) millena- 
rianism forms an organic link in his theo- 
sophic system. In opposition to the “ spiritual- 
ism” of modern exegesis, it has been advoca- 
ted, with exegetical arguments, by Hoffmann, 
Delitzsch, Kurtz, Hebart, and others; while 
Thiersch, Nitzsch, P. Lange, and Ebrard sup- 
ported it from a dogmatical as well as an exe- 
getical standpoint. Swedenborg taught that 
the last judgment took place in 1757, and that 
the New church or church of the New Jeru- 
silem had actually been formed both in heaven 


MILLEPORE 


and on earth. After Germany, England and 
America have been the chief fields of modern 
chiliasm. The ‘Catholic Apostolic Church,” 
organized by Edward Irving, laid great stress 
on the belief that the kingdom of glory was 
very near. Millenarian views lie at the founda- 
tion of Mormonism, the people who hold that 
belief calling themselves ‘‘ Latter Day Saints” 
in reference to the near approach of the last 
day. The sect commonly called Shakers style 
themselves the ‘‘ Millennial Church.” In the 
United States a great agitation was called forth 
by the preaching of William Miller, who sought 
to prove from the Scriptures that the second 
advent of Christ would occur about 1848. He 
not only found numerous believers in most 
denominations, but also occasioned the organ- 
ization of a new denomination of Advent- 
ists. One of the most noted of recent millena- 
rians is the Englishman Dr. John Cumming, 
who placed the end of the “ present dispensa- 
tion” in 1866 or 1867, and then in 1868, In 
November, 1870, he published ‘‘ The Seventh 
Vial,” to prove that all the prophecies con- 
cerning the millennium have been fulfilled.— 
Millenarian views in various periods of the 
Christian church differ widely respecting most 
points, except the duration of the millennium, 
which nearly all of them fix at 1,000 years, 
The beginning of the millennium was fixed by 
Hippolytus at the year 500, by Jurieu at 1785, 
by Bengel at 1836, and by others at other dates. 
Many agree in expecting it between 1879 and 
1887. Commonly the earth is believed to be 
the only place of the millennium, and Jerusa- 
lem its central point of union. Many still hold 
the view of Origen (see above), and of Marten- 
sen (Christliche Dogmatik, 1850), that it de- 
notes the period of highest earthly prosperity 
of the church in the spiritual return of Christ 
to the earth.—A good history of millenarian- 
ism in the Christian church is still a desid- 
eratum, as the works published do not ex- 
haust the subject. See Corrodi, Hritische Ge- 
schichte des Chiliasmus (Frankfort, 1781); and 
D. T. Taylor, ‘‘The Voice of the Church on 
the Coming and Kingdom of the Redeemer: 
a History of the Doctrine of the Reign of 
Christ upon Earth,” revised by Hastings (2d 
ed., Peacedale, R. I., 1855). 

MILLEPEDE. See CENTIPEDE. 

MILLEPORE (millepora, Linn.), a genus of 
hydroid medusw. The animals live in com- 
munities, which take on various arborescent 
and incrusting shapes; they deposit much car- 
bonate of lime in their tissues, so that the 
medusa stock is in outward appearance almost 
solid, with minute pores on the surface which 
contain the animals. A cross section of this 
stony skeleton shows that the minute individ- 
uals of the community constantly grow out- 
ward in the direction of their longitudinal axis, 
forming as they proceed long calcareous tubes, 
which are so intimately cemented together as 
to make a compact mass. Across these tubes, 
at short intervals, are formed little transverse 


MILLER 


platforms, which divide the tubes into joints 
or cells. These platforms are deposited by the 
base of the animal, and are of high importance 
in classification; by them is characterized 
Milne-Edwards’s division of the tabulata, which 
includes millepora. Till within a short time 


Wi 
th 
Wh 
H 

He) 


Mh 

i i Wy 

HU) i 
ty 


Millepora alcicornis. 


all zodlogists have placed the millepores among 
polyps. Inthe winter of 1857-8 Prof. Agassiz 
succeeded, for the first time, in observing the 
animals of millepora alcicornis in Florida, and 
was surprised to find them not polyps, but true 
hydroid medusz, resembling hydractinie. This 
observation gives great importance to the me- 
dus, as represented among the fossils, for the 
tabulata are found abundantly as low as the 
Silurian formations. As the presence of me- 
senteric septa seems to militate against the 
above mentioned separation, some naturalists 
retain them among the polyps.—See ‘‘ The 
British Fossil Corals,” by Milne-Edwards, in 
the “Transactions of the Paleontographical 
Society ;” Dana’s ‘‘Zoéphytes” and ‘ Corals 
and Coral Islands ;” the ‘‘ American Journal of 
Science,” vol. xxvi.} p. 140 (1858); and Agas- 
siz’s ‘‘ Contributions to the Natural History of 
the United States,” vol. iii. 

MILLER. I. A S. W. county of Georgia, in- 
tersected by Spring creek, a branch of Flint 
river; area, about 250 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
8,091, of whom 956 were colored. The sur- 
face is level, and the soil moderately fertile. 
The chief productions in 1870 were 76,788 
bushels of Indian corn, 11,968 of oats, 13,867 
of sweet potatoes, 1,744 lbs. of rice, 6,015 of 
wool, 11,370 of butter, 1,684 bales of cotton, 
and 10,993 gallons of molasses. There were 
1,871 milch cows, 4,110 other cattle, 3,995 
sheep, and 6,456 swine. Capital, Colquit. IL. 
A central county of Missouri, traversed by 
Osage river, here navigable during three or four 
months of the year; area, 570 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 6,616, of whom 176 were colored. The 
surface is diversified and well timbered with 
walnut, sugar maple, and other valuable woods. 
The soil of the river bottoms is fertile. The 


551 


chief productions in 1870 were 91,918 bushels 
of wheat, 256,141 of Indian corn, 69,977 of 
oats, 12,475 of potatoes, 10,486 lbs. of tobac- 
co, 22,482 of wool, 31,778 of butter, and 1,567 
bales of cotton. There were 2,926 horses, 
2,474 milch cows, 4,271 other cattle, 11,504 
sheep, and 17,841 swine. Capital, Tuscumbia. 
MILLER, Bénigne Emmanuel Clément, a French 
philologist, born in Paris in 1812. In 1834 
he received an appointment in the manuscript 
department of the royal library, where he be- 
came thoroughly acquainted with Greek pale- 
ography. In 1835 and 1836 he was sent to 
the libraries of Italy and Spain to collect the 
scholia of Aristophanes. Among the results 
of his explorations were a Supplément aus 
derniéres éditions des petits géographes grecs 
(8v0, 1839), Catalogue des manuscrits grecs de 
la bibliothéque de ’ Escurial (4to, 1848), and 
Poésies grecques inédites de Manuel Phile. In 
1851 he published at Oxford, under the title of 
Philosophumena, sive omnium Heresium Refu- 
tatio, the text of a manuscript procured from 
Mt. Athos by Mynas, which he believed to be 
an original treatise of Origen, but which is 
now generally attributed to Hippolytus. In 
1840-"46 he published Revue de bibliographie 
analytique (6 vols.), which met with moderate 
success; and he has edited several minor Greek 
authors. He was also one of the principal edi- 
tors of the Recueil ditinéraires anciens (4to, 
with atlas, 1844). In 1849 he became libra- 
rian of the national assembly, ‘and in 1860 was 
elected to the academy of inscriptions and 
belles-lettres. One of his latest works is J/é- 
langes de littérature grecque (8vo0, 1868). 
MILLER, Edward, an American physician, born 
in Dover, Del., May 9, 1760, died in New York, 
March 17, 1812. He attended medical lec- 
tures in the university of Pennsylvania, spent 
about a year in the military hospital at Bask- 
ingridge, N. J., and in 1782 went to France as 
the surgeon of an armed ship. In 1783 he en- 
tered on the practice of medicine in Maryland, 
and in 1788 graduated as M. D. in the univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania. In 1796 he removed 
to New York, and with Dr. Mitchill and Dr. 
Smith commenced the publication of the ‘‘ Med- 
ical Repository,” the first American medical 
journal. In 1803 he was appointed resident 
physician for the city of New York. He was 
a member of the American philosophical soci- 
ety, professor of the theory and practice of 
physic in the college of physicians and sur- 
geons, and one of the physicians of the New 
York hospital. His ‘‘ Report on the Yellow 
Fever of New York in 1805” is the source 
from which most later authors have drawn 
their arguments in support of the non-conta- 
gious nature of yellow fever. His writings, 
with a biographical sketch, were published by 
his brother, the Rev. Samuel Miller (8vo, 1814). 
MILLER, Hugh, a British geologist, born at 
Cromarty, on the E. coast of Scotland, Oct. 10, 
1802, died at Portobello, near Edinburgh, Dec. 
26, 1856. He belonged to that half Scandina- 


552 HUGH MILLER 


vian population inhabiting the shores of the ! of the locality, as porphyries, granites, gneisses, 


German ocean from Fife to Caithness. On his 
father’s side he was fourth in descent in a line 
of sailors from John Feddes, one of the last 
of the buccaneers on the Spanish main, who 
returned to Cromarty to enjoy his money, and 
built ‘“‘the long, low house” in which his dis- 
tinguished great-grandson passed his youth. 
On his mother’s side he was of highland blood, 
and fifth in descent from Donald Roy of Ross- 
shire, famed for his piety and his second sight. 
His father was drowned in a tempest (a fate 
which had befallen several of his ancestors) in 
1807; and from that time, though still living 
with his mother, he was chiefly under the care 
of two maternal uncles, who had greater influ- 
ence and authority over him until the age of 
manhood than any other persons. One was a 
harness maker and the other a cartwright, and 
he accounts them the most important of his 
schoolmasters. His uncle Alexander encour- 
aged his early bent toward natural history, 
and taught him much about rocks, clouds, rains, 
tides, trees, ferns, shell fish, sea fowl, and in- 
sects. His uncle James interested him in human 
history, and gave him his liking for traditional 
lore, Scottish antiquities, social habits, and in- 
dividual eccentricities. The tastes and predi- 
lections of both uncles were deeply impressed 
on him, and wherever he went in later life the 
geology and humanity of the district seemed 
equally to attract him. In his fifth year he was 
sent to a dame’s school, where he learned to 
read. He was thence transferred to the gram- 
mar school of Oromarty, where he went 
through the ordinary course of rudimentary 
studies. He even began Latin with a view to 
college, but from distaste failed in it completely, 
being usually at the nether end of a very poor 
class, which position even he maintained only 
by displaying an unaccountable facility in trans- 
lation. The master read aloud every morning 
in English the task assigned for the day, and 
Hugh was able to remember the whole render- 
ing in its order, and to give it back in the even- 
ing word for word. Much of the leisure se- 
cured in this way was employed in reading 
translations from the classics by stealth. About 
his 15th year he attended for some time a sub- 
scription school set up as a rival to the gram- 
mar school. But from this whole amount of 
pedagogy he derived, according to his own esti- 
mate, only one advantage, namely, the faculty 
of reading books, with the correlative accom- 
plishment of writing. He had acquired a rep- 
utation among his class fellows asa narrator of 
stories; and having exhausted the subjects of 
his reading and the various adventures that 
he had himself heard told, he was accustomed 
to extemporize with great success the wildest 
biographies. Meantime, other branches of his 
education had been going on outside of the 
school. He was the leader in excursions along 
the precipices and into the caves on the coast. 
He had learned to collect on the beach and to 
distinguish from each other the various rocks 


quartz, and mica schists, and had discovered 
for himself that Cromarty possessed among 
its minerals one precious stone, the garnet; 
and his observations in other departments had 
been encouraged and corrected by his unele 
Sandy, who, as he always claimed, knew more 
of living nature than many professors of nat- 
ural history. He had studied scenery, customs, 
and physiognomies in the highlands of Suther- 
landshire, among his Gaelic cousins; had heard 
the story of Culloden from men who fought in 
the battle; had conversed with an old lady 
who witnessed the last witch-burning in the 
north of Scotland; and had acquired a habit, 
which marks his life and his writings, of study- 
ing historical monuments as well as geological 
formations, collecting local legends as well as 
fossils, delighting as much to discover a kelpie 
as a pterodactyl, and regarding types of char- 
acter and phases of society in connection with 
the facts of science. The foremost youth in 
the district, his uncles wished him to prepare 
for Aberdeen college, and there to study for 
the church; but he demurred, declaring that 
he had no call to the sacred office, and they 
admitted that he had better be anything than 
an uncalled minister. A trade was therefore 
resolved upon, and he was apprenticed for three 
years to one of his relatives, who was a stone 
mason. From his 17th till his 34th year he 
led the life of an operative mason, journeying 
in summer to pursue his labors in different 
parts of Scotland, devoting all his leisure to ear- 
nest intellectual cultivation, reading all kinds 
of books on summer evenings and at home 
during the winter, and cherishing a belief from 
the beginning that literature and perhaps nat- 
ural science would after all prove his proper 
vocation. During the first part of this period 
(1818-25), as an apprentice and journeyman, 
he was subjected to all the coarse and rough 
experiences of his trade, working as one of a 
gang in quarries or in sheds, and passing his 
evenings in wretched highland bothies or in 
hovels in lowland villages. He afterward ex- 
changed the life of a journeyman, working sea- 
son after season for different masters, for that 
of a jobbing mason, undertaking private com- 
missions in the way of his trade, such as the 
sculpturing and lettering of tombstones, stone 
dials, and the like; yet his habits of work con- 
tinued in all respects to be those of a common 
mason, and his domestic accommodations those 
of any frugal Scotch mechanic. During this 
laborious period of his life he formed an inti- 
mate and extensive acquaintance with the best 
English and Scotch literature, embracing not 
only the departments of fiction, history, and 
poetry, but the philosophical works of Locke, 
Kames, Hume, Reid, Adam Smith, and Dugald 
Stewart. He seized upon every work of natu- 
ral science that fell in his way, and moreover 
wrote a great variety of verses, rhapsodies, and 
reflections. His various scenes of labor made 
him familiar with the scenery, antiquities, and 


HUGH MILLER | BES 


social peculiarities of different parts of Scot- 
land. But his greatest progress was in geol- 
ogy. Starting with hardly more than an em- 
pirical knowledge of the mineral characters 
of rocks, he soon detected the wonders of the 
fossil world in quarries remarkably rich in 
organisms. Wherever he went, from the shores 
of the Moray frith to those of the frith of 
Forth, the hammer was in his pocket, and his 
eye was searching for fossil specimens. Com- 
bining what he saw with what he read, he 
became, while yet hardly aware of it, not only 
a self-taught geologist, but a geologist capable 
of teaching others. To this period belong his 
discoveries in the old red sandstone, which 
only required to be known to insure him 
distinction in the scientific world. In 1825, 
work failing in the north, he sailed for the 
south of Scotland, and went from Leith to the 
capital. There he was occupied for two years, 
till his health began to fail, and he learned that 
few Edinburgh stonecutters pass their 40th 
year, and not one in 50 reaches his 45th. He 
therefore returned to Cromarty, accustomed to 
contemplate with rather pensive than sad feel- 
ings an early death, and soon after became seri- 
ously interested in the personal bearing of reli- 
gious concerns. Until this time he describes 
himself as wavering between two extremes, 
now a believer and anon a skeptic, the belief 
being instinctive, the skepticism arising from 
some intellectual process. The result of his 
thoughts and conversations was that he found 
rest in the fundamental principles of Scottish 
evangelicism. His attaimments soon made him 
a local celebrity; geologists in other towns 
corresponded with him; Oromarty ladies be- 
gan to walk up to where he was at work to 
have the pleasure of conversing with him, one 
of whom was the young lady who afterward 
became his wife; and he was elected town 
councillor. He published a volume of ‘‘ Poems 
written in the Leisure Hours of a Journeyman 
Mason” (1829); contributed a series of letters 
to the ‘Inverness Courier” on the herring 
fishery, which were collected in a volume; dis- 
covered deposits of ichthyic remains belong- 
ing to the second age of vertebrate existence, 
sufficient to prove not only the existence but 
the structure and varieties of fishes at that 
early period; and at length exchanged manual 
labor for the office of accountant in a branch 
bank opened at Cromarty. During the first 
two years of his accountantship his marriage 
took place, his ‘‘Scenes and Legends of the 
North of Scotland” was published, and he 
became a frequent contributor to periodicals, 
The non-intrusion controversy was then at its 
height in the Scottish church, and immediately 
after the adverse decision of the house of lords 
in the Auchterarder case he published his 
celebrated ‘‘ Letter to Lord Brougham,” which, 
as Mr. Gladstone affirmed, showed a mastery 
of pure, elegant, and masculine English that 
even an Oxford scholar might have envied. 
The leaders of the Free church were then look- 


ing for a man to edit their contemplated 
organ, and at once selected Mr. Miller, who in 
1840 removed to Edinburgh as editor of the 
‘‘ Witness.” As a Scottish journalist he held 
a high and almost unique place. His leading 
articles were essays remarkable for their de- 
liberate thought, elevated moral tone, strong 
Presbyterian feeling, and fine literary finish, 
and exerted a powerful influence on the forma- 
tion of public opinion. His genius for descrip- 
tion, literary culture, and relish for peculiar 
social characteristics appear also in his account 
of a vacation tour, entitled ‘First Impres- 
sions of England and its People.” But his 
greatest eminence was achieved in the depart- 
ment of practical and speculative geology. He 
went to Edinburgh with the results of many 
years of scientific observation and reflection, 
with a collection of belemnites, fossil fishes, 
and other objects of natural history, and with 
a collection of thoughts and speculations about 
them, which in his own judgment formed his 
most valuable capital. During the first year 
of his editorship he published in the ‘ Wit- 
ness’? a series of papers, afterward known 
collectively under the title of ‘‘The Old Red 
Sandstone, or New Walks in an Old Field,” in 
which he detailed the story of his researches 
and revealed his discoveries of fossils in a for- 
mation which had till that time been deemed 
almost destitute of them. These were immedi- 
ately recognized by savants as important addi- 
tions to geological science. At the meeting of 
the British association in 1840 his labors were 
the principal theme; the fossils which he had 
picked up in boyhood in his native district 
were promoted to their due rank as pterichthys 
Milleri ; and Murchison and Buckland spoke 
of his descriptive talent as casting plain geolo- 
gists like themselves into the shade, and ma- 
king them ashamed of their meagre style. His 
severe tasks endangered his health and com- 
pelled him to forego all literary labor during 
the greater part of 1845 and 1846; but he re- 
turned from his seclusion only to be more 
intimately associated with Dr. Chalmers in the 
counsels of the Free church. The appearance 
and popularity of the ‘‘ Vestiges of the Natural 
History of Creation,” embodying the develop- 
ment theory, and aiming to transfer the work 
of creation from the realm of miracle to that 
of natural law, caused him to prepare a reply, 
entitled ‘“‘The Footprints of the Creator, or 
the Asterolepis of Stromness,” an able and 
strongly fortified exposition of the opposite 
view, which had a very wide circulation in 
England and America. One of his most in- 
teresting works is ‘‘My Schools and School- 
masters, or the Story of my Education,” a full 
review of his life until the time of his settle- 
ment in Edinburgh. He published in 1848 
the “Geology of the Bass Rock,” lectured on 
geological subjects in Edinburgh and London, 
read papers before the British association, and 
had just completed at the time of his death his 
‘Testimony of the Rocks,” in which he dis- 


554 


cusses the Biblical bearings of geology. He 
toiled upon this task night and day, with little 
sleep or exercise, until, after a week or two of 
cerebral disorder, he himself became conscious 
that his mind was on the verge of ruin. He 
felt occasionally as if a very fine poignard had 
been suddenly passed through and through his 
brain, and in some of his paroxysms his face 
was a picture of horror before which even his 
wife shrank in dismay. He was found lifeless 
in his study, his chest pierced with the ball of 
a revolver which was found lying close by. 
In a pathetic note left for his wife he had 
written: “A fearful dream rises upon me. I 
cannot bear the horrible thought.” His prin- 
cipal works have been republished in America. 
—See “The Life and Times of Hugh Miller,” 


by Thomas N. Brown (republished, New York, 


1860), and ‘‘ Life and Letters of Hugh Miller,” 
by Peter Bayne (2 vols., 1871). 

MILLER, James, an American general, born 
in Peterborough, N. H., April 25, 1776, died 
in Temple, N. H., July 7, 1851. He was edu- 
cated for the bar, but in 1808 entered the 
army as major. In May, 1813, he participated 
in the capture of Fort George. As colonel of 
the 21st infantry he fought with gallantry at 
Chippewa and Lundy’s Lane. The success of 
the Americans in the latter conflict was mainly 
due to the capture of a British battery by his 
command. In reply to Gen. Scott’s inquiry if 
he could take the battery, he said, “I'll try, 
sir.’ For these services he was brevetted 
brigadier general, and received from congress 
a gold medal. He was governor of Arkansas 
territory from 1819 to 1825, and collector of 
customs at Salem, Mass., from 1825 to 1849, 

MILLER, James, a Scottish surgeon, born in 
1812, died June 17, 1864. He was professor 
of surgery in the university of Edinburgh for 
more than 20 years, and at the time of his 
death of pictorial anatomy to the royal acad- 
emy and consulting surgeon to the royal in- 
firmary of Edinburgh and the royal hospital 
for sick children. He is especially noted for 
his systematic treatise on the ‘ Principles and 
Practice of Surgery ” (Edinburgh, 1844), which 
passed through four editions and is highly es- 
teemed. 

MILLER, Joaquin, an American poet, whose 
real name is Cincinnatus Hiner Miller, born in 
Indiana, Nov. 10, 1841. When he was about 
11 years old his father emigrated to Lane 
county, Oregon, whence the boy went three 
years later to try his fortune in California. 
Ile wrote verses even then, although he knew 
nothing of the laws of versification nor of the 
rules of grammar. After a wandering life of 
several years, he returned home in 1860, and 
entered a lawyer’s office in Eugene, Oregon. 
The next year he was an express messenger in 
the gold-mining districts of Idaho, which he 
left to take charge of the ‘Democratic Re- 
gister,” a weekly newspaper in Eugene. This 
was suppressed for its political sentiments du- 
ring the war, and in 1863 he opened a law 


MILLER 


office in Cafion City, Oregon. From 1866 to 
1870 he served as county judge of Grant 
county, and during this time began to write 
his poems. He published first a collection in 
paper covers called ‘‘ Specimens,” and next a 
volume with the title ‘Joaquin et al.,” from 
which he derived his pseudonyme. In 1870 
his wife, whom he had married in 1863, ob- 
tained a divorce, and he went to London, where 
he published in the following year his “‘Songs 
of the Sierras.” In 1872 appeared ‘‘ Songs of 
the Sun Lands,” and in 1873 a prose volume 
entitled “‘ Life among the Modocs: Unwritten 
History.”—His wife, Minnie Tureresa (Dyzr) 
Mitzxr, has also published verses, under the 
pseudonyme of ‘‘ Minnie Myrtle.” 

MILLER, Joseph, an English actor, born prob- 
ably in London in 1684, died there in 1738. 
He was popular on the stage, and performed 
with repute in several of Congreve’s best com- 
edies, particularly in “Love for Love” and 
‘The Old Bachelor,” to the success of which 
he is said to have materially contributed. 
In 1739 a book of jests passing under his 
name, and supposed to be the compilation 
of John Mottley, author of a life of Peter 
the Great, was published in London, and has 
gained a celebrity which preserves the name 
of its assumed author. 

MILLER, Samuel, an American clergyman, 
born near Dover, Del., Oct. 31, 1769, died in 
Princeton, N. J., Jan. 7, 1850. He gradua- 
ted at the university of Pennsylvania in 1789 
(from which he received the degree of D. D. in 
1804), studied theology, was licensed to preach 
in 1791, and in June, 1793, was installed as 
colleague pastor with Drs. Rodgers and Mec- 
Knight of the first Presbyterian church in 
New York city. In 1813 he became professor 
of ecclesiastical history and church govern- 
ment in the theological seminary at Prince- 
ton, and discharged the duties of this office till 


May, 1849, when he resigned. Dr. Miller was 


a devoted friend of the Presbyterian church, 
and enlisted vigorously in the controversy 
which resulted in its division. He was the 
author of ‘‘A Brief Retrospect of the Eigh- 
teenth Century ” (2 vols., New York, 1803; 3 
vols., London, 1805); ‘‘ Letters on the Consti- 
tution and Order of the Christian Ministry ” 
(1807), with a ‘‘ Continuation” (1809); ‘‘ Me- 
moirs of the Rev. John Rodgers, D. D.” (1813); 
“Letters on Unitarianism” (Trenton, 1821), 
‘‘Letters on Clerical Manners and Habits” 
(Philadelphia, 1827); ‘‘ An Essay on the Office 
of Ruling Elder” (New York, 1831); ‘‘ Letters 
to Presbyterians” (1833); ‘‘ Discourses on In- 
fant Baptism” (1834); ‘‘Presbyterianism the 
truly Primitive and Apostolical Constitution 
of the Church of Christ” (Philadelphia, 1835) ; 
‘The Primitive and Apostolic Order of Christ 
vindicated’? (1840); ‘Letters from a Father 
to his Sons in College” (1848); ‘‘ A Sermon 
on the Ruling Eldership, with an Appendix” 
(1843); and ‘Thoughts on Public Prayer” 
(1849). He also wrote the “Life of Jonathan 


MILLER 


Edwards” in Sparks’s ‘‘ American Biography,” 
and published numerous pamphlets. 

MILLER, Thomas, an English author, born in 
Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, Aug. 81, 1807, 
died in London, Oct. 25, 1874. He was at 
first a farmer’s boy, devoted his leisure hours 
to study, and while following the trade of a 
basket maker began to attract attention by his 
verses and occasional pieces in prose, chiefly 
describing rural life and scenery. He came 
under the notice of Moore, Campbell, and Ro- 
gers, and the last named enabled him to set 
up as a bookseller, and thenceforth he be- 
came an industrious writer. Among his nu- 
merous novels are ‘‘ Royston Gower” (1838), 
‘Fair Rosamond ” (1889), ‘‘ Lady Jane Grey ” 
(1840), ‘‘ Gideon Giles the Roper” (1841), and 
“Godfrey Malvern” (1842), The most popu- 
lar of his writings are his country books, in- 
cluding ‘‘ A Day in the Woods,” ‘ Beauties of 
the Country,” ‘‘ Rural Sketches,” ‘‘ Pictures of 
Country Life,” ‘Country Scenes,” &. He 
also wrote a ‘‘ History of the Anglo-Saxons,” 
and lives of Turner, Beattie, and Collins. His 
poetical works are: ‘‘Common Wayside Flow- 
ers’ (1841); ‘‘ Poetical Language of Flowers” 
(1847); ‘‘Original Poems for my Children” 
(1850); and ‘‘Songs for British Riflemen ” 
(1860). 

MILLER, William, an American religionist, 
born in Pittsfield, Mass., in 1781, died in Low 
Hampton, Washington co., N. Y., Dec. 20, 
1849. In the war of 1812 he was captain of 
a company organized to protect the northern 
frontier. He was a farmer, whose early facili- 
ties for education were slight, and he seems 
never to have been master of what are usually 
deemed the requisite ‘resources for Biblical 
criticism; but in 1833 he began to lecture on 
the speedy second coming of Christ, announc- 
ing, in accordance with his interpretation of 
the prophecies, that the earth was to be de- 
stroyed in 1848. Even the day was specified, 
if not by himself, by some of his principal fol- 
lowers. His earnest and confident manner at- 
tracted attention, his Scriptural and historical 
arguments seemed to many erudite and cogent, 
and after a few years of constant travel and 
preaching his disciples were reckoned at from 
30,000 to 50,000. (See Szrconp ADvVENTISTS.) 

MILLER, William Allen, an English chemist, 
born in Ipswich, Dec. 17, 1817, died in Liver- 
pool, Sept. 80, 1870. At 15 years of age he 
was apprenticed to his uncle, who was surgeon 
to the general hospital in Birmingham. At 
the expiration of five years he entered the 
medical department of King’s college, London, 
where he studied chemistry under Dr. Daniell, 
whom he assisted in his laboratory. In 1840 
he passed some time in the laboratory of Liebig 
in Giessen, became demonstrator of chemistry 
in King’s college, and in 1845 professor of chem- 
istry. With Dr. Daniell he had investigated 
the electrolysis of salts, conducting all the ex- 
periments. In 1851 he was appointed a com- 
missioner on the water supply of London, and 


MILLET BEE 


an assayer of the mint. He published ‘‘Elements 
of Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical ” (Lon- 
don, 1869), and numerous scientific papers. 
MILLER, William Hallowes. See supplement. 
MILLET, a name given to grasses of sev- 
eral distinct species and genera; it is from the 
Italian méglietto, diminutive of miglio, from 
the Latin milium, which in turn is supposed 
to be from mille, a thousand, in reference to 
its fertility. The present botanical genus mi- 
ium does not include either of the plants 
known to agriculture as millet, but is a small 
genus in the tribe of panicea, the principal 
species in which, Jf. effuswm, is very widely 
diffused ; this, which is known as millet grass 
and spreading millet, grows all over Europe 
and northern Asia, extending from the Medi- 
terranean to the Arctic circle, and in this coun- 
try from New England to Illinois and north- 
ward; it is generally found in cool and damp 
woods. It is a slender grass, sometimes 4 or 6 
ft. high, with broad, flat, thin leaves and a 
spreading panicle; the spikelets, by the suppres- 
sion of one of the glumes, appear as if one- 
flowered. This grass is not regarded as of any 
agricultural value, but in England its growth is 
encouraged in woods on account of the great 
fondness of pheasants 
for its abundant seeds. 
— What is known as the 
double-seeded or dou- 
ble-beaning millet grass 
was formerly placed in 
this genus, but is now 
called amphicarpum, a 
name given upon the 
supposition that it was 
doubly fruit-bearing ; it 
has panicles like other 
grasses, but the spike- 
lets (or flowers), though 
perfect, drop without 
maturing seeds; at the 
base of the plant anoth- 
er set of flowers is pro- 
duced; these are solita- 
ry at the end of slender 
runner-like stalks, and 
are fertilized and. per- 
fect their fruit whol- 
ly underground. This plant is found abun- 
dantly in New Jersey, and since the cranberry 
has been so largely cultivated in that state it 
has attracted much attention, and was at one 
time regarded as a dangerous enemy to the cul- 
ture; after the bogs have been prepared and 
planted with cranberries, this double-seeded 
millet grass makes its appearance in the greatest 
profusion, and apparently threatens destruction 
to the plants; but it is found that it does no 
great injury, and that the cranberry ‘plants 
soon take possession of the soil to the exclu- 
sion of the grass. This species is A. Purshit, 
and extends southward to Georgia. Another 
and much more rigid species is A. floridanum, 
very local in Florida.—The true millet of an- 


arms outstretched, gives the twisting motion yrhioh lets ha? 


loosened earth fall where it is to lie. Each of these positions 
is so thoroughly understood and so definitely expressed that 
all the other positions of the action are implied inthem. You 
_ feel the recurrent rhythm of the movement and could almost 


“" ¥ f the elads,’ 


556 MILLET At 


cient and modern agriculture is panicum mili- 
aceum. The genus panicum (the ancient name 
for a grass which is now placed in another 
genus) is a very extensive one, about 850 spe- 
cies being enumerated; yet but few of them 
are ranked among the useful grasses, and mil- 
let is one of the few that furnish food; this 
has been so long in cultivation that the history 
of its origin is very obscure. It has a strong 
stem, 2 to 4 ft. high, with a profusion of fo- 
liage; its abundant flowers are in large, open, 
nodding panicles, and the plant has much the 
appearance of a miniature broom corn; the 
seeds afford a very nutritious flour. The 
plant requires a dry rich soil, and when now 
cultivated it is usually for forage, to be cut 
and cured like grass before the seeds are ripe 


enough to drop. The ease with which our. 


farmers can raise crops of fodder corn (maize) 
precludes the growing of this and other for- 
aze crops which are valued in Europe.—Hun- 
garian, German, and 
Italian millets are va- 
rieties of setaria Itali- 
ca. The genus setaria 
is regarded by some 
botanists as a section 
of panicum, the only 
difference between 
them being that in se- 
taria the short pedicels 
of the flowers are pro- 
longed beyond them 
into bristles, which in 
the millet species are 
in clusters of two or 
three and longer or 
shorter than the flow- 
ers. In this as in 
most other setarias 
the spikelets or flow- 
ers are collected in a 
very dense spike-like 
panicle, which in some 
forms is a foot or 
more long, and usually interrupted at the base. 
None of these millets are cultivated in this 
country for their seeds, unless occasionally for 
feeding poultry, but they have obtained in 
some localities a place as forage plants. The 
most useful is the Hungarian millet, more gen- 
erally called Hungarian grass (S. Jtalica, var. 
Germanica), which is excellent to supplement 
a short hay crop; it is an annual, of very 
rapid growth, and on rich soils gives a very 
large amount of green fodder, or it may be 
made into hay. If to be cured, it should be 
cut as soon as it blooms, and before the nu- 
merous small bristles of the flowers become 
firm, as these when ripe and rigid may prove 
injurious to horses. This setaria is a most 
variable species, and every few years a new 
form of it is introduced with a new name, 
which does not prove essentially different from 
the old. Other species of setaria are known 
as fox-tail and bottle grasses; they are com- 


Hungarian Millet (Setaria 
Germanica). 


we ; . 99 


MILLOT 


mon in cultivated grounds as weeds. - Long 
before sorghum was cultivated in this country 


as a sugar plant, a variety of it was grown as. 


Indian millet. (See Sorauum.) 

MILLET, Aimé, a French sculptor, born in 
Paris about 1816. He studied under David 
d’Angers, and became famous in 1857 by his 
‘‘ Ariadne,” which was purchased by the goy- 
ernment. The most celebrated of his recent 
works are a statue on the tomb of Henri Mur- 
ger, ‘‘ Apollo” in the grand opera house, the 
monument of Baudin in Pére Lachaise, and a 
statue of a garde mobile for Leon Dupré’s 
monument to the guards of the department of 
Eure who fell in the war of 1870-71. 

‘MILLET, Jean Frang¢ois, a French painter, born 
about 1815, died Jan. 18, 1875. He studied 
under Delaroche, and was distinguished for his 
genre pictures and landscapes, which repre- 
sent rural life according to the realistic school 
with remarkable fidelity. Among his finest 
works are “A Girl shearing Sheep” (1861), 
which was again exhibited with other works 
in 1867; ‘Teaching Tricot” (1869); ‘‘ Novem- 
ber,” and “* A Woman making Butter” (1870). 

MILLET, Pierre, a French missionary, born in 
1631, died in Quebec, March 22, 1708. He 
came to America in 1666, and was soon after 
sent to Onondaga, laboring there and at Onei- 
da till 1684, and making a few converts. He 
returned to Oneida in 1688, but because of the 
English influence could not restore his mission. 
While acting as chaplain at Fort Frontenac 
in 1690, he was lured out by the Indians and 
taken prisoner. The Christian Oneidas in the 
large Iroquois force claimed him, and he was 
sent to their canton, and finally adopted into 
the tribe. The New York authorities who had 
been hostile to him now endeavored to induce 
the Oneidas to give him up; but they refused, 
and he remained there till October, 1694, to 
the great annoyance of New York, the gover- 
nors of that colony endeavoring to effect his 
release, and the governors of Canada to pre- 
vent it. His own account of his captivity was 
published at New York in 1865. 

MILLIN, Aubin Lonis, a French archeologist, 
born in Paris, July 19, 1759, died Aug. 14, 
1818. He was keeper of the museum of an- 
tiquities in the national library. His principal 
works are: Peintures des vases antiques ; Monu- 
ments antiques inédits ; Galerie mythologique ; 
Voyage dans les départements du midi de la 
France; and Histoire métallique de la révo- 
lution francaise. His ‘‘Medallic History of 
Napoleon,” left incomplete, was published in 
English by J. Millingen (London, 1819). He 
was the founder of the Magasin encyclopédique 
and Annales encyclopédiques. 

MILLOT, Clagde Francois Xavier, a French 
ecclesiastic, born at Ornans, Franche-Comté, 
March 5, 1726, died in Paris, March 21, 1785, 
He entered the society of Jesus, and became 
professor of rhetoric at their college in Lyons; 
but his relation with them was brought to a 
close by their objections against his eulogy of 


(Guiffrey No. 208) 


37 La Maréchalerie : 
Proof before letters, on India 


Etched in 1865. 
paper. 


(Guiffrey No. 210) 


38 Le retour des champs 
Proof before letters, on India 


Etched in 1865. 
paper. 


rdeuse de dindons (Guiffrey No. 211) 
1ed in 1865. Proof before letters, on India paper. 


iieres Bourguignonnes (Guiffrey No. 212) 
hed in 1865. Proof before letters, on India paper. 


Jrage (Guiffrey No. 212bis) 


Etched in 1866. Early trial proof before additional 
work on the plate, signed by Charles Jacque. 


42 The Same 
Much additional work and the plate darkened. 


Proof signed by Charles Jacque. 


id att (Delteil No. 9) 
Fine original old impression, Third state on Holland 
paper. 


49 A Woman Churning 


Fine original old impression. 
Dutch paper. 


(Delteil No. IO) 
Third state on old 


50 Peasant with wheelbarrow 
First state. 


(Delteil No. 11) 


Brillant proof. “Sur chine collée. 


Very Rare. 


51 The Gleaners 


Magnificent proof. First state. 
Very rare. 


(Delteil No. 12) 
Sur ‘‘chine collée”’ 


“One of the most perfect of all his Pictures — more 
perfect than ‘The Sower’ on account of qualities of 
mere painting, of color and of the rendering of landscape, 
of which I shall speak later —is ‘The Gleaners.’ Here one 
figure is not enough to express the continuousness of the 


The line must be reinforced and redu- 
plicated and a second figure, almost a facsimile of the first, is 
added. Even this is not enough. He adds a third figure, not 
gathering the ear, but about to do SO, standing, but stooped 
forward and bounded by one great, almost uninterrupted curve 
from the peak of the Cap over her eyes to the heel which half 
slips out of the sabot, and the thing is done. The whole day’s 
work is resumed in that one moment. The task has endured 
for hours and will endure till sunset, with only an occasional 
break while the back is half-straightened — there is not time to 
straighten it wholly. It is the triumph of significant compo- 
sition, as ‘The Sower’ is the triumphant(of significant draughts- 
manship.”’ 


Kenyon Cox, ‘‘The Art of Millet.” 
Scribner’s Magazine, March, 10908. 


52 Two Men Digging 


Superb original old impression. 
Dutch paper. 


(Delteil No. 13) 
Fourth state on 


**When an action is more complicated and difficult of expres- 
sion, as is that, for instance, of digging, he takes it at the be- 


ginning and at the end, as in ‘The Spaders,’ and makes you 


understand everything between. One man is doubled over 
his spade, his whole weight brought to bear on the pressing 
foot which drives the blade into the ground. The other, with 


33 The Wool Carder 
Magnificent proof in black ink. Only one state. 
“Pure etching without retouch. 


print narrowly escape 
sidered it overbitten and did not wish to 


54 The Geese Keeper 


ss Woman Feeding her Child 


5 


it. (By inadvertence he left the p 
night in the acid.)”” Alfred Lebrun. 
‘In looking at these etchings we hardly re 
lightful golden to 
springtime atmosp 
tender scheme of the 
painter's feeling is he 
white; and 
even the splendid glow of color by m 
hanced, on can 


6 Shepherdess Knitting 


Kenyon Cox, ‘‘The Arto ar 
Scribner's M agazine, March, 1908 + 


(Delteil No. 15) 


This beautiful 


d suppression. Millet con- 
publish 


late an entire 


member the de- 
nes of the painted ‘Gleaners,’ the misty 
here of the ‘Going to Work,’ or the rich and 

‘Wool-Carder.’ The essence of the 
re, in these few strokes of black on 
the essence of his feeling js more valuable than 
eans of which he efi- 
vas, its effect. Had he not been possessed of a 
and contagious sort of feeling — possessed of it 
above all other modern men — so simple a kind of expression 
as these etchings show wou had little to attract the 
observer. But had the expression been simple merely, and 
not wise as well, had its very simplicity not been the last word 
of artistic power, intelligence, and subtility, it would never 
have.conveyed so intense and clear a feeling as NOW it bids us 
read. Only a great artist could have felt as Millet did; only 
a great etcher could have expressed his feeling with the needle 
as he did.”’ 

Mrs. Schuyler Van Rennselaer, Jean-Frangots Millet. 
Painter-Etcher. 


deep, genuine, 


(Delteil No. 16) 
Only one state. Fine proof on old Dutch paper. 
“Very few proofs of this rare dry-point were 


printed.” 


(Delteil No. 17) 
Proof on India paper: Fifth state. 


(Delteil No. 18) 


Brilliant proof. Only one state. 

From the collection of Madame X. 

“This beautiful plate was intended for publication 
by the Société des Aqua-fortistes (Cadart) but the 
publisher having asked Millet to withdraw the 
plate, the artist ceased to be a member of the 
Société 1862." Alfred Lebrun. 


MILLET, JEAN-FRANCOIS 


ee F A 
si i pes Vat of Gruchy, on the Norman 
aoe 4,1814. Died at Barbizon, January 
66 A m . 
Uist iin ree had given his whole life to etching 
rials ait thought of painting, and had 
mae ccaaEs r those effects proper to painting and 
hain snap aan not have been more truly 
Lette ce i ip etcher than Millet showed him- 
auntie ty ough were the plates and many 
pitas a canvases he worked upon. To 
make every line tell Festi t Ai ee 
ia ; se no more li 
im brea a et to tell exactly what eu 
ane : han a strongly, concisely, and to the 
ceed raed i much while saying little; to 
sagan ih ian to elaborate, but to suggest 
we he hi at the meaning shall be very 
ena eh ividual and impressive — these are 
ue e true etcher tries to do. And these 
aregren nate Millet did with a more magnifi- 
A eee an any man, perhaps, since Rem- 
eb ti af rete etchings have more charm 
show more grace ore uy ot ramsey 
a force or certainty, a isa i rai 
rena Man ings ore artistic 
Mrs. Schuyler Van Rensselaer 
Millet as an Etcher. 


MILLS 


Montesquieu. He then devoted himself to the 
preparation of historical works for schools, 
which obtained for him in 1768 the chair of 
history at the college of nobles in Parma. In 
1777 he became a member of the French acad- 
emy, and in 1778 preceptor of the duke d’En- 
ghien. His works on French, English, and 
general history were united under the title of 
uores de Vabbé Millot (15 vols., 1800; 2d 
ed., 12 vols. 8vo, 1819). 

MILLS. I. AS. W. county of Iowa, border- 
ing-on Nebraska, from which it is. separated 
by the Missouri river, and drained by the Nish- 
nabatona river and branches; area, about 400 
Sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 8,718. It is inter- 
sected by the Burlington and Missouri River, 
and the Kansas City, St. Joseph, and Coun- 
cil Bluffs railroads. The chief productions 
in 1870 were 162,901 bushels of wheat, 1,380,- 
055 of Indian corn, 191,569 of oats, 80,- 
074 of potatoes, 11,652 lbs. of wool, 182,755 
of butter, and 16,471 tons of hay. There were 
4,122 horses, 3,638 milch cows, 6,816 other cat- 
tle, 8,354 sheep, and 13,985 swine; 8 manu- 
factories of brick, 2 of brick and stone, 4 saw 
mills, and 5 flour mills. Capital, Glenwood. 
Il. AS. E. central county of Dakota, recently 
formed, and not included in the census of 1870; 
area, about 1,000 sq.m. It is intersected by 
the Dakota river and several of its" affluents. 
The surface is rolling, and consists mostly of 
prairies. 

MILLS, Charles, an English historian, born at 
Greenwich, July 29, 1788, died in London, 
Oct. 19, 1825. He studied law, but abandoned 
it for literary pursuits. His principal works 
are: ‘History of Mohammedanism” (8vo, 
London, 1817);*‘‘ History of the Crusades” 
(2 vols. 8vo, 1820); and ‘‘ History of Chival- 
ry’ (2 vols. 8vo, 1825). 

MILLS, Ciark, an American sculptor, born in 
Onondaga co., N. Y., Dec. 1, 1815. He lost 
his parents in childhood, and learned the trade 
of a plasterer, which he followed in Charles- 
ton, S. C., for nine years. He early manifest- 
ed a taste for sculpture, and in 1846 made a 
marble bust of John C, Calhoun, which was 
purchased for the city hall of Charleston. In 
1848 he was invited to furnish a design for 
an equestrian statue of Jackson, for Lafayette 
square, Washington. His design was accepted, 
and he finished, after two years’ labor, a full- 
sized model in plaster, which was so balanced 
that it rested on the horse’s hind feet alone, 
without other support. Mills had now to build 
a foundery and to learn the practical business 
of casting, for there was no establishment large 
enough for the purpose, and no workman in 
the country capable of casting so large a mass. 
After numerous trials, interrupted by unfore- 
seen accidents, he produced a perfect cast in 
October, 1852, and the statue was set up in 
1853, on Jan. 8, the anniversary of the battle 
of New Orleans. It was completed at a loss 
to him of $7,000, but congress made him an 
appropriation of $20,000. At the same ses- 


MILLSTONE SBT 


sion the sum of $50,000 was appropriated for 
a colossal equestrian statue of Washington, 
which was inaugurated in Washington on Feb. 
22, 1860. Mr. Mills’s next employment was 
the casting of the colossal statue of Liberty, 
from a design by Crawford, which now crowns 
the dome of the capitol. It was finished in 1863. 

MILLS, Samuel John, jr., an American cler- 
gyman, born in Torrington, Conn., April 21, 
1788, died at sea in June, 1818. His father 
was a Oongregational minister. He entered 
Williams college in 1806. In September, 1808, 
a society was formed in the college ‘‘to effect, 
in the persons of its members, a mission or 
missions to the heathen;” and the first name 
appended to its constitution was that of Mr. 
Mills. This was the first foreign missionary 
organization in America. He graduated in 
1809, spent some months at Yale college, and 
in the spring of 1810 entered Andover theo- 
logical seminary, where he found others in- 
terested in the subject; and on June 28, in 
connection with Messrs. Judson, Nott, and 
Newell, he presented a memorial to the gen- 
eral association of Massachusetts, stating their 
views and wishes, and asking advice. This 
led directly to the formation of the American 
board of commissioners for foreign missions, 
In 1812, soon after he was licensed, he went on 
a missionary tour to the southwestern states, 
under the combined patronage of the Connec- 
ticut and Massachusetts missionary societies. 
On this tour he preached and organized Bible 
and other religious benevolent societies. In 
July, 1814, he made a second tour to the same 
region, accompanied by the Rev. Daniel Smith. 
He published an account of these two trips on 
his return (Andover, 1815). He was ordained 
June 21, 1815, and passed most of the next 
two years in Albany, New York, Philadelphia, 
and Washington. Among the fruits of these 
two years’ labor may be named the establish- 
ment of the foreign mission school at Corn- 
wall, Conn., the organization of the American 
Bible society and of the united foreign mission- 
ary society, afterward merged in the American 
board, the first movement for city missions in 
New York, the establishment of a school for 
the education of colored preachers and teachers 
at Parsippany, N.J., by the synod of New York 
and New Jersey, and the organization of the 
American colonization society. Almost imme- 
diately after its organization, the colonization 
society sent Mr. Mills and the Rev. Ebenezer 
Burgess to Africa, to select a site for a colony. 
In February, 1818, they embarked at London 
for the African coast, where they spent two 
months. Having fulfilled the object of their 
mission, they sailed on their return, May 22, 
1818, and Mr. Mills died before reaching home. 
—See ‘‘Memoirs of Samuel J. Mills,” by the 
Rev. Gardiner Spring (8vo, New York, 1820). 

MILLSTONE, a hard and rough stone in one 
or many pieces, formed into cylindrical shape, 
from 8 to 7 ft. in diameter, and 8 to 18 in. 
thick, used together with another of the same 


558 MILLSTONE GRIT 


size and shape for grinding grain, &c. The 
lower stone is firmly fixed in its bed, and is 
known as the “‘ bedder.” The upper one, called 
the ‘‘runner,” is suspended over this so as to 
revolve with its lower face exactly parallel to 
the upper face of the lower stone, and more or 
less close to it according to the required fine- 
ness of the flour. The grain is admitted 
through a hole in the centre of the upper 
stone from the hopper above; and as it is 
ground the flour escapes round the outer edges. 
Grooves are cut on the face of each stone, radi- 
ating from near the centre to the periphery, 
and one edge of these grooves is sharp and per- 
pendicular to the face. The two stones being 
cut alike, when they are turned face to face 
these edges work against each other and crush 
the grain between them. The flat portions 
each side of the grooves are called “lands.” 
The best millstones are made of buhrstone. 
(See Bunrstone.) They continue in use some- 
times as long as 20 years, the edges being occa- 
sionally recut. Very hard granite is also used 
for millstones, and the Shawangunk sandstone 
has long been quarried at Esopus, N. Y., for 
the same purpose. 

MILESTONE GRIT, a geological formation, 
principally a conglomerate, composed of sili- 
cious sand and small pebbles; it is also called 
grit rock and grindstone grit. It is named 
from the frequent use to which it is put, 
particularly in England. The formation lies at 
the commencement of the coal period, being 
located between the subcarboniferous period 
and the lower coal measures, and marks the 
transition from the marine to the terrestrial 
period. The area that had been covered with 
fields of crinoids was swept during the mill- 
stone grit epoch by currents and waves which 
left the surface under a great depth of pebbles 
and sand. The coarseness of the beds along 
the Appalachian region in Pennsylvania indi- 
cates that this was the border reef of the con- 
tinent, and its great thickness, exceeding 1,200 
ft., shows that it was also a region of great 
subsidence. The formation here is mostly a 
whitish silicious conglomerate, with some sand- 
stone layers and a few thin beds of carbona- 
ceous shells. At Tamaqua the thickness is 1,400 
ft.; at Pottsville, 1,000 ft.; in the Wilkesbarre 
region, from 200 to 300 ft.; and where it caps the 
mountain at Blossburg it is from 50 to 100 ft. 
In Virginia the thickness sometimes reaches 
1,000 ft., and the rock is mainly a sandstone, 
but contains heavy beds of conglomerate. It 
may be remarked that the conglomerate of the 
subcarboniferous period becomes also in Vir- 
giniaasandrock. In Alabama it is a quartzose 
grit of great thickness, and is used for mill- 
stones. In Tennessee there are two heavy 
beds of conglomerate, with several thick coal 
beds between them, and also below both, which 
are generally referred to the false coal mea- 
sures of the millstone grit epoch. The mill- 
stone grit formation extends over parts of 
some of the southern counties of New York, 


MILMAN 


having a thickness of from 20 to 60 ft. In 
Cattaraugus and Alleghany counties, on account 
of the regularity of the joints, it stands out in 
huge blocks, forming walls and square struc- 
tures which have received the names of ‘‘ Rock 
City” and ‘‘ Ruined City.” Among the plants 
of this formation, according to Lesquereux, 
are lepidodendrons, sigillaria, and calamites, 
with several species of ferns. 

MILLVILLE, a city of Cumberland co., New 
Jersey, on Maurice river, at the head of navi- 
gation, and on the West Jersey railroad, 40 m. 
S. of Philadelphia; pop. in 1870, 6,101. It 
contains a large cotton factory, and three iron 
founderies for the manufacture of water and 
gas pipes and turbine water wheels. The im- 
mense wheels for the Fairmount water works, 
Philadelphia, were cast here. It has also sever- 
al manufactories of hollow glassware and win- 
dow glass, three large lumber mills, a national 
bank, 11 public schools, including a high school, 
two weekly newspapers, and nine churches. 

MILMAN, Henry Hart, an English author, born 
in London, Feb. 10, 1791, died there, Sept. 24, 
1868. He'was the youngest son of Sir Francis 
Milman, physician to George III., and was edu- 
cated at Eton and at Brasenose college, Oxford, 
where he obtained a fellowship. His literary 
career commenced in 1815, with the publica- 
tion of ‘‘ Fazio,” a tragedy performed success- 
fully at Covent Garden; and in 1817 he took 
orders and was presented to the vicarage of 
St. Mary’s, Reading. In 1818 he published 
“Samor, Lord of the Bright City, an Heroic 
Poem,” founded on passages in the legendary 
history of Britain, and in 1820 his most suc- 
cessful production in verse, ‘‘ The Fall of Jeru- 
salem,” a dramatic poem. In the succeeding 
year he was appointed professor of poetry in 
the university of Oxford, and published three 
other dramatic poems, ‘‘The Martyr of An- 
tioch,” ‘ Belshazzar,” and “Anne Boleyn.” 
In 1826 he was appointed Bampton lecturer, 
and in the following year appeared his ‘ Ser- 
mons at the Bampton Lecture,” in 1829 his 
‘History of the Jews” (3 vols. 18mo), pub- 
lished anonymously, and in 1840 a collected 
edition of his poetical works. In the same 
year he produced one of his most elaborate 
works, a “‘History of Christianity from the 
Birth of Christ to the Abolition of Paganism 
in the Roman Empire” (8 vols. 8vo), and in 
18545 a “History of Latin Christianity, in- 
cluding that of the Popes, to the Pontificate 
of Nicholas V.” (6 vols. 8vo), designed as a 
continuation of the former, although it is a 
complete work. He prepared a sumptuously 
printed and illustrated edition of Horace (8vo, 
1849), with a life of the poet and criticisms on 
his writings, an annotated edition of Gibbon’s 
‘“‘ Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,” pre- 
ceded by-a life of the historian, a ‘‘ Memoir of 
Lord Macaulay,” a “Life of John Keats,” and 
translations of the ‘‘ Agamemnon” of Aischy- 
lus, the ‘ Bacche” of Euripides, and some of 
the minor Greek poets. In 1862 he revised 


yy 


MILNE 


and almost completely rewrote his ‘ History 
of the Jews” (3 vols. 8vo). His later works 
are: ‘‘Hebrew Prophecy, a Sermon” (1865) ; 
“Annals of St. Paul’s Cathedral” (1868) ; and 
“‘Savonarola, Erasmus, and other Essays”’ 
(1870). In 1866-’7 a complete edition of his 
“Historical Works” was published (15 vols. 
post 8vo). In 1849 Milman was made dean of 
St. Paul’s. 

MILNE, William, an English missionary, born 
in the latter part of the last century, died in 
China in 1822. In 1813 he visited China un- 
der the auspices of the London missionary so- 
ciety, and during the next two years travelled 
extensively through that country, Malacca, and 
the chief islands of the Indian archipelago, dis- 
tributing many thousand tracts and Testaments 
among the natives. 
lished himself in Malacca, and founded a mis- 
sionary station, which became one of the most 
important in eastern Asia. He continued to 
circulate the Scriptures, and also superintended 
the publication of religious works and of a 
monthly magazine. In 1817 he was again in 
China, where he projected the plan of an An- 
glo-Chinese college, aided in translating the Old 
Testament into Chinese, and originated the 
‘*Indo-Chinese Gleaner,” a quarterly publica- 
tion. 
is the author of a “ Retrospect of the Protes- 
tant Mission to China.” 

MILNE-EDWARDS, Henri, a French naturalist, 
born in Bruges, Belgium, Oct. 28, 1800. His 
father was an Englishman. He studied medi- 
cine in Paris and took his degree there in 1823, 
but abandoned practice for physiological pur- 
suits. He occupied for a time the chair of 
natural history in the lyceum of Henry IV., 
and in 1841 accepted a similar post in the 
museum and the faculty of sciences, of which 
he became president. In 18388 he succeeded 
F. Cuvier in the academy of sciences, and in 
1854 he was elected a member of the academy 
of medicine. In 1856 he received the Cop- 
ley medal of the royal society of London. 
He was chosen in 1862 professor of zodlogy 
in the museum and faculty of sciences, and in 
1864 assistant director in the same institution. 
His publications comprise Recherches anato- 
miques sur les crustacés (1828); Manuel de 
matiére médicale (1832); Nouveau formulaire 
pratique des hépitaux (4th ed., 1840); Cahiers 
Whistoire naturelle (1834); Hléments de zoolo- 
gie (183845); Histoire naturelle des crustacés 
(3 vols., 1887-41) ; Histoire naturelle des corail- 
liaires, ou polypes proprement dits (8 vols., 
185860); Legons sur la physiologie et Vana- 
tomie comparée de Vhomme et des animaux 
(1855-65); Histoire des mammiferes (1872 et 
seq.), &c. He also superintended the publica- 
tion of a new edition of Lamarck’s Histoire 
naturelle des animaux sans vertébres (11 vols. 
8vo, 1834—’45).—His son AtpHonssE, born in 
Paris in 1835, is a professor in the school of 
pharmacy, and the author of several works on 
natural history. 


557 VOL. XI.—36 


He subsequently estab-. 


He died in the midst of his labors.. He. 


MILNOR 5d9 


MILNER, John, an English Roman Catholic 
author, born in London in October, 1752, died 
in Wolverhampton, April 9, 1826. He was 
educated at Edgbaston and Douai, and in 1779 
was stationed at Winchester. His ‘ History, 
Civil and Ecclesiastical, and Survey of the An- 
tiquities of Winchester ” (2 vols. 4to, 1798-9), 
led to religious controversy, and he issued 
‘‘ Letters to a Prebendary,” Dr. Sturges (1800), 
and ‘End of Religious Controversy” (1818), 
which are regarded by Catholics as among 
their ablest books. Several answers to the 
“End of Controversy” have appeared. In 
1803 he was made bishop of Castabala and 
vicar apostolic of the Midland district, and he 
took an active part in opposing the proposed 
granting of a veto to the English government 
on the appointment of Catholic bishops. His 
other works, chiefly occasional, are numer- 
ous, and include ‘‘ Notes on Ireland,” a life 
of Bishop Challoner, a supplement to Butler’s 
‘‘Memoirs of the Irish Catholics,” and an in- 
vestigation into the life of St. George. 

MILNER. I. Joseph, an English historian, 
born near Leeds, Jan. 2, 1744, died in Hull, Nov. 
15,1797. He graduated at Cambridge in 1766, 
and after taking orders became head master of 
the grammar school and lecturer of the prin- 
cipal church of Hull. His most important 
work is a ‘History of the Church of Christ 
from its Foundation to the 13th Century” (3 
vols. 8vo, London, 1794). It was continued 
by his brother to the reformation. A com- 
plete edition of his works, with an account of 
his life, was published by his brother in 1810, 
in 8 vols. 8vo. II. Isaac, brother of the pre- 
ceding, born near Leeds, Jan. 1, 1751, died in 
London, April 1, 1820. On the death of his 
father he left school, and worked for a time in 
a factory; but his brother employed him as an 
assistant in the grammar school at Hull. In 
1770 he entered Queen’s college, Cambridge, 
where in 1774 he became senior wrangler, and 
in 1775 was elected a fellow. In 1783 he be- 
came professor of experimental philosophy, in 
1788 master of Queen’s college, and in 1791 
dean of Carlisle. At Cambridge he formed an 
intimacy with William Wilberforce which en- 
dured through life, and he died in his house. 
His principal works are: a continuation of his 
brother’s ‘‘ History of the Church of Christ,” 
‘‘ Animadversions on Dr. Haweis’s Church 
History ” (8vo, 1800), ‘‘Essay on Human Lib- 
erty,” and two volumes of ‘‘ Sermons.” 

MILNES, Richard Monckton, See Hovcuron, 
Lorp. 

MILNOR, James, an American clergyman, born 
in Philadelphia, June 20, 1773, died in New 
York, April 8, 1844. After spending a brief 
period at the university of Pennsylvania, he 
began the study of law in his native city in 
1789, was admitted to the bar in 1794, and 
practised his profession at Norristown till 1797, 
when he removed to Philadelphia, where he 
served in several public stations. In 1810 he 
became a representative in congress, where he 


560 MILO 


opposed the war of 1812. He entered the 
ministry of the Protestant Episcopal church in 
1814, and in 1816 was called to St. George’s 
church, New York, where he remained till his 
death. Dr. Milnor’s labors were abundant, not 
only in the discharge of his parish duties, but 
also in connection with the Bible and tract 
societies, and other philanthropic and chari- 
table institutions. He published a few occa- 
sional sermons and addresses.—See ‘‘ Memoirs 
of the Life of James Milnor,” by the Rev. J. 
S. Stone, D. D. (8vo, New York, 1848). 

MILO. See Metros. 

MILO, or Milon, a Greek athlete of the latter 
part of the 6th century B. G., born in Crotona, 
Magna Grecia. His extraordinary physical 
strength gave him the victory in wrestling six 
times at Olympia, and as often in the Pythian 
games. He is said to have carried a four-year- 
old heifer on his shoulders four times around 
the Olympic race course, and then to have eat- 
en the whole of it in one day. In 511 he was 
appointed to command an army against the 
Sybarites, and bore an important part in the 
battle of the Crathis. He was worsted by the 
agility of his adversary in his seventh Olympic 
struggle. When enfeebled by age, it is said, he 
attempted to tear asunder with his hands a 


forest tree partially split by woodcutters; he - 


was caught and held fast by the closing of the 
fissure, and was devoured by wolves. 

MILO, Titus Annins Papinianus, a Roman trib- 
une and demagogue, born at Lanuvium in the 
early part of the 1st century B. C. In 57 
he filled the office of plebeian tribune. At 
that period Clodius, at the head of a band of 
desperadoes, controlled the destinies of Rome, 
burning temples, attacking the houses of pri- 
vate citizens, shedding the blood of freemen in 
the streets, dispersing the comitia by violence, 
and trampling under foot all laws. Milo, who 
was little better than Clodius, but desirous of 
retrieving his ruined fortunes by an alliance 
with the aristocrats, temporarily restored or- 
der, after which Cicero was recalled from exile. 
Clodius, who had been the author of Cicero’s 
banishment, assailed his person and property, 
and would have sacrificed him had not Milo 
come to his aid. The followers of Milo and 
Clodius fought daily in the streets. The rival 
chiefs and their retainers met at Boville, on 
the Appian way, in January, 52, and in the 
fray Clodius was slain. Milo was brought to 
trial, and Cicero, his advocate, was so intimi- 
dated that he did not venture to deliver the 
oration he had prepared; his client was con- 
victed and went into exile to Massilia, where 
he remained till 48, when he returned to aid 
Marcus Ceelius in resuscitating the republican 
party, but was defeated and slain in Lucania. 

MILTIADES, an Athenian statesman, who 
flourished at the beginning of the 5th century 
B. OC. He was of a noble family, son of Ci- 
mon, and nephew of the elder Miltiades, who 
was prominent in Athens in the time of Pisis- 
tratus, and was also the founder of a despotism 


MILTON 


in the Thracian Chersonese. He was sent out 
about 516 to take possession of his uncle’s in- 
heritance. To secure his position, he impris- 
oned the chief men by stratagem, employed a 
force of mercenaries, and married the daugh- 
ter of a Thracian prince. He joined Darius 
Hystaspis on his expedition against the Scy- 
thians, and remained with the Jonians to guard 
the bridge over the Danube while the Persian 
army advanced northward. When the appoint- 
ed time had passed, and nothing had been heard 
from Darius, he is said to have urged the de- 
struction of the bridge and the abandonment 
of the Persians, but to have been overruled 
by the Ionian leaders, who maintained their 
own ascendancy by Persian support alone, the 
feeling of the population being everywhere 
against them. Had his opinion prevailed, says 
Grote, he would have inflicted on Persia a 
more vital blow than the victory of Marathon. 
He remained in the Chersonese till about 493, 
with the exception of a brief interval. His 
only achievement during this period was the 
conquest of Lemnos and Imbros, which prob- 
ably took place while the Persians were occu- 
pied with the Ionic revolt (between 501 and 
494), Hethus drew upon himself the hostility 
of Darius, was driven from the Chersonese at 
the close of the Ionic war, and on his flight to 
Athens narrowly escaped capture by the Phe- 
nician fleet. He was brought to trial by the 
Athenians for alleged despotism in his admin- 
istration of the Chersonese, but was honorably 
acquitted, and his fame as the conqueror of 
Lemnos secured his election as one of the ten 
generals at a time when the Persian armament 
under Datis and Artaphernes was approaching 
Greece. While the generals were equally di- 
vided whether to meet the enemy in the field 
or to defend the city behind its walls, Miltiades 
persuaded the polemarch Callimachus to give 
his casting vote in favor of immediate attack, 
and thus brought on the battle of Marathon. 
Though the other generals surrendered to him 
their days of command, it is said that he wait- 
ed till his own day before he engaged the ene- 
my, and achieved the most memorable victory 
in the history of Greece. (See Maratuon.) 
The admiration of him by his countrymen was 
now unbounded. At his request, he was in- 
trusted with an armament of 70 ships, no other 
man knowing its destination. He sailed against 
the island of Paros to gratify a private animos- 
ity, and ravaged the island, but failed to cap- 
ture the town. Being seized with a panic 
while visiting a priestess on a superstitious 
errand, he strained or bruised his thigh by 
falling and raised the siege. On his return to 
Athens he was impeached and condemned to 
pay a penalty of 50 talents, and soon after died 
of his wound. According to Cornelius Nepos 
and Plutarch, he was imprisoned after being 
fined, but this is not stated by Herodotus. The 
fine: was afterward paid by his son Cimon. 
MILTON, a N. county of Georgia, bounded S. 
E. by the Chattahoochee river, and watered by 


MILTON 


several streams; area, about 150 sq. m.; pop. 
in 1870, 4,284, of whom 466 were colored. 
The surface is broken and the soil generally 
fertile. The chief productions in 1870 were 
24,896 bushels of wheat, 98,095 of Indian corn, 
15,331 of oats, 9,015 of sweet potatoes, 3,048 
lbs. of wool, 24,026 of butter, and 9,759 gallons 
of sorghum molasses. There were 457 horses, 
2,191 cattle, 1,921 sheep, and 4,898 swine. 
Capital, Alpharetta. 

MILTON, a township and post village of Rock 
co., Wisconsin, on the Chicago, Milwaukee, and 
St. Paul, and the Chicago and Northwestern 
railroads, 830 m. 8. E. of Madison, and 62 m. 
by rail S. W. of Milwaukee; pop. in 1870, 
2,010. It is the seat of Milton college, estab- 
lished in 1867 by the Seventh-day Baptists. This 
institution has normal, scientific, and classical 
(embracing preparatory and collegiate) courses. 
In 1878-’4 it had 8 instructors, 203 students 
(78 of collegiate grade), and a library of 1,800 
volumes. It admits both sexes. 

’ MILTON, John, an English poet, born in Lon- 
don, Dec. 9, 1608, died there, Nov. 8, 1674. 
His father had been disinherited at an early 
age for abandoning the Catholic faith, adopted 
the profession of scrivener or copying lawyer, 
and retired with an independence. Though 
inclined to Puritanic habits, he had cultivated 
literature in his leisure, and holds a respecta- 
ble rank among the contemporary composers 
of madrigals, songs, and psalms. Milton thus 
received the training of a Puritan family, and 
was also taught the art and science of music, 
becoming an accomplished organist. In his 
writings, whenever he speaks of music, he is 
always technically and strictly correct. His 
father secured for him the best educational ad- 
vantages, and both as a boy and a man Milton 
was severely and constantly studious. He was 
still under the care of a private tutor when, 
being scarcely 12 years old, he was sent to the 
school of St. Paul’s. Even at that age he sel- 
dom retired to rest from his studies till after 
midnight. There began his memorable friend- 
ships with Diodati and Gill. He was able to 
compose Latin prose and verse with ease and 
elegance, was familiar with Greek and Hebrew, 
and had ‘‘no mean apprehension of the sweet- 
ness of philosophy,” when he was entered, Feb. 
12, 1625, as a pensioner at Christ’s college, 
Cambridge. Though destined to the church, 
he resolved early in his university career upon 
a life of continued study, with no professional 
aim, but with a view to authorship. He led a 
life of singular intellectual independence, did 
not conceal his disinclination to the scholastic 
sciences, and for a time was at variance with 
the authorities and was rusticated. His per- 
sonal beauty is uniformly mentioned by those 
who describe his youth as very remarkable. 
His light brown hair, parted in the middle, 
fellin curls upon his shoulders; the expres- 
sion of his clear gray eyes was serene and 
thoughtful; and, though he excelled in manly 
exercises, his fair complexion, slight figure, 


561 


and innocent life caused him to be styled by 
his fellow collegians “the lady of Christ’s.” 
On quitting the university in 1632, he took 
up his abode in the village of Horton, Buck- 
inghamshire, whither his father had retired 
from London. There he spent the next five 
years in ‘‘a ceaseless round of study and read- 
ing,” devoting his time chiefly to the Greek 
and Latin poets. At this time he wrote 
the ‘‘Sonnet to the Nightingale,” the compan- 
ion pieces “ L’Allegro” and ‘Il Penseroso,” 
the masques of “‘ Arcades” and ‘‘Comus,” and 
the elegy of ‘‘Lycidas.”? None of his other 
compositions are so tranquil and happy in tone, 
or indicate so distinctly his love of the lighter 
graces of poetry. They are replete with rural 
imagery, delicate fancies, playful allusions, and 
sensuous descriptions, and the themes and the 
idyllic treatment strikingly contrast with the 
poems which he produced after 20 years of con- 
flict.in public life. On the death of his mother 
in 1637 he obtained his father’s permission to 
travel on the continent, especially in Italy; and 
he set out in the following year, attended by a 
single servant. In Paris he was welcomed 
by the English ambassador and introduced to 
Grotius; in Florence, where he remained two 
months, he made the acquaintance of Galileo 
and was received into the literary academies, 
before which, according to custom, he gave 
evidence of his learning, and recited some of 
his Latin poems and three Italian sonnets, 
which won the encomiums of Italian wits and 
scholars; in Rome he made another stay of 
two months, protected by Lucas Holstein, the 
librarian of the Vatican, and by Cardinal Bar- 
berini. He abandoned his purpose of going 
to Sicily and Greece on receiving tidings of the 
impending rupture between the king and peo- 
ple in England, as he considered it dishonor- 
able to be pursuing his own gratification abroad 
while his countrymen were contending for lib- 
erty. Hereturned to England by way of Rome, 
where he again remained two months, and, 
though warned of Jesuitical plots, openly ‘‘de- 
fended the reformed religion in the very me- 
tropolis of popery”’ without fear or molesta- 
tion. Hereached home in August, 1639, after 
an absence of 15 months. He had already de- 
termined to write a great poem, but his medi- 
tations were interrupted by the civil commo- 
tions, and by a period of 20 years during which 
the literature of England was almost exclusively 
polemical. He entered into the political dis- 
putes of the day, and during the whole splen- 
did and vexed era of Puritan supremacy in 
England, with the exception of a few sonnets, 
he appears only as a polemical prose writer 
and champion of the revolution. During his 
absence his father had broken up his household 
at Horton. Milton therefore hired apartments 
and afterward a house in London, and received 
his two young nephews Edward and John 
Phillips, sons of his sister Anne, to board with 
him as pupils. A few more pupils, sons of 
intimate friends, were afterward admitted ; 


562 


and while pursuing his private studies he devo- 
ted a part of his time to their education after 
a peculiar system of his own. He was thus 
occupied with studying and teaching when he 
published his first pamphlet. The long parlia- 
ment met in 1640; Laud and Strafford were 
overthrown; the danger from free speech was 
removed; and the circumstances of the time 
offered an invitation to thinkers. Prominent 
among topics of public interest was that of 
church reform, and Milton published a vehement 
attack on the episcopal form of government en- 
titled ‘‘Of Reformation, touching Church Dis- 
cipline in England, and the Causes that hith- 
erto have hindered it” (1641). In the same 
year Bishop Hall of Norwich, at the request 
of Laud, undertook a defence of episcopacy, 
and was answered by a combination of five 
Puritan ministers under the title of Smectym- 
nuus, a word composed of the initials of their 
names. Archbishop Usher replied to the Smec- 
tymnuans, and Bishop Hall published a defence 
of himself. Milton published two pamphlets 
in answer to the former, entitled ‘‘ Of Prelati- 
cal Episcopacy”’ and ‘‘The Reason of Church 
Government urged against Prelaty,” and a tract 
in the form of a dialogue entitled ‘‘ Animad- 
versions” upon Bishop Hall’s defence. The 
last drew forth an anonymous and slanderous 
response, attributed to a son of the bishop; 
and the controversy was concluded by Milton’s 
‘‘ Apology for Smectymnuus ” (1642), in which 
in an eloquent self vindication he gives an in- 
teresting account of his education, studies, and 
pursuits, and a eulogy of the long parliament. 
In 1643 he was resting from controversy, oc- 
cupied with his pupils, and meditating the great 
poetic work to which he wished to transfer 
all his mental power and industry. But in 
the midst of civil war and of epical contem- 
plations he contracted a singular marriage. 
‘“‘ About Whitsuntide,” says Phillips, ‘‘ he took 
a journey into the country, nobody about him 
certainly knowing the reason, or that it was 
more than a journey of recreation. After a 
month’s stay, home he returns a married man, 
who set out a bachelor; his wife being Mary, 
the eldest daughter of Mr. Richard Powell, 
then a justice of the peace at Forest Hill, near 
Shotover, in Oxfordshire.”’ It appears that his 
father had made a memorandum to him of 
a debt due from Powell, the larger part of 
which was never paid; that his numerous rides 
to Forest Hill in quest of money resulted only 
in a matrimonial engagement; that he never 
received a shilling of the £1,000 promised with 
his wife; and that he encountered “‘a mute 
and spiritless mate” where he had expected 
‘‘an intimate and speaking help.” Moreover, 
it was a marriage amid civil conflict between 
a renowned parliamentarian and a lady of a 
royalist family. She remained only one month 
with her husband, and then accepted an invi- 
tation from her family, probably suggested by 
herself, to go back and spend some time in 
the country; and at a secure distance she 


MILTON 


treated both the letters and messengers of the 
poet with contempt, and refused to return. 
The pleas suggested on her side are that she 
was used to company and merriment, and dis- 
liked Milton’s ‘spare diet and hard study ;” 
the poet’s chief and singular ground of com- 
plaint was that his wife would not talk; it is 
probable that they simply disliked each other, 
and that nothing but an imprudent marriage 
suggested to him ‘‘the pious necessity of di- 
vorcing,” even in cases that depend upon “ ut- 
terless facts.’ Milton came to the conclusion 
that other reasons, besides those legally ad- 
mitted, might be sufficient for the dissolution 
of the nuptial tie, and determined publicly to 
argue his case. With the intellectual clearness 
and boldness which are his special characteris- 
tics, he pushed his ideas of civil and ecclesias- 
tical liberty into the realm of the domestic 
circle; and he resolutely advanced the doctrine 
that moral incompatibility as well as conjugal 
infidelity justifies divorce. It should be noticed 
that he does not disguise his opinion of the 
natural inferiority of woman. His publica- 
tions on this subject are: ‘‘ The Doctrine and 
Discipline of Divorce restored to the Good of 
Both Sexes from the Bondage of Common 
Law ” (two editions in 1644); ‘‘ The Judgment 
of Martin Bucer touching Divorce” (1644), in 
which he shows that a celebrated contem- 
porary of King Edward VI. had been of the 
same opinion as himself; ‘ Tetrachordon, or 
Expositions upon the four chief Places in 
Scripture which treat of Marriage or Nullities 
in Marriage” (1645); and ‘‘ Colasterion: a Re- 
ply to a Nameless Answer against the Doctrine 
and Discipline of Divorce” (1645). His efforts 
for a change of law were a failure, but he re- 
tained his opinions till the close of his life. 
The discussion of the subject which he raised 
was no less intolerant and impatient than that 
on episcopacy had been, and during its pro- 
gress he was summoned to the bar of the 
house of lords, but was honorably dismissed. 
Meantime he had published his tractate ‘‘On 
Education ” (1644), only the theoretical views 
of which are important, and had addressed to 
the parliament the noblest and most useful of 
his compositions in prose, the ‘‘ Areopagitica, 
a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Print- 
ing” (1644). It is a plea for freedom in lit- 
erature; but though it contains some of his 
finest passages of prose eloquence, it was not 
successful in its aim of abolishing the newly 
established censorship. In 1645 appeared in a 
small volume the first edition of his poems. 
In the same year a reconciliation was ef- 
fected between him and his wife. She re- 
turned to his house, and her whole family 
were generously entertained by him for sev- 
eral months. After their departure, his abode, 
says Phillips, ‘‘looked again like a house of 
the muses.” He lived successively in the 
Barbican and in Holborn, and was occupied 
with writing his history of England when 
the execution of King Charles (Jan. 80, 1649) 


MILTON 


had aroused throughout Europe a feeling of 
horror and indignation, and created a reac- 
tionary tendency even among the partisans of 
the revolution. Milton wrote ‘‘The Tenure of 
Kings and Magistrates,” published within a 
month after the death of the king, in which he 
undertook to prove that subjects have a right 
to depose or put to death a wicked monarch. 
He also published ‘‘ Observations” on the ar- 
ticles of peace which the earl of Ormond had 
concluded in the king’s name with the Irish 
Catholics. On the establishment of the com- 
monwealth, Latin was fixed upon as the official 
language of intercourse with foreign states. 
To Milton, in view both of his scholarship and 
his services, was given the office of secretary 
for foreign tongues; and 16 letters and other 
documents first published by the Camden so- 
ciety in 1859 confirm all previous impressions 
of his skill in Latin composition, and of the 
eloquence, energy, and dignity he gave to the 
political despatches of the commonwealth. He 
vindicated the freedom of England on the seas, 
protested against the persecution of the Wal- 
denses by the duke of Savoy, and expounded 
to Europe the position and policy of the new 
government. The Likon Basilike was passing 
through numerous editions, and winning popu- 
lar sympathy for the ‘‘royal martyr,” and he 
therefore prepared a counteractive under the 
title of Hikonoklastes (1649). Claude de Sau- 
maise (Salmasius), one of the most distinguish- 
ed contemporary scholars, was instigated by 
Charles II., then a refugee in Holland, to com- 
pose an elaborate defence of the inviolability 
of kings, and especially of royalty in England, 
in a treatise worthy to be submitted to the 
learned of Europe. The name of the author 
was sufficient to secure fame and extended in- 
fluence to his work, and the council imme- 
diately made an order “that Mr. Milton do 
prepare something in answer to the book of 
Salmasius.”” This was the occasion of his Pro 
Populo Anglicano Defensio contra Salmasit 
Defensionem Regiam (1650), in which he as- 
sailed at once the philosophy and Latinity of 
his opponent, and surpassed him in scholastic 
vituperation. It was deemed a triumph, and 
he received the thanks of the council and the 
congratulations of the foreign ministers in 
London. His eyesight had been failing for 
several years, and his physicians informed him 
before he undertook this defence that total 
blindness was threatened; but he regarded the 
task as a sacred duty, and it hastened the mal- 
ady, the ‘drop serene” (gutta serena), as it is 
termed in his plaintive account of it. Before 
1654 he was completely blind, though his eyes 
were perfectly clear, and without mark, speck, 
or disfigurement. He had already removed to 
the house in Petty France, opening into St. 
James’s park, in which he remained till the 
restoration, and which was afterward occupied 
by Hazlitt.. In 1652 appeared Regii Sanguinis 
Clamor ad Oewlum, written by Dumoulin, a 
Frenchman resident in England, but attrib- 


563 


uted to Moore (Morus), a Scotchman resident 
in France, abounding in calumnious invective 
against Milton personally. This occasioned 
his Defensio Secunda (1654), a noble defence 
of his own conduct, a vindication of the par- 
liament, and a merciless retaliation for the 
scurrilities of his antagonist. The dispute was 
prolonged by two additional pamphlets on each 
side. Milton continued to write many of the 
more important state papers until the year of 
the restoration, and was also occupied with his 
history of England, with framing a body of 
divinity, and perhaps with the composition of 
his great poem, the subject of which he had 
at length determined. He also opposed to the 
last in divers tracts and letters the return of 
the monarchy. For 20 years he had been the 
foremost literary champion of the principles 
of English liberty, then struggling for recog- 
nition. His polemical writings abound in 
passages of the finest declamation, marked by 
a peculiar majesty of diction, and by a sus- 
tained and passionate magniloquence. The 
political theory which he advanced was in some 
respects peculiar to himself. He advocated a 
free commonwealth, without a sovereign or a 
house of lords. The government should be in- 
trusted to a general council of ablest men, 
chosen by the nation, and he opposed the co- 
existence of any popular assembly. He would 
not even have the members of the council 
chosen directly by a popular vote, but recom- 
mended three or four ‘‘sifting and refining” 
processes. After the restoration, a proclama- 
tion was issued for the arrest of Milton, and 
two of his books were publicly burned. He 
lived in concealment till the act of indemnity 
placed him in safety. His first wife had died 
in 1652 or 1658, leaving him three little girls; 
he married a second time, Nov. 12, 1656, Cath- 
arine, daughter of a Captain Woodcock of 
Hackney; but his wife, whose memory is em- 
balmed in one of his most beautiful sonnets, 
survived only 15 months; and about 1663 he 
married Elizabeth Minshull, daughter of Ralph 
Minshull of Cheshire. The last was a mar- 
riage of convenience, arranged by a friend, 
because his daughters had ceased to treat him 
with kindness. They however lived in his 
house five or six years longer, in constant quar- 
rel with their stepmother. Unsubdued by pain, 
obloquy, and blindness, amid domestic infeli- 
cities and the profligacy of the era of the comic 
dramatists, and witnessing the public defeat of 
the principles which he had represented, he 
meditated and dictated the poems of “‘ Paradise 
Lost”? and ‘Paradise Regained.” According 
to Ellwood, the former was completed and the 
latter was begun at Chalfont, whither Milton 
retired from London during the plague of 
1665. ‘Paradise Lost” was sold to Samuel 
Simmons, bookseller, April 27, 1667, for £5 in 
hand, and a promise of the same sum on the 
sale of the first 1,300 copies of each edition, 
none of which was to exceed 1,500 copies. 
The second payment was received in 1669, the 


564 MILTON 


second edition was issued in 1674, the third in 
1678, and in 1681 Milton’s widow gave up to 
Simmons all her interest, in the work for £8. 
This poem has been the subject of a great 


deal of criticism and research. Disraeli, in his: 


‘‘ Amenities of Literature,” has pointed out its 
remarkable similarity to the work of Ceedmon, 
an Anglo-Saxon poet; others attempt to trace 
the character of Satan to Vondel’s Luczfer, 
and cite a recently discovered record of Ley- 
den university (1874), which shows that Mil- 
ton studied there, and probably acquired some 
knowledge of contemporary Dutch literature. 
“Paradise Regained” appeared in 167% in the 
same volume with the drama of ‘‘Samson Ag- 
onistes.” 
his minor poems was published in 1673. His 
principal later prose publications are the ‘‘ His- 
tory of Britain” (1670), down to the Norman 
conquest, containing many of the early tradi- 
tions, much of which had been written before 
the restoration ; a tract entitled ‘‘ Of True Re- 
ligion, Heresie, Schism, Toleration, and what 
best Means may be used against the Growth 
of Popery ” (1673), in which he urges absolute 
toleration for all Protestant sects, but denies 
it to Roman Catholics; a short Latin grammar 
(1661); a compendium of logic (1672); and 
his Latin epistles and oratorical exercises in 
the university (1674). He left in manuscript a 
Latin treatise entitled De Doctrina Christiana, 
which had been unsuccessfully offered to Elze- 
vir for publication. Two years after his death 
it came into the hands of one of the English 
secretaries of state, by whom it was deposited 
in the state paper office, where it was acci- 
dentally discovered in 1823. It was translated 
and edited (4to, 1825) by C. R. Sumner, D. D., 
afterward bishop of Winchester, and it com- 
pletely establishes Milton’s Arianism, which 
had been suspected from passages in ‘‘ Paradise 
Lost.” Its heterodoxy was doubtless the rea- 
son why it was offered first to a Dutch pub- 
lisher, and afterward withheld from the pub- 
lic. In his last years he was afflicted by the 
gout, which, according to Aubrey, ‘struck in” 
and caused his death. He died calmly and 
without pain, and his remains were laid beside 
those of his father in the church of St. Giles, 
Cripplegate. After his sight failed he had 
been accustomed to go to bed at 9 o’clock, and 
to rise at 4 in summer and 5 in winter. Be- 
fore rising, he often had some one to read to 
him or to write at his dictation. He studied 
till 12, with the intervention of breakfast, then 
exercised for an hour, dined, played on the 
organ or bass viol, and resumed his studies till 
6, from which hour till 8 he conversed with 
visitors. He fancied that ‘‘ his vein never hap- 
pily flowed but from the autumnal equinox to 
the vernal,” and was never satisfied with what 
he wrote in the other half of the year. He 
attended no church, belonged to no religious 
communion, and never had social prayers in 
his family. That he was somewhat haughty 
and overbearing, and of severe if not choleric 


A second and enlarged edition of. 


MILWAUKEE 


temper, appears from other evidence as well 
as from passages in his controversial writings ; 
yet his manners were usually urbane, and his 
conversation delightful.—The principal biogra- 
phies of Milton are those by Toland, Todd, Sym- 
mons, Dr. Johnson, Mitford, Keightley (London, 
1859), and Masson (2 vols., London, 1859-71). 
The last is also a literary history of the time. 
The best edition of Milton’s poetical works is 
Pickering’s, with a life by the Rev. John Mit- 
ford (8 vols., London, 1851; the 2 vols. of 
poems reprinted, with Mitford’s “ Life,” 1878). 
Among others are those of Bishop Newton (3 
vols. 4to, 1749), the first critical edition ; Todd, 
with variorum notes (6 vols., 1801); Hawkins 
(4 vols., Oxford, 1824); Sir E. Brydges (6 vols., 
1881); C. D. Cleveland, with a verbal index 
(large 12mo, Philadelphia, 1853); Keightley (2 
vols. 8vo, 1859); W. M. Rossetti, with memoir 
(8vo, 1871); David Masson (1874); and the 
minor poems by T. Warton (1785). The prose 
works were first collected by Toland (8 vols. 
fol., 1697—’8), and have since been edited by 
Birch (2 vols., 1753), Charles Symmons (7 vols., 
1806), Robert Fletcher (8vo, 1826), and Rufus 
W. Griswold (2 vols. 8vo, Philadelphia, 1845) ; 
but the only complete edition is in Bohn’s 
“Standard Library” (5 vols. post 8vo, 1848- 
53). A concordance to the poems by Pren- 
dergast was published at Madras in 1857. A 
German translation of his principal political 
writings (Politische Hauptschriften) was pub- 
lished in Berlin in 1874 by Dr. W. Bernhardi, 
with annotations, 

MILUTIN, or Milyntin, Nikolai Alexeyevitch,: a 
Russian statesman, born April 29, 1818, died 
in Moscow, Feb. 7, 1872. Being born on the 
same day with the grand duke Alexander, he 
was educated at the expense of Czar Nicholas, 
at the lyceum of Moscow, where he graduated 
in 1835. Nicholas then gave him a free schol- 
arship at the university of St. Petersburg, 
where he completed his studies in 1838. He 
became supernumerary, and in 1842 vice pres- 
ident, of the imperial chamber of court ac- 
counts. In 1844 he was appointed chief of 
the press bureau, which post he soon left to 
undertake the revision of the Russian muni- 
cipal laws. The czar next appointed him a 
member of the committee on the condition of 
the Russian serfs. Though Nicholas did not 
venture to act upon Milutin’s advice in favor 
of emancipation, he appointed him under sec- 
retary of the interior. After the accession of 
Alexander II. (March 2, 1855), Milutin became 
his confidential adviser. He countersigned the 
ukase of emancipation, March 3, 1861, and pre- 
pared the laws necessary for this reform. He 
was made minister of the interior, and the new 
criminal code, the press law, and the introduc- 
tion of the jury system are chiefly his work. 

MILWAUKEE, a S. E. county of Wisconsin, 
bounded E. by Lake Michigan; area, 240 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 89,930. It is watered by the 
Milwaukee, Menominee, and Root rivers. The 
surface is undulating, and the soil calcareous 


- MILWAUKEE 


and fertile. The chief productions in 1870 
were 238,132 bushels of wheat, 48,271 of rye, 
169,996 of Indian corn, 297,874 of oats, 54,978 
of barley, 214,916 of potatoes, 13,779 lbs. of 
wool, 647,590 of butter, and 25,069 tons of 
hay. There were on farms 4,577 horses, 6,757 
milch cows, 8,628 other cattle, 5,796 sheep, 
and 7,944 swine. There is a large number of 
manufacturing establishments, situated chiefly 
in Milwaukee, the capital. 

MILWAUKEE, the chief city and port of entry 
of Wisconsin, capital of Milwaukee co., on the 
W. shore of Lake Michigan, in lat. 43° 2’ N.., 
lon. 87° 54! W., 75 m. E. of Madison, and 85 m. 
N. by W. of Chicago; pop. in 1840, 1,712; in 
1850, 20,061; in 1860, 45,246; in 1870, 71,440, 
of whom 33,773 were foreigners, including 
22,599 natives of Germany, 3,784 of Ireland, 
1,485 of Bohemia, and 1,395 of Scotland. 


565 


There were 14,226 families and 13,048 dwell- 
ings. The*population in 1874 was estimated 
by local authorities at from 95,000 to 100,000. 
The lake opposite the city makes an indentation 
in the shore, forming a bay 6 m. wide and 8 m. 
deep, which is easy of access at all seasons. 
The Milwaukee river, which flows through the 
city, and is joined near its mouth by the Me- 
nominee, has been rendered navigable to the 
heart of the city by vessels of any tonnage used 
on the lakes. Itis regarded as the best harbor 
on the S. or W. shore of the lake. The climate 
is peculiarly bracing and healthful, and the 
atmosphere is remarkably clear and pure. The 
city is regularly laid out. The centre, near the 
Milwaukee and Menominee rivers, is the busi- 
ness quarter; and the E. and W. parts, the 
former of which is built upon a high bluff 


overlooking the lake, while the latter is still 


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Milwaukee. 


more elevated, are occupied by residences. 
The material used in building is largely the 
beautiful cream-colored Milwaukee brick. The 
streets, except those in the commercial quarter, 
are generally well shaded. There are three 
lines of horse cars. The principal public build- 
ings are the new county court house, the United 
States custom house and post office building, 
the academy of music, the opera house,-and 
music hall. Milwaukee has railroad commu- 
nication with the iron mines of Michigan, with 
the principal points of Wisconsin, with Chi- 
cago, St. Paul, and the railroad system of the 
east and west, by means of the Milwaukee and 
St. Paul, the Western Union, the Chicago and 
Northwestern, the Wisconsin Central, and the 
Milwaukee, Lake Shore, and Western lines. 
The receipts and shipments by these lines and 
by the lake are of great extent and value; 


wheat and flour are the most important items. 
The number of vessels entered in the customs 
district (which includes the entire lake shore 
of the state) from Canada, for the year ending 
June 80, 1878, was 49, with an aggregate ton- 
nage of 14,485; cleared for Canada, 185, ton- 
nage 89,324; value of imports, $222,055; of 
exports, $3,018,906. The value of goods re- 
ceived under the act of 1870 permitting ship- 
ments in bond from the ports of first arrival 
to interior ports was $76,532. The entrances 
in the coastwise trade were 2,979 steamers, 
of 2,026,054 tons, and 4,722 sailing vessels, of 
558,925 tons; clearances, 2,943 steamers, of 
9,011,550 tons, and 4,482 sailing vessels, of 
545,193 tons; belonging in the district, 235 
sailing vessels, of 36,252 tons, and 58 steamers, 
of 13,867 tons; built during the year, 387 ves- 
sels, of 8,493 tons. The number of arrivals at 


566 


Milwaukee alone during 1873 was 5,561, of 


2,323,786 tons; departures, 5,535, of 2,233,- 


857 tons; belonging to the port at the close 
of the year, 120, with an aggregate tonnage of 


MILWAUKEE 


23,276. There are several vessels engaged in 
the lake fisheries. The receipts and ship- 
ments of flour and grain to and from the city 
since 1860 have been as follows: 


FLOUB, BARRELS. 


WHEAT, BUSHELS. OTHER GRAIN, BUSHELS. 


Liens Received. Manstotered oF Shipped. Received. Shipped. Received. Shipped. 
the city. 
TSG0 i eroetec ee 305,208 202,810 | 457,343 9,108,458 7,568,608 497,544 189,676 | 
Biro 0 Uae aes 518,300 250,256 674,474 15,930,706 13,300,495 406,716 37,115 
TB O2 echt | 529,600 221,729 411,405 15,630,995 14,915,680 846,183 259,384 
ASGS ics cuselasees 453,424 185,813 603,526 18,485,419 12,837,620 1,665,230 1,188,083 
TS6L Senne | 295,225 187,839 414,833 9,147,274 8,992,479 1,803,285 989,759 
TSGD iste eee 889,771 212,829 467,576 12,048, 659 10,479,777 1,222,049 478,666 
TB OGisc sien cere 495,901 828,730 720,866 12,777,557 11,634,749 8,142,036 2,391,420 
TST edocs ent 502,252 546,000 921,663 12,528,464 9,598,452 2,278,313 1,016,335 
LSGS 7 hike 567,358 624,930 1,017,598 12,750,578 9,878,090 2,071,367 1,065,735 
T8690. o Sakic 807,763 481,511 1,220,053 17,745,233 14,272,799 1,661,816 201 
tot (UMAR Hie A 824,799 530,049 - 1,225,941 18,883,837 16,127,838 1,849,980 845,179 
ASTE: Weenies 796,782 567,893 1,211,427 15,686,611 13,409,467 8,618,743 1,977,411 
tT PEAR oe oe §34,202 560,206 1,231,986 13,618,949 11,570,575 5,594,555 4,087,916 
a Uo pS ame ga ke 1,254,821 634,102 1,805,200 28,457,937 24,994,266 4,270,557 2,132,828 


The receipts of other grain in 1873 included 
921,391 bushels of Indian corn, 376,634 of rye, 
1,768,058 of oats, and 1,209,474 of barley; 
shipments, 197,920 bushels of Indian corn, 
255,928 of rye, 990,525 of oats, and 688,455 of 
barley. There were also received during that 
year 3,650,194 lbs. of butter, 203,416 hides, 
59,969 sheep skins, 241,099 live and 158,955 
dressed hogs, 17,262 beef cattle, 11,745 sheep, 
136,017,000 ft. of lumber, 93,233,000 shingles, 
11,058,000 ft. of lath, 239,877 tons of coal, 
222,961 barrels of salt, 2,681,927 lbs. of rags, 
5,022,840 of Wisconsin tobacco, and consider- 
able quantities of hops, cranberries, peas, beans, 
cheese, eggs, &c. There were shipped 2,842,- 
501 lbs. of butter, 3,183,042 of wool, 54,334 
hides, 17,997 live hogs, 10,261 beef cattle, 10,- 
291 sheep, 4,216,420 lbs. of Wisconsin tobacco, 
137,111 barrels of salt; 80,010 barrels of pork, 
24,954 tierces of hams, 62,211 boxes of mid- 
dles and sides; 1,915,610 lbs. of bulk meat, 
4,065 barrels and 24,399 tierces of lard, 5,365 
barrels and 462 tierces of beef, equivalent in 
the aggregate to 329,267 barrels of 200 lbs. 
each, and valued at not less than $5,000,000; 
and (by rail) 29,791,465 ft. of lumber, 24,097,- 
150 shingles, and 630,400 ft. of lath. The sto- 
rage accommodations for grain, comprising five 
elevators with a combined capacity of 2,450,000 
bushels, have been inadequate for the trade; 
but in 1874 a new elevator with a capacity 
of 1,000,000 bushels was erected. Pork pack- 
ing, in which six firms are engaged, is exten- 
sively carried on. The number of hogs packed 
in the regular packing season (Nov. 1 to March 
1) of 18734 was 296,142, of an average net 
weight of 204l1bs. The manufactures are ex- 
tensive, and embrace lager beer (which is high- 
ly esteemed and widely exported), pig iron, 
iron castings, flour, leather, malt, machinery, 
agricultural implements, highwines, tobacco 
and cigars, furniture, brooms, paper, woollens, 
wagons, soap and candles, doors and windows, 
boots and shoes, steam boilers, car wheels, 
baskets, trunks, and white lead. The product 


of the blast furnaces and rolling mills for 1873 
was valued at about $3,500,000; of the flour- 
ing mills, $5,000,000; of the breweries, $2,- 
600,000; of the distilleries, $1,500,000; and of 
the tanneries, $3,000,000. The Milwaukee iron 
company is engaged in the manufacture of pig 
iron, railroad iron, and other kinds of merchant 
iron; the Minerva furnace company produces 
pigiron. The receipts of ore were 103,427 tons, 
shipments 26,940; receipts of pig iron, 11,457 
tons; manufactured in the city, 35,120 tons; 
shipped, 8,330 tons; receipts of railroad iron, 
6,099 tons; manufactured in the city, 34,494 
tons. The number of breweries is about 20; 
quantity of beer sold in 1878, 260,120 barrels; 
distilled spirits or highwines manufactured, 
29,207 barrels, of which a considerable por- 
tion was redistilled and converted into alcohol. 
There are 13 mills, which, besides the flour, 
produced more than 46,000,000 Ibs. of bran 
and middlings, and three ship yards. The num- 
ber of hides tanned was 149,082. In 1874 there 
were four national banks, with an aggregate 
capital of $750,000; circulation, $657,400; de- 
posits, $2,808,752 53; resources, $4,706,225 23. 
There were four state banks, with an aggregate 
capital of $266,325; deposits, $2,480,196 79; 
resources, $4,427,011 50. The two savings 
banks had a joint capital of $125,000; de- 
posits, $1,403,989 97; resources, $1,553,955 77. 
There are four private banks, four fire insurance 
companies, and one life insurance company. 
The aggregate receipts of the banks in 1873 
amounted to $451,686,356 90, which sum is 
regarded as a fair indication of the total volume 
of business of all kinds transacted in the city 
during that year.—Milwaukee is divided into 
13 wards, and is governed by a board of alder- 
men of one member and a common council 
of two members from each ward. There is 
a municipal court, presided over by a single 
judge. The police force consists of a chief, 
two lieutenants, four detectives, two station 
keepers, a pound keeper, and 40 patrolmen. 
The fire department has five steam fire engines 


MILY AS 


and a fire alarm telegraph. The city is sup- 


plied with water from the lake by water works - 


recently erected. The United States courts for 
the E. district of Wisconsin hold two sessions 
here annually. The assessed value of proper- 
ty in 1873 was $48,559,817; expenditures for 
general purposes, $395,392 97; total debt April 
1, 1874, $2,464,986 74. The northwestern na- 
tional asylum for disabled soldiers is about 3 
m. from the city. It occupies a brick building, 
having accommodations for 700 or 800 inmates, 
with which are connected shops and stables. 
The grounds embrace 425 acres, more than 
half of which is under cultivation, the residue 
being laid out as a park. The institution has 
a reading room and a library of more than 
2,500 volumes. The present number of in- 
mates is about 400. In the city there are three 
orphan asylums, a home for the friendless, and 
two hospitals. The public schools, 21 in num- 
ber, are graded, and include a high school. 
In 1873 there were 88 male and 127 female 
teachers employed; number of pupils enrolled, 
11,224; average attendance, 7,100. The num- 
ber of private schools was 47, with 7,000 
pupils. Milwaukee female college had 6 in- 
structors and 118 students, of whom 44 were 
of collegiate grade. The library of the young 
men’s association contains 11,000 volumes, and 
that of St. Mary’s institute 1,000. There are 
8 daily (4 German), 1 tri-weekly, 2 semi-week- 
ly, and 16 weekly (6 German) newspapers, and 
1 semi-monthly (German) and 5 monthly (1 
German) periodicals. The number of churches 
is 59, viz.: 3 Baptist, 1 Calvinistic Methodist, 
1 Christadelphian, 5 Congregational, 1 Dutch 
Reformed, 5 Episcopal, 4 Evangelical Asso- 
ciation, 1 German Reformed, 2 Jewish, 10 
Lutheran, 1 Lutheran Reformed, 9 Methodist 
Episcopal, 5 Presbyterian, 10 Roman Catholic, 
and 1 Unitarian.—Milwaukee was settled in 
1835, and incorporated as a city in 1846. 

MILYAS. See Lyora. 

MIMNERMUS, a Greek poet, born in Smyrna, 
flourished from about 634 to 600 B.C. De- 
scended from a colonist from Colophon, he 
was called the Colophonian. He was a flute 
player as well as a poet, and set his poems to 
music, using the plaintive melody called the 
voudc kpadiac (melody of the heart). He fixed 
the form of elegiac poetry, and has been called 
its inventor. The most important of the sur- 
viving fragments of his works is his celebrated 
poem Nanno, the most ancient erotic elegy of 
Greek literature. They have been published 
separately by Bach (Leipsic, 1826), and have 
been translated into German by several distin- 
guished authors. The best edition of his works 
is by Schneidewin, in the Delectus Poetarum 
Hlegiacorum Grecorum (Gottingen, 1838). 

MIMOSA (Gr. wiuoc, a mimic, as some of the 
plants imitate the movements of animals), a 
genus of leguminose which is so unlike in 
structure to the majority of the order as to 
serve as a type of a suborder, the mimosea. 
These have small regular flowers in a spike or 


MIMOSA 567 


head, with stamens twice as many as the petals 
and leaves (sometimes simple phyllodia), twice 
or thrice pinnate. The genus mimosa was ori- 
ginally very large, but it has been so subdivided 
that now it includes only about 200 species, 
which are herbs, under-shrubs, or climbers, 
very few being erect shrubs or trees, The 
best known species is the sensitive plant (1. 
pudica), noticeable for its irritable leaves; | 
others in the genus possess the same property, 
but in a less marked degree, and in all the 
leaves fold and take a sleeping position at 
night. The sensitive plant is a native of Bra- 
zil, and has been in cultivation more than 200 
years; it is usually treated as an annual, when 
it grows only about a foot high, but if kept 
under glass it will grow 3 ft. high or more, 
and form a straggling shrub with weak spiny 
branches which are beset with bristly hairs; 
the alternate leaves are bipinnate, with usual- 
ly four pinneg, each bearing numerous small 


sy 
BWA 
SW \ \f Ry Alf 
say || a aa" 
te Ny AW B (EEN 
NN “s 1 tA VRS Kah, E 
ss OX WY Its » | Ye 
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i \ rR. whys |fj 
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ANY ’ 
SSS 
Sze 
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Fe SS KS, = 
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vy v g ( ‘KX ) 


Sensitive Plant (Mimosa pudica). 


leaflets; the flowers are in small rose-purple 
heads, and are succeeded by short bristly pods 
containing the seeds; these retain their germi- 
nating power for a long time, in illustration 
of which it is mentioned that the jardin des 
plantes has been continuously supplied with 
sensitive plants by seeds from a bag that was 
brought there more than 75 years ago. It is 
sparingly naturalized in Florida. The sensi- 
tiveness of the foliage of this plant, manifested 
by a peculiar shrinking when touched, is one 
of the most striking phenomena of plant life ; 
when undisturbed and in a bright light, the 
leaves stand nearly at right angles to the stem, 
but a slight touch causes them to fold and droop 
as if dead. This change in the position of the 
leaf is completed in three successive move- 
ments: first the leaflets close in pairs, bring 
their faces together, and incline forward; then 
the secondary petioles or branches of the leaf 
approach each other; and finally the main leaf 


568 MINA BIRD 

stalk turns directly downward, bending at its 
union with the stem; left to itself, the col- 
lapsed leaf gradually resumes its former posi- 
tion. The sensitiveness of the leaves is affected 
by the temperature, being greatest on warm 
days; if the plants are exposed to the action 
of the wind, their irritability is notably dimin- 
ished. No explanation is given of this phe- 
nomenon, but it is regarded as an unusual 
development of the power of motion which is 
possessed in a less manifest degree by a large 
number of other plants.—MW. strigillosa, of 
Florida and the far south, along the banks of 
rivers, is a prostrate sensitive species with 
large leaves. Another of the genus, J. sensi- 
tiva, not rare in greenhouses, has only one pair 
of leaflets to each pinna; these are many times 
larger than those of the sensitive plant, and 
droop when touched, but much less promptly 
than the other. Several other mimosas are 
cultivated as ornamental greenhouse plants, 
but none of them have any economical im- 
portance.—The sensitive plant of the southern 
states (more properly sensitive brier), which 
is found from Virginia to Texas, formerly 
regarded as a single species of mimosa, is now 
found to be sufficiently distinct to be placed in 
a separate genus, Schrankia, and two species 
are distinguished, S. uncinata and S. angustata, 
differing mainly in the form and reticulation 
of their leaflets; they are nearly prostrate 
herbs, with stems 3 or 4 ft. long and armed 
with hooked prickles; the leaves are bipinnate, 
and the flowers in small, globular, rose-purple 
heads; the foliage is sensitive, but only under 
much rougher handling than is. required to 
affect the sensitive plant. On the prairies of 
the far south this plant often covers the ground 
for wide stretches, and by the closing of its 
leaves shows for a while the trail of the travel- 
ler very distinctly. 

MINA BIRD. See Mrvo Birp. 

MINAS GERAES, an inland province of Brazil, 
bounded N. by Bahia, E. by Bahia, Espirito 
Santo, and Rio de Janeiro, 8. by Rio de Janei- 
ro and Sao Paulo, and W. by Goyaz; area, 
about 230,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 1,450,000. 
The face of the country is extremely irregular. 
Several mountain chains traverse it, especially 
in the south and west, sending out spurs and 
minor ridges which cross the province in every 
direction, and are separated by extensive and 
fertile valleys, watered by large rivers. The 
highest summits are Itacolumé (about 5,700 ft.) 
and Itambé (6,000). The principal river is the 
Sao Francisco, which divides the province into 
two almost equal portions. Other large rivers 
are the Belmonte, Mucury, Doce, Paranahyba, 
Grande, and Verde Grande. Many of these, 
as well as the Sao Francisco, have large trib- 
utaries, such as the Jequitinhonha and the 
Rio das Velhas; but none of them are navi- 
gable throughout. Minas Geraes was for- 
merly famous for its mines (whence its name), 
at once the richest and most numerous in Brazil, 
especially the gold mines of Ouro Preto, the 


-erally mild and healthy climate. 


MINATITLAN 


capital, Morro Velho, and Minas Novas; but 
most of them have been abandoned, and even 
the washings, though known to be profitable, 
are for the most part unworked, agriculture or 
diamond washing on the Jequitinhonha being 
preferred. Upon the discovery of diamonds 
in 1746, the government, to encourage the 
search for these gems, prohibited the extrac- 
tion of gold. Rubies have occasionally been 
found; grisolitas (chrysoberyls), pingoas d’a- 
gua (white topazes), and other precious stones 
abound in the Mucury, the Rio das Americanas, 
&c. Although Minas Geraes is entirely within 
the tropics, it has, owing to its mean eleva- 
tion of about 2,000 ft. above the sea, a gen- 
Vegetation 
is everywhere luxuriant; the forests contain 
vast quantities of timber and valuable cabinet 
woods; dyes of various kinds and several spe- 
cies of medicinal plants abound; and whole 
districts, covered with brilliant flowers, pre- 
senting the aspect of continuous gardens, are 
not uncommon. The soil is fertile, and yields 
plentiful crops of the various cereals; maize, 
millet, manioc, and cotton are the staple pro- 
ductions; tobacco thrives well; and the coffee 
is only inferior to that of Cear4. Great num- 
bers of cattle pasture on the plains under the 
care of vaqgueiros, and the rearing of cattle and 
hogs is one of the principal occupations. There 
is a great variety of wild animals, birds, ser- 
pents, and insects. A prosperous trade is car- 
ried on with Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, and Sao 
Paulo; the articles exported are cattle, hogs, 
bacon, cheese, cotton fabrics, tobacco, coffee, 
skins, precious stones, drugs, &c. Manufac- 
tures, wine, flour, wheat, and salt are imported. 
With the exception of the great Union and 
Industry road, the facilities for transport are 
meagre, and goods are mainly carried on mule- 
back, which greatly enhances the price of all 
articles imported. There are forges, founderies, 
and cotton and woollen weaving establishments 
in many of the towns; wool hats, rum, sugar, 
and tobacco are manufactured on a large scale. 
Besides the colleges in the principal towns, 
there are upward of 250 primary and grammar 
schools in the province.—Minas Geraes was 
made a province in 18338. It is divided into 14 
comarcas or districts. The capital is Ouro 
Preto, formerly Villa Rica; and other impor- 
tant towns are Marianna, Minas Novas, Janua- 
ria, Diamantina, and Sao Joao d’El Rey. 
MINATITLAN, a small town of Mexico, isth- 
mus of Tehuantepec, on the W. bank of the 
Coatzacoalcos, 20 m. from its mouth and 125 m. 
S. E. of Vera Cruz; pop. about 2,500. It has 
obtained some notoriety and importance from 
being the Atlantic point of departure in the 
various attempts to establish an interoceanic, 
communication by way of the isthmus of Te- 
huantepec. It is also the proposed terminus 
of the projected railway across that isthmus on 
the north. The country immediately around 
the town is low and subje¢t to periodical inun- 
dations. Cattle constitute the chief wealth of 


MINCIO 


the people. Mahogany and other valuable 
woods are produced in the vicinity, and ship- 
ped at Vera Cruz. 

MINCIO (anc. Mincius), a river of N. Italy, 
which runs, under the name of Sarca, from 
the §. extremity of Tyrol into the lake of 
Garda, at Riva, issues from it at Peschiera, 
where it takes the name of Mincio, and flow- 
ing southward forms the boundary between 
the provinces of Verona and Mantua; then, 
past Goito, turning 8. E. it expands into a lake, 
near the E. end of which is the fortress of 
Mantua; below this it discharges itself into 
the Po, near Governolo, after a course of more 
than 40 m. from the lake. It is navigable 
for barges throughout the greater part of its 
length. A battle was fought on the banks of 
the Mincio in 197 B. C., in which the Insu- 
bres and Cenomani were defeated by the Ro- 
mans. Bonaparte crossed the Mincio in May, 
1796; and the Austrians under Bellegarde were 
defeated there by Brune, Dec. 25 and 26, 1800, 
and upward of 4,000 of them taken prison- 
ers. Another victory over the Austrians was 
achieved there by the French under Eugéne 
Beauharnais, Feb. 8, 1814, after a bloody con- 
flict. In 1859 the Mincio became again the 
theatre of war between the allied Sardinians 


-and French and the Austrians, the latter en- 


deavoring to concentrate their resistance on 
the line of the river. After the battle of Sol- 
ferino (June 24), the allied armies crossed the 
Mincio into Venetia, and the war was brought 
to a close by the peace of Villafranca (July 
11), by which Lombardy was transferred from 
Austria to Sardinia, and the upper Mincio 
became a part of the boundary between the 
two states. This boundary ceased to exist in 
1866, when Venetia was united with Italy. 
MIND, Gottfried, a Swiss painter, better known 
under the name of Berner Friedli, born in 
Bern in 1768, died there, Nov. 7, 1814. He 
was educated in the charity school of Pesta- 
lozzi, devoting himself to the study of design. 
Ignorant in other education, and deformed, he 
shunned society, and spent his life among cats, 
of which he executed such excellent pictures 
that he was called the Raphael of cats. He 
also excelled in pictures of bears, children, and 
beggars. Hedied in poverty. Since his death 
his pictures have commanded extravagant pri- 
ces, and several of them have been engraved. 
MINDANAO. Sce Purtrerrine Istanps. 
MINDEN, a fortified town of Westphalia, 
Prussia, capital of a district of the same name, 
on the left bank of the Weser, 60 m. E. N. E. 
of Minster; pop. in 1871, 16,598. It is one 
of the oldest towns of Germany, is surrounded 
by walls with six gates, and has a garrison of 
4.000 men. It contains a Roman Catholic ca- 
thedral of the 11th century, and was once the 
capital of the see of Minden, which was found- 
ed by Charlemagne, but was suppressed in 
1648. It has a gymnasium, a normal school, 
manufactures of woollens, linens, leather, sugar, 
and tobacco, and an important trade chiefly 


MINE 569 
in grain, linen, yarn, and brandy. It was the 
residence of some of the German emperors, 
and several diets were held there. Within 2 
m. of Minden the railway traverses the pass 
called Porta Westphalica. In a ruined chapel 
near it Wittekind, according to tradition, was 
baptized by Charlemagne. The French were 
defeated in the vicinity of Minden, Aug. 1, 
1759, by an Anglo-Hanoverian army under 
Ferdinand of Brunswick. 

MINDORO. See Purrprine Isianps. 

MINE, an excavation made in the earth for 
the extraction of minerals. When the material 
to be extracted is a rock of any kind, the ex- 
cavation is known asa quarry. We find very 
little in classic literature that gives any real in- 
formation about the mines of antiquity or the 
manner in which they were worked. It is cer- 
tain, however, that the Phenicians and Egyp- 
tians at the earliest periods of history had an 
abundance of metals. The Phcenicians obtained 
from Sardinia and from other islands of the 
Mediterranean gold and iron, as well as other 
metals; they are known to have mined in 
Spain, probably for lead and silver, and to 
have traded with the Britons for the tin ore 
of Cornwall and Devon. Of even greater an- 
tiquity was the mining of the Egyptians, who 
had mines of copper, silver, and gold in pro- 
ductive operation, both on the Ethiopian and 
the Arabian border. The Sinaitic desert con- 
tains the ruins of mining works, probably exe- 
cuted by the Egyptians. Abraham found gold 
and silver in use among them. In the time of 
Alexander gold, silver, copper, and iron were 
obtained in Ethiopia, and iron, at least, in Libya. 
India and Caramania (modern Kerman) pro- 
duced gold, and the latter country also silver 
andcopper. In Asia Minor the gold mines for- 
merly owned by Croesus were worked down 
to the time of Xenophon, but Strabo says that 
in his day they were exhausted. There were 
iron mines.and skilled workmen in Palestine. 
Ancient writers speak of rich gold and silver 
mines in Arabia Felix, no traces of which re- 
main. The Athenians worked rich silver mines 
in Attica and gold mines in Thrace and Thasos. 
Thessaly produced gold, Bceotia iron, and Epi- 
rus silver. Before the time of the Romans 
mining was carried on in many parts of west- 
ern Europe. The Etruscans and the Sabines 
in Italy were acquainted with copper, and the 
former discovered iron in Elba. The northern 
tribes of Italy obtained gold by washing; the 
tribes of Gaul are known to have mined for 
gold, silver, copper, and iron; and in Spain 
and Sardinia extensive and productive mines 
were established by the Carthaginians. Brit- 
ain produced gold, silver, iron, lead, and tin. 
After the conquest of Czsar, the tin of Corn- 
wall was shipped first to the Isle of Wight, 
and thence to the coast of Gaul, where it was 
loaded upon horses and transported to Mar- 
seilles, a journey of 80 days. The early Ro- 
mans did not work the mines of their native 
land. The first two Punic wars delivered into 


570 


the power of Rome the important mines of 
Sardinia, Sicily, and Spain. Subsequent con- 
quests added those of Asia Minor, Macedonia, 
and Greece, and still later the remaining mines 
of western Asia and those of Egypt were ac- 
quired by the armies of Pompey and Augustus. 
Those of Gaul yielded to Cesar. The tin 
mines of Britain were their latest conquests 
of this sort, and Rome was then mistress of 
all the important mines of the ancient world. 
Under the republic the mines were worked by 
lessees, who employed numbers of slaves, and 
subjected the mineral deposits of the prov- 
inces to rapid and reckless robbery. During 
the period from the first Punic war to the 
empire there was an immense production of 
metals, and many of the mines were exhausted. 
The emperors established governmental super- 
vision, and worked the mines through regularly 
appointed officials, Mining in the countries 
belonging to the West Roman empire declined 
rapidly from the 3d century, and after the 5th 
it ceased entirely. The Byzantines gradually 
surrendered their mines to the Arabs; those 
of Asia Minor, Thrace, and Greece were the 
last which the eastern empire retained.—Mining 
is known to have been carried on at Andreas- 
berg in the Hartz since the year 968.. The 
famous Rammelsberg mines were discovered 
in 972 by the pawing of a steed named Ram- 
mel, tied to a tree in the forest. The Freiberg 
district was discovered about 1165, and has 
been steadily worked since 1547. Traces of 
ancient mining in the United States are con- 
fined to the copper region of Lake Superior, 
and to certain districts in New Mexico. In 
both cases the implements seem to have been 
rude hammers of stone. In New Mexico there 
is a large excavation known as the Turquoise 
mine, from which a trachytic rock, carrying 
turquoise in seams, has been laboriously ex- 
tracted by a race of whom not even a tradi- 
tion now exists. In ancient times muscular 
force, assisted only by applications of fire and 
occasionally by the power of water, was the 
miners’ resource. A most suggestive picture 
of rude mining operations is given in the book 
of Job, xxviii. 1-11, of which Conant’s trans- 
lation brings out the beauties very strikingly : 
‘For there is a vein for the silver, and a place 
for the gold, which they refine. Iron is taken 
out of the dust, and stone is fused into cop- 
per. He puts an end to the darkness; and he 
searches out, to the very end, stones of thick 
darkness and of death-shade. He drives a 
shaft, away from man’s abode; forgotten of 
the foot, they swing suspended, far from men! 
The earth, out of it goes forth bread; and 
under it is destroyed as with fire. A place of 
sapphires, are its stones; and it has clods of 
gold. The path, no bird of prey has known 
it, nor the falcon’s eye glanced on it; nor 
proud beasts trodden it, nor roaring lion passed 
over it. Against the flinty rock he puts forth 
a hand; he overturns mountains from the 

ase. 


MINE 


his eye sees every precious thing. He binds 
up streams that they drip not; and the hidden 
he brings out to light.” Pliny (‘‘ Natural 
History,” xxxili., 4) gives a similar descrip- 
tion of shaft-sinking operations: ‘‘ Elsewhere 
pathless rocks are cut away, and are hollowed 
out to furnish a rest for beams. He who cuts 
is suspended with ropes. ... For the most 
part they swing suspended, and fasten up lines 
for a pathway. They go where there is no 
place for the footprints of man.” The re- 
moval of surface material by sluicing was also 
practised in ancient times in Spain.—The op- 
erations of mining may be comprised under 
four heads: 1, the discovery of mineral de- 


posits and the testing of their value; 2, the 


establishment of access to such deposits; 3, 
the extraction of the mineral; 4, the protec- 
tion of the works and workmen. I. Discoy- 
ERY AND TesTiNG oF Mrnerat Deposits. For 
a description of the modes of occurrence of 
the rocks and minerals which are objects of 
mining, see Minerat Deposits. The presence 
of such deposits is indicated by various signs. 
Sometimes the veins themselves, if harder than 
the enclosing rocks, crop out at the surface 
unaltered. More frequently the outcrop is 
indicated by decomposed rock, which when 
ferruginous is called ‘‘gossan.” Loose pieces - 
of gangue and ore, known to western miners 
as “float quartz,” and found upon the surface - 
and in the soil, frequently lead to the discov- 
ery of veins. The lead miner of the limestone 
districts of the Mississippi valley is guided by 
depressed lines upon the surface, indicating 
the existence of fissures. The magnetic needle 
is employed in the discovery of certain ores 
of iron, and the ancient superstition of the di- 
vining rod for the discovery of hidden springs 
and mineral veins is not yet extinct even in 
this country. (See Drvryine Rov.) When 
the neighborhood of a mineral deposit is sus- 
pected and no certain indication of its exact 
locality appears, it is sought by prospecting 
pits, cuts, drifts, or borings. Prospecting pits 
are commonly dug upon the supposed outcrop 
of a deposit, to test its dimensions and quality. 
Open cuts are usually run on the surface at 
right angles to the prevailing course of the 
veins of the district, and are excavated down 
to the solid rock for the purpose of eens 
the veins which they may cross. This is calle 

‘‘costeening.” Boring is employed for deter- 
mining the character of rock strata, and the 
position of mineral deposits in them. It has 
been usually applied to coal beds or to strata 
containing salt or petroleum deposits. In the 
latter cases the bore-holes subsequently serve 
for the extraction of brine or oil. The inven- 
tion of the diamond drill (see Borne), by 
means of which holes can be driven in advance 
horizontally for hundreds of feet, has greatly 
enlarged the applications of boring as a means 
of exploration. Horizontal adits, or vrosscuts, 
driven into the sides of hills at right angles 


In the rocks, he cleaves out rivers; and | with the veins known to exist in them, are the 


MINE 


surest but most expensive method of explora- 
tion. It may be resorted to when the exist- 
ence and value of the deposits are well known, 
and the topography is such that the entry 
may subsequently be valuable for drainage and 
transportation. . Finally, new deposits may be 
discovered under ground by driving experimen- 
tal openings from mines already in operation. 
—The value of deposits is tested by shafts and 
drifts, usually excavated within the deposit 
itself. The construction of such works in the 
barren rock is seldom undertaken until the 
vein is found to be worthy of the expenditure. 
In the case of coal, building stone, iron ore, 
and, in general, all materials which occur in 
extensive and tolerably uniform deposits, and 
the value of which is small in comparison with 
their bulk, the test of quality is not difficult. 
But minerals of more concentrated value usual- 
ly occur mixed with such variable proportions 
of “‘gangue” or barren matter, and when in 
fissure veins are subject to such variations in 
width and course, as to render it necessary to 
expose considerable bodies of vein matter, and 
to make tests either by thorough sampling or 
by actual reduction of large quantities, before 
the economical value of the deposits can be 
ascertained. By connecting with the shafts 
or inclines sunk upon the dip of the vein lon- 
gitudinal drifts run upon its course, this object 
can be measurably secured. Alluvial deposits, 
such as those of gold and stream tin, are tested 
by actual working with pan, sluice, &c. When 
large operations, like those of hydraulic mi- 
ning, are contemplated, the body of earthy 
gravel, cement, &c., if its value is not already 
known, is tested by shafts sunk to the bed 
rock ata sufficient number of points to give 
an indication of its average contents. II. 
APPROACHES TO Mines. Access to mineral 
deposits for permanent exploration is estab- 
lished, first by suitable wagon or tram roads 
on the surface, and secondly by either strip- 
ping the overlying soil and rock from the de- 
posit itself, as is done in quarries, clay banks, 
and some iron mines, or by sinking a shaft or 
running a drift or crosscut from the surface 
into the deposit. In the case of beds or veins 
which dip at a convenient and uniform angle, 
the shaft may be carried down upon the de- 
posit itself, and is then usually called a slope 
or an incline. For less regular deposits, and 
for those in which the angle of inclination is 
inconvenient or variable, or the vein matter 
is too valuable to permit the leaving of it in 
pillars to protect the shaft, it is better to drive 
a vertical shaft at some distance from the out- 
crop, in the hanging wall, so as to strike the 
vein at a considerable depth. A gallery run 
from the surface in a nearly horizontal line, to 
effect access and drainage, is called an adit or 
entry, and in some situations, as at the base 
of steep hills, this may be made the principal 
feature at the mine, the main workings being 
carried on through it until the vein is ex- 
hausted above its level. Sometimes the nature 


571 


of the shafts permits the opening of mines at 
different levels, by means of adits. This sys- 
tem was most highly esteemed before the im- 
provements in machinery and the introduction 
of steam favored the economy of mining in 
deep shafts. When adits must be driven for 
Jong distances through hard and barren rocks, 
it is sometimes difficult to decide whether the 
cost of their construction will be repaid by 
the saving in hoisting, drainage, and mechani- 
cal ventilation. Adits are usually called tun- 
nels by miners of the Pacific states and territo- 
ries, but this is a misnomer, as a tunnel proper 
extends entirely through a hill. Mining shafts 
are generally rectangular in section, and range 
in size from 3 or 4 ft. to 6 ft. on the shorter 
sides, and from 6 ft. to 20 ft., or even more, 
on the longer sides. This form facilitates 
timbering, and at the same time permits the 
best utilization of space, through the division 
of the shaft by partitions into separate com- 
partments for pumps, hoisting, ladder ways, 
&c. Adits are placed itl Wekcbance to se- 
curing the greatest depth below the surface 
by running as short a distance as possible, par- 
ticularly in barren rock; with reference to the 
presence of a good place for a ‘“‘dump ” at the 
adit mouth; and also with reference to easy 
escape of waters, freedom from flooding by 
freshets, and facility of natural ventilation 
when the adit is to be connected with a shaft. 
For the latter purpose it is well that the adit 
mouth should not be in a narrow ravine or in 
the corner of a valley. Dimensions of adits 
depend upon the amount of water expected to 
run in them and the other purposes to which 
they are to be put. When in barren rock, it 
is an object to make them as small as prac- 
ticable; 7 ft. high and 5 to 6 ft. wide is a con- 
venient size. But when transportation is to 
be carried on and double tracks are to be laid, 
the dimensions must be increased. The height 
of the adit available for passage is diminished 
by the water channel, which usually runs under 
the floor or in a ditch at one side. The grade 
of adits is determined with reference to the 
amount and character of the water flowing in 
them and the speed which it is desirable te 
give to the current. The ancient mining regu- 
lations of Prussia required of deep adits a grade 
of from 1 in 800 to 1 in 400. Some of the 
adits at the coal mines of Saarbriick rise at the 
rate of 1 in 1,600; others at the rate of 89 in 
64,000. According to the Saxon law, the 
grade may vary between 38 in 10,000 and 1 in 
1,000. Thelong Ernst August adit in the Hartz 
has, for a length of nine miles, an average grade 
of 0°67 in 1,000. Here the water in the adit.is 
itself used for transportation, and the current 
is intentionally kept slow. Access is further 
obtained to the different parts of the mineral 
deposit by subordinate shafts and galleries ex- 
cavated in the deposit. These interior shafts 
not extending to the surface are known as win- 
zes, and usually serve to connect the galleries 
on different levels. The galleries are known 


572 


as levels or drifts in vein mining, and gang- 
ways in coal mining. When a mine is opened 
by a vertical shaft, the vein is sometimes cut 
by a crosscut level run from the shaft through 
barren rock, at a point higher than the inter- 
section of the shaft and the vein. From the 
point where the crosscut enters the vein, levels 
are then run in both directions horizontally on 
the vein. After the main shaft has reached 
the vein and has been carried through it, the 
distance between vein and shaft of course 
grows larger with increasing depth, and the 
vein must be again opened by crosscuts from 
the shaft at different levels. The levels opened 
in the vein are so many parallel roads on the 
vein, succeeding each other every 60 to 100 ft. 
in depth. The winzes connecting them serve 
both in ventilation and in extraction, besides 
affording convenient access to different parts 
of the mine. The running of drifts to make 
connection with old and abandoned workings 
is sometimes dangerous, when the old work- 
ings are full of water and their exact position 
is not known by surveys. In such a case the 
approach is made cautiously, and a bore-hole 
is kept in advance, to tap the accumulated 
waters in such a way as to avoid an excessive 
flow or give the workmen time to escape. An 
accident of this kind at the Gouley mine, near 
Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1835, which caused the 
drowning of 63 miners, gave rise to the publi- 
cation by the government of the Rhenish 
province of exact regulations, which constitute 
an excellent guide to the mining engineer. III. 
Extraction or Minerats. To perform the 
work of regular extraction with due economy 
and safety, the following circumstances must 
be considered: the shape of the deposit, as a 
tabular or sheet deposit, a mass or stockwork, 
regular or irregular, &c., and if a tabular de- 
posit, like a fissure vein or a bed, then its course 
and dip, its folds, basins, faults, and breaks; 
the thickness and inner structure of the deposit, 
or, in ore veins, the nature and distribution of 
the ore bodies, the amount of barren gangue, 
and in coal beds and other deposits the pro- 
portion of marketable to waste material; the 
character of the “country” or wall rock, as 
making a solid or a precarious roof, and re- 
quiring more or less support; the number, 
relation, and distance apart of several deposits 
which it may be desirable to work at once or 
successively, as for instance seams of coal, lying 
one under the other; the conditions of ventila- 
tion, particularly where explosive gases are to 
be feared; the conditions of drainage; the 
character, abundance, and price of materials 
for underground supports (timber, masonry, 
iron pillars, loose rock, or earth); the size and 
shape of the pieces of material to be extracted 
(commercially important in coal and quar- 
ried stone); the method of excavation to be 
employed (picking, shovelling, fire setting, 
hydraulic sluicing, leaking, blasting, &c.); and 
finally, in a subordinate degree, the nature of 
the mineral itself, as for instance very rich and 


MINE 


brittle silver ore, which is liable to be lost in 
fine particles among the piles of waste, or some 
kinds of coal which deteriorate by standing too 
long in the mine after they have been exposed 
and drained, or clays which become like quick- 
sands in contact with water. Any one of the 
foregoing conditions may, under certain cir- 
cumstances, be decisive as to the choice of a 
method of extraction.—Hydraulic mining is an 
application of the power of water, under high 
pressure and at great velocity, to move great 
masses of material, separate the heavier and 
more valuable portions, and convey away the 
lighter waste. (See Gotrp Minina.) In its 
modern form it was invented in California 


_about 1852, and is mainly employed in that 


state. It has been introduced at Iron mountain, 
Missouri, for the purpose of removing and con- 
centrating the surface ore of that locality. For 
hydraulic mining, it is necessary to have, be- 
sides a deposit suitable to operate upon, a 
supply of water at a proper altitude, and an 
escape for the turbid stream, at a level below 
all the workings. The waste material is thus 
removed by the current at small cost, while the 
gold is precipitated to the bottom and caught 
in crevices, ‘‘ riffles,” &c. As most ‘ hydrau- 
lic-gravel” deposits have been accumulated in 
basins of ancient river channels, they are sur- 
rounded by hard rock, called ‘‘ bed rock” be- 
low, and “rim rock” where it comes to the 
surface at the edge of the deposit. For hy- 
draulic exploitation, the bottom of the deposit 
must be underrun by a tunnel through the 
bed rock, and a short shaft from the overlying » 
deposit must be connected with this tunnel. 
Then the bank may be “ hydraulicked” down, 
and everything except the large bowlders sluiced 
into the shaft and tunnel, and so away to lower 
grounds. The method of extraction by leach- 
ing is peculiar to certain rock-salt mines, in 
which the mineral is too much mixed with 
earthy and stony matter to be quarried. Cham- 
bers are excavated in the mass, and filled with 
water, which is allowed to stand until it has 
extracted from walls and roof sufficient salt 
to render it a concentrated brine. It is then 
drawn off, and conveyed in pipes to the boil- 
ing works. A layer from the roof of the 
chamber, disintegrated to a certain distance by 
this leaching, falls, covering the floor with ma- 
terial from which the salt has been extracted, 
and leaving a new roof exposed for a repeti- 
tion of the process. Thus the chambers slowly 
rise through the mountain. This method is in 
use at Berchtesgaden in 8. E. Bavaria, and Hal- 
lein in Salzburg.—Other modes of extraction 
are divided into two classes: those in which the 
space excavated is refilled wholly or partially 
with waste material, and those in which no 
such “ packing” or ‘‘gobbing up” is employed. 
The former class is subdivided, according to 
the direction in which the work proceeds, into 
overhand stoping, underhand stoping, cross 
stoping, and long-wall working. (The latter 
method and its modifications, used chiefly in 


MINE 


coal mining, where the seams are not too thick, 
steep, or variable, may be employed either 
with or without gobbing up.) The word stope 
is probably a corruption of step, and refers to 
the stair-like appearance presented by the face 
of the excavation. Overhand stoping is con- 
ducted as follows: From the level below the 
ground to be exploited, a ‘‘raise” or upward 
shaft is driven up into the ground, and from this 
the different ‘‘ breasts’ are driven horizontally 
on the vein, in one or in both directions. The 
extraction begins at the bottom, by the exca- 
vation of a block having the width of the vein, 
a height of 44 to 9 ft., and a length of not less 
than 7 nor more than 30 ft. In this work 
two sides of the rock are always free: the up- 
right face, toward the central shaft, and the 
lower horizontal side, over the level. When 
the breast has been driven far enough, a new 


workman or set of workmen may begin with. 


a second breast, while the former still contin- 
ues to advance. Fig. 1, representing the pro- 
file of a double stope, shows the order in which 
the work proceeds. The space behind and be- 
low the workmen is filled up with the waste 
rock, broken from the vein in order to get at 
the ore, or with rock brought from else- 
where for this special purpose. Openings or 
“chutes” are left in this, through which the 


Fie. 1.—Double Overhand Stope. 


_ ore can be allowed to fall to the level below, 
where it is received in cars. This level is 
usually protected by a roof of stulls and lag- 
ging, on which the waste rock is piled, as is 
shown in fig. 2; or a portion of. the vein is 


left standing over the level, as a protection. | 


The workmen stand on the waste rock, and 
stoping goes on in the manner indicated, until 
the whole of the valuable mineral between 
the bottom level and the one next above (say 
60 to 100 ft., measured on the dip of the vein) 
has been extracted. Of course, by starting 
stopes at different points on the lower level, 
within the limits of the mining claim, or the 
body of valuable ore, more men can be set at 
work. But the regular productiveness of a 
mine is not susceptible of indefinite increase 
in this way. The maximum rate of exploita- 
tion which can be maintained until the mine is 
entirely exhausted, depends upon the rate at 
which the shaft or shafts can be sunk and new 
levels opened at greater depths. The too rapid 
exhaustion of one level would necessitate a 
suspension of active extraction while the next 


573 


level below was in course of preparation; and 
in this work of sinking shafts and running 
drifts (sometimes called the ‘‘dead work” of 
the mine) it is not possible to multiply the 


whe ha ™ f% (le Ad 


— 


= 


Aly 
yw Mb, 


eer QS LS Se, ASS S| 


MY 


Fic 2,—Single Overhand Stope, packed with waste rock. 


number of men, so as to secure more rapid 
progress. Only so many men can be accom- 
modated at the bottom of a shaft or the end 
of a drift; and when their effectiveness has 
been raised to the highest point by selecting 
good workmen, dividing them into three 
“shifts” or gangs, working eight hours each 
in turn, employing the most suitable tools and 
explosives, and, if circumstances are favor- 
able, drills operated by steam or compressed 
air, the limit of practicable progress has been 
reached; and this determines the normal pro- 
ductiveness of the mine. Driving the stopes 
faster than the dead work is ‘‘robbing” the 
mine. Underhand stoping is the reverse of 


i 


Ble 


Dy; 
nee 


i 
M 


00) 
af 


j 


ii 


Ses 
== 
v — 


Hh 


i 


e Hlatanid 


= mS, 
Sse Vv (@) .” 
SS ase ws=s 
SSS PS 

oO VU ome 


Fie. 8.—Underhand Stope. 


the method just described. Here the stopes 
begin from the level above, and may be com- 
menced (if the presence of water is not too 
troublesome) before any lower level has been 


Kk 


574 


opened. The ore has to be hoisted, and the 
waste rock has to be lifted by hand and packed 
on stulls behind the miner, as shown in fig. 3. 
This system permits an earlier beginning of 
extraction, and gives the workman a firm foot- 
ing on the solid vein and an easier and safer 
direction of working (viz., downward instead of 
upward). Moreover, there is less chance of 
losing small pieces of rich ore, which in over- 
hand stoping get into the waste rock under 
foot and cannot be recovered. But overhand 
stoping has two great advantages: first, the con- 
venience of rolling and dropping rock and ore, 
instead of hoisting them; and second, the saving 
of timber, which in most mining districts soon 
becomes expensive. 
ber used in an underhand stope is not merely 
lost; it may give rise by its decay to slides in the 
packing, or the necessity of expensive repairs 
to prevent them. Both overhand and under- 
hand stoping are variously modified, as for in- 
stance in their application to any thick vein in 
which cross stoping is not desirable. In such 
cases, the vein is worked in successive layers 
or zones, parallel with the walls, each layer be- 
ginning with that on the foot wall, being stoped 
out by itself, as a separate vein; 12 ft. is usu- 
ally as great a thickness as can be stoped at 
one time with safety or convenience. Oross 
stoping is common in working thick veins. 
In this method, the vein material is removed 
in layers, not parallel with the walls, but ex- 
tending from the foot to the hanging wall; 
and in each layer the exploitation takes place 
by driving breasts across the vein, leaving 
pillars between them; supporting the roof of 
the breast, 6 to 12 ft. wide, with timbers until 


NN 
AY 
ee 


\N [gf fhe Fp 
ui OL la rei, 


Fig. 4.—Cross Stoping, 


it has reached the hanging wall; then with- 
drawing the timbers and packing the exca- 
vation with waste rock; and then extract- 
ing the pillars and replacing them also with 


The great amount of tim-. 


MINE 


waste rock. A cross layer of the vein, 6 or 
7 ft. in vertical height, having been thus re- 
moved and the space packed, the operation is 
repeated with the layer next above. Fig. 4 
shows this method by a vertical cross section. 
It is employed at the quicksilver mine of Idria, 
Carniola, and in various modifications at the 
zinc mines near Aix, the coal mines of Le 
Creuzot and St. Etienne, in France, the mines 
of roofing slate near the Rhine, and the lignite 
mines in Lower Styria. Long-wall working is 
employed on nearly horizontal deposits, usu- 
ally coal beds. It may be classed as retreating 
or advancing, according to whether the extrac- 
tion begins at the borders of the field or section 
of the bed to be worked, and retreats toward 
the main shaft, or begins at the shaft and 
advances toward the limits. In the latter case 
roadways are kept through the ground al- 
ready worked out. Varieties of this method 
are employed in the copper schist beds of 
Mansfeld, and at many foreign coal mines, 
—The methods of extraction without packing 
are: those in which the roof or hanging wall 
is supported by timbering, masonry, or pillars 
of the original material, left standing until the 
workings are to be abandoned; and those in 
which the roof is allowed to come down imme- 
diately after extraction. In the mines of the 
Comstock vein in Nevada, the spaces are kept 
open with elaborate timbering, framed as for 
immense houses. This is a great expense, be- 
sides being a source of loss and danger in case 
of fire. A conflagration in the Yellow Jack- 
et, Kentuck, and Crown Point mines on that 
lode, which began April 7, 1869, not only cost 
many lives, but continued to burn, from 600 to 
900 ft. underground, for many months, being 
sustained by the great quantity of dry timber 
in the stopes.—The system of extraction by 
breasts or chambers and pillars is practised 
chiefly in coal mining. It is wasteful of coal, 
since the pillars of that material left standing . 
are but partially recovered by ‘‘robbing,” 
when the breasts are worked out. It is esti- 
mated that from 380 to 40 per cent. of the coal 
in the anthracite mines of Pennsylvania is thus 
lost.—To the department of extraction belong 
also the various methods of transporting work- 
men and material. Where an adit or a slope 
of gentle inclination leads to the underground 
workings, the ore and rock are brought out 
in cars or wagons. For horizontal transpor- 
tation men or boys, horses, mules, stationary 
engines, and locomotives are employed. Hoist- 
ing through shafts is performed by windlass, 
horse whim, or water or steam power. When 
the material extracted has to be lowered, as 
for instance to deliver it from breasts or stopes’ 
to the main roads of transportation under- 
ground, or from the shaft or adit mouth to 
a loading place at a lower level, gravity tram- , 
ways may be employed, on which the loaded 
cars, descending, pull up the empty ones. The 
entrance and exit of workmen through shafts 
is effected by ladders or stairs, or by lowering 


MINE 


and hoisting them in cars, buckets, or cages, 
or by means of an ingenious arrangement 
called the man machine or Fahrkunst. What- 
ever method is adopted, every mine should be 
provided with ladders in good repair, since 
other means may fail at a critical moment. 
In its simplest form, the fahrkunst is a con- 
tinuous piece of wood, iron, or wire rope, ex- 
tending from the top to the bottom of the 
shaft, and provided at regular intervals (8 to 
24 ft.) with small platforms, upon which a 
miner can stand. This frame is so placed in 
the shaft, and supported by counter weights 
(and, in inclined shafts, friction rollers), that a 
regular reciprocating motion, like that of the 
pumping rods, can be imparted to it. The 
machinery is so arranged that the stroke is 
exactly half as long as the distance between 
the platforms on the fahrkunst, and at the end 
of the stroke in each direction there is an in- 
stant’s pause. During this instant the miner 
can step from the machine upon a fixed plat- 
form in the side of the shaft. As the fahr- 
kunst is kept constantly running, a miner 
wishing to ascend by means of it has only to 
step upon it as it begins an upward stroke, 
step off at the end of that stroke, wait until 
the down stroke brings opposite to him the 
platform next above, then step upon that, and 
be carried another lift higher. At the same 
time, another miner may descend upon the 
same machine, by stepping on for the down 
stroke, and waiting during the up stroke. The 
double fahrkunst has two such frames or rods, 
running reciprocally side by side; and here 
the miner steps across from one to the other, 
always finding opposite to him, as the plat- 
form on which he stands pauses in its move- 
ment up or down, a platform on the other 
frame, just about to commence its movement 
in the same direction. The moving platforms 
are usually small, holding but one person con- 
veniently. When two miners pass each other, 
one steps upon a ladder placed between the 
two frames. In Belgium the moving plat- 
forms are so large as to fill the whole shaft, 
and take several workmen at atime. The rate 
of working may be seen from the following 
statement, calculated for a shaft of 800 ft. : 


Double ian wee 


FAHRKUNST. Stroke, | strokes per Boecaren 500 men in 
minute. 4 

Ordinary double..| 10 ft. 5 8m, |1h.47m 

Swift AS 10" 10 4m. 54 m 

Large Belgian....| 10 “ 5 8m. 27 m 


The Belgian machine is here assumed to be 
carrying four men on each platform. On lad- 
ders one man usually descends 800 ft. in about 
30 m., and ascends in an hour. The time 
allowed for 500 men is about 24 hours to 
descend and 5 hours to ascend. The waste of 
strength involved is also to be considered. 
When miners are hoisted in the cages, the avy- 
erage velocity being about 15 ft. per second, 
558 VOL, xXI1.—3T 


575 


and the average load four men, about 84 hours 
are required to lower or raise 500 men in a 
double vertical shaft of 800 ft.; or when the 
load is six men, 24 hours. At the Comstock 
mines, Nevada, 12 men descend at once, at a 
rate varying from 400 to 800 ft. per minute. 
Some of these mines are more than 1,600 ft. deep. 
IV. ProrEcTIon oF THE WoRKS AND WORKMEN. 
Arrangements for the protection of the miners 
and works include timber or other supports, 
ventilation, and drainage. Shafts and perma- 
nent ways are carefully protected, if neces- 
sary, with stout timbering, masonry, or even 
cast-iron linings. Pillars of rock left stand- 
ing, piles of waste material packed in the 
empty spaces, and posts, stulls, lagging, d&c., 
suffice for stopes. In some mines the tempo- 
rary supports are iron columns, or even screw- 
jacks, which can be removed without damage 
and used again. Ventilation is necessary to 
remove explosive and inflammable gases (car- 
buretted and sulphuretted hydrogen and car- 
bonic oxide, which are also poisonous), and 
simply poisonous gases, such as sulphurous 
acid, carbonic acid, and quicksilver or arsenic 
vapors. Natural ventilation is secured by 
having two openings to the mine, at one of 
which (called the intake or downcast) fresh 
air enters, while the foul air escapes at the 
other (upcast). The difference in altitude be- 
tween these openings, and the difference in 
temperature between the entering and the es- 
caping air, determine the strength of the natu- 
ral ventilation. It is likely in temperate cli- 
mates that the air in the mine will be warmer 
in winter and cooler in summer than that out- 
side. Hence the draft will be in winter out 
through the highest opening, and in summer 
the reverse, while periods of stagnation will 
occur in spring and autumn. The natural draft 
may be assisted by wise choice of the localities 
for the openings, or by use of weather caps 
and chimneys over the upcast; but these aids 
are not effective except where the intake is an 
adit. Artificial ventilation is effected by in- 
creasing the difference of temperature between. 
the entering and the escaping air, so as to 
render the currents comparatively independent: 
of the weather, or by increasing mechanically 
the difference in density. In the first class of 
instances, either the escaping air is warmed, or 
the entering air is cooled; in the second class, 
either the escaping air is rarefied by suction, or 
the entering air is condensed by blowing. The 
escaping current may be warmed by connect- 
ing the upcast with the chimney of a steam 
boiler above ground, or with a special furnace 
above ground, or by means of a furnace in the 
shaft, or near the bottom of it, or by introdu- ' 
cing steam jets into the shaft. The jets have 
a mechanical as well as a thermal effect; but 
the total effect per pound of coal consumed is 
less than that of the furnace.. The cooling of 
an entering current of air is sometimes effected 
by allowing water to fall into the downcast, 
and is also an incidental effect of the water 


576 MINE 


blast or hydraulic bellows, a simple contri- 
vance by which a falling stream carries 4 draft 
of air with it into a receiver, where the air is 
disengaged from the water, and forced, under 
a pressure due to the water column, into the 
mine. Ventilating machines (exhausting or 
blowing machines) are used almost exclusive- 
ly in coal mines, where a great excess of air, 
to dilute injurious gases, is a vital necessity. 
These ventilators are either reciprocal (pumps) 
or rotary (fans). The latter are generally 
employed, and for extensive ventilation the 
exhausting fans are usually preferred to the 
blowers. One of the most effective fans, 
Guibal’s, gives, with a diameter of 14°34 ft. 


and 8 arms revolving 134 times pér minute, a. 


current of 929 cubic feet of air per second. 
The distribution of the air currents through 
the mine, so as to bring fresh air to the work- 
men, and remove all foul gases to the upcast, 
is very important, and requires a system of 
air courses, doors, &c. Portable lights in mi- 
ning are torches, candles, and oil safety lamps. 
(See Lamp.) Stationary lights are also em- 
ployed (lanterns with oil or petroleum, gas 
light, and various electric lights) for illumina- 
ting permanent roadways, landings, &c. The 
drainage of mines is effected by natural means 
(through adits) or by means of pumps or 
buckets. These are sometimes operated by 
hand or horse power or wind, more frequently 
by hydraulic engines, and most frequently by 
steam. V. Mintina Laws anp Sonoois. The 
inalienable right of the sovereign to the met- 
als in the soil is an ancient doctrine, par- 
ticularly with regard to the precious metals, 
but is gradually passing away in civilized coun- 
tries, the governments of which are selling the 
“mineral rights” which they have hitherto 
farmed out or operated directly for the reve- 
nues of the state. A police supervision, in the 
interest of public safety and of political econ- 
omy, is usually maintained. The laws of Eu- 
ropean states regulate minutely the privileges 
granted to miners, and their relations to the 
government and to the proprietors of the soil. 
In England and the United States, the title 
to the minerals beneath the surface usually 
goes with the ownership of the land, but may 
be disposed of by sale or lease separately. 
Gold and silver mines were excepted in Great 
Britain up to the time of William and Mary, 
being obliged to pay a royalty to the crown. 
On the public lands of: the United States, citi- 
zens are allowed to mine without royalty, ac- 
cording to the local regulations established by 
state and territorial legislation and by the citi- 
zens in each district, subject to the general 
mining laws passed by congress, which fix as 
the conditions of the possessory title or license 
a suitably recorded claim, and the performance 
of a certain amount of work annually. A com- 
plete title, covering a surface tract, and the 
right to the mineral veins having their out- 
crops or apexes within the vertical planes 
bounding the said tract, together with the right 


MINER 


to follow such veins in depth, though they may 
extend under the surface of adjoining tracts, 
may be obtained after survey and advertise- 
ment, by purchase from the United States, at 
the rate of $5 per acre of surface patented. 
The mining law is administered, like the agri- 
cultural land laws, by the commissioner of the 
general land office at Washington. In most 
civilized countries statistics are compiled an- 
nually by the government, showing the pro- 
duction of mines and metallurgical works, In 
the United States this is done imperfectly in 
the decennial census, and has been done since 
1866 for the states and territories west of the 
Rocky mountains, with particular reference to 
the gold and silver product, by a special com- 
missioner of the treasury department. (For 
statistics, see the articles on the different 
metals and countries.) Regulations to secure 
safety of miners, and to determine the rights 
of mining operators toward each other and to- 
ward land owners, are made by the individual 
states and territories.—In European countries 
schools have long existed for training engi- 
neers and metallurgists for this industry. 
Among the most celebrated are the mining 
academies of Freiberg in Saxony, Clausthal in 
the Hartz, Schemnitz in Hungary, Leoben in 
Styria, the academy at Berlin, the école des 
mines at Paris, and the royal school of mines 
in London. Much attention has of late been 
given to this subject in the United States, and 
the following institutions give special instruc- 
tion in these branches: the school of mines of 
Columbia college, New York; the Rensselaer 
polytechnic institute, Troy, N. Y.; the Par- 
dee scientific department of Lafayette college, 
Easton, Pa.; the Sheffield scientific school of 
Yale college, New Haven, Conn.; the Massa- 
chusetts institute of technology, Boston, Mass. ; 
the school of mining and practical geology of 
Harvard university, Cambridge, Mass.; the 
Stevens institute of technology, Hoboken, N. 
J.; the school of mining and metallurgy of . 
Lehigh university, Bethlehem, Pa.; the scien- 
tific department of the university of Pennsyl- 
vania, Philadelphia; the school of mines at 
Rolla, Mo.; the polytechnic department of 
Washington university, St. Louis, Mo.; the 
school of mines at Golden City, Colorado; and 
the university of California, Berkeley, Cal. 
MINER, a 8S. E. county of Dakota, recently 
formed, and not included in the census of 1870; 
area, 432 sq.m. It is intersected in the W. 
part by the Dakotariver. The surface consists 
of gently undulating prairies. . 
MINER, Alonzo Ames, an American clergyman, 
born in Lempster, N. H., Aug. 17, 1814. He 
was principal of the scientific and military 
academy of Unity, N. H., from 1835 to 1839, 
when he was ordained a minister of the Uni- 
versalist church, was settled at Methuen, Mass., 
and in 1842 took charge of the second Univer- 
salist church in Lowell. In 1848 he was asso- 
ciate pastor, and in 1852 pastor of the second 
Universalist church in Boston. He was presi- 


MINER 


dent of Tufts college, Medford, Mass., from Ju- 
ly, 1862, to November, 1874, when he resigned 
to return to his former charge in Boston. He 
has edited ‘The Star of Bethlehem,” has con- 
tributed to periodicals, and has been prominent 
as an anti-slavery and temperance lecturer. 
MINER, Thomas, an American physician, born 
in Middletown, Conn., Oct. 15, 1777, died in 
Worcester, Mass., April 23, 1841. He grad- 
uated at Yale college in 1796. The next six 


years he passed in teaching, and in the study. 


of law, which in 1803 he abandoned for med- 
icine, and in 1807 he commenced practice at 
Middletown. About 1809 a malignant epi- 
demic fever, called spotted fever, prevailed in 
the Connecticut valley, for which he pursued 
anew mode of treatment, making careful notes 
of his cases. In 1823 he published, with Dr. 
William Tully, ‘‘ Essays on Fevers and other 
Subjects,” and in 1825 a treatise on ‘‘Typhus 
Syncopalis.” His autobiography appeared in 
the ‘‘ New Englander,” vol. ii., p. 19. 
MINERAL, a N. E. county of West Virginia, 
separated from Maryland by the North branch 
of the Potomac river, and intersected by Pat- 
terson creek and other streams; area, about 
550 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 6,832, of whom 378 
were colored. Itis crossed by several mountain 
ridges, between which lie picturesque and fer- 
tile valleys. The Baltimore and Ohio railroad 
runs along the N. and W. border. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 50,915 bushels of 
wheat, 138,257 of rye, 71,895 of Indian corn, 
' 29,331 of oats, 8,891 of potatoes, 23,406 lbs. of 
wool, 52,078 of butter, and 5,104 tons of hay. 
There were 1,333 horses, 5,172 cattle, 6,429 
sheep, and 2,563 swine. Capital, New Creek. 
MINERAL DEPOSITS. The useful minerals 
occur in a variety of forms and conditions, 
and the deposits which are composed of or 
include them may be classified into superficial, 
stratified, and unstratified deposits. I. Suprr- 
F1crAL Deposits. In these, the materials are 
yet unconsolidated, and have been washed 
down from cliffs and mountain slopes com- 
posed of rocks that contain metals, ores, and 
gems, either in veins or irregularly dissemina- 
ted. This category includes the gold of the 
surface deposits associated with the gold-bear- 
ing rocks of California, Colorado, Australia, 
the Ural mountains, &c. ; the platinum of Ore- 
gon and Siberia; the ‘stream tin” of Corn- 
wall, Banca, Australia, and Durango; the dia- 
monds of Golconda, Brazil, and South Africa; 
and the rubies and sapphires of Ceylon. From 
such deposits all the platinum, all the diamonds, 
and probably nine tenths of all the gold in use 
have been procured. The working of these 
deposits constitutes the simplest form of mi- 
ning, viz., washing with water. The minerals 
obtained from them are usually distributed 
very sparsely through the rocks in which they 
primarily occur; and as in the course of ages, 
by frost, sun, rain, and ice, these rocks have 
been comminuted and washed away, the met- 
als and precious stones they contain have been 


MINERAL DEPOSITS 577 


sorted and concentrated by the action of water, 
so that in many instances they are gathered 
with little labor. By the Spaniards, the su- 
perficial deposits containing gold are called 
placers, and the working of these deposits has 
come to be generally termed placer mining. 
II. Stratiriep Deposits. The useful miner- 
als sometimes form entire strata, such as beds 
of coal and iron ore; and they are sometimes 
disseminated through sedimentary rocks of 
which they form a larger or smaller part. In 
this latter category are included the clay-iron- 
stone of the coal measures, which forms no- 
dules thickly set in beds of shale, and the cop- 
per in the copper schists of Mansfeld, in the 
triassic sandstones of New Mexico, and in the 
sandstones and conglomerates of Lake Supe- 
rior. III. Unsrratirirep Deposits.—1. Hrup- 
tive Masses. Formerly most of the deposits 
of crystallized iron ore (magnetite and specu- 
lar iron) were supposed to be eruptive. We 
have learned now that they are for the most 
part only stratified deposits very much dis- 
turbed and metamorphosed. Such is certainly 
the character of the iron ores of Missouri, 
Lake Superior, and the Alleghany belt, all of 
which may be shown to be simply changed 
and disturbed beds of iron ore, once deposited 
in nearly horizontal sheets. The famous de- 
posits of iron ore of the island of Elba and 
of Nizhni Tagilsk in Russia are still believed to 
be eruptive, but it is probable that they will 
hereafter be shown to belong to the same cate- 
gory with our American crystalline iron ores. 
Iron is a common ingredient of volcanic rocks, 
and in some instances the quantity contained 
in them is so great that they may be termed 
low-grade iron ores; but such cases are ex- 
tremely rare, and it is very doubtful whether 
there are any deposits of metals or ores of 
economic value which can properly be regard- 
ed as eruptive masses. It is scarcely necessary 
to say that the great deposits of metallic cop- 
per found on Lake Superior, and supposed at 
one time to be the result of subterranean fu- 
sion, are now clearly shown to be the products 
of chemical precipitation, and to have been de- 
posited much as copper is precipitated in the 
electrotype process.—2. Minerals dissemina- 
ted through Eruptive Rocks. .Of this class of 
deposits, magnetic iron contained in volcanic 
rocks and the copper in the amgydaloids of 
Lake Superior may be taken as examples. In 
Japan the iron derived from decomposing vol- 
canic rocks is collected and used, and large 
quantities of copper are obtained from the so- 
called melaphyres of the Portage Lake district 
on Lake Superior; but as a general rule igne- 
ous rocks are very barren in useful minerals, 
—3. Contact Deposits. The plane of junction 
between two rocks of different kinds, such as 
igneous and sedimentary rocks, is frequently 
the place where metals or ores have accumu- 
lated and form concretions, strings, or sheets. 
Examples of this may be seen in the deposits 
of copper at the junction of the trap and ash 


578 MINERAL 


bed and of the trap and sandstone in the Lake 
Superior series.—4. Impregnations. In certain 
cases metalliferous minerals are found diffused 
irregularly through rocky masses, the deposits 
of ore having no definite boundaries or any 
regularity of structure, and appearing as though 
the rock had soaked up or absorbed the min- 
erals, as water saturates a sponge. Such ac- 
cumulations of ore are called impregnations. 
The deposits of mercury exhibit this character 
in a marked degree.—5. Fahlbands. Thisname 
has been given to a peculiar kind of deposit 
where the ore is sparingly diffused through 
certain layers, which are prone to disintegrate 
and are more fahl (7. ¢., foul or rotten) than 
the associated strata. 
this kind of deposit may be seen in the silver 
mines of Kongsberg, Norway, but they are not 
common elsewhere. Usually the fahlbands 
are only rich enough for working where cut 
by veins.—6. Stockwork. Where the masses 
of metalliferous rock are penetrated in every 
direction by threads or strings of ore, so that 
the whole must be taken out together, it is 
called a stockwork. Such deposits occur locally 
in many mines, but rarely to such a degree as 
to give character to the mining operations. 
The copper mines of Lake Superior, and the 
silver mines of Norway, Freiberg (Saxony), and 
Nevada, all furnish examples of stockwork.— 
7. Mineral Veins. These are usually sheets of 
mineral matter, of greater or less lateral and 
vertical extent. They have been divided into 
three principal varieties, which are generally 
well marked, but which sometimes blend in 
such a way as not to be easily separated, 
These varieties of mineral veins are known as 
gash veins, segregated veins, and fissure veins. 
a. Gash Veins. These are such as are confined 
to a single stratum or formation, and hence 


Fie. 1.—Gash Veins filled with Lead Ore in Galena Lime- 
stone. a, Crevice opening. 0, c. Crevices with pocket 
openings, 


are of limited extent both laterally and verti- 
cally. The best examples of gash veins are 
seen in the lead mines of the upper Missis- 


Typical examples of. 


DEPOSITS 


sippi. Here the ore is found in a single for- 
mation, the Galena limestone, a member of 
the Trenton group of the lower Silurian. It 
usually occurs in vertical fissures at no great 
depth, sometimes very narrow, sometimes 


Fig. 2.—Horizontal Gash Veins or Floors of Lead in Galena 
Limestone. a. Crevice with pocket opening. 6. Crevice 
openings. 


opening into caves or chambers lined with 
‘‘mineral.” These gash veins have apparently 
been formed by the shrinkage of the Galena 
limestone after its deposition. Subsequently 
the shrinkage cracks were enlarged by the 
dissolving away of their walls, and were lined 
with galena, deposited from a solution which 
exuded from the adjacent rocks. Similar veins 
also containing galena occur in Missouri, but 
in a formation somewhat more ancient, the 
magnesian limestone, supposed to be the equiv- 
alent of the calciferous sand rock of New 
York. The fact that these gash veins are 
limited to a single formation has been amply 
proved by numerous shafts sunk in the hope 
of finding the ore at a greater depth, all of 
which have been failures. b. Segregated Veins. 


These are usually lenticular sheets of ore-bear- 
ing mineral, which are conformable to the 
bedding of the associated rocks, that is, are 
interposed between the layers of such rocks. 
Segregated veins always occur in metamorphic 
rocks, and are usually inclined at a high angle 


with the horizon. They are called segregated 
veins because they are supposed to have been 
formed in the process of metamorphism by 
the separation or withdrawal of the materials 
which compose them from the adjacent strata, 
and their concentration along certain lines. 
Segregated veins are limited both laterally and 
vertically. They rarely exhibit anything of 
the banded structure which characterizes fis- 
sure veins, are chiefly composed of quartz, and 
form the great repositories of gold. All the 
quartz veins, which are so common in the 


MINERAL 


granitoid rocks of the Alleghanies, belong to 
this class and carry more or less gold. Iron 
pyrites is an almost constant associate of gold 
in segregated veins, sometimes being present 
in great quantities. Copper is also frequently 


contained in them, and in less quantity nickel. 


Though segregated veins have generally no 
great lateral or vertical extent, they sometimes 
attain a thickness of 20 or 30 ft., and have a 
length on the surface of a mile or more. The 
Pine Tree and Josephine lodes on the Mariposa 
estate in California have a thickness of 4 to 12 
ft., and are said to be traceable for some miles. 
These are reported to be segregated veins lying 
in sheets of slate rock of Jurassic age. Segre- 
gated veins are generally of much more mod- 
est dimensions, and are seen to lie alternately 
or en échelon along the outcrops of the con- 
taining rocks. In Australia the gold-bearing 
segregated veins are commonly termed ‘ quartz 
reefs,” having doubtless derived their name 
from the fact that, being harder than the as- 
sociated rocks and yielding less readily to at- 
mospheric erosion, they are left in relief, some- 
times projecting in ridges above the surface. 
c. Fissure Veins. These are of indefinite ex- 
tent, laterally and vertically. They have been 
formed by volcanic or earthquake action, by 
which the rocks have been fractured and dis- 
placed. In all cases where an important crack 
or fissure is made by subterranean upheaval, 
either by the slipping in of wedges of rock or 
by the shifting of the sides of the fissure so 
that their irregularities fail to match, the walls 
are prevented from returning to their original 
positions, and an irregular open crevice is pro- 
duced. When subsequently filled by foreign 
matter containing metals or ores, such a fissure 
becomes a fissure vein. In some instances the 
fracture of the rocks has considerable regu- 
larity, and the fissure may be of uniform width 
for several hundred feet in either direction. 
More generally, and especially where a fracture 


|] ow 


a 
l 


i 
en 


il 


| 


| 


s 
. 
- 
- 
Ly ae = 
. 
. 
. 
. 


Zi 


Fie. 4.—Section of a Fissure Vein, showing banded struc- 
ture. aa. Country rock. 60. Cale spar. cc. Galena. 
d d. Heavy spar—sulphate of baryta. e e. Comby quartz. 


is attended with displacement, the fissure is of 
very unequal width.; the vein matter has in 
places a thickness of many feet, while at other 
points, where the projecting walls approach or 


DEPOSITS 579 


come in contact, the vein becomes very thin 
and may be quite pinched out. From their 
mode of formation fissure veins are without 
definite limits horizontally or vertically. They 
may frequently be traced for miles upon the 
surface, and their limits in depth are rarely 
reached. Hence they hold more extensive and 
continuous deposits of ore than any other kind 
of mineral veins, and constitute the most trust- 
worthy bases for mining operations. Fissure 
veins frequently exhibit a banded structure in 
the materials which compose them, and this 
forms one of their most striking characteris- 
tics. This feature is produced by the deposi- 
tion on their walls of successive layers of dif- 
ferent minerals, such as quartz, fluor spar, calc 
spar, copper or iron pyrites, blende, galena, 
and baryta. These layers often correspond 
on either side of the central line, showing 
that the deposition of the different sheets took 
place simultaneously on both walls. Some- 
times a fissure vein exhibits a double or triple 


ad rey .\ 


ZZ 


Fig. 5.—Double Fissure Vein. @a. Country rock. 0b. Cale 
spar. cc,ee. Comby quartz. d. Heavy spar. A B. First 
and second fissures. : 


series of bands, showing that after being filled 
with ores it was again opened and a new fis- 
sure formed, and then this was filled in the 
same way as the first. The quartz which con- 
stitutes a large part of the material composing 
fissure veins frequently shows a. ‘‘comby” 
structure, due to the formation of crystals 
which shoot out from the walls and interlock 
where they meet. Another common feature 
in fissure veins is the “ fluccan.” or ‘‘ selvege,” 
a sheet of clay which lines either wall and 
causes the vein matter to cleave off readily. 
This fluccan seems to be due partly to the 
attrition of the sides when moved with im- 
mense force upon each other, and partly to the 
action on the walls of chemical solutions filling 
the fissure. The sides and sometimes the in- 
terior of fissure veins generally show polished 
and vertically striated surfaces (‘‘ slickensides”). 
These are undoubtedly produced by the fric- 
tion of the walls on each other or on the ma- 
terial composing the vein. As will be inferred 
from what has been said of their mode of 
formation, fissure veins cut indiscriminately 
through all kinds of rock. They frequently 
traverse stratified rocks across their lines of 


580 MINERAL 
deposition and outcrop, and are then called 
‘‘ cross-cut” veins, to distinguish them from 
those that are more or less accordant with the 
stratification. The materials composing fissure 


Fig. 6.---Fissure Vein with Cavity or “Vug” at Centre. 
a a, Country rock. 6 b. Heavy spar. cc. Calespar. dd. 
lende. 


ee. Comby quartz. f. Vug. 

veins are very varied; indeed, it may be said 
that nearly all the minerals known are found 
in them. Quartz is a conspicuous ingredient 
in fissure veins, but sulphate of baryta, calc 
spar, and fluor spar sometimes form almost the 
entire mass of the veinstone.—The ores which 
are contained in fissure veins, like the earthy 
minerals, are widely varied. Silver, copper, 
lead, tin, zinc, antimony, iron, and more rarely 
many other metals are found inthem. Gold 
is less common in fissure than in segregated 
veins, and it is almost never the sole object of 
search in their exploitation; but it is a recog- 
nized constituent in the veins worked in Corn- 
wall, and in the silver ores obtained from some 
of the mines in Idaho, Nevada, Mexico, and 
South America. Silver may be regarded as 
the most valuable constituent of fissure veins, 
and all the great silver mines of the world 
are worked in veins of this character. The 
Comstock lode, near Virginia City in Nevada, 
is a true fissure vein, and perhaps the largest 
and richest known. It has been traced on 
the surface for several miles, and has been 
worked to the depth of 1,600 ft. Its normal 
width is perhaps 200 ft., but in places it 
expands to 800 ft., though here divided into 
several veins by great wedges or ‘ horses,” 
split off from the walls. It cuts through 
syenite and propylite, and evidently marks the 
line of a great fissure opened by volcanic 
action. All the silver mines of Nevada belong 
to the same class with the Comstock, though 
the other veins are generally of much more 
moderate dimensions. They are worked in fis- 
gure veins which traverse all the varieties of 
rock found in that region, such as granite, por- 
phyry, trachyte, slate, and limestone. The num- 
ber of these veins, the disturbed and broken 
condition of the strata, and the abundance of 
volcanic rocks in the district, all prove that it 
has been long the theatre of intense volcanic 
and earthquake action. In Nevada and Utah 


DEPOSITS 


some very rich mines have been worked in 
deposits of ore, of which the true character 
has been imperfectly understood and very 
much misjudged. These are the chambers or 
pockets of ore so characteristic of the White 
Pine district, Nevada, and that of Little Cot- 
tonwood cafion in Utah, the latter including 
the famous Emma mine. These districts have 
been the centre of intense mining excitement 
and scenes of the wildest speculation; of the 
most unparalleled successes and sudden and 
complete failures. A large part of this history 
has been consequent on the peculiar nature of 
these mineral deposits. In both these districts 
the ore occurs in limestone, and often in cham- 
bers frequently of considerable size. These 
when first opened were supposed to hold in- 
calculable wealth, but they proved to be of 
limited extent and were soon worked out. 
The relations of the ore chambers of White 
Pine and Little Cottonwood to the silver- 
bearing fissure veins of Nevada and Utah are 
not at first sight apparent, and yet they are 
unquestionably products of the same general 
cause. The true theory of their deposit is 
probably this. The ‘country rock,” 7. ¢., the 
rock enclosing the deposits of ore, unlike that 
of most of the mining districts of the west, is 
limestone. Many limestones are soluble in 
atmospheric water which holds carbonic acid 
in solution. In some limestone countries the 
underlying rock is honeycombed by caves and 
subterranean galleries, forming a system of 
underground drainage. The table land of Ken- 
tucky affords a typical example of such a re- 
gion, and the Mammoth cave is only one of an 
immense system of natural sewers, by which 
the drainage of the surface is effected. If 
now the Kentucky table land were much dis- 
turbed by an earthquake and fissures were 
opened through the limestone, and these fis- 
sures were filled to form mineral veins, then, 
wherever these fissures communicated with 
the subterranean chambers and galleries, these 
would also be filled with vein matter and ore, 
and a condition of things would be produced 
similar to what we now find in Utah and 
Nevada, though on a much grander scale. 
With this explanation the western pockets and 
chambers of silver ore are seen to be natural 
offshoots and appendages of the fissure veins so 
common in the region where they occur.— 
The Filling of Mineral Veins. The manner in 
which the materials composing mineral veins 
have been deposited has been a matter of much 
discussion among geologists,: and one about 
which there has been and still is considerable 
diversity of opinion. The theories which have 
been advanced to account for the phenomena 
are briefly as follows. a. The Theory of In- 
jection. This was proposed by the Plutonists, 
who were prone to ascribe all the great changes 
on the earth’s surface to the action of heat. 
There are few mineral veins, however, com- 
posed of materials which can be regarded as 
even the possible product of fusion, and most 


MINERAL 


of them contain minerals which could never 
have been formed in the presence of great heat. 
The veins containing great masses of copper 
on the south shore of Lake Superior, when 
first described, were considered as shining ex- 
amples of the truth of the igneous theory; but 
the frequent occurrence of masses of native 
silver in the copper, both metals being distinct 
and almost chemically pure, prove that these 
metallic masses could never have been fused to- 
gether, as in that case they would have formed 
an alloy. Other evidence has been cited by 
Prof. Pumpelly which demonstrates that none 
of the copper veins have been filled by igne- 
ous action, but that the materials they contain 
have been deposited from solution. Trap dikes, 
which are fissures filled by injected volcanic 
material, have doubtless suggested the igne- 
ous theory of mineral veins; but when they 
are carefully examined the materials which 
compose them are found to be quite different 
in their nature and arrangement from those 
which form mineral veins. 
veins have only this in common, that they 
fill similar fissures produced by subterranean 
violence. 06. The Theory of Aqueous Deposi- 
tion. This theory apparently emanated from 
the Wernerian school, who regarded water as 
the great, if not the sole cause of geological 
phenomena. The advocates of this theory 
have suggested that fissures have been opened 
up into seas or other water basins, and that 
the vein material has been deposited from 
water, as limestone and other sedimentary 
rocks are laid down. A fatal objection to this 
theory is that we never find the materials 
composing true fissure veins horizontally strati- 
fied as aqueous sediments are, but on the con- 
trary these materials are often deposited ver- 
tically against the walls of the fissures. Again, 
if the vein materials were deposited from res- 
ervoirs into which they opened, the bottoms of 
these reservoirs ought to show similar sheets 
of matter, whereas nothing of the kind has 
ever been found. c. Lateral Secretion. Ac- 
cording to this theory, the materials of mine- 
ral veins have been derived from the adjacent 
rocks by percolation through the vein walls. 
If this were true, we should find the contents 
of veins changing with every stratum through 
which they pass, whereas in fact the composi- 
tion of a mineral vein is often nearly identical 
in all parts of its course, notwithstanding it 
may pass through a variety of strata. Again, 
where two systems of veins cut through the 
same stratum, according to this theory, in that 
stratum their contents should be similar, where- 
as we often find them totally diverse. Where 
two veins cross each other, they are often seen 
to be of different ages, and to be composed 
of materials so different that they must have 
been derived from different sources. The 
banded structure of fissure veins seems also 
quite incompatible with this theory, for it is 
scarcely possible to conceive of the formation 
of the different layers which compose these 


In fact, dikes and | 


DEPOSITS 581 


veins on the supposition that they have been 
deposited by exudation from the walls of the 
fissure, and that the totally distinct minerals 
composing the inner and newer layers have 
been transmitted through those first formed. 
As has been mentioned, in gash veins the 
cavities are filled or lined with materials de- 
rived from the adjacent rocks, but these cases 
afford us no satisfactory explanation of the 
filling of fissure veins, the only ones about 
which there is any question. d. Sublimation. 
Most of the minerals, and perhaps all of the 
metals, can be sublimed at a very high tem- 
perature; and some of them, as zinc, arsenic, 
and mercury, are vaporized at a comparatively 
low temperature. The fissures about a vol- 
canic crater are frequently lined, sometimes 
filled, with minerals, some of them ores, which 
have plainly been driven out from the volcano 
in a state of vapor. Such cases have led some 
theorists to suppose that sublimation played an 
important part in the filling of mineral veins. 
As has been said, the deposits of mercury have 
often the character of impregnations, and in 
some instances at least we have gocd evidence 
that mercury is diffused in the form of vapor; 
but these deposits have certainly very little 
in common with the distinctly limited, often 
banded and crystallized matter filling mineral 
veins, properly so called. Hence this theory 
is in the main rejected by modern mineral- 
ogists. e. Chemical Precipitation. This the- 
ory attributes the deposition.of mineral matter 
in veins mainly to precipitation from solution, 
and this is the view now generally taken by 
those best informed on the subject. According 
to this theory, fissures destined to become fis- 
sure veins are first filled with water, usually © 
flowing from sources deep in the earth, where, 
highly heated and under great pressure, it be- 
comes charged with mineral substances. As 
it approaches the surface and the temperature 
and pressure are reduced, its powers of solu- 
tion are diminished, and a large part of the 
materials it has carried are precipitated on the 
sides of the channel through which it flows. 
The abundant and varied deposits made by 
thermal springs illustrate the sufficiency of this 
cause. In this view, the banded structure 
which is exhibited by mineral veins is attrib- 
uted to changes during the lapse of ages in the 
nature of the solution, dependent upon some 
deep-seated cause, such as successive convul- 
sions opening new sources for the supply of 
material. Sulphur we know is one of the 
most common constituents of volcanic emana- 
tions, and the normal condition of most ores 
found in veins is that of the sulphide; and we 
have reason to believe that they are mainly de- 
posited from a hot solution in which sulphur 
was the most conspicuous ingredient. Highly 
heated water or steam, containing sulphur, 
fluorine, and chlorine, would be capable of dis- 
solving most of the minerals with which it 
came in contact. It would certainly be charged 
with silica, and if flowing or driven through 


582 MINERAL 
rocks containing even minute quantities of sil- 
ver, gold, lead, iron, copper, or other metal, 
would gather these materials, and coming to- 
ward the surface would precipitate them in 
the form of sulphides. The replacement of 
animal and vegetable tissues by mineral mat- 
ter, which often occurs in their fossilization, 
affords proof that chemical solution is entirely 
adequate to produce all the phenomena exhib- 
ited in the filling of mineral veins. In petri- 
fied wood the vegetable tissue is replaced, par- 
‘ticle by particle, by silica, evidently deposited 
from solution. The sulphides of copper and 
iron often replace wood in the same way, and 
this could only take place on a great scale, as 
it often does, when the rocks were saturated 
with a solution containing these metals. The 
formation of geodes, the filling of the cavities 
of amygdaloids with agate, chalcedony, and 
zeolites, the sheets and stalactites of iron and 
lead in the Galena mines, and the stalactites 
of lime in caves, prove that such solutions are 
constantly flowing through the rocks beneath 
us. In some formations and localities mollus- 
cous fossils are found completely replaced by 
galena, pyrites, and blende, the lime of their 
shells having been carried away and the differ- 
ent ores deposited in its place. In the cavities 
left by some shells, successive layers of sul- 
phides of lead, iron, and zine are deposited, 
showing in miniature almost precisely the 
phenomena observed in mineral veins.—A few 
general features in mineral veins remain to be 
noticed. Oftener than otherwise, the mineral 
veins of any district are seen to belong to one 
or more systems in which the individual veins 
have nearly a common bearing and a general 
similarity of composition. In the mining dis- 
trict of Cornwall, England, there are two 
principal systems of veins, one running nearly 
north and south, the other approximately east 
and west. The latter carry copper and tin, 
the former chiefly lead and iron. In the lead 
region of the upper Mississippi there are also 
two principal systems of veins, which vary 
somewhat in their bearing, but are generally 
known as the north and south and east and 
west courses. In the mining district of Frei- 
berg, Saxony, nine systems of veins are said to 
have been identified; and in the silver belt 
extending parallel with the Pacific coast, from 
Idaho and Nevada to Chili, which has been 
almost constantly shaken and shattered by 
earthquakes, the systems of veins are almost 
innumerable. In less disturbed regions, like 
the Mississippi lead district, the courses of the 
veins coincide with the jointing of the rocks, 
and thus in many instances exhibit a kind of 
polarity; that is, one set of joints coincides 
with or approaches in direction the meridian, 
while the other is nearly at right angles to this. 
There is little doubt that the system in the 
jointing of rocks, and hence in the bearings of 
mineral veins, often determined by the joint- 
ing, has been considerably affected by terres- 
trial magnetism. It is also probable that this 


DEPOSITS 


cause has operated to control or influence the ° 
deposition of mineral matter in veins. Mr. 
Fox of England found that the water in the 
copper mines was a weak solution of salts of 
copper, and that the galleries filled with this 
solution were in fact cells of galvanic bat- 
teries, from which well marked currents were 
produced. Solutions similar to these found 
in old copper mines, but hotter and stronger, 
have undoubtedly filled most of the fissures 
now occupied by metalliferous veins. It is 
easy to see that such cells might generate pow- 
erful magneto-electric currents, by which the 
metals, especially silver and copper, might be 
precipitated in great quantity, just as they are 


now precipitated in the electro-plating process. 


—Gossans. Nearly all mineral veins are found 
to be,very much weathered and decomposed 
along their line of outcrop. The decomposi- 
tion generally extends down to the permanent 
water level, below which the ore is in its nor- 
mal state, and this for the most part is sul- 
phide. When exposed to the action of atmos- 
pheric water and air, the sulphides are oxi- 
dized, and the whole mass of the veinstone is 
frequently rendered soft and spongy, and high- 
ly colored in various ways. When the vein 
contains much iron pyrites, this is converted 
into the hydrated sesquioxide of iron, coloring 
all the decomposed mass brownish red. From 
this fact the changed portion of the vein is called 
in Germany the Hisenhut, iron hat. In Corn- 
wall the decomposed portion of a mineral vein is 
called a gossan ; and this term has been uni- 
versally adopted in all mining districts where 
English is spoken. In the gossans of veins we 
usually find the sulphides of silver converted 
into chloride, bromide, iodide, &c., with many 
sprigs and masses of native silver. Copper 
ore, generally the sulphide of copper and iron 
in its normal state, is converted first into red 
or black oxide, and then into malachite, azu- 
rite, and chrysocolla, the carbonates and sili- 
cate of copper. Locally, when effected by 
saline solutions, as in South America, ataca- 
mite, the chloride, is produced. All these 
secondary forms of ores are more easily treated 
than the sulphide, and the gossan which con- 
tains them is usually loose and easily excavated. 
This portion of a mineral vein is therefore 
much more easily and cheaply worked than that 
which lies below the permanent water level. 
Hence the first workings of mineral veins are 
frequently highly remunerative, while the cost 
of deeper excavations in harder rock, and the 
expense of treating the more intractable sul- 
phides, cause subsequent operations below the 
water level to result in disappointment. In 
many mining districts, like those of the south- 
ern Alleghanies in the United States and of 
Sonora in Mexico, the first comers, by work- 
ing the gossans, were able practically to skim 
the cream of the mineral veins, carrying off 
great profits, and leaving to the second gener- 
ation an inheritance of which the value is often 
worse than doubtful. 


MINERALOGY 


MINERALOGY, the science which treats of the 
composition, structure, formation, and classi- 
fication of minerals. The term therefore cov- 
ers both descriptive mineralogy and mineral- 
ology, which is the study of the laws in accord- 
ance with which minerals are formed. All 
objects in nature consist of certain substances 
recognized as elementary bodies, which exist 
either as individual wholes, when they are 
called native elements, or combined with one 
another. All the native elements belong to 
the mineral kingdom, and also all combinations 
of elements which do not pass through the cy- 
cle of change called growth. The combina- 
tions of the elements which man produces all 
belong to the mineral kingdom, since he is not 
able to impart the principle of growth. When 
his products are homogeneous in composition 
and structure, they are, strictly speaking, arti- 
ficial minerals; and chemists are able to repro- 
duce a great number of the combinations found 
in nature. The study of minerals presents three 
general classes of characteristics: chemical com- 
position, crystalline form, and physical proper- 
ties. J. Onemistry or Minerats. In combi- 
ning, the elements exhibit a strict subjection to 
certain fixed modes of union, and these modes 
are the laws of chemical combination, which 
are still very imperfectly understood. Chem- 
ists recognize two kinds of units.. The small- 
est possible particle of an elementary substance 
is called an atom. These atoms seem to exist 
in a state of polarity, and to possess electrical 
attraction and repulsion, by means of which 
they effect union with each other and with the 
atoms of other elements. They are not always 
able to exist by themselves, but the atoms of 
some elements act in pairs or triplets, or in 
some other degree of union. This combina- 
tion of atoms, whether composed of the atoms 
of more than one element, or of one only, is 
called a molecule. Molecules have the power 
of cohesion, and by their aggregation masses 
of matter are formed. Both of these units are 
used in mineralogy. Every true mineral is 
formed of innumerable molecules cohering to- 
gether, and each of these molecules is com- 
posed of one or more atoms of each element 
contained in the mineral, according to the pro- 
portion in which it is present. While there is 
unending diversity in the composition of min- 
erals, it is found that the elements always 
unite in some simple proportion or ratio. 
Three kinds of ratios are used in mineralogy. 
The percentage ratio is the one in which analy- 
ses are always published. It assumes the 
weight of each molecule to be 100, and ex- 
presses the proportionate quantity of each ele- 
ment in the molecule in parts of 100. Lime, 
for instance, contains 71°43 per cent. of calci- 
um and 28°57 per cent. of oxygen. The atomic 
ratio is the ratio between the number of atoms 
of each element in the molecule, and is ob- 
tained by simply dividing the percentage ratio 
of each element by its atomic weight. When 
_ the symbol of a mineral is given, the atomic 


583 


ratio may be ascertained by simple inspection 
of the symbol. In lime, the symbol of which 
is CaO, the molecule is composed of 1 calcium 
and 1 oxygen, and the atomic ratio is there- 
fore 1:1. In andalusite, which is composed 
of Al.OsSi, the atomic ratio of the aluminum, 
oxygen, and silicon is 2: 5:1; while if the 
oxygen is divided between the aluminum and 
silicon, the compound will be considered as 
formed of two radicals, alumina and silica, and 
the atomic ratio of these will be 1: 1, there 
being one of each. The third method of com- 
parison is the oxygen ratio; it consists in a 
comparison of the number of oxygen atoms 
contained in the different oxygen compounds 
present. In andalusite, for instance, the alt- 
mina has three oxygen atoms and the silica 
two. The O ratio is therefore 8:2. The ex- 
planations so far given relate to the old method 
of writing chemical symbols. The new chem- 
istry reaches the same results by a different 
mode of reasoning. Every binary compound 
consists of one positive and one negative ele- 
ment. Every ternary compound consists of 
one positive element, a second which is nega- 
tive to the first but positive to the third, and 
finally a third which is negative to both the 
others. The number of negative atoms in a 
binary compound is found to vary with the 
different elements, each element having the 
power to fix a certain number of atoms of a 
more negative element; this power is called 
its atomicity or quantivalence. All of the sta- 
ble binary compounds of hydrogen are found 
to contain one atom of hydrogen and one of 
the other element, whatever it is; and hydro- 
gen is therefore taken as the standard. By 
comparing the other elements with it, it is 
found that 23 of them have a combining pow- 
er equal either to 1, 3, or 5 hydrogen atoms; 
and these are therefore called univalent, triva- 
lent, or quinquivalent. These never form sta- 


ble saturated compounds with any even num- 


ber of negative univalent atoms, and they are 
therefore called perissads, from the Greek 
word for odd numbers. The remaining 40 ele- 
ments have a combining power which is 2, 4, 
or 6 times that of hydrogen, and they are 
therefore bivalent, quadrivalent, and sextiva- 
lent. These form the general class of artiads, 
and are never saturated when combined with 
an odd number of negative univalent atoms, 
The highest possible combining power of an 
element is called its atomicity, but this is not 
always the most common form of its occur- 
rence, which is often one of the lower de- 
grees; this prevalent form is its quantiva- 
lence. The oxygen ratio, although it was used 
with the best results in mineralogy long before 
the new chemical theories were established, is 


nothing more than the expression of the rela- 


tive quantivalences of the different elements 
contained in a mineral. Oxygen is in all cases 
a negative element, and the number of its 
atoms which are combined with one atom of 
any other element, taken in connection with 


584 MINERALOGY 


the doubled atomic weights of the new chem- 
istry, indicates the relative quantivalences of 
the combined elements. The change of ideas 
in regard to the modes of combination has 
necessarily produced a new mode of writing 
the symbols of minerals. Under the dualistic 
theory, when every ternary oxygen compound 
was supposed to consist of one oxide acting the 
part of a base and another oxide acting the 
part of an acid, the formula was constructed 
by writing the two compounds one after the 
other, as RO,SiO2, or R203,38i0Os, in which R 
stands for any basic element. The new system 
endeavors to make its formulas rational, that 
is, to construct them in such a way as to em- 
body the present views in regard to chemical 
combination. The elements are divided into 
three classes: 1, the basic, which are positive 
to those following; 2, the acidic, which are 
negative to the foregoing, but positive to the 
third classs 38, the acidific, which are negative 
to both the first and second. In a ternary 
compound which consists of one element from 
each of these classes, the acidific element is 
supposed to act as a bond between the other 
two, and for that reason it is placed in the 
middle, the basic being written first, the acid- 
ific next, and the acidic last; as Mge || Ou || Si. 
It has been explained that one atom of each 
element has the power of uniting to itself a 
certain number of atoms (from one to six) of 
hydrogen or other univalent element; and just 
as the ancients provided the elements with 
hooks by which they caught hold of each 
other, so modern chemists express the quanti- 
valence of an element by saying that it has a. 
certain number of bonds of attraction. Mag- 
nesium has a quantivalence of 2, and as there 
are two molecules of it in the above symbol, 
the total number of its bonds in the formula 
just given is four. Silicon has a quantivalence 
of 4, so that the oxygen has four bonds to sat- 
isfy on each side, or eight in all, As its quan- 
tivalence is 2, the four molecules present in 
the compound have a total uniting power of 
eight. But the whole of the oxygen does not 
always play the part of a uniting element 
only. The number of molecules of uniting 
oxygen (or other acidific element) is equal to 
the number of bonds of attraction in the basic 
or acidic element, according as the former or 
the latter has the smaller number. In the sym- 
bol given above, the number of oxygen bonds 
is just sufficient to satisfy those of the other 
elements, but in the symbol MgO,Si there 
are two bonds on one side of the oxygen and 
four on the other. In this case part of the 
oxygen is considered to be combined with that 
element which has the greater number of bonds 
-to be satisfied. When this is the acidic ele- 
ment, as in the present case, the symbol is 
written with the acidic element at the left 
side; as SiO || O2 || Mg. If the basic element 
had possessed the greater quantivalence, that 
element would have been written at the left; 
as in the symbol for chondrodite, Mg,Oz| 


(O,F):2 || Sis. Thus the symbols are made to 
express the mineralogist’s views of the consti- 
tution of minerals.—Replacement. Minerals 
in their chemical composition are elementary, 
binary, ternary, quaternary, &c., according as 
the number of molecules of which they are 
composed is one, two, three, or four, &c. This, 
however, does not indicate the possible number 
of elements present, since each molecule may 
contain several elements. Enstatite, which is 
composed of magnesium, oxygen, and silicon, 
is a ternary; and diaclasite, which has magne- 
sium, iron, calcium, oxgygen, and silicon in its 
composition, is also only a ternary, since the 
first three elements form only one basic mole- 


cule. In this case each element in the basic 


molecule is a dyad (that is, it has a quantiva- 
lence of 2), and it may not seem strange that, 
with equal powers of combination, they should 
be able to replace each other. But other min- 
erals are found which contain elements of the 
most diverse degrees of quantivalence, and 
therefore in the most diverse states of combi- 
nation. Zircon sometimes contains a protoxide, 
a sesquioxide, and a deutoxide. The law under 
which these diverse combinations are brought 
harmoniously together is that “the replacing 
power of the elements is in proportion to their 
combining power.” Thus one molecule of an 
element which has four bonds of attraction, like 
tin, is able to replace two molecules of an ele- 
ment which has only two bonds of attraction, 
like calcium. Instannite, which is a sulphide of 
copper, tin, and iron, the proportions of these 
elements are 2:1:1. Copper, which is biva- 
lent, requires two atoms to occupy toward 
sulphur the same relation which one atom of 
tin and iron has. The proportion in which 
any element in any state of combination must 
replace other elements in a different state may 
be ascertained from the following table, in 
which the line A contains the several oxides 
that are known, the line B contains the same 
oxides reduced to a common oxygen stand- 
ard (O=1), and the line C represents the 
proportions in which the bases are inter- 
changeable. The different states are repre- 
sented by Greek letters in order to avoid con- 
fusing fractions. Thus the beta state is ses- 
quioxide and the gamma state is the deutoxide. 
R is used to represent any basic element, and 
it is to be remembered that, though only oxides 
are represented here, the rule holds good for 
all negative elements.. 


A. ROW RO? 7D ROt Oe ay 
B. RO, R#0, R40, R2O0,. REO, R20, RO 
O.. oR” Gi sey tn mae eee ey re Ck, Lt 


Any element in the tritoxide state (eR) there- 
fore requires but one basic atom to replace 
three basic atoms of an element in the pro- 
toxide or alpha state. The method of writing 
the symbol of a mineral which has suffered 
such substitution may be seen from the sym- 
bols of magnetite and franklinite. The former 
contains iron in the alpha and in the beta state 


7? 


MINERALOGY 


% 


of combination with oxygen. Its symbol is 
(JaFe+$6Fe),O., and it is therefore a binary 
compound. In franklinite the aFe is partially 
replaced by zinc and manganese in the alpha 
state, and the BFe is partially replaced by man- 
ganese in the beta state. The symbol then be- 
comes [4(Zn,Fe,Mn)+$$Fe,BMn)],0O.,. The a 
is not written, the protoxide state being under- 
stood when no other is mentioned. The effect 
of the law of replacement is, that whatever 
kinds of binaries may be united in the mineral, 
the oxygen ratio is unchanged, and the use of 
this ratio is therefore continued in mineralo- 
gies, though the oxygen is no longer considered 
to be divided between the basic and acidic 
elements. It expresses the quantivalence of 
these elements, and this is held to be one of 
the most essential characteristics of a mineral 
species. While the power of replacement has 


585 


greatly increased the number of mineral spe- 
cies by presenting us with compounds which 
vary too much to be described under one name, 
it has lessened the number of groups in an 
equally marked degree, since the substitution 
often takes place without materially altering 
the other characters. Thus tourmaline, which 
is a ternary, sometimes contains 12 elements, 
and the basic molecule always contains ele- 
ments in the alpha, beta, and gamma states. 
Their proportions vary so much that five classes 
have been made in which the O ratio of these 
three kinds of bases varies between 4: 12:4 
and 4:56:12; and yet tourmaline is usually 
very plainly recognizable and possesses very 
persistent crystallographic habits.— Olassifica- 
tion of the Elements. With the foregoing ex- 
planations the following table in which the 
elements are classified will be understood : 


OLASSIFIOATION OF THE ELEMENTS. 


Serizs I. 
A. Perissads. 


Potassium, sodium, cesium, rubidium, lithium, thallium, hydrogen, | Nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, anti- 


silver, gold. 


B. Artiads. 
1. Iron-aluminum group. 


a. Iron sub-group: platinum, palladium, iridium, rhodium, osmium, 
ruthenium, copper, lead, mercury, iron, zinc, indium, cadmium, co- 
balt, nickel, manganese, chromium, uranium, tungsten, cerium, 


erbium, yttrium, glucinum, lanthanum, didymium, magnesium, 


calcium, strontium, barium; also H,, K., Na 
6. Aluminum sub-group: aluminum (84Al); al 
Bp B, &e. 
2. Tin group. 


Tin, titanium, zirconium, thorium; also yH,, yFe, yMun, yCo, yPb, 


yCu, &e. 


The three kinds, basic, acidic, and acidific, are 
arranged in three series. Each series begins 
with a section of perissads, or elements with 
a quantivalence which is 1, 3, or 5, and ends 
with a section of artiads, or elements which 
have a quantivalence of 2, 4, or 6, thus bring- 
ing together allied elements. The basic artiads 
comprise two groups, one of protoxides and 
sesquioxides, and the other of deutoxides. The 
acidic artiads form a tritoxide and a deutoxide 
group. It is therefore plain that each group 
is made up of elements which occur in the 
same state of combination, or have the same 
quantivalence, and the groups might with per- 
fect propriety be called the alpha, beta, &c., 
groups. Each group therefore includes not only 
its own leading elements, but also the a, 8, or 
y, &e., states of other elements; and there- 
fore each group comprises a series of homeo- 
morphous (or mutually replaceable) elements. 
II. CrystattinE Form. Atoms are supposed 
to have definite shapes, for the greater number 
of the mineral species have exact geometrical 
forms which have been classified in six sys- 
tems. (See CrysrattograpHy.) The atomic 
form seems to be different for the different 
elements; and since the same element is some- 
times found crystallized in more than one sys- 
tem, it is supposed that the number of atoms 


, &e. 
so BFe, BMn, BCr, 


Sertes IT. Srrizs III. 
A. Perissads. A. Perissads. 
Chlorine. 
mony, bismuth, columbium, tan-| Bromine. 
talum in the 6R state, boron (7). | Iodine. 
B, Artiads, B. Perissad 
1. Sulphur group. (or Artiad). 
Sulphur, selenium, tellurium, mo- | Fluorine. 
lybdenum; also eFe, «Cr, «Mn, 
eV,«W. 
C. Artiad. , 
Oxygen. 


2. Carbon-silicon group. 
Carbon, silicon; also y8, ySe, yTe, 
&e. 


in the molecule influences its shape. Thus the 
mineral species palladium is the native element 
of the same name, and crystallizes in the iso- 
metric system; while allopalladium, which is 
also the native element in a pure state, is hex- 
agonal. The theory is that, while the molecule 
of palladium contains one atom, the molecule 
of allopalladium contains three atoms of the 
same substance. The diamond (isometric) and 
graphite (hexagonal) are both carbon, and 
form another example of this phenomenon, 
which is called isomerism. A great many of 
the compounds are identical in composition, 
but differ in form. Andalusite, fibrolite, and 
eyanite have the same composition, but crys- 
tallize in different systems, and have a different 
hardness and specific gravity ; and these differ- 
ences are ascribed to a more or less condensed 
molecule, but what the numerical relation of 
the atoms in these molecules is, has not been 
established. It has, however, been suggested 
that the forms assumed may be due to the 
number of negative atoms in the molecule. 
Thus protoxides may assume isometric forms, 
deutoxides may be tetragonal, and tritoxides 
hexagonal. While this theory is not entirely 
borne out by the facts, it would probably be 
more eminently plausible if other portions of 
our system were more perfect. Thus, though 


586 


protoxides, like water and zincic oxide, take 
the hexagonal instead of the isometric form, 
this fact leads mineralogists to look upon these 
minerals as being composed of condensed mole- 
cules containing three atoms of each element, 
and to write their symbols, HeO; and Zn3Os, 
rather than reject the theory. This theory 
does not account for all the examples of poly- 
morphism, nor can they be accounted for with- 
out greater knowledge of the crystalline sys- 
tems. Certain forms in some of the systems, 
when placed in a particular position, are iden- 
tical, both in position and angle of the faces, 
with others in entirely different systems. 
Nevertheless, none of the efforts to reduce the 
crystallographic systems below six have been 
successful. Itis, however, established that min- 
erals may be isomorphous with others crystal- 
lizing in a different system, when their angles 
are nearly similar. The variations in the six 
systems depend upon the relative length of 
their axes; and when the axial dimensions of 
two minerals in different systems are nearly 
the same, they may enter into chemical or 
physical combination without violence to their 
individual laws of formation. 
of such replacement is increased by the fact 
that the crystallographic forms of minerals, 
though precise in general, are not perfectly 
uniform in angle. Even the most important 
and distinctive angular measurements vary de- 
cidedly, and since a certain flexibility thus ex- 
ists, the entrance of a different though similar 
mineral may take place without altering the 
angles beyond their ordinary limits. The ex- 
treme variation of axial dimensions which may 
take place is shown by the common and very 
well marked mineral calcite, the forms of which 
include 48 different rhombohedrons and 88 
scalenohedrons, besides pyramids and prisms. 
If the extreme positive rhombohedrons were 
represented graphically on the same scale, one 
would be 112 times as long as the other. Yet 
these extremes are so intimately connected by 
gradually progressive steps as to forbid any 
classification of them.—Many theories have 
been proposed to account for the exact forms 
assumed by minerals, but two of them will 
be sufficient to indicate the tendency of spec- 
ulation. One is chemical. It supposes that 
the elementary atoms and molecules have defi- 
nite forms, and that when two elements com- 
bine, their molecules take a form which is 
dependent on the forces that produce the 
combination. The introduction of a third ele- 
ment may produce a complete rearrangement 
of the molecules and an entirely new form. 
The other theory is based on physical laws. 
It has been suggested that minerals crystal- 
lizing in the isometric system may be com- 
posed of spherical molecules, that being the 
form which any body free to move must take 
when acted on equally in all directions. Min- 
erals crystallizing in the other systems are made 
up of ellipsoidal molecules, and the form is 
tetragonal or rhombic, according ag the lateral 


south poles. 


MINERALOGY 


axes are conjugate axes or conjugate diame- 
ters of an ellipsoid. These axes and diame- 
ters are equal in all the systems except the 
triclinic, where they are unequal, and the ver- 
tical axis is at right angles to the other two 
in all but the monoclinic and triclinic systems. 
The hexagonal form may be produced by an 
ellipsoidal molecule in which three conjugate 
diameters form the axes on which the faces are 
laid. These axes are called crystallogenic, to 
distinguish them from the ordinary crystallo- 
graphic axes, which are entirely distinct. Mol- 
ecules are supposed to be governed by the laws 
of polarity, the opposite ends of the conjugate 
axes or diameters representing the north and 
By grouping them according to 
the known electrical laws, many of the remark- 
able compound forms can be imitated, and an 
interesting insight gained into the probable 
constitution of minerals. Local circumstances 
will sometimes alter the intensity of attraction 
between the molecules in favor of some one of 
the crystallogenic axes, and a distorted form 
will result. A more general modification of 
molecular relations produces secondary planes. 


The likelihood | What these local circumstances are is not 


known, but the character of the mother liquor, 
or of the solid matrix in which the mineral is 
formed, is certainly one of them. Laboratory 
experiments prove this, and in nature we find 
aragonite assuming different modifications ac- 
cording as it is found in iron mines or in gyp- 
sum clays; minerals collected from one locality 
often present a general likeness, and may differ 
from the same species found in another region. 
—Since a crystal increases by successive addi- 
tions to a minute molecular nucleus, any vari- 
ations in the intensity of the uniting force must 
produce alternate zones of strong and weak 
attraction. These pulsations of the formative 
force are the cause of cleavage, which is due 
to the lessened tenacity of the mineral along 
those lines which represent the period of weak 
action during the pulsation. III. Paysroan 
CHARACTERISTICS. Fracture, taste, odor, po- 
larization, electrical properties, and transpa- 
rency are among the least decisive peculiarities 
of minerals. Streak is a very important char- 
acter in all classes. Lustre is of great impor- 
tance in distinguishing the two kinds, metallic 
and non-metallic minerals. The value of the 
other physical characters depends upon the 
kind of mineral under examination. Among 
those possessing metallic lustre, the hardness, 
specific gravity, color, and state of aggregation 
are far more serviceable than with those of 
non-metallic lustre. The origin of physical 
properties is unknown, but it is certain that 
some of them, as transparency, polarization, 
and refraction, depend upon the relations of 
the molecules toward light; lustre, color, and 
streak may have a similar origin, varied by the 
operation of the forces which formed the min- 
eral. To these forces, tenacity, ductility, and 
state of aggregation may also probably be as- 
cribed. Some of the above mentioned charao- 


MINERALOGY 


ters, and also hardness and specific gravity, 
may be due partly or entirely to the state of 
chemical combination. It has been shown that 
the superior hardness and specific gravity of 
the epidote group of minerals, as compared 
with the scapolite group, may be explained 
by supposing that the molecule of the former 
is, more condensed than that of the latter.— 
Classification of Minerals, The explanations 
above given embody the leading principles 
upon which the numerous minerals found in 
nature are distinguished from each other and 
arranged in related groups, The unit in min- 
eralogy is the species. A mineral species must 
have a definite composition and individual 
characteristics of form, sufficient to establish 
its difference from all others. The mode of 
occurrence may be gaseous, fluid, or solid; the 
nitrogen and oxygen of the atmosphere, water, 
and mercury are all native minerals, as well 
as the solid substances. But definiteness of 
composition is a necessary characteristic, and 
marks the difference between minerals and 
rocks. While the latter are composed of min- 
eral substances, the indefiniteness of their con- 
stitution prevents their classification and de- 
scription by the accurate methods known in 
mineralogy. Even in the latter science a cer- 
tain latitude in composition is necessarily al- 
lowed, as minerals are seldom perfectly pure. 
Elements foreign to those which properly com- 
pose the mineral are nearly always present, 
and when their amount is large in proportion 
to the whole, it may be a question whether a 
new species should be made. The tendency of 
the best authorities is to restrict the number 
of species as much as possible, and to describe 
the modifications, where the usual characteris- 
tics of the mineral are not much altered, as 
varieties. Thus under pyroxene Prof. Dana 
describes 21 varieties, and under amphibole 20. 
Tourmaline has already been cited as a case of 
extreme variation in chemical composition, and 
calcite in crystalline form, the variation in both 
cases being in remarkably well characterized 
species. In the fifth edition of Dana’s ‘‘ Min- 
eralogy ” (1868), 838 species are described, and 
the number of varieties is probably two or three 
times as great. The classification of these spe- 
cies is based upon chemical composition; com- 
pounds of one kind, as silicates or sulphides, 
being placed together and subdivided into 
groups having the same general symbol, or the 
same crystalline form, or some common physi- 
cal character. The arrangement according to 
composition will be understood by referring 
to the table of elements given above. Six 
general divisions are made: 1. Native elements, 
including any element in the pure state, and 
any compound of two elements in the same 
series and group. There are 20 elements 
known, forming 25 mineral species. Gold, 
silver, platinum, iridium, palladium, mercury, 
copper, lead, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, tel- 
lurium, sulphur, selenium, carbon, nitrogen, 
and oxygen are certainly found native; while 


587 


iron, zinc, and tin, though reported, are some- 
what doubtful, if meteoric iron is excluded as 
not having been subjected to terrestrial con- 
ditions. When elements from two or more 
groups are united in a mineral, we are brought 
to the study of compounds, which forms all 
the remaining part of mineralogy, including 
five divisions. 2. All compounds in which the 
negative element is taken from the arsenic or 
sulphur group (series II. in the table). This di- 
vision therefore includes phosphides, arsenides, 
antimonides, bismuthides, sulphides, selenides, 
tellurides, and double compounds, as sulph-an- 
timonides, sulpho-bismuthides, &c.; in all, 110 
species. 8. Compounds in which the negative 
element is taken from group A, series III., and 
therefore this division comprises all chlorides, 
bromides, and iodides, numbering 28 species. 
4, Compounds containing the negative element 
of group B, series III., or fluorides, 18 in num- 
ber. 5. Oxygen compounds, the negative ele- 
ment being taken from group OC, series III. 
This division exceeds all others in the number 
of its species (587) and in the abundance of its 
minerals, which form probably more than nine 
tenths of the globe. 6. Those compounds of 
hydrogen and carbon which are called “or- 
ganic,” of which 73 species are recognized. 
In addition to the above, more than 100 new 
species have been reported since 1868, and 
though some of these may not be sustained, 
the interest taken in mineralogy as a speculative 
science is rapidly extending our knowledge of 
minerals and the discovery of new species.—A 
general classification of species having been 
made according to chemical composition, as 
above explained, groups are formed, each of 
which contains minerals of one type. A min- 
eral type includes species which closely resem- 
ble each other in crystalline form, and have a 
related elementary composition. Thus eight 
similar compounds of protoxides and deutoxides 
are found to crystallize in the isometric system, 
and are all of the “spinel type.” Crystallized 
minerals containing ferric anhydride assume 
either inclined or hemihedral forms, and there- 
fore constitute a well marked type. Amor- 
phous. minerals are necessarily classed with 
those crystalline species which they resemble 


‘in composition, as their lack of definite form is 


looked upon not as a characteristic, but as the 
lack of one. This mode of ranking them does 
no violence to the theory held by some that 
they are formed from matter in the colloidal 
state. No uniform system of comparison has 
yet been discovered which will suit the re- 
quirements of all classes of minerals. Each 
element appears to have a definite form, which 
it tends to assume under all circumstances ; 
and if the strength of this tendency varies 
with each one, the form of any given species 
will either be that of some dominant element, 
or a compound one resulting from the inter- 
action of all the substances contained in it. 
But nothing is known of such a scale of crys- 
tallographic forces except that, in the some- 


588 


what casual juxtapositions brought about by 
the present system of arrangement, we find 
different compounds, such as sulphates and 
carbonates, crystallized in different forms; 
while a species which is a compound of both 
these, a sulphato-carbonate, has the general 
form of the sulphates. From this fact it is 
concluded that sulphur has a more energetic 
formative power than carbon. An excellent 
and simple example of the principles on which 
mineral types and groups are arranged will be 
found in Dana’s ‘“ Mineralogy,” fifth edition, 
p. 34, under the head of ‘‘ Sulphides.”—Women- 
clature. Mineralogists have chosen the ter- 
mination ite to characterize the names of their 
species. Jtis or ites was used by the Greeks 
and Romans for this purpose, and it was ap- 
pended to some word signifying a quality, lo- 
cality, or some other fact relating to the min- 
eral. Hematites, for instance, referred to the 
red color of the powder, and syenites took its 
name from Syene in Egypt. Werner, in the 
last century, introduced the custom of naming 
minerals after persons, and, though much op- 
posed for years, especially by French mineral- 
ogists, this is now the common usage. Its 
popularity does not spring so much from the 
desire to do honor to discoverers and distin- 
guished men, as from the liability to error 
when an attempt is made to name a mineral 
from some supposed quality while the infor- 
mation about it is still imperfect. Many other 
terminations are in use, as ine, ane, ene, ase, 
age, ome, ote, &c.; but these have come down 
to us from former years. At present the rule 
is to use the termination ite, or if another is 
employed the latter must be applied to all 
minerals of the same class. A great advance 
in uniformity has been made by Dana, who 
undertook a thorough collation of the litera- 
ture of the science, and applied the law of 
priority wherever it could be done without 
injury, thus restoring many oldnames. While 
ite is used for minerals, yte is used for rock 
masses, which, to deserve the application of 
the word, should consist principally or entire- 
ly of the compact mineral. Thus doleryte 
and pyroxenyte are massive deposits of the 
minerals dolerite and pyroxene.—Mineralology 
is the name given to the study of the laws 
which govern the formation of minerals. 
While the chemist constantly endeavors to 
work with pure materials and to have but few 
elements present in the artificial production of 
mineral compounds, nature has undoubtedly 
formed many or all of the mineral species from 
sources in which a great number of elements 
were mixed. The circumstances under which 
these elements were brought together, their 
proportion, and the influences to which they 
were individually or collectively subjected af- 
terward, must have varied within very wide 
limits; and the fact that definite and unvarying 
species have been produced from heterogene- 
ous compounds is proof of the operation of 
fixed and probably simple laws. On the other 


MINERALOGY 


hand, the slight differences which are notice- 
able in the characteristic marks of a great 
many species are probably the traces of the 
different conditions under which the individu- 
als of the species were formed. The develop- 
ment of these laws, and of the forces which 
have modified them, forms the speculative 
part of mineralogical science, and makes the 
science itself an important factor both in the 
history of the earth and in the development of 
chemical knowledge. The present state of this 
knowledge will not permit a trustworthy state- 
ment of mineralological facts within the limits 
of this article. It is sufficient to point out 
some of the modes in which compounds may 
be formed. These are: 1, union of two gase- 
ous elements; 2, union of one gaseous and one 
fluid or solid element; 3, union of two fluids; 
4, union of one fluid and one solid; 5, combi- 
nations at a high temperature (igneous fluidity 
forming a matrix from which species separate 
on cooling); 6, combinations at a low tempera- 
ture.—Artisicial Minerals. By imitating these 
and other processes, many of the characteristic 
species may be reproduced, and the combina- 
tions always show themselves to be governed 
by the same laws that are discernible in the 
formation of true minerals. These artificial 
minerals mostly result from three sources: the 
study of chemical laws by experimental pro- 
cesses, the desire to produce gems by artificial 
means, and the casual formation of definite min- 
eral compounds in metallurgical work. Of the 
salts which result from chemical reactions, a 
great number have been found in nature. Of 
minerals used as gems, the ruby, aquamarine, 
garnet, topaz, spinel, chrysoberyl, apatite, and 
others have been produced, but not of a size 
large enough to make them useful as orna-. 
ments or their manufacture profitable. Met- 
allurgical processes, where high temperatures 
and the action of gaseous substances are long 
continued, and where compounds of all degrees 
of fusibility are melted and chemically com- 
bined, are a fruitful source of artificial and 
very perfect minerals. A few furnace products 
have never been found in nature. While arti- 
ficial minerals are apt tobe less perfectly crys- 
tallized than the native specimens, they are 
also apt to be of simpler forms, and have 
sometimes served to determine the primitive 
angle when it could not be decided by natural 
specimens. — Historical. While the ancients 
were acquainted with a great number of min- 
erals, and observed the existence of crystals 
and the importance of physical characters, 
their complete ignorance of all our modes of 
investigation prevented their obtaining any 
real knowledge of the distinctive species. 
Stones of the most diverse composition, some 
minerals and some rocks, were grouped under 
one name, and it is frequently impossible to 
recognize from their description the minerals 
they knew. Theophrastus (315 B. C.) was the 
earliest writer on the subject, though other 
authors frequently referred to minerals as rem- 


MINERALOGY 


edies, usually of the miraculous kind. Pass- 
ing to the Christian era, we find Pliny writing 
on this subject in the 1st century, and Dios- 
corides in the same or the following; after 
which there is a blank until the 11th cen- 
tury, when Avicenna divided minerals into 
four classes, stones, salts, sulphurous oa in- 
flammable bodies, and earths. The “stones” 
were chiefly silicates, and rude as this classifi- 
cation is, it was not until long after chemical 
science had made its mark that anything very 
much superior was advanced, the principal im- 
provement made in more than six centuries 
being the substitution of metals for ‘ stones.” 
Agricola (1548-’50) wrote several works, stud- 
ied the external characters of minerals, and 
based his arrangement upon those which are 
apparent to the senses. The alchemical stud- 
ies of the succeeding centuries bore some 
fruit, both in the discovery of new species 
and in the addition of heating and fusion as 
modes of investigation. Passing over Lin- 
nus (1735) and Wallerius (1747), who was the 
first to write a systematic descriptive work on 
this subject, we come to Cronstedt of Sweden, 
who in 1758 first pointed out the distinction 
between rocks and minerals which now enters 
into the fundamental definition of the latter. 
He based his system upon chemical proper- 
ties. Romé de Lisle, in 1772-83, made the 
first systematic effort to apply the principles of 
crystallography to the science, though Nicho- 
las Steno had in the preceding century pointed 
out the fundamental fact that, with all their 
variations of form, the faces of crystals pre- 
served the same angular relations; and later 
Gulielmini discovered that cleavage gave con- 
stant forms. Werner of Freiberg published in 
1774 a work on the “External Characters of 
Minerals,” in which he gave a much needed 
precision to the descriptive part of mineralogy, 
and retained the “natural affinity,” or chemi- 
cal composition, as the grand basis of classi- 
fication, though the mode of carrying out the 
idea recalls Avicenna’s work, seven centuries 
before. Werner also made four classes, earths, 
salts, inflammables, and metals, the first named 
being further divided into silicious, argilla- 
ceous, calcareous, and talcose; but the silicious 
division was made to include nearly all the 
hard minerals, without regard to composition. 
It was under this form that mineralogy was 


introduced to English students by Kirwan in’ 


1784. The science now began to receive con- 
stant and important additions, the three modes 
of determination which still remain criteria 
(crystalline form, chemical composition, and 
physical characters) being each in turn ele- 
vated to a position of dominant importance. 
In 1783 De Lisle published a second edi- 
tion, in which crystallography received in- 
creased attention; and in 1801 Haiiy’s 77aité 
de minéralogie appeared, in which crystallog- 
raphy was made the principal agent in the de- 
termination of mineral species. He rediscov- 
ered the importance of cleavage, and afforded 


589 


a mathematical explanation of the phenome- 
non, referred the numerous secondary forms to 
a fundamental molecule of invariable shape, 
and reduced all crystal forms to six systems, 
based upon the following forms: 1, the regular 
octahedron; 2, the rhombohedron; 3, octahe- 
dron with a square base; 4, the octahedron 
with a rectangular base; 5, the prism with a 
symmetrical oblique base; and 6, the prism 
with an unsymmetrical oblique base. By ref- 
erence to the article CrysraLLocrapny it will 
be seen that, though the details of his system 
have been changed, the axial differences recog- 
nized by him remain. In his system chemical 
composition and physical characters were en- 
tirely subordinate to crystallographic habits. 
He made four classes: 1, free acids; 2, sub- 
stances which are metallic but do not present a 
metallic appearance, in which were included 
the eight genera, lime, barytes, strontites, 
magnesia, alumina, potash, soda, and ammonia, 
together with the silicates; 8, metallic sub- 
stances; 4, unmetallic combustible substances. 
In 1804 Mohs of Vienna published a descrip- 
tion of a collection of minerals, in which the 
external characteristics alone were used to 
describe them. In 1820 he expanded his ideas 
into a ‘‘ Natural History” system, the object 
of which was to group together all minerals 
which presented similar characters in regard 
to taste, lustre, gravity, streak, hardness, &c. 
No tests were used which destroyed the mine- 
ral, such as acids and fusion. Each group was 
gradually reduced by a process of comparison 
and exclusion to its individual members. This 
method was borrowed from other fields of 
science, and its nomenclature repeated the 
classes, orders, and genera of zodlogy and 
botany. The system, though it has proved to 
be entirely unfitted to this science, did much 
good by requiring greater precision in descrip- 
tion, bringing out many true relationships be- 
tween species, and discarding unimportant dis- 
tinctions which were flooding the science with 
false species. It is still used, with modifica- 
tions, in mineralogical keys which are con- 
structed for the use of young students, and 
persons little versed in the study. Mohs’s. 
classification included three classes: class 1 
contained four orders, gas,.water, acid, and 
salt, and included bodies which have taste, 
give no bituminous odor, and have a gravity 
below 38°8; class 2, bodies which have no taste, 
but are of specific gravity above 1°8; class 3, 
fluid bodies with bituminous odor, and taste- 
less bodies of specific gravity below 1°8. This 
system was received with great favor, and not 
only held sway in Germany for 40 years, but 
extended into England and America. Two of 
the modes of determining minerals, crystalline 
form and physical characters, had now received 
the attention of able advocates, and were in 
rapid process of development by mineralogists 
throughout the world. The third, that which 
stands at the head in the present system, is 
chemical composition, which received from 


590 


Berzelius some time before 1816 (French edi- 
tion, 1819) its first decisive impetus. That 
chemist looked upon mineralogy as properly a 
mere branch of his own favorite science. He 
explained mineral as he explained other com- 
pounds on the dualistic theory, according to 
which they were made up of an electro-posi- 
tive and an electro-negative element or radical. 
His classification included two great groups, 
the first composed of native metals and bina- 
ries, not containing oxygen; and the second 
of electro-positive and electro-negative oxides, 
hydrates, silicates, alumina-silicates, tungstates, 
borates, carbonates, &c.; each acid, or each 
electro-negative element, having its own divi- 
sion as now. He introduced into the science 
the exact methods of chemistry, and urged the 
necessity of constant analysis, so that the ex- 
isting mode of mineralogical study is known 
as the Berzelian, improved by the addition of 
crystallography and the special study of ex- 
ternal marks.— While the science was thus re- 
ceiving constant accessions in Germany and 
Sweden, the French mineralogists were also 
working out various schemes of classification. 
Unable to produce a harmonious arrangement 
on any simple plan, they adopted a mixed 
system. Brongniart, in his Zraité élémen- 
taire (1807) and Tableau des espéces miné- 
rales (1833), classified the earthy minerals ac- 
cording to the negative element, and the me- 
tallic ones according to the positive element. 
He had two grand divisions, the inorganic and 
organic. In the first were included 20 ‘ min- 
eralizers,” such as oxygen, hydrogen, and sul- 
phur; the second class, métaux autopsides, con- 
tains true metals and their compounds; while 
the third class, métaux hétéropsides, contains 
other bases and forms two orders, one of com- 
pounds without, and one of those with an acid. 
Beudant, in his Traité de minéralogie (1824), 
endeavored to restrict the classification of min- 
erals to their chemical reactions. He formed 
three grand genera, based upon the character- 
istic negative element. Gazolytes contained 
a negative element capable of forming stable 
gaseous compounds with oxygen, hydrogen, or 
fluoric acid, and included carbon, silicon, chlo- 
rine, &c. Leucolytes contained a negative ele- 
ment which does not form such stable gaseous 
compounds, but gives colorless solutions with 
acids, Chroicolytes, on the other hand, give 
colored solutions with acids. Though this ar- 
rangement supplanted that of Haiiy, the group- 
ings of minerals formed under it were of the 
most heterogeneous character. Dufrénoy in 
1844 published the first edition of a treatise 
in which a mixed system was again presented. 
He recognized natural groups in some of which 
the bases bore the important part, and in 
others the acids. In these mixed systems the 
bases are the real ground of classification, but 
the importance and number of the silicates, 
and the fact that the base plays a secondary part 
in most of them, compel an exception to be 
made in their favor in any scheme where the 


MINERALOGY 


bases are made the characteristic elements. The 
French school has always been distinguished 
for eminence in crystallographic and physical 
researches, the latest development of which is 
to be seen in Descloizeaux’s admirable investiga- 
tions into the optical properties of minerals, by 
which the recognition of many obscure species 
has been greatly aided. The mixed classifica- 
tion of the French, however, has been rejected, 
partly for its incongruity and partly because 
the new chemical methods have been altogeth- 
er in favor of the Berzelian mode.—In 1840 
Gustav Rose of Berlin published a work on 
crystallography, in which the six crystalline 
systems formed the general divisions, in each 


of which the minerals were arranged in genera 


and species, according to their chemical com- 
position. In 1852 he published his A7rystallo- 
chemisches Mineralsystem, in which the chem- 
ical composition is used both to determine 
the general arrangement and to fix the individ- 
ual species, which are grouped into genera by 
their crystallographic characters. His method 
of arrangement was: 1, simple bodies; 2, com- 
pounds of sulphur, selenium, tellurium, arse- 
nic, and antimony; 3, compounds of chlorine, 
fluorine, iodine, and bromine; 4, oxygen com- 
pounds. Rammelsberg, in several works, and 
especially in his Handbuch der Mineralchemie, 
has paid great attention to the constitution of 
minerals, their relationships, the laws regula- 
ting their formation, and similar questions. 
K. G. Bischof, in his Lehrbuch der chemischen 
und physikalischen Geologie, entered into the 
genesis of minerals, and, though his views have 
been frequently rebutted, he exerted a marked 
influence upon the progress of the science. 
Germany continues to be one of the most ac- 
tive fields for the advancement of this science. 
Tschermach, Leonhardt, Hessenberg, and oth- 
ers issue periodical reviews of progress, miner- 
alogical magazines are published, and a great 
number of works on the science in all its 
branches are constantly issued. The German 
school now probably includes a greater num- 
ber of distinguished names than any other, 
though the science is rapidly advancing in all 
countries.—In the United States mineralogy 
had been but little cultivated before the begin- 
ning of the present century. A few collections 
of minerals had been brought from Europe, 
but the treatises of Kirwan and Jameson were 
almost the only works that could be consulted 
with reference to them, and very few were 
acquainted with these. In 1816 Prof. Parker 
Cleaveland of Bowdoin college published ‘* An 
Elementary Treatise on Mineralogy and Geol- 
ogy,’’ which was well received both in Ameri- 
ca and in Europe as a work of scientific impor- 
tance, and particularly useful for the informa- 
tion it afforded respecting American miner- 
als. The author, following the general plan 
of Brongniart at that time, sought to unite 
with the precise descriptive language of the 
system of Werner the chemical classification 
of the French mineralogists. His work was 


MINERALOGY 


for many years highly popular, and indeed al- 
most the only one in use by American mineral- 
ogists. A second edition appeared in 1822. 


Ten years afterward Prof. Charles U. Shepard |. 


of New Haven published the first part of his 
‘‘ Treatise on Mineralogy,” and in 1835 the sec- 
ond part. He adopted the arrangement of 
Mohs with little variation, making the natural 
history or external characters as far as possi- 
ble the means of determining the species. He 
however appended a table in which the miner- 
als were also arranged according to their chem- 
ical affinities. Francis Alger of Boston repub- 
lished the then recent ‘‘ Treatise on Mineral- 
ogy” prepared by Robert Allan from Phillips’s 
‘‘ Mineralogy,” enlarging it by numerous no- 
tices of American minerals and of recent dis- 
coveries. Like the last named work, it was 
particularly interesting for presenting many 
new facts in the development of the mineralo- 
gy of the United States. Prof. James D. Dana 
of New Haven commenced in 1887 the publi- 
cation of his treatises upon mineralogy by the 
issue of the first edition of ‘‘ A System of Min- 
eralogy, including an extended Treatise upon 
Crystallography.” Five editions of this-work 
have been published. In those of 1837 and 
1844 the natural history system of Mohs was 
extended and solidified, but in the third edition 
this was abandoned, and the author presented 
his work with a classification that claimed no 
inherent virtue but convenience. He how- 
ever suggested a combination of the chemical 
and crystallographic methods, which in 1854 
was embodied with alterations in a fourth edi- 
tion. During the 17 years covered by this 
work the views of the English school of chem- 
ists were steadily gaining ground, and when 
the fifth edition appeared in 1868 the ‘new 
chemistry ” with its rational symbols and its 
new tenets had been established, and was used 
by the side of the old method in this work. 
The system employed is explained in the fore- 
going part of this article. No attempt is made 
to afford students a tabular arrangement by 
which the name of given specimens can be as- 
certained. The book bears to minerals a rela- 
tion similar to that which a dictionary bears 
to words; it gives accurate definitions of them 
on a systematic plan. Great care has been 
taken with these definitions, and in fact Prof. 
Dana’s method does not commence with the 
system, but with the species. When all the 
facts of composition, crystal form, and phys- 
ical characters of a species are known, it can 
readily be placed with those of a similar kind, 
and minerals which resemble each other in 
these things necessarily form a group. Partial 
differences give rise to sub-groups, and resem- 
blances between entire groups cause the for- 
mation of divisions. The system is therefore 
strictly rational. In other respects Dana’s fifth 
edition is a great advance upon any previous 
publication in this branch of science. He has 
adopted fixed rules for nomenclature and or- 
thography, collated almost every work for sy- 
559 VOL, xI.—38 


MINERAL SPRINGS 591 


nonymes, which are arranged in chronologicas 
order, and performed much similar work in a 
way that seems to leave nothing to be desired. 

MINERAL POINT, a city and the capital of 
Iowa co., Wisconsin, on a branch of the Peca- 
tonica river, 47 m. W. S. W. of Madison, 
and at the terminus of the Mineral Point rail- 
road (83 m. long), connecting it with thé IIli- 


nois Central railroad at Warren, Ill.; pop. in 


1870, 3,275. It is in the midst of a rich min- 
eral region, yielding lead, copper, and zinc, and 
contains several hotels, numerous stores, foun- 
deries, smelting works for lead and zinc, and 
breweries. There are eight public schools, in- 
cluding a high school, three private schools, 
two weekly newspapers, and five churches. 
MINERAL SPRINGS, those which are impreg- 
nated with minerals to such a degree as to pos- 
sess medicinal properties. They differ from 
ordinary springs by the larger volume of gases, 
especially carbonic acid gas, the mineral ingre- 
dients held in solution in their waters, and the 
peculiar smell, taste, and sometimes color im- 
parted by the solution; many of them also by a 
higher temperature, called thermal springs (‘75° 
to 212° F.). Some issue from the earth like 
fountains, foaming and steaming; others with 
a continuous or intermitting noise, gurgling and 
hissing. Like ordinary springs, they are found 
at every altitude and in all climates. Some 
break at boiling heat through a crust of ice and 
snow, and some issue with almost icy cold- 
ness from among luxuriant vegetation. Many 
sulphur springs destroy all vegetation around 
them; others (calcareous) cover organic struc- 
tures with incrustations. The waters of min- 
eral springs are used both for drinking and bath- 
ing; their vapors for baths; and their spray, 
with the evolved gases, for inhaling. The an- 
cients ascribed supernatural properties to min- 
eral springs, and their priests, especially those of 
Asculapius, placed their sanctuaries near them, 
as at the alkaline springs of Nauplia and the 
gas springs of Dodona. Such places were pro- 
vided not only with baths, hospitals, and med- 
ical schools, but also with theatres and other 
resorts for amusement, and were designed both 
for worship and for the cure of the sick. Ac- 
cording to Strabo, the springs of Hierapolis 
imparted a red color to the roots of trees and 
shrubs, and the juices of the latter mixed with 
the water produced a purple dye. Philostra- 
tus says that the Greek soldiers wounded in ~ 
the battle on the Caicus were healed by the 
waters of Agamemnon’s spring near Smyrna. 
The pythoness was thought to be inspired by 
bathing in the Castalian spring and inhaling 
the vapors of the steaming cave at Delphi. 
Josephus relates that Herod sought relief from 
his terrible disease in the thermal springs of 
Callirrhoé. The springs of Tiberias, which 
have a temperature of from 86° to 130° F., 
were used by the Romans, and are still fre- 
quented by patients from all parts of Asia 
Minor. The most celebrated bathing place of 
the Roman empire was the hot sulphur springs. 


592 MINERAL 


(190° F.) of Bais on the gulf of Naples, Is- 
chia, once covered with the villas and palaces 
-of the Romans, still maintains the reputation 
of its thermal waters and vapor baths. The 
Romans discovered many of the most impor- 
tant thermal springs of Europe, and used them 
as army stations; among them are Baden- 
Baden, Wiesbaden, Bath, Aix-la-Chapelle, and 
Spa. Carlsbad was named after Charles IV., 
who is said to have discovered the Sprudel in 
1347 or 1358, while hunting.—Many theories, 
both natural and supernatural, have been pro- 
pounded by philosophers in all ages to ac- 
count for the origin and properties of mineral 
springs; but modern analytical chemistry has 
dissolved the demons of the ancients and the 
wild spirits of Paracelsus (De Aquis Minerali- 
bus, 1562) into our familiar carbonic acid gas. 
Van Helmont’s discovery of the alkalies and 
fixed air in the early part of the 17th century 
was the first step in this direction. Arago 
proved that the temperature of the springs 
corresponds with the depth from which they 
rise. Bergman, Berzelius, Bischof, and Struve 
showed that their composition depends on the 
amount of carbonic acid and other gases which 
are dissolved in them, consequent on their vol- 
canic origin and on the nature of the rocks 
which they permeate; and Faraday, Liebig, and 
other chemists established the principles of a 
thorough analysis. During the past 50 years 
‘Many mineral springs have been discovered, 
‘and all of note have repeatedly been analyzed. 
‘These analyses vary in their results with the 
changes to which the various springs are from 
time to time subject. The waters of the Kis- 
singen Rakoczy spring lost 224 per cent. of 
mineral ingredients from 1830 to 1855, and 
underwent a change also in their relative pro- 
portions. At the time of the great earth- 
quake of Lisbon (1755) the Carlsbad springs 
ceased flowing for three days.—Of the mine- 
ral springs of Europe, France contains about 
900; Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, about 
2,500; England, over 100; Spain, 1,200; Por- 
tugal, 200; and Italy, 800, two thirds of which 
are in Tuscany. The most important constitu- 
ent of the waters of all spas, as mineral springs 
are frequently called, is carbonic acid gas, with 
which the muriated and muriated-alkaline 
springs are impregnated most, the saline, alka- 
line, and bitter waters least. According to 
_ Liebig, Kissingen Rakoczy contains in 16 oz. 
41°77 cubic inches of carbonic acid, Carls- 
bad 14, and Kissingen bitter water only 5-9. 
Nitrogen gas occurs especially in hot sulphur 
springs, with carburetted hydrogen, oxygen, 
and sulphuretted hydrogen as lesser gaseous 
ingredients. Mineral springs are classified as 
follows, according to the salts from which 
they derive their specific importance. 1. Cha- 
lybeate or Ferruginous Springs. The distin- 
guishing characteristic of these is the presence 
of iron dissolved as a bicarbonate, or in the in- 
ferior ones as a sulphate. Their other ingre- 
dients are bicarbonates of manganese, soda, 


SPRINGS 


lime, and magnesia, chloride of sodium, sul- 
phate of soda and of potash, &c. Their water, 
which has an inky taste, is most effective as u 
remedy for anzwmia and chlorosis, by aug- 
menting the number of blood globules and 
their hematine, and by diminishing the phos- 
phoric acid in the urine. The strongest cha- 
lybeate spring, Schwalbach in Germany, con- 
tains much carbonic acid gas, and, with the 
exception of iron, only a small amount of sa- 
line ingredients. Other chalybeates of note 
are Pyrmont, Altwasser, Reinerz, Brickenau, 
Steben, Driburg, Wildungen, Cudowa, and 
Franzensbad, in Germany and Cisleithan Aus- 
tria; Buzids, in Hungary; St. Maurice, in the 
Engadine, Switzerland; Spa, in Belgium; Pas- 
sy, Forges, Bussang, Plombiéres, Bagnéres- 
d’Adour, and Dinant, in France; Cheltenham, 
Tunbridge, Scarborough, and Wells, in Eng- 
land; Bibiana, Catarina, Staro, and La Croix, 
in Italy; and Loka, in Sweden. In the Uni- 
ted States the most noted chalybeate springs 
are: Schooley’s Mountain springs, Morris co., 
N.J.; Fry’s soda spring, near Mt. Shasta, Cal. ; 
Stafford springs, Tolland co., Conn. ; Greencas- 
tle springs, Putnam co., Ind. ; Catoosa springs, 
Catoosa co., Ga. ; Schuyler county springs, IIL. ; 
Owasso springs, Shiawassee co., Mich.; Coo- 
per’s well, Hinds co., Miss.; Beersheba springs, 
Grundy co., Tenn.; Rawley springs, Rocking- 
ham co., Va.; and Bayley springs (alkaline- 
chalybeate), Lauderdale co., Ala. Dr. Walton 
includes also in this class the so-called alum 
waters of Virginia, viz.: the Rockbridge, Pu- 
laski, and Bath alum springs; Stribling springs 
in Augusta co.; Church Hill alum springs, near 
Richmond; Bedford alum springs, near New 
London; and Variety springs in Augusta co. ; 
also the Oak Orchard acid springs, Genesee 
co., N. Y., and the Tuscarora sour springs, 
Wentworth, co., Canada. He also names, as 
calcic-chalybeate waters, the sweet chalybeate 
springs, Alleghany co., Va.; Montvale spring, 
Blount co., Tenn.; and Hot Red springs (103° 
F.), Utah. Many iron waters are strongly im- 
pregnated with saline or alkaline chalybeates, 
and will be mentioned in speaking of saline 
and alkaline springs. 2. Muriated Springs. 
In these there is an excess of chloride of sodium 
and of carbonic acid gas, and they are mainly 
diuretic, or, according to Hanbury Smith, tonic 
and aperient, and effective in scrofulous and 
abdominal diseases, chronic rheumatism, and 
cutaneous complaints. According to Liebig, 
16 oz. of Kissingen Rakoczy, the representa- 
tive water of this class, contains chloride of 
sodium 44°7 grains, chloride of potassium 2°2, 
chloride of lithium 0°15, magnesium 2°33, bro- 
mide of sodium 0-064, nitrate of soda 0°07, sul- 
phate of magnesia 4°5, sulphate of lime 2°99, 
carbonate of magnesia 0°13, carbonate of lime 
8:1, protoxide of iron 0°24, phosphate of lime 
0-048, silica 0°99, ammonia 0°007, and traces of 
iodide of sodium, borate of soda, &c. Springs 
allied to it are Rodna in Transylvania, Hom- 
burg (muriated-chalybeate), the tepid waters of 


MINERAL SPRINGS 


Soden, and the thermals of Baden-Baden and 
Wiesbaden, in Germany. Diseases of the skin 
and scrofula are cured by the muriated saline 
or brine springs, of which the principal are: 
Rehme, Nauheim, Salzungen, and Creuznach, 
in Prussia; Ischl and Hall, in Austria; Rei- 
chenhall, in Bavaria; and Bourbonne-les-Bains, 
Bourbon-Lancy, Bagnolles, St. Honoré, Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, St. Laurent-les-Bains, and oth- 
ers, in-France. The most celebrated muriated 
saline springs in the United States are those of 
Saratoga (49° to 51° F.), Congress water having 
about the strength of Kissingen Rakoczy, but 
a milder taste, while the Hathorn spring con- 
tains more chloride of sodium. Some of the 
springs are chalybeate, others sulphurous or 
iodincus, and all are highly charged with car- 
bonic acid gas. The Saratoga Seltzer resembles 
the celebrated Seltzer (properly Selters) in 
Germany; and the Geyser, bored in 1870, is 
so highly charged with carbonic acid gas that 
it foams like soda water when drawn from a 
faucet. The following analysis of one pint 
each of the water of four of the principal 
springs at Saratoga is from Dr. Walton: 


CONSTITUENTS. Lhe, Congress. | Hathorn. | Geyser, 
grains grains. grains. grains. 

Carbonate of soda...... 8°024 | 0°984 | 0°372 | 6°17 
ce magnesia,.| 4°069 9°019 | 18°072 | 10°322 

< irons. 7 .ck 0°185 | 0°081 0-101 0-089 

o limes... 11°448 | 12°449 | 14°815 | 14-793 

“ lithia..*® Ob WA OEBIAT te 0°549 

ae strontia...| trace. trace. trace, 0°041 

ae baryta.....| 0°050 0°095 0°178 0°206 
Chloride of potassium..| 1°122 | 1°006 | 1°199 | 8-079 
Chloride of sodium..... 48°766 | 50°055 | 63°746 | 70°260 
Sulphate of potassa..... 0°201 | O°111 | trace. | trace 
Phosphate of soda...... trace. | 0°002 | 0°001 | trace 
Iodide of sodium....... 0-011 | 0-017 | 0°025 | v°031 
Bromide of sodium,.... 0°091 | 1°069 | 01°192 | 0°276 
Aluioing: 2 cn ae 0°153 | trace. | 0°016 | trace 
ANCR TSC SASL oe on 0°283 | 0°105 | O°157 | 0°018 
Pataler cease rite: 69°502 | 75°267 | 98-874 |105°804 
Carbonic acid gas, cu. in. 51 49 | 47 5T 


There were also traces of fluoride of calcium, 
biborate of soda, and orgaric matter. Saratoga 
waters possess tonic and cathartic properties, 
and are therefore especially adapted to cases of 
dyspepsia, jaundice, calculus, and engorgement 
of the liver. (See Saratroea Sprines.) Allied 
springs are: Congress spring, Santa Olara co., 
Cal.; Rockbridge baths, Rockbridge co., Va. 
(74° F.); Capon springs and bath, Hampshire 
co., W. Va.; Artesian well, St. Louis, Mo. 
(2,199 ft. deep); Spring Lake well and Fruit 
Port well, Ottawa co., Mich., which much re- 
semble the celebrated waters of Creuznach, 
Prussia; and St. Catharine’s wells, Ontario, 
Oanada, also similar to Creuznach, but stronger. 
Plantagenet or Caratraca and Caledonia springs, 
in the same province of Canada, are fine types 
of iodo-bromated saline waters. 3. Sulphur 
Springs. These are impregnated with nitrogen 
and sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Cold sulphur 
springs are indicated as effective in catarrhal 
affections of the lungs and throat, and in hem- 


‘brier co., W. 


593 


orrhoids. Such are Weilbach, Nenndorf, Eilsen, 
Langenbriicken, in Germany; Stachelberg in 
Glarus, Switzerland; Montmorency, La Roche, ' 
and St. Amand, in France; Harrowgate, Tyne- 
mouth, and Butterby, in England; and many in 
Italy. Thermal sulphur springs are recommend- 
ed in rheumatism and gout. Among these are 
Aix-la-Chapelle and Burtscheid (Kochbrunnen, 
156° F.), in Prussia; Baden, near Vienna; 
Baréges, Bagnéres-de-Luchon, Eaux-Chaudes, 
Arles, St. Sauveur, Ax, Digne, and Aix-les- 
Bains, in France; Abano, Ponti, Sessame, Vol- 
terra, Viterbo, Pozzuoli, Oastellamare, &c., in 
Italy; Baden and Schinznach, in Switzerland ; 
Mehadia and Trencsény-Teplitz, in Hungary; 
the Caldas of Rainha and Gerez in Portugal, 
and of Orense and Lugo, in Spain; and Ram- 
lésa, in Sweden. The principal cold sulphur 
springs in the United States are: Alpena well, 
Mich.; Cold White Sulphur springs, Rock- 
bridge co., Montgomery White Sulphur springs 
and the Seven Fountains or Burner’s springs, 
Shenandoah co., Red Sulphur springs, Monroe 
co., and Greenbrier White Sulphur springs 
and Greenbrier Blue Sulphur springs, Green- 
Va.; Sharon springs, Schoharie 
co., Richfield and Cherry Valley springs, Otsego 
co., Avon springs, Livingston co., and Columbia 
springs, Columbia co., N. Y.; Bedford springs, 
Trimble co., Esculapia springs, Lewis co., Fox 
springs, Fleming co., and White Sulphur and 
Tar springs, Breckenridge co., Ky.; De Soto 
springs, La.; Green Cove springs, Clay co., 
Fla.; Red Sulphur springs, Walker co., Ga.; 
and French Lick springs, Orange co., Ind. The 
Sandwich springs, Ontario, Canada, are also 
of this class. Of saline sulphur waters, appli- 
cable especially to the treatment of dartrous 
or herpetic diseases of the skin, the most noted 
are: West Baden springs, Orange co., Indian 
springs, Martin co., Lodi Artesian well, Wabash 
co., and Lafayette well (55° F.), Tippecanoe 
co., Ind.; the upper and lower Blue Lick 
springs, Nicholas co., Big Bone springs, Boone 
co., Paroquet springs, Bullitt co., and Olympian 
springs, Bath co., Ky.; Blount springs, Ala. ; 
Massena springs, St. Lawrence co., N. Y., which 
resemble those of Eilsen, Germany; and Salt 
Sulphur springs, Monroe co., W. Va. Of calcic 
sulphur waters, prescribed in cases which other- 
wise would require sulphur waters, but which 
are complicated by disease of the bladder, the 
principal springs are: Chittenango springs, 
Madison co., and Clifton springs, Ontario co., 
N. Y.; and Yellow Sulphur springs, Montgom- 
ery co., Va. The principal thermal .sulphur 
springs in the United States are: Calistoga hot 
springs, Napa co. (about 60 springs, ‘varying 
from lukewarm to boiling hot), the Geysers, 
Sonoma co. (about 100 springs, varying from 
97° to 195° I*.), Paso Robles hot springs, San 
Luis Obispo co. (112° to 122°, and allied to 
the waters of Aix-la-Chapelle), Santa Bar- 
bara hot sulphur springs (60° to 180°), and 
Agua Oaliente or Dr. Warner’s ranch spring 
(186° to 142°), San Diego co., Cal.; Louisville 


594 MINERAL 


artesian well (763°), Ky.; Middle Park hot 
sulphur springs (111° to 116°), Summit co., 
Col.; Salt Lake hot springs (110° to 128°), Salt 
Lake City, Utah; Warm springs (90°), Merri- 
wether co., Ga.; Warm springs (96° to 98°), 
Bath co., Va.; and the Geysers or Warm Sul-. 
phur springs (96° to 104°), about 20 m. from 
Sitka, Alaska. 4. Alkaline Springs. The wa- 
ters of alkaline springs increase, by their ex- 
cess of carbonate of soda, the alkalinity and 
fluidity of the blood. Their action is diuretic, 
and they are efficacious in all affections of the 
kidneys, in catarrhs, in affections of the stom- 
ach, bladder, and abdomen, and in indigestion, 
jaundice, gout, and diabetes. According to 
Bauer, 16 oz. of the water of the Grande Grille 
(107°) of Vichy contains carbonate of soda 
29°19 grains, carbonate of lime 1°92, ammonia 
0:036, strontia 0°0178, magnesia 0°27, sulphate 
of potash 1°567, soda 0°9, phosphate of soda 
0:032, and chloride of sodium 4°445. The 

Josephsquelle of Bilin, Bohemia, contains about 
* 23 grains of carbonate of soda in the same quan- 
tity of water. Other noted alkaline springs are 
Buda, in Hungary; Vals, Aix, Chaudes-Aigues, 
Néris-les-Bains, and Luxeuil, in France; Gies- 
hibel near Carlsbad, Fachingen, Geilnau, and 
the muriated alkaline or acidulous springs of 
Selters, Ems, and Salzbrunn, in Germany; Bris- 
tol, Buxton, and Dunblane, in Great Britain; 
Camarés, in France; Ischia, Asciano, and No- 
cera, in Italy. The principal constituents of the 
famous Selters and allied waters, used in acute 
catarrh and pulmonary affections, are chloride 
of sodium, carbonate of soda, and carbonic acid 
gas. The principal alkaline springs of the Uni- 
ted States are: Bladon springs, Choctaw co., 
Ala.; California Seltzer springs, Mendocino 
co.; Perry springs, Pike co., and Versailles 
springs, Brown co., Ill.; St. Louis springs, 
Gratiot co., Mich.; Sheldon springs (including 
the Missisquoi. spring), Franklin co., and Wel- 
don springs, St.. Albans, Vt.; and the newly 
discovered Des Chutes hot springs (148° to 
145°), Wasco co., Oregon. 5. Alkaline Saline 
Springs. The waters. of these springs are 
most efficient in diseases of the liver and ab- 
dominai* plethora, obesity, gout, and calculus. 
Their representatives are the thermal springs 
(1174° to 165°) of Carlsbad in Bohemia, nine 
of which are in use. The famous Sprudel, 
which used to spout 18 to 20 times a minute, 
rising from 4 to 8 ft., contains, according to 
Berzelius and Bauer, in 16 0z., sulphate of soda 
19°28 grains, chloride of sodium 7°97, carbonate 
of soda:10:13, carbonate of lime 2°37, carbonate 
of magnesia..1°369, carbonate of lithia 0°02, and. 
fluoride of calcium 0:024. To this class belong 
the curative-cold waters of Marienbad in Bohe- 


mia, Rohitsch in Styria, and the thermal Ber- | 


trich in Rhineland; - Dax, Bagnéres-d’ Adour, 
and Ussat, in France;.and Bath and Matlock, 
in England. In the United* States the- chief 
springs of this class are: Lansing well, Ingham 
co., Mich.; Ballston Spa, Saratoga co., and the 
Albany artesian well (500 ft. deep), N. Y.; Mil- 


SPRINGS 


hoit’s soda springs, Clackamas co., Oregon; and 
the thermals, Idaho hot springs (85° to 115°), 
Clear Creek co., Col., and Charleston artesian 
well (87°, 1,250 ft. deep), Charleston, 8. C. 6. 
Purgative or Bitter Waters. These waters de- 
rive their latter name from the taste of their 
chief ingredients, sulphate of soda (Glauber’s 
salts) and sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts). 
When taken in moderate doses they act as 
gentle purgatives and strong diuretics, and are 
useful therefore in all cases requiring active 
saline purgation. They are especially applica- 
ble to persons of robust constitution, with a 
tendency to abdominal plethora. The Kissin- 
gen bitter water contains, in 16 oz., sulphate of 
soda 46°51 grains, sulphate of magnesia 39°55, 
chloride of sodium 61:10, chloride of magne- 
sium 80:25, chloride of ammonium 0:02, and 
chloride of lithium 0°09. Friederichshall in 
Saxe-Meiningen, Pillna, Seidschitz, and Seid- 
litz in Bohemia, Epsom in England, Campagne- 
sur-Aude in France, and Ivanda in Hunga- 
ry, are famous bitter waters. Of springs of 
this class in the United States, Crab Orchard 
springs, Lincoln co., Ky., produce the Crab 
Orchard salts, which are made by boiling down 
the water. Estill or Irvine springs, Estill co., 
Ky., are strongly impregnated with sulphate of 
magnesia. Harrodsburg springs, Mercer co., 
Ky., aremodiftied in their laxative effect by equal 
amounts of sulphate of lime and of carbonate 
of iron. Bedford springs, Bedford co., Pa., 
are purgative-chalybeate. Allied waters are: 
Beer springs, Oregon; Midland well, Midland 
co., Mich.; and Elgin spring, Addison co., Vt. 
7. Calcic Springs. These are rich in carbonate 
of lime (limestone), or sulphate of lime (gyp- 
sum), mixed with iron, and with saline, alka- 
line, and other ingredients. Bathing in these 
waters cures exanthema, indigestion, and rheu- 
matic and gouty affections. Drinking them, 
especially those rich in carbonate of lime and 
carbonic acid, such as the Wildungen water, 
proves beneficial in catarrh of the bladder, 
gravel and calculus, and in gastralgic dys- 
pepsia. The following calcic thermal waters 
are regarded as of great therapeutical value: 
Leuk (123°), canton of Valais, and Weissen- 
burg (tepid), in Bern, Switzerland; Lucca and 
Montione, in Italy; and in the United States, 
San Bernardino hot springs (100° to 172°), 
Cal.; Agua Caliente (130°), Mesilla co., N. 
M.; Sweet springs (74°), Monroe co., W. Va.; 
Berkeley springs (74°), in Bath, Morgan co., 
W. Va.; Warm springs (97° to 102°), Madison 
co., N. C.; and Bethesda springs (60°), Wau- 
kesha, Wis. (calcic-alkaline, efficient in urinary 
diseases). The principal cold calcic springs 
are: Wildungen, Waldeck, Germany; Contrex- 
éville, Vosges, France; in the United States, 
Butterworth springs, Kent co., Leslie well, Ing- 
ham co., Eaton Rapids wells, Eaton co., and 
Hubbardston well, Ionia co., Mich.; Yellow 
springs, Greene co., Ohio; and Gettysburg 
springs, Adams co., Pa. 8. Indifferent Ther- 
mal Springs. This class contains but small 


MINERAL SPRINGS 


amounts of salts and alkalines, the beneficial 
effect of bathing in their waters resulting main- 
ly from their increased temperature (75° to 
160°). These baths are efficacious especially in 
paralysis, articular and muscular rheumatism, 
old wounds, enervation, and decrepitude. The 
most noted are: Gastein, in Salzburg, Austria 
(eight springs, from 87° to 160°); Wildbad, in 
Wirtemberg; Pfifers and Ragatz, in Switzer- 
land; Teplitz and Johannesbad, in Bohemia; 
Warmbrunn and Landeck, in Prussian Silesia; 
Schlangenbad, in Hesse-Nassau, applicable es- 
pecially to hysteria and skin diseases; Plom- 
biéres, Vosges, France, efficacious in gastral- 
gia, rheumatism, and dartrous diseases of the 
skin; Bains, in Alsace; Alhama de Granada, 
in Spain; and San Martino, in Lombardy. 
In the United States the most noted of this 
class are: Hot springs (57 springs, from 93° 
to 150°), Hot Springs co., Ark., which re- 
semble those of Gastein and Pfafers; Healing 
springs, Bath co., Va., applicable to all ulcera- 
ted conditions; Hot springs (102° to 108°), 
Bath co., Va.; Tuscan springs (76°), Shasta 
co., Cal.; Holston springs (664°), Scott co., 
Va.; and Lebanon springs, Columbia co., N. 
Y.—No complete analysis has yet been made 
of some valuable cold springs, such as the 16 
Birchdale springs, near Concord, N. H., the 
waters of which are alterative, diuretic, and 
aperient; Parkersburg mineral wells, Wood 
co., W. Va., the principal constituents of 
which are sulphate of magnesia and sulphate 
of soda; Clarendon springs, Rutland co., Vt., 
used as a remedy in gravel, dyspepsia, and 
engorgement of the liver; Alleghany springs, 
Montgomery co., Va., and Shannondale springs, 
Jefferson co., W. Va., calcic waters. In F. V. 
Hayden’s “‘ Preliminary Report of the United 
States Geological Survey of Montana,” &e. 
(Washington, 1872), Dr. A. C. Peale, the min- 
eralogist of the expedition, gives a catalogue of 
the thermal springs met with, among which 
he enumerates 10 chalybeates, averaging 129°, 
near Ogden and the Great Salt lake, Utah; of 
calcareous springs, 5 in Lincoln valley, near 
Fort Hall, Idaho (75°), 6 in Madison co., Mon- 
tana, 16 on Gardiner’s river, Wyoming, and 
1 on the east fork of the Yellowstone (111° 
to 142°); 15 sulphurous and acidulous springs 
(151° to 171°) in the same tract; 6 sulphur 
and chalybeate springs (181°) on Yellowstone 
lake; 60 salses or mud volcanoes and sulphu- 
rous springs (173° to 184°) near Mt. Washburn 
and Turbid lake, Yellowstone valley; 17 salses 
(175° to 178°) on Crater hills and Steamy 
point, Yellowstone valley; 49 silicious (155° 
to 166°) on Yellowstone lake and Madison 
river; a great number of carbonated or soda 
springs (50°) on Bear river, Utah; and 400 
geysers and silicious springs (157° to 184°) in 
the geyser basin of the National park.— Uses. 
Mineral waters are considered applicable to 
the treatment of chronic diseases only, as a 
rule, and are to be used during the inactivity 
of the disease. Medical advice is indispensable 


MINERAL WATERS 595 


in their selection and use, as change of air, 
diet, &c., are important coagents. Excesses of 
the table should be rigidly avoided during the 
treatment. The waters are usually taken before 
breakfast, the dose being gradually increased 
from one to four tumblers; but iron and alka- 
line waters may be taken several times a day, 
the latter with great advantage at bedtime. 
In some parts of France and Switzerland it is 
customary to drink while sitting in the bath, 
the usual time being two hours after breakfast. 
The stomach should be empty when the bath 
is taken. The regular temperature of the cold 
bath is 70° F. and below; of the warm bath, 92° 
to 98°; and of the hot bath, 102° to 110°. In 
the vapor and Russian bath the temperature is 
raised to 160°, and in the hot-air and the Turk- 
ish bath to 176°. The temperature of the body 
is so increased in these baths that the sudden 
transition to the cool shower bath and douche 
is soothing, and is followed under favorable 
conditions by copious perspiration. The min- 
eral mud bath (85° to 100°) consists of mud 
taken from the marshy ground about the source 
of mineral springs. It is used chiefly in dis- 
eases of the skin, chronic rheumatism, and af- 
fections of the joints. When the symptoms 
of the ‘bathing crisis’? appear, the use of 
mineral waters should be discontinued for a 
few days. A ‘‘small” or short cure requires 
three or four weeks, a “great” one five or 
six weeks. Mineral waters can be taken with 
benefit at any time of the year, but the season 
generally begins in May or June, and ends, ac- 
cording to the local climate, in September or 
October. After a season at the springs, the 
vineyards of Bingen, Diirkheim, Vevay, Mon- 
treux, and Meran are resorted to by many 
patients for an additional grape cure, the effect 
of which is generally cathartic.—For accounts 
of the mineral springs of Europe, see Durand- 
Fardel and E. Le Bost, Dictionnaire des eaux 
minérales (Paris, 1860); Althaus, ‘ The Spas of 
Europe” (London, 1862); and in German, the 
works of Garless (1848), Posner (18538), Lersch 
(1855-’60), Weller (1860, who also publishes a 
yearly guide, Wegweiser), H. Helft (1862), Braun 
(1869), T. Hirsfeld (Der Cur-Salon, 1866- 
72), and R. Rentwig (Badezettung, 1869-72). 
For the springs of the United States, see Bell, 
‘Mineral and Thermal Springs of the United 
States and Canada” (1855), and Walton, ‘‘ The 
Mineral Springs of the United States and Can- 
ada, with Analyses and Notes of the prominent 
Spas of Europe” (1878). 

MINERAL WATERS, Artificial, imitations of 
mineral spring waters, made by dissolving the 
salts which constitute the basis of the natural 
mineral waters in ordinary water impregnated 
with gases, especially carbonic acid gas. Ex- 
periments in their manufacture were made as 
early as the 16th century, but they have been 
produced in perfection only within the past 50 
years, since chemical analysis has become an 
operation of minute exactness. The merit of 
the discovery of their principles belongs to 


596 


Berzelius and the German physician Struve; 
but the latter, who proved the practical value 
of the invention, and founded, as Berzelius did 
in Stockholm, the first manufactories or spas 
in Dresden (1818-’20), Leipsic, Hamburg, Ber- 
lin, St. Petersburg, and Brighton, is deservedly 
called the father of artificial mineral waters. 
By powdering the clinkstone of Bilin and sub- 
jecting it to the action of carbonic acid water, 
under a slight hydrostatic pressure, he pro- 
duced a mineral water identical with that of 
the natural spring of Bilin. Faraday and Lie- 
big pronounced his artificial Carlsbad and 
Friedrichshall bitter waters to be identical in 
chemical composition and physiological action 
with the natural waters which they represented. 
Artificial mineral waters have some advantages 
over natural waters. The supply of the latter 
exported from the springs of continental Eu- 
rope is inadequate for the demand, and most 
natural waters lose materially by bottling. The 
springs too are subject to many changes, and 
frequently vary in the quantity or the relative 
proportion of their mineral ingredients. Arti- 
ficial waters, on the contrary, are prepared 
according to analyses which represent the 
natural mineral waters when in their best con- 
dition. They are always the same in compo- 
sition, in consequence of the technical perfec- 
tion of their manufacture, and they produce 
the same general effect as the natural waters. 
They are more highly charged with carbonic 
acid gas than the latter, which insures their 
keeping in any climate and renders them more 
pleasant to the taste. The manufacture of 
mineral waters also embraces composition 
waters, devised for special medical purposes, 
and the beverages soda water, seltzer water, 
&c. The most important constituent of all 
these waters is carbonic acid gas, which is pre- 
pared by decomposing carbonates of lime and 
bicarbonates of soda with acids, especially sul- 
phuric acid, in a vessel called the generator. 
Carbonates of lime contain from 41 to 52 per 
cent. of carbonic acid; bicarbonates of soda, 
47°62 of soda and 52°38 of carbonic acid. Dis- 
tilled water is used in making mineral waters, 
pure well or spring water for soda water, &c. 
Water absorbs nearly its own volume of car- 
bonic acid gas at 60° F., and the absorption is 
increased by reduction of temperature, increase 
of pressure, or both. The principal substances 
or salts used in the manufacture of mineral 
waters are comprised in the following groups: 
1, chlorides of magnesium, calcium, strontium, 
and lithium, carbonate of lime and of magne- 
sia, and sulphate of magnesia; 2, the alkaline 
salts; 3, the salts of iron and of manganese. 
Waters containing sulphuretted hydrogen gas 
can never be perfectly imitated, because the for- 
mation of this gas is a continual process of 
decomposition, originating from the reaction 
of organic matter upon the sulphates. In the 
construction of the manufacturing apparatus 
two different systems are followed: 1. The 
Geneva system, an improvement of Struve’s 


MINERAL WATERS 


original apparatus. In this the carbonic acid 
gas passes from the generator through purify- 
ing vessels or bottles containing partly water,. 
partly certain solutions of salts, and thence 
into the gasometer, out of which it is pressed 
by a pump into the mixing cylinder, where the 
water is impregnated with it. Between the 
pump and the cylinder is placed the repurgator, 
a cylindrical tube of strong sheet copper con- 
taining fine charcoal, in which the gas under- 
goes a final purification. The water is then 
impregnated with the gas by revolving a pad- 
dling shaft which passes through the middle 
of the mixing cylinder. The latter is provi- 
ded with a manometer which indicates the pres- 
sure of the gas, tubes through which the wa- 
ter enters, a safety valve, and a water gauge. 
Bramah’s apparatus is of similar construction, 
but has some improvements. In it the water 
to be aérated and the expanded carbonic acid 
gas are pumped in the proper proportions into 
the receiving vessel, where they are mixed and 
the aération completed. This system is more 
generally in use in England and France than 
in Germany. 2. The self-generator system, 
after which the apparatus of Ozouf, Gappard, 
and Savaresse are constructed. It dispenses 
with the pump and gasometer, the water being 
impregnated by the pressure of the gas itself. 
The generator which contains the carbonates 
is filled with hot water to a certain height, and 
a square cooling apparatus is therefore applied 
between the washing vessels and the cylinder. 
This apparatus is not so expensive as the for- 
mer, but is less recommended on account of the 
imperfect purification of the gas and its liabil- 
ity to explosion. The apparatus of Mr. John 
Matthews of New York, which is now widely 
introduced in Europe, is a combination of the 
Bramah and the self-generator systems, the 
mechanical devices of the former being greatly 
simplified, and the lia- 
bility to explosion of 
the latter being obvi- 
ated by a safety cap. 
This cap consists of 
a duplex disk, a, a 
nut, 6, screwed firmly 
against it, alead wash- 
er, c, to close joint on 
the generator bung, 
and an aperture, d, 
through which the 
gas escapes when the 
disk is ruptured by 
undue pressure.—Af- 
ter the mineral water is made, it is drawn 
from the apparatus into fountains (portable 
cylinders), siphons, or bottles, the faucets and 
filling and corking apparatus being so con- 
structed as to prevent the loss of carbonic acid. 
For use, the fountains, which resemble the 
mixing cylinder in construction, are placed as 
reservoirs under or behind the marble case on 
the counter. The case contains ice in a cooling 
chamber, through which the connecting pipes 


Matthews’s Apparatus. 


MINERAL WATERS 


from the fountains pass to the faucets in front. 
The business of furnishing aérated waters in 
portable fountains has greatly increased since 
the improvements made by Matthews in the 
apparatus. The fountains previously in use 
were superficially coated with a wash of tin, 
and the contents were sooner or later con- 
taminated by poisonous metallic salts. The 
Matthews fountains are composed of an inner 
container of pure sheet tin secured in a shell 
of fine cast steel. Although much lighter than 
the old style of fountains, the 15-gallon foun- 
tain weighing but 40 lbs., they will resist a 
pressure of 500 lbs. to the square inch; and 
the connections being made of solid tin encased 
in sustaining sheets, the water cannot be con- 
taminated. There are now 10,000 of these 
fountains in use, furnishing 4,000 places for 
dispensing aérated waters. The most perfect 
and elegant dispensing apparatus, in which the 
sirups are contained in portable glass tanks 
where they do not come into contact with any 
metal, are now made in the United States and 
extensively exported to Etrope. An impor- 
tant and novel improvement in bottling uérated 
beverages, an American invention, in which 
the bottle is closed from the inside by a glass 
stopper, has recently come into extensive use 
both in the United States and in Europe.— 
Soda water proper is a solution of carbonate 
of soda in water, impregnated with carbonic 
acid gas. Webb’s English soda water contains 
15 grains of crystallized carbonate of soda in 
one pint of water. Chloride of sodium is fre- 
quently added. Bicarbonate of soda is some- 
times used for generating carbonic acid gas, 
and from this has arisen the popular use of 
the name soda water for carbonic acid water, 
or water charged with an excess of carbonic 
acid. German and American soda water, or 
what is called in France eaw de seltz, contains 
no soda. Priestley first produced it by pouring 
dilute sulphuric acid over carbonate of lime, 
and impregnating the water with the gas; 
a method which is still generally followed. 
Under the name of soda, carbonic acid water 
is mixed with sirups, and it forms a constituent 
of many of the American compound drinks. 
In Paris it is taken as eaw gazeuse with hock 
and clarets. Carbonic acid water improves the 
taste and increases the sanitary effect of drinks, 
is the best antidote for alcohol, and lessens the 
desire for spirituous liquors. It has a generally 
exhilarating and invigorating effect upon the 
system, essentially promotes digestion, checks 
too great acidity in the stomach, and is a much 
esteemed remedy in febrile diseases. Native 
wines are now extensively aérated in the Uni- 
ted States, and American sparkling wines pro- 
duced which will compare favorably with the 
best imported brands. This has been done 
only since the introduction of Matthews’s ap- 
paratus, in which the receivers and all the 
parts that come into contact with the wine 
are lined with pure silver, a metal which does 
not affect it unfavorably. Mineral waters have 


MINERVA 597 


recently been brought from the most celebrated 
natural springs to New York in casks lined 
with pure tin sheets and aérated. Large quan- 
tities thus prepared are bottled or dispensed 
from fountains, and this trade is supplanting 
to a certain extent the manufacture of arti- 
ficial mineral waters.—The great therapeutical 
value of baths in carbonic acid water (cham- 
pagne baths) is now established. They pro- 
duce a pleasant burning sensation in the skin, 
give elasticity to the limbs, and are generally 
invigorating if used moderately. They are pro- 
duced by adding to 10 or 15 gallons of water 
at 110° F. an equal quantity of very strong 
carbonic acid water from a highly charged 
fountain, the escaping gas being finely divided 
by means of an apparatus constructed for that 
purpose. Chloride of sodium and of magne- 
sium are added for brine baths.—See Carl 
Schultz, ‘‘Review of the History of Mineral 
Waters” (New York, 1865). 

MINERSVILLE, a borough of Schuylkill co., 
Pennsylvania, on the W. branch of the Schuyl- 
kill river and on the Mine Hill and Schuylkill 
Haven railroad, 4 m. W. of Pottsville, and 46 
m. N. E. of Harrisburg; pop. in 1870, 3,699. 
It is surrounded by hills containing rich mines 
of anthracite, and has a national bank, a flour 
mill, saw mill, iron foundery, car factory, nine 
public schools, with a high school, a weekly 
newspaper, and four churches. 

MINERVA, called by the Greeks ArnEna, Pat- 
LAS, or Patras ATHENE, in mythology, one of 
the principal Olympian divinities. She was 
one of the most ancient religious conceptions 
of the Greeks. Jupiter, after a victory over the 
Titans, chose for his first spouse the goddess 
Metis; but an oracle having declared that the 
son of Metis would snatch the supremacy away 
from his father, Jupiter swallowed both Metis 
and her unborn ¢hild. When the time of 
birth arrived, Jupiter felt a violent pain in his 
head, and in his agony requested Vulcan to 
cleave the head open with an axe; whereupon 
Minerva sprang forth, according to the later 
accounts, in full armor, and with a mighty war 
shout. She first took part in the-discussions 
of the gods as an opponent of the savage 
Mars. She gave counsel to her father against 
the giants, and herself slew Pallas and Ence- 
ladus, the latter of: whom she buried under 
Mt. Etna. She was the patron of heroism 
among men, and aided the Greeks in the Tro- 
jan war. As a protectress of the arts of 
peace, she appears as a maiden, in many re- 
spects resembling a princely daughter of the 
early heroic period. She bears in her hand 
the spool, the spindle, and the needle, and is 
said to have invented and excelled in every 
kind of work proper to women. The agricul- 
turist and the mechanic were also under her 
care, and the philosopher, the orator, and the 
poet delighted in her protection. In all these 
employments she is the symbol of thought, 
the goddess of wisdom; and as such she was 
worshipped throughout Greece, and under the 


598 MINGHETTI 


name of Minerva she was adopted by the Ro- 
mans. She was especially the national divin- 
ity of the Athenians, having in the reign of 
Cecrops contended with Neptune for the land, 
which she planted with the olive. On the 
Acropolis of Athens stood the magnificent 
temple of the Parthenon, dedicated to her, and 
containing her statue by Phidias; and the sa- 
cred festival of the Panathenswa was celebrated 
with great splendor in her honor. In the rep- 
resentations of art, as in the events of her life, 
she remains the goddess of pure reason, raised 
above every feminine weakness, and disdain- 
inglove. The helmet, buckler, lance, and egis 
were her attributes; and the olive branch, ser- 
pent, and owl were sacred to her. In the an- 
cient traditions she was represented as clothed 
usually in a sleeveless tunic, over which she 
threw a cloak, or folding peplus. 

MINGHETTI, Marzo, an Italian statesman, born 
in Bologna, Sept. 8, 1818. He early became 
known as a lecturer on political economy and 
advocate of free trade, and as a journalist. In 
1848 he was for a short time minister of pub- 
lic works at Rome, but he left the service of 
Pius IX. to enlist in the Sardinian army, in 
which he rose to be major. He assisted Ca- 
vour at the congress of Paris in 1856, and pub- 
lished in 1859 Della economia pubblica e delle 
sue attinenze con la morale e col diritto. He 
was next secretary general in the ministry of 
foreign affairs, and subsequently, as a member 
and president of the assembly of the Romagnas, 
he was active in the annexation of those prov- 
inces to the dominions of Victor Emanuel. 
Afterward he represented Bologna in the na- 
tional parliament. Shortly before Cavour’s 
death he became minister of the interior, and 
retained that office for a short time under 
Ricasoli. From 1863 to 1868 he was premier 
and minister of finance; and after being min- 
ister to England he accepted in 1869 the port- 
folio of agriculture, and in 1873 succeeded 
Lanza as prime minister. In the elections of 
November, 1874, he was once more returned 
to parliament. He has been long engaged upon 
@ work on Europe before the reformation. 

MINGRELIA, a district of Asiatic Russia, in 
the lieutenancy of the Caucasus, forming part 
of the government of Kutais, bordering on 
the Circassian districts, Imerethia, Guria, the 
Black sea, and Abkhasia; area, about 2,600 
sq.m.; pop. about 240,000, or, including Sua- 
nethi and Samurzakan (together 1,500 sq. m.), 
which are embraced in the same government, 
280,000. The surface is generally mountainous, 
but slopes gradually to the south, particular- 
ly toward the Rion, its principal river. The 
climate is warm and damp, and fevers are 
prevalent. The soil is exceedingly fertile and 
vegetation rapid. The mountains are covered 
with magnificent forests, and much good land 
lies waste. The principal products are maize, 
wood, wax, and wool. Tobacco, rice, and mil- 
let are raised, and a good deal of silk, honey, 
and wine produced. There is an iron mine 


MINIATURE PAINTING 


and a smelting furnace, and in 1865 gold was 
discovered in the valley of the Ingur. The 
district is without internal improvement, and 
has a savage and deserted appearance. The in- 
habitants belong mainly to the Georgian race, 
but are generally inferior in appearance to the 
mountaineers of the Caucasus. The dominant 
religion is that of the Greek church.—Mingre- 
lia nearly corresponds with the ancient Col- 
chis. It was long a part of the kingdom of 
Georgia, was afterward independent under a 
line of native princes, and became subject to 
Russia in 1804; but its prince remained nom- 
inally sovereign till Jan. 17, 1867, when he 
ceded all his rights to the emperor of Russia 
in consideration of 1,000,000 rubles. On the 
W. coast the Russians have established the 
forts of Redut-Kaleh and Anaklia. 

MINH9 (Sp. A/ivo; anc. Minius), a river of 
Spain and Portugal, which rises in the Sierra 
de Mondofiedo, in the province of Lugo, Gali- 
cia, a short distance 8. of Mondofiedo, flows 
first S. and then 8. W., crosses the province of 
Orense, forms the boundary between the Span- 
ish province of Pontevedra and the Portuguese 
province of Minho, and falls into the Atlantic 
near Caminha, about 30 m. 5S. of Vigo. It is 
about 150 m. long, and is navigable for only a 
short distance from its mouth, being obstruct- 
ed by sand banks. It abounds in salmon and 
lampreys. Its principal tributaries are the Sil, 
which joins it on the left about 70 m. from its 
mouth, and the Avia on the right. The largest 
towns onits banks are Lugo and Orense in Spain. 

MINHO, or Entre Douro e Minho, the north- 
ernmost province of Portugal, bounded N. 
by the Spanish province of Pontevedra, from 
which it is separated by the Minho, N. E. 
by that of Orense, E. by the Portuguese prov- 
ince of Tras os Montes, 8. by Beira, from 
which it is separated by the Douro, and W. 
by the Atlantic; area, 2,807 sq. m.; pop. in 
1871, 971,000. It is a high table land inter- 
sected by several mountain ridges, running in 
a N. E. and S. W. direction, one of which rises 
to the height of nearly 8,000 feet. The prin- 
cipal rivers are the Lima, Cavado, and Ave, 
which flow into the sea, and the Tamega, an 
affluent of the Douro; there are also numer- 
ous smaller rivers and streams, and the valleys 
are exceedingly fertile and well cultivated. 
The principal productions are wine, millet, oil, 
flax, cork, oranges, lemons, maize, wheat, bar- 
ley, and oats. The well known wine called 
port from Oporto, whence it is shipped, is 
almost wholly made in this province. Numer- 
ous herds graze the pastures, and the province 
is famous for its pork. The sea and rivers 
abound with fish, the capture of which affords 
employment to many of the inhabitants. The 
principal manufactures are linen, hats, and 
cutlery. The population of this province is 
the most intelligent and prosperous portion of 
the Portuguese people. Capital, Braga. 

MINIATURE PAINTING, a species of painting 
on a small scale, executed with water colors 


MINIATURE PAINTING 


on vellum, prepared paper, or ivory, or in 
enamel, The word originated from the an- 
cient practice of writing the initial letters of 
manuscripts in miniwm or red lead, for the 
purpose of distinguishing the commencement 
of chapters or paragraphs. These rubrics, as 
they were called, gradually received many fan- 
ciful adornments at the hands of the illustra- 
tors, who added rich arabesque borders, and 
finally delicately executed little pictures illus- 
trating the text, to which the general name of 
miniature was applied. The taste for this spe- 
cies of ornamentation existed at a period con- 
siderably anterior to the Christian era. The 
ancient Egyptians illuminated their papyri 
with colored hieroglyphics; and from passages 
in Pliny, Seneca, and other classical authors, 
the art seems to have been familiar to the 
Greeks and Romans. The middle ages, how- 
ever, and especially the period extending from 
the 8th to the 14th century inclusive, witnessed 
its most perfect development; and the medie- 
val monks in the solitude of their convents 
found at once an amusement and a pious occu- 
pation in embellishing their missals, breviaries, 
and other sacred volumes. The illumination 
of missals was consequently for many ages the 
chief form in which miniature painting was 
- practised, although, as in the case of fresco 
and oil paintings, subjects other than Scriptu- 
ral or sacred were from the outset occasionally 
selected. The art seems from an early period 
to have been divided into two branches, the 
professors of the first being called méniatori 
or miniature painters, or illuminators of books; 
and those of the second miniatori calligrafi, 
or calligraphers. ‘‘To the first class,” says 
Mrs. Merrifield, ‘‘ belonged the task of paint- 
ing Scripture stories, the borders, and the ara- 
besques, and of laying on the gold and orna- 
ments of the manuscripts. The second wrote 
the whole of the work, and those initial let- 
ters, generally drawn with blue or red, full of 
flourishes and fanciful ornaments, in which 
the patience of the writer is frequently more 
to be admired than his genius.” Sometimes, 
however, the two branches were practised by 
the same person, and about the middle of the 
14th century the execution of large illumina- 
ted initials adorned with various fanciful ob- 
jects and figures, such as men, animals, birds, 
and flowers, became a distinct occupation, the 
ornamentation usually extending in scrolls 
along the upper and lower margins of the 
page. The pigments employed were of the 
purest quality, and were applied with an admix- 
ture of white in the shape of body colors, the 
vehicle being some glutinous substance suffi- 
ciently diluted in water to leave the surface 
of the vellum dull and lustreless. The Vatican 
collection of manuscripts contains one of the 
most ancient specimens of classical calligraphy 
extant, a Virgil of the 4th or 5th century with 
50 miniatures, besides many others of a some- 
what later date; and fragments of an illumi- 
nated Homer, which may also be ascribed to 


599 


the 4th or 5th century, are preserved in the 
Ambrosian library at Milan. The Byzantine 
artists particularly excelled as illuminators, and 
their manuscripts exhibit intricate arabesques 
of mixed foliage and animals, and the richest 
architectural fancies in the margins, although 
many of these are said to be repetitions of 
Romano-Christian works of the 5th and 6th 
centuries. The most elaborate exemplar of 
the school is the Menologium, or calendar exe- 
cuted about A. D. 1000 for the emperor Basil 
II., and which, notwithstanding one half of it 
is wanting, contains 480 miniatures on a gold 
ground, illustrating scenes from the lives of 
Christ and the saints, the history of the church, 
&c. The period extending from the middle of 
the 11th to the commencement of the 13th 
century was the richest in the history of the 
Byzantine school. Afterward the art rapidly 
deteriorated among them. Under the early 
Carlovingian kings of France, the transcription 
and embellishment of manuscripts were great- 
ly encouraged; and the Bibles of Charles the 
Bald, preserved in the imperial library at Paris, 
and in the Benedictine monastery of St. Calix- 
tus in Rome, are admirably illustrated. The 
English manuscripts are not inferior to the 
continental, and the benedictional of St. Eth- 
elwolf, executed in 963-7 by Godeman, a 
monk of Hyde abbey, is considered one of the 
purest specimens of early English art. The 
celebrated Bedford missal, executed in France 
for John, duke of Bedford, regent of France 
under Henry VI., and now in the British mu- 
seum, is one of the latest and richest specimens 
of the art of manuscript illumination. Among 
the most celebrated of the miniatori, who 
were also equally if not more celebrated in 
other branches of art, may be mentioned Si- 
mone Memmi, Giotto, Fra Angelico da Fiesole, 
Jan van Eyck, Squarcione, Girolamo dai Libri, 
Hans Memling, and Giulio Clovio. Memling 
was perhaps the best of all the illuminators; 
and of the industry of Giulio Clovio a memo- 
rable example is extant in his ‘‘ Office of the 
Virgin,” now in the royal library of Naples, 
the 28 miniatures of which are said to have 
occupied him nine years. With the invention 
of printing the occupation of the illuminator 
and calligrapher gradually ceased, although of 
late years the practice of embellishing books 
with illuminated borders and fanciful initials 
has again come into vogue. But modern in- 
vention has substituted for the toilsome efforts 
of the miniatori of the middle ages various 
rapid processes for printing designs in colors, 
of which Owen Jones’s publications afford 
some happy illustrations.—The term miniature 
painting is now applied almost exclusively to 
small portraits executed on thin sheets of ivory, 
which, on account of the semi-transparency of 
its texture, is preferred to any other material. 
This property of the ivory renders it necessary 
for the back to be protected by something per- 
fectly white, as the effect of the painting might 
be injured by any dark substance showing 


600 MINIE 


through. Miniatures on ivory seldom exceed 
a few square inches in size. In England the 
art has been cultivated by an eminent line 
of artists from Holbein downward, embracing 
such names as Nicholas Hilliard, Isaac and 
Peter Oliver, Samuel Cooper, Hoskins, Flat- 
man, Gibson, Cosway, Ross, Newton, Thor- 
burn, &c., whose works are invaluable for the 
likenesses they afford of distinguished public 
characters. According to Dr. Waagen, ‘in 
no department have the English artists at- 
tained so high a state of perfection as in this.” 
Under the first empire the French had many 
excellent miniaturists, including Isabey, who 
not only painted on ivory portrait pieces con- 
taining many figures, but attempted with suc- 
cess historical subjects; Augustin, Guérin, 
Saint, Mme. de Mirbel, &c. The most emi- 
nent American miniature painter was Malbone, 
whose works are executed with great delicacy, 
and after the lapse of many years retain much 
of their original freshness. Of late years the 
introduction of colored or retouched photo- 
graphic likenesses has somewhat interfered with 
the profession of the miniature painter; but 
these, owing to their perishable nature, can 
never wholly supplant portraits onivory. Pho- 
tography, regarded simply as an auxiliary to 
the miniature painter, rather aids than injures 
him by the data it affords for greater accuracy 
of drawing and proportions. (See ENAMEL- 
LInG.)—See ‘‘ Original Treatises on the Arts of 
Painting in Oil, Miniature, Mosaic,” &c., edit- 
ed by Mrs. Merrifield (2 vols., London, 1849). 

MINIE, Claude Etienne, a French inventor, born 
in Paris about 1805. At an early age he en- 
tered the army as a private soldier, and, after 
serving several campaigns in Algeria, reached 
the rank of captain. He now began to study 
improvements in firearms and projectiles; and 
on the supposition that he was from this cause 
losing his efficiency as a military officer, his 
dismissal was determined upon. Through the 
influence of the duke de Montpensier he was 
retained in the service, and gradually several 
of his improvements in rifle balls, cartridges, 
and gun barrels were adopted. In 1849 he 
was decorated with the cross of the legion of 
honor; in 1852 he was promoted to the rank 
of major on the retired list, and soon after 
was appointed chef du tir, or instructor in the 
use of firearms, at Vincennes. In 1858 he re- 
signed this post, and was appointed by the 
Egyptian government to superintend a manu- 
factory of arms and a school of gunnery at 
Cairo. The rifle bullet named after him is said 
to have been the invention of his friend and 
instructor, Capt. Delvigne. It consists of an 
elongated cylinder, conical in front and hollow 
behind, and fitted with a cap of thin iron, 
which, by filling the grooves of the barrel as 
the ball is forced through, gives to the latter a 
precision and range of flight previously un- 
known to gunnery. This was the first effectual 
introduction of the principle of expansion into 
the manufacture of firearms. 


| 


| 


MINK 


MINIUM. See Leap, vol. x., p. 245. 

MINK, a small, fur-bearing, carnivorous mam- 
mal, found in the northern parts of America, 
Europe, and Asia, belonging to the genus puto- 
rius (Cuv.), in which are included the ermine 
and common weasels, and to the sub-genus 
lutreola (Wagner). The minks have one molar 
less on each side above and below than the 
martens (mustela), and are therefore more car- 
nivorous; the size is smaller, and the form 
more slender; the color is nearly uniform; the 
feet much webbed, and their pads large and 
naked, with the intervals not occupied by 
hairs. The common American mink (P. vison, 
Rich.) varies in length (from nose to base of 


tail) from 138 to 18 in., the tail being 8 to 10 in. 


additional; the general color is dark brownish, 
the tail nearly black, the chin white, but not 
the edge of the upper jaw; some specimens 
are lighter, even to yellowish brown; the 
head is broad and depressed, with truncated 
snout, short round ears, eyes small and far 
forward, long and rigid whiskers in four hori- 
zontal series; body long and vermiform, with 
long neck; short and stout limbs, with five- 
toed feet, armed with sharp claws; tail long 
and cylindrical, having on each side of the 
under surface a glandular cavity secreting a 
strong musky fluid, whence the generic name; 


The under fur is soft 
and downy, with larger and coarser hairs inter- 
mingled; the more southern the locality, the 


mamme six, ventral. 


coarser and stiffer is the fur. The mink is 
an active, destructive depredator in the farm 
yard, sometimes killing several chickens in a 
single night, though less sanguinary than the 
weasel; it now and then catches a fish on its 
own account, and frequently steals those left 
by the angler; it feeds also on small rodents, 
marsh birds, frogs, and crawfish. It takes up 
its residence on the borders of ponds and small 
streams, especially near rapids and waterfalls; 
it is an excellent swimmer and diver, and a 
good runner; it rarely climbs trees, like the 
martens, unless hotly pursued; when killed in 
the water, it almost always sinks. It is read- 
ily caught in box or steel traps, or in dead- 
falls, baited with the head of a bird; it is very 
tenacious of life, and most active at night. In 
northern New York the breeding season be- 
gins toward the Ist of March, while the snow 
is on the ground; the young, five or six in 
number, are born about the end of April; 
when taken young, it is easily domesticated. 
The fur of the mink was formerly considered 
hardly worth collecting, a skin selling for 


MINNEAPOLIS 


601 


about 50 cents; but change of fashion after- | trade of Minneapolis is important and con- 


ward brought it into vogue and made it very 
valuable; itis fine, but shorter and less lustrous 
than that of the pine marten or American sable. 
(See Fur.) The animal is very generally dis- 
tributed in North America, from lat. 70° N. to 
Florida, and from ocean to ocean. Some spe- 
cimens from the west are larger than the aver- 
age. In the northern states there is a smaller 
and blacker variety; the fur is dark and re- 
markably soft, and considerably more valuable 
than that of the common mink.—The Euro- 
pean mink (P. lutreola, Cuv.) is of smaller 
size, darker colored, with less bushy tail, and 
the edges of the upper lip white; it is a rare 
animal, with the same habits as the American 
species, and its fur is more highly esteemed; 
indeed it is often sold to the inexperienced for 
sable, and that of the American mink is gen- 
erally called by furriers American sable, though 
the latter belongs to the genus mustela and is 
properly a marten. 

MINNEAPOLIS, a city and the county seat of 
Hennepin co., Minnesota, on both sides of the 
Mississippi river, here spanned by four bridges, 
at the falls of St. Anthony, 14 m. above St. 
Paul by the course of the stream, and 8 m. in 
a direct line W. N. W. of that city; pop. (with- 
in its present limits) in 1860, 5,822; in 1870, 
18,079, of whom 6,013 were foreigners; in 
1874, estimated by local authorities at 32,000. 
It is built on a broad natural esplanade over- 
looking the falls and the river, which is bor- 
dered at various points by picturesque bluffs. 
The surrounding country is remarkable for its 
beauty. Numerous lakes, particularly to the 
west, dot the landscape. The chief of these 
are Cedar, Calhoun, and Harriet, 8. W. of the 
city. The celebrated Minnehaha falls, 3 m. 
below, attract large numbers of visitors. A 
cemetery association which was organized in 
1871 has selected 128 acres between Lakes Cal- 
houn and Harriet as the site for a cemetery. 
These grounds are covered with groves of 
young trees, and command fine views of the 
lakes. The city is regularly laid out, with 
avenues running E. and W. and streets cross- 
ing them N. and §. They are generally 80 ft. 
wide, with 20 ft. sidewalks, and two rows of 
trees on each side. There are many substan- 
tial business blocks and elegant residences. 
The court house, city hall, two principal ho- 
tels, academy of music, opera house, and Athe- 
neum are noticeable structures. The city is 
_ supplied with water by powerful works, the 
streets are lighted with gas, and asystem of 
sewerage is in process of construction? The 
Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul railroad has 
its terminus here. The St. Paul and Pacific, 
and the Lake Superior and Mississippi railroads, 
with the Minneapolis and St. Louis line, con- 
nect the city with the Northern Pacific rail- 
road, with Duluth, and with St. Paul and the 
diverging lines. A line of steamers in sum- 
mer runs from above the falls to St. Cloud 
on the upper Mississippi.—The wholesale 


stantly increasing. There are four large gro- 
ceries, doing a business of from $4,000,000 to 
$5,000,000 a year, several hardware and iron 
houses, and three large dry-goods stores. The 
total commercial business in 1873 amounted 
to $14,301,700; in 1871 it was $10,530,000. 
There were five national banks and six private 
and savings banks in 1878, with an aggregate 
capital of $1,025,000, and loans, discounts, and 
exchange to the amount of $14,682,400. The 
amount of freight forwarded by rail in 18738 
was 392,480,329 Ibs.; received, 208,942,760 
Ibs. ; being an increase over 1872 in receipts 
and shipments of 80,062,550 lbs. The falls of 
St. Anthony, having a perpendicular descent 
of 18 ft. and a total descent of 50 ft. within 
the space of a mile, afford abundant water 
power for manufacturing. The two principal 
items of manufacture are lumber and flour. 
There are 18 lumber mills, with an aggre- 
gate capital of $1,110,000; hands employed in 
1878, 2,062; feet of lumber manufactured, 
189,909,782; shingles, 114,554,250; lath, 32,- 
843,150; pickets, 546,373; total value of pro- 
ducts, $3,850,000. At the close of 18738 there 
were 18 flouring mills, with 150 run of stone 
and a daily capacity of 7,370 barrels, and oth- 
ers in course of erection which would in- 
crease the stone to 184 run and the capa- 
city to 9,200 barrels a day. One of the mills, 
with 40 run of stone, is the largest in the 
country. The number of bushels of grain 
ground in 1873 was 3,545,000; barrels of flour 
produced, 646,000; pounds of feed, 57,050,- 
000; total value of products, $4,842,920. At 
the two grain elevators 1,687,423 bushels of 
wheat were handled in 1878. <A third eleva- 
tor, larger than either of the others, is in 
course of construction. There are extensive 
works for the manufacture of engines, boil- 
ers, water wheels, ploughs, harvesters, &c.; 
several manufactories of sash, doors, and 
blinds, four of furniture and desks, seven of 
barrels, seven of boots and shoes, five of sad- 
dlery and harness, two of bricks, two of soap, 
nine of carriages and wagons, one of linseed 
oil; several breweries, two paper mills, a cot- 
ton mill, and a woollen mill. There is also a 
pork-packing establishment, and the Chicago, 
Milwaukee, and St. Paul railroad has here. ex- 
tensive machine and repair shops. The num- 
ber of hands employed in manufacturing in 
1873 was 5,320; value of all products, $15,- 
879,680; amount of capital invested, $16,000,- 
000. The number of hands employed in 1867 
was 1,841; value of products, $4,460,358. 
The amount expended in the city in building 
and improvements in 1873 was $1,729,700; 
taxable value of property, May 1, 1874, $26,- 
947,969, — Minneapolis is divided into ten 
wards, and is governed by a mayor and a 
board of aldermen of two members from each 
ward. It has a municipal court and an effi- 
cient police force and fire department. It is 
the seat of the state university, which occupies 


602 MINNEHAHA 


large buildings on the E. side of the river. 
(See Minnesota, University oF.) Augsburg 
theological seminary (Evangelical Lutheran) 
was organized in 1869 by Scandinavians. In 
1873-4 it had 5 professors and instructors, 
63 students, and a library of 1,100 volumes. 
There are also an academy, a female seminary, 
and a business college. The Methodists are 
erecting (1875) a large edifice near the city 
for Hamline university, soon to be organized. 
The public schools embrace the various grades 
from primary to high school. There are ten 
school buildings of brick and stone. The num- 
ber of departments in 1873 was 35; teachers, 
87; pupils enrolled, 2,298; average attendance, 
1,866. The Atheneum library contains 4,000 
volumes. There are two daily and nine week- 
ly (two Norwegian and one German) newspa- 
pers, and two semi-monthly (one Norwegian) 
periodicals. The number of churches is 48, 
viz.: 5 Baptist (1 African and 1 Swedish), 1 
Christian, 5 Congregational, 4 Episcopal (be- 
sides 2 missions), 1 Freewill Baptist, 1 Friends’, 
7 Lutheran (8 German Evangelical, 3 Norwe- 
gian, and 1 Swedish Evangelical), 11 Metho- 
dist (1 African, 2 German, and 1 Scandinavi- 
an), 4 Presbyterian, 4 Roman Catholic, 1 Swe- 
denborgian, 1 Unitarian, and 3 Universalist.— 
Minneapolis was first settled in 1849, and ori- 
ginally embraced only that portion of the city 
on the W. bank of the Mississippi. It was in- 
corporated in 1867, and in 1872 the city of St. 
Anthony on the E. bank of the river (incor- 
porated in 1856) was consolidated with it. 
MINNEHAHA, a S. E. county of Dakota, bor- 
dering on Minnesota and Iowa, and drained by 
the Big Sioux river; area, 816 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 355. The surface is elevated, and the 
soil productive. Capital, Sioux Falls. 
MINNESINGERS (Ger. Minne, love, and Sdng- 
er, singer), a school of German poets which 
sprang into existence in the latter half of the 
12th century, and flourished until near the 
close of the 13th. Their themes were ama- 
tory and heroic, and were treated in much the 
same manner as those of the troubadours of 
Provence, though in a more earnest spirit and 
after a purer ideal conception of love. (See 
GERMANY, LITERATURE OF, vol. vii., p. 763.) 
MINNESOTA, one of the northwestern states of 
the American Union, the 19th admitted, and the 
28th in rank according to population, situated 
between lat. 43° 30’ and 49° 24’ N., and lon. 89° 
39’ and 97° 5' W.; extreme length N. and §., 
380 m.; breadth from 1838 m. in the middle to 
262 m. on the S. line and 337 m. near the N. 
line; area, 83,531 sq.m. It is bounded N. by 
British America, the dividing line being formed 
W. of the lake of the Woods by the 49th paral- 
lel, and E. of that lake by Rainy Lake river, 
Rainy and other lakes, and Pigeon river; E. by 
Lake Superior and Wisconsin, from which it is 
separated by a line drawn due &. from the first 
rapids in the St. Louis river to the St. Croix 
river, and by the St. Croix and Mississippi rivers; 
8. by Iowa; and W. by Dakota, from which it 


MINNESOTA 


is divided by the Red river of the North, the 
Bois des Sioux river, Lake Traverse and Big 
Stone lake, and a line drawn directly S. from 
the outlet of the last named lake to the lowa 


ho, 
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LETT ATMA 


State Seal of Minnesota. 


ae 


yy 


boundary. The state is divided into 76 coun- 
ties, viz.: Aitken, Anoka, Becker, Beltrami, 
Benton, Big Stone, Blue Earth, Brown, Carl- 
ton, Carver, Cass, Chippewa, Chisago, Clay, 
Cook, Cottonwood, Crow Wing, Dakota, 
Dodge, Douglas, Faribault, Fillmore, Free- 
born, Goodhue, Grant, Hennepin, Houston, 
Isanti, Itasca, Jackson, Kanabec, Kandiyohi, 
Lac qui Parle, Lake, Le Sueur, Lincoln, Lyon, 
McLeod, Martin, Meeker, Mille Lacs, Morrison, 
Mower, Murray, Nicollet, Nobles, Olmsted, 
Otter Tail, Pembina, Pine, Polk, Pope, Ram- 
sey, Redwood, Renville, Rice, Rock, St. Louis, 
Scott, Sherburne, Sibley, Stearns, Steele, Ste- 
vens, Swift, Todd, Traverse, Wabashaw, Wa- 
dena, Waseca, Washington, Watonwan, Wil- 
kin, Winona, Wright, Yellow Medicine. St. 
Paul, the capital, near the E. border of the 
state, 400 m. N. W. of Chicago, had 20,030 in- 
habitants in 1870. The other cities, accord- 
ing to the census of 1870, were: Duluth, 3,131 
inhabitants; Hastings, 3,458; Mankato, 3,482; 
Minneapolis, 13,066; Owatonna, 2,070; Red 
Wing, 4,260; Rochester, 3,953; St. Anthony, 
5,018; St. Cloud, 2,161; and Winona, 7,192. 
Since the census St. Anthony has been annexed 
to Minneapolis.—The population of Minnesota 
was 6,077 in 1850, 172,023 in 1860, 250,099 
(state census) in 1865, and 439,706 in 1870, in~ 
cluding 488,257 white, 759 colored, and 690 
Indians. The calculated population on June 1, 
1878, was 552,459. Of the total population in 
1870, 285,299 were males and 204,407 females, 
and 279,009 were of native and 160,697 of 
foreign birth. Of the natives, 125,491 were 
born in the state, 10,979 in Illinois, 9,939 in 
Maine, 39,507 in New York, 12,651 in Ohio, 
11,966 in Pennsylvania, and 24,048 in Wiscon- 
sin. The foreign population comprised 16,698 
born in British America, 1,910 in Denmark, 
1,748 in France, 41,864 in Germany, 5,670 in 
England, 21,748 in Ireland, 2,194 in Scotland, 


- -.— - - 


MINNESOTA 


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MINNESOTA 


1,855 in Holland, 35,940 in Norway, 20,987 in 
Sweden, and 2,162 in Switzerland. The den- 
sity of population was 5°26 to a square mile. 
There were 82,471 families with an average 
of 5°83 persons to each, and 81,140 dwellings 
with an average of 5:42 persons to each. The 
increase of population from 1860 to 1870 was 
155°61 per cent., being a greater percentage of 
increase than that of any other state except 
Kansas. The number of male citizens 21 years 
old and upward was 75,274; of persons from 
5 to 18 years of age, 142,665; attending school, 
96,793. There were 12,747 persons 10 years 
of age and upward unable to read, and 24,413 
unable to write; of the latter, 5,558 were of 
native and 18,855 of foreign birth; illiterates, 
7°99 per cent. of the population 10 years old 
and over; number of illiterates 21 years of age 
and upward, 18,484, of whom 8,195 were males 
and 10,289 females. The number of paupers 
supported during the year ending June 1, 1870, 
was 684, at a cost of $66,167. Of the total 
number (392) receiving support June 1, 1870, 
126 were natives and 266 foreigners, The 
number of persons convicted of crime during 
the year was 214; in prison at the end of the 
year, 129, including 73 natives and 56 foreign- 
ers. The state contained 103 blind, 166 deaf 
and dumb, 302 insane, and 134 idiotic. Of the 
total population 10 years old and over (805,568), 
there were engaged in all occupations 132,657 ; 
in agriculture, 75,157, including 20,277 laborers 
and 54,623 farmers and planters; in profes- 
sional and personal services, 28,330, of whom 
620 were clergymen, 8,556 domestic servants, 
13,037 laborers not specified, 449 lawyers, 402 
physicians and surgeons, and 1,754 teachers 
not specified; in trade and transportation, 
10,582; and in manufactures and mechanical 
and mining industries, 18,588. The total num- 
ber of deaths from all causes was 3,526, being 
0802 per cent. of the population. There were 
459 deaths from consumption, being 7-7 deaths 


from all causes to 1 from that disease; 177. 


from pneumonia, 19°9 from all causes to 1 from 
that disease; 112 from diarrhcea, 108 from 
cholera infantum, and 103 from whooping 
cough. The number of deaths reported by the 
state authorities in 1872 was 5,228, or 1°035 
per cent. of the population. Of the whole 
number of deaths, 36-07 per cent. were from 
zymotic diseases, 13°50 constitutional, 18°61 lo- 
cal, 10°04 developmental, 4°72 violent deaths, 
and 17:04 unknown. The excess of births 
over deaths was 9,734. At the beginning of 
1875 there were 5,973 Indians reported in 
Minnesota, who were settled on reservations 
in the central and northern parts of the state. 
They consisted of seven bands of Chippewas, 
with three agencies at White Earth, Leech 
lake, and Red lake. These Indians have 
schools and are for the most part occupied 
in agriculture.—Lying nearly at the centre 
of the continent and occupying the most ele- 
vated plateau between the gulf of Mexico 
and Hudson bay, Minnesota forms the water- 


603 


shed of the three great river systems of North 
America: that of the Mississippi, which flows 
S. to the gulf of Mexico’; that of the St. Law- 
rence, which, connected with the chain of 
northern lakes, has an easterly direction to the 
Atlantic ocean; and that of the Red river of 
the North, flowing N. to Winnepeg lake, which 
has its outlet in Hudson bay. <A group of low 
sandhills in the N. E. part of the state, formed 
by huge deposits of drift overlying a local out- 
crop of the primary and metamorphic rocks, 
and called Hauteurs des Terres, forms the di- 
viding ridge between the Mississippi and Lake 
Superior. The Heights of Land rise by scarce- 
ly perceptible slopes from the general level, in 
no instance higher than 1,680 ft. above the sea, 
which is not more than 600 ft. above the aver- 
age elevation of the country. These hills are 
commonly flat at the top, varying in height 
from 85 to 100 ft. above the surrounding wa- 
ters. The principal group of these drift hills 
is subdivided into several ramifications. <A 
prominent spur extends southerly from the 
Itasca crest of the Mississippi for perhaps 
150 m., known as the Leaf mountains and the 
Coteau du Grand Bois of Nicollet, and forms 
a low dividing ridge between the waters of the 
Mississippi and Red rivers. The crest of the 
dividing ridge between Lake Superior and the 
Mississippi is not more than 1,400 ft. high; 
and the highest of the trap summits north of 
the lake is but 1,475 ft. Generally the sur- 
face of Minnesota is an undulating plain, with 
an average elevation of nearly 1,000 ft. above 
the sea, and presents a succession of small 
rolling prairies or table lands, studded with 
lakes and groves, and alternating with belts of 
timber. Two thirds of the surface slopes 8S. E. 
with the waters of the Mississippi, the northern 
part of the state being nearly equally divided 
between the alluvial levels of the Red river 
valley on the northwest and the broken high- 
lands of the northeast, which are mainly 
drained by the precipitous streams which flow 
into Lake Superior and the Rainy lake chain.— 
The Mississippi river rises in Lake Itasca in the 
extreme western elbow of the Heights of Land, 
and flows 8. E., 797 m. of its course belonging 
to Minnesota, of which 184 forms the E. boun- 
dary; it is navigable about 540 m. within the 
state. The Minnesota traverses the lower part 
of the state in a S. E. and N. E. direction, and 
after a course through the state of 450 m. falls 
into the Mississippi at Fort Snelling, 5 m. 
above St. Paul; it is navigable about 300 m. 
The Red river of the North rises in Elbow lake, 
flows through several lakes, running in a 8. W. 
direction, and then turning N. forms the W. 
boundary for 879 m.; it is navigable about 250 
m. TheSt. Croix rises in Wisconsin, forms 129 
m. of the E. boundary, and falls into the Mis- 
sissippi; itis navigable for 53 m. In the N. E. 
part is the St. Louis river, which falls into Lake 


‘Superior, and is important as the first link in 


the chain of lakes and rivers of the St. Law- 
rence system; and in the 8. W. are the head 


604 


waters of the Des Moines, about 135 m. long, 
of which about 20 are navigable. All the riy- 
ers haye numerous branches, which are not 
navigable. The navigable waters within the 
state have a total shore line of 2,746 m., and 
a water line of 1,532 m. Along the banks of 
the Mississippi and of some other rivers are 
high bluffs, forming one of the most interest- 
ing and characteristic features of the scenery. 
Minnesota is distinguished for the number and 
beauty of its lakes. They have been esti- 
mated as high as 10,000 in number, and are 
from 1 m. to 30 m. in diameter; and many of 
them have an area of from 100 to 400 sq. m. 
Their waters, generally sweet and clear, abound 
in fish. The largest are the lake of the Woods, 
Rainy, Namekin, Bois Blane, Vermilion, Swan, 
Sandy, Winibigoshish, and Leech lakes, and 
Mille lacs in the north and northeast, Red lake 
in the northwest, Big Stone, Benton, Sauk, and 
Swan in the west and southwest.—Notwith- 
standing the great area covered by this state, its 
rock formations, so far as they have been ex- 
plored, appear to be limited almost exclusively 
to the azoic and lower protozoic groups; and 
over the greater part of the state these are 
concealed beneath the diluvial deposits which 
make the superficial covering of the rolling 
prairies. The N. W. coast of Lake Superior is 
made up of metamorphic slates and sandstones, 
intermingled with grits of volcanic origin and 
other bedded traps and porphyries. These are 
intersected by frequent dikes of greenstone and 
basalt; and among them are occasional deposits 
of red clay, mar], and drift. Behind this group 
are traced westward, along the northern boun- 
dary of the state, formations of hornblende and 
argillaceous slates, succeeded by granitic and 
other metamorphic rocks. These groups extend 
S. W. into the central portions of the state. 
Along the southern boundary the Devonian 
formation is found in the extreme west; the Ni- 
agara limestone succeeds this toward the east, 
and next occurs the Galena limestone, and then 
the Trenton limestone and the upper or St. 
Peter’s sandstone, which overlies the Potsdam 
sandstone. These sandstones crop out up the 
valley of the Mississippi, nearly as far as Fort 
Snelling, where the lower Silurian limestones, 
which on both sides of the river lie behind and 
over the sandstones, meet in the valley and 
form the bluffs of the rivers. They are traced 
up the Minnesota river, curving round and al- 
most reaching the southern boundary of the 
state again, and cutting off the continuation of 
the higher groups further northward. Thus 
throughout the state there appears to be no 
room for the carboniferous group. The lead- 
hearing rocks traced from the lJowa line are 
limited and of little importance. It is believed 
that the N. E. corner of the state will prove 
a valuable mineral field. Copper abounds in 
the mineral belt stretching along the N. shore 
of Lake Superior, and masses of the pure 
metal have been taken from Knife and Stuart 
rivers. Iron ore of good quality is found in 


MINNESOTA 


considerable quantities around Portage and 
Pigeon rivers. Large deposits of peat exist in 
all parts of the state. In the Red river valley 
are extensive salt springs. Slate, limestone, 
sand for glass, and clay are also found. The 
existence of gold and silver on the shores of 
Vermilion lake has been shown. A geologi- 
cal and natural history survey of Minnesota 
is now (1875) in progress, under the direction 
of N. H. Winchell, state geologist, and 8. F. 
Peckham, state chemist, professors in the state 
university, to which institution the survey has 
been intrusted by law. Up to 1875 a prelim- 
inary report and two reports of progress had 
been printed in the annual reports of the board 
of regents for 1873-’5.—The soil is fertile, two 
thirds of the surface being well adapted to the 
cultivation of all the cereals and roots of the tem- 
perate zone. It is composed generally of a dark, 
calcareous loam, abounding in organic and saline 
ingredients, and is retentive of moisture. The 
climate of Minnesota is pleasant. The winters 
are cold, but clear and dry, and the fall of snow 
is light; the summers are warm, with breezy 
nights, during which occur most of the rains; 
and the general purity of the air and salubrity 
of its climate recommend it for the residence of 
invalids. The following summary for 1874, 

reported by the United States signal bureau, 

is for St. Paul, lat. 44° 53’, lon. 93° 5’: 


THERMOMETER, Total 


Mean 


rain- | Prevailing 
ppt AMR vr, ve ee fall, wind. 
mum, | mum, aie Bu inches, 
January ...| 48°00|/—23-00| 18°85) 80°073 | 0°49 Southeast. 
February..| 86°00|--18:00, 14-40| 30-082 | 1-07 Southeast. 
March 46°00} —5:00) 28°66) 80°030 | 2°24| Northwest. 
Aprilia. 71:00} 7:00; 87°52} 30-003 | 0°95) North. 
Mayies.. oa 94°00} 81°00) 62°24) 29-860 | 1°65 North. 
June..... 94°00} 42°00! 68:70] 29°797 | 11°67 Southeast. 
July iit er 99-00! 53:00) 74°72) 29:842 | 1°94,Southeast. 
August....| 91°00} 54:00) 70°54) 29°592 | 8°90/Southeast. 
September] 92°00, 87:00, 60°95) 29:908 | 5°76 Southeast. 
October ..| 74°00} 21°00} 49°36} 80°003 | 38°21 ‘Northwest, 
November} 72°00/— 8:00) 28°72) 29-951 1°90 Southeast. 
December.| 48°00/—20:00) 18°81} 80-848 | 0°72 Northwest. 
Mean...| 71°67] 14-25! 43-62) 80°490 | 85°50 Southeast. 


The country, especially above lat. 46°, is well 
timbered ; pine forests extend far to the north, 
and birch, maple, aspen, ash, and elm abound. 
A large forest of hard-wood varieties, known 
as the Big Woods, and called Bois Franc by the 
early French settlers, extends over the central 
portion of the state W. of the Mississippi, and 
covers an area of about 4,000 sq.m. On the 
river bottoms are found basswood, elm, aspen, 
butternut, ash, birch, maple, linden, balsam fir, 
and some oaks; and in the swamps tamarack, 
cedar, and cypress. Among the wild animals 
are the elk, deer, antelope, bear, wolverene, 
otter, muskrat, mink, marten, raccoon, and 
wolf. Of birds, there are the golden and 
bald eagles, grouse, partridge, hawk, buzzard, 
owl, quail, plover, lark, and many smaller 
kinds, There are also the pelican, tern, shel- 
drake, teal, loon, wild geese, wild ducks, and 
other water fowl. The waters contain ike, 


MINNESOTA 


pickerel, bass, whitefish, muskelonge, catfish, 
trout, and other variéties of fish.—Many nat- 
ural objects of interest are found in the state. 
The Mississippi, studded with islands and bor- 
dered by high bluffs, presents a succession of 
picturesque scenes. Mountain island, with an 
elevation of 428 ft., Maiden’s rock, celebrated 
in Indian tradition, on an expansion of the 
river called Lake Pepin, about 400 ft. high, and 
La Grange mountain on the same lake, are 
all notable. St. Anthony’s falls, celebrated as 
much for their surrounding scenery as for the 
descent of the waters, which have a perpendic- 
ular fall of only 18 ft., are further up the river. 
A few miles beyond, between Minneapolis and 
Fort Snelling, are the Minnehaha falls, a ro- 
mantic and beautiful cascade with a perpendic- 
ular pitch of 45 ft., flowing over a project- 
ing rock which permits a passage underneath. 
Brown’s falls, which have a perpendicular 
descent of 50 ft., and including the rapids of 
100 ft.,are W. of the Mississippi, on a narrow 
stream which is the outlet of several small 
lakes. There are also falls or rapids on the 
St. Croix, about half a mile below which is a 
noted pass through which the river has forced 
its way, called the Dalles of St. Croix, and 
others of less note on various streams. About 
2m. from St. Paul is Fountain cave, an ex- 
cavation in the white sandstone, with an en- 
trance about 15 ft. in diameter opening into a 
chamber 150 ft. long and 20 ft. wide. The cave 
has been explored for 1,000 ft., without the ter- 
mination being reached.—Minnesota has made 
the most rapid progress in agriculture during 
the past few years. The most prominent sta- 
ple is wheat, for the production of which the 
soil and climate are most favorable. Of the 
reported cultivated acreage in 1872, wheat oc- 
cupied 61:14 per cent., the average yield per 
acre being 17-4 bushels; in 1878 the percentage 
of acreage had increased to 63°53. Next to 
wheat the most important crops are oats and 
corn, the percentage of acreage in 1872 being 
17°97 of the former and 10°44 of the latter. 
The soil and climate are also highly favorable 
to wool growing. In 1860 Minnesota had 
2,711,968 acres of land in farms, of which only 
556,250 acres were improved, there being 18,- 
181 farms with an average of 149 acres each. 
In 1870 there were 46,500 farms of an average 
of 139 acres each, the total acreage of farm 
lands being 2,322,102 improved and 4,161,726 
unimproved, including 1,336,299 of woodland, 
the percentage of improved land to total in 
farms being 64:2. Of the total number of 
farms in 1870, 4,030 contained from 3 to 10 
acres, 7,948 from 10 to 20, 18,099 from 20 to 
50, 11,078 from 50 to 100, 5,039 from 100 to 
500, 128 from 500 to 1,000, and 2 over 1,000. 
The cash value of farms was $97,847,422; of 
farming implements and machinery, $6,721,- 
120; total amount of wages paid during the 
year, including the value of board, $4,459,- 
201; total (estimated) value of all farm pro- 
ductions, including betterments and additions 


605 


to stock, $33,446,400; orchard products, $15,- 
818; produce of market gardens, $115,284; 
forest products, $311,528; home manufactures, 
$174,046; animals slaughtered or sold for 
slaughter, $3,076,650; all live stock, $20,118, - 
841. The productions were 18,789,188 bushels 
of spring and 76,885 of winter wheat, 78,088 
of rye, 4,743,117 of Indian corn, 10,678,261 of 
oats, 1,032,024 of barley, 52,438 of buckwheat, 
46,601 of peas and beans, 1,948,068 of Irish 
and 1,594 of sweet potatoes, 3,045 of grass and 
18,635 of flax seed, 695,058 tons of hay, 8,247 
Ibs. of tobacco, 401,185 of wool, 9,522,010 of 
butter, 233,977 of cheese, 222,065 of hops, 
122,571 of flax, 210,467 of maple sugar, 92,- 
606 of honey, 1,750 gallons of wine, 208,180 
of milk sold, 88,785 of sorghum and 12,722 
of maple molasses. Besides 9,667 horses and 
54,862 neat cattle not on farms, there were 
93,011 horses, 2,350 mules and asses, 121,467 
milch cows, 48,176 working oxen, 145,786 
other cattle, 182,343 sheep, and 148,473 swine. 
The agricultural statistics for 1872 were re- 
ported as follows by the state authorities: 


Average 
PRODUCTS. No. of acres} Amount yield per 
planted. produced. Pine 
Wireat. = bushelaves seas... 1,267,809 |22,059.875 | 17°40 
ats, ete Seen nee 872,478 |12.550,7383 | 83°69 
Corn, eae ea esteyttiestoee 216,455 | 7,142,245 | 32°99 
Barley, PAI ESR AE RSE CIA 56,785 | 1,495,495 | 26°83 
Rye, Wee Mineist itn eras shee 11,865 182,730 | 16°07 
Buckwheat, ti asec aoeslecs © 8,601 49.859 | 18°70 
Beans, RM ee ceo 1,482 19,156 | 12°92 
Flax, pounds of fibre........ feed SLO We 2-908:079 1h woene:. 
“ bushels of seed........ (GI GY Me Ee 
Potatoes, bushels........... 26,061 | 8,072,849 | 117°59 
Sorghum, gallons of sirup... £59 TS090M cee 
Hops poundsiy.taet i ostacisas 93 114 499) i tects 
Hay, cultivated, tons........ 88,990 108,028 221 
WA tON Bes ceuie ete me rel bs a ascie se ase reer 
Maple sugar, pounds........| <...... 195.087 eaeteme 
SOM UGIT UD OAL ODS eee sete teens certo NGSoSs ime see 
Honey, No. of hives of bees.| ....... 10; (04) lee ee te 
SY OUNGBH ia. Sactatsree| 1 ere eter erts 282,948 | ..... 
MOPACCOs POUNGB dices «ailares er ete sercte c 42,788 
Timothy seed, bushels......| ....... TD,2280 |e ciara 
Clover ‘e mar sero ey | mmo Nici DEAE) Pests 
Apple trees, growing.......|  ..-...- Bla(ts): Melt) Ball eee 
os coe inubearingeccce: Sets eee SDL eases 
Apples, bushels raised......| ....... BUCES eT asec 
Strawberries, quarts........| ....06. QU GIG. Wieser. 
Wool, sheep sheared........) .-....- pases ile Rae 
Saat) OLIAG Sy. fay aret estes vaso s1IN Es ore¥e elit 497,045 | ..... 
Butlerip ch eer. sacteccecar akre es eae 8,828,680 | ..... 
CHEGSOMEEIIE . critarsveailearteii'y ueusta ahete ROSOL Weteres ¢ 
Cows silk eo tccesye si oveielaieil ar ietaros ares MS O269 10 |) Weetsve 


In 1878 the number of acres under cultivation 
had increased to 2,332,672, of which 2,166,598 
were sown with grain; number of farms, 
58,878; there were 141,871 horses, 419,084 
cattle, 4,005 mules and asses, 149,206 sheep, 
and 149,896 hogs.—As yet Minnesota does not 
hold a high rank as a manufacturing state, the 
people being more extensively engaged in agri- 
culture. It has, however, a most important 
element for great industrial prosperity in the 
abundant water power afforded by its numer- 
ous streams. It has been estimated that about 
100,000 horse power could be utilized during 
the day time throughout nearly the entire 
year, at the falls of St. Anthony; while the 


606 


St. Croix falls are only second to them in 
hydraulic power. The total number of manu- 
facturing establishments reported by the cen- 
sus of 1870 was 2,270, having 246 steam engines 
of 7,085 horse power and 434 water wheels 
of 13,054 horse power, and employing 11,290 
hands, of whom 10,892 were males above 16, 
259 females above 15, and 139 youth. The 
capital invested amounted to $11,993,729; 
wages, $4,052,837; value of materials, $13,- 
842,902; of products, $23,110,700. The most 
important industries are represented in the 
following statement: 


saul 34 = c3 
INDUSTRIES. $3 2 E & et 28 
Agel Zs 3 as 
Blacksmithing.........| 810 630 | $255,511 | $628,923 
Boots and shoes........ 172 526 223,589 653.165 
Carpenter’g and building, 223 676 104.860 | 1,067,203 
Carriages and wagons...| 102 444 858,168 549,568 
Cars, freight and passen- 

POD ecg stettaislere # sie ‘ois ove 1 79 170,000 783,300 
ATOOPOTAGE . 2s Mec te sls < 62 338 126,020 457,888 
Grist mill products..... 216 790 | 2,900,015 | 7,534,575 
UENCE SO yere wae o te 6 2.5 1s 85 398 802.550 | 448,772 
Liquors, malt.......... 65 225 450,550 838,555 
Lumber, planed........ 13 58 148,400 239,642 

ue BAWEO Ne 6 5 nears s 207 | 2,952 | 3,811,140 , 4,299,162 
Machinery, railroad re- 

DBI he tee wisi es sce 4 456 253,021 788,074 
Machinery, steam  en- 

gines and boilers..... 8 233 220,000 886,482 
Printing and publishing, 

PLOWSPAPCL eve cies a4 20 241 267,000 843,304 
Saddlery and harness...| 93 269 165,475 854,259 
Sash, doors, and blinds..| 27 254 263,183 857,616 
Tin, copper, and sheet- 

ATOM) WALCO. esin sins = 2/010 78 231 161,685 848,696 


The vast pine forests of Minnesota constitute 
an important source of wealth. Itis estimated 
that about one third of the state is timbered 
land. On the head waters of the various trib- 
utaries of the extreme upper Mississippi and 
St. Croix rivers is an extensive ‘ pine region,” 
comprising an estimated area of 21,000 square 
miles. Vast pine forests are also found on the 
shore of Lake Superior, and on the Red river 
and its tributaries. The cutting and sawing of 
logs affords extensive employment for men and 
capital. In 1878, 164,748,150 ft. of logs were 
reported to have been scaled in the North Mis- 
sissippi district, including 161,880,670 ft. at 
Minneapolis, while 33,000,000 ft. were esti- 
mated to have been sawed but not scaled. The 
total number of feet scaled in the St. Croix 
district was 147,618,147; sawed and not scaled, 
8,338,976; sawed and scaled, 94,229. Inthe Du- 
luth district the number of feet scaled amount- 
ed to 6,147,988. In the St. Croix district the 
manufactured lumber was reported at 74,068,- 
976 ft., besides 19,200,000 shingles and 19,477,- 
850 lath.—Minnesota has unusual commercial 
advantages, having within its limits three great 
navigable water systems, which are connected 
with the railroad system of the state, and afford 
continuous channels of communication with 
Hudson bay, the Atlantic ocean, and the gulf 
of Mexico. The Mississippi is navigable to St. 
Paul about 225 days in the year. The comple- 
tion of the Northern Pacific railroad, which 


MINNESOTA 


has its E. terminus at Duluth, on Lake Su- 
perior, and is now (1875) in operation to Bis- 
marck in Dakota, 450 m., will give the state 
direct communication with the Pacific. This 
road, which joins the lake and the Red river 
water systems, is to be connected with the 
other railroads of Minnesota and the Missis- 
sippi river by three lines of railroad at the 
eastern, central, and western portions of the 
state. The Lake Superior and Mississippi rail- 
road joins St. Paul, at the head of navigation 
on the Mississippi river, and Duluth, at the 
head of Lake Superior; while the former city 
will have direct connection with the Northern 
Pacific railroad by the two divisions of the St. 
Paul and Pacific, which are now in process of 
construction, one extending from St. Anthony 
to Brainerd, and the other from St. Cloud to 
St. Vincent, on the N. W. border of the state, 
a distance of 315 m., crossing the Northern 
Pacific at Glyndon, 18 m. E. of the Red river. 
This road is now in operation from St. Cloud 
to Melrose, 85m. From St. Vincent it is to be 
continued to Fort Garry in the province of 
Manitoba, 61 m. from the Minnesota border. 
The state also has connection with the Union 
Pacific railroad by means of the St. Paul and 
Sioux City and Sioux City and St. Paul rail- 
roads. Furthermore, the completion of the 
contemplated improvements in the Fox and 
Wisconsin rivers will give to Minnesota a con- 
tinuous water channel from the Mississippi 
river to Lake Michigan. The commercial im- 
portance of Minnesota will be seen from the 
fact that the entire trade of its great water 
systems, and much of that of its railroads, will 
here break bulk. The state comprises the 
United States customs district of Duluth and 
that of Minnesota, of which the port of entry 
is Pembina on the Red river, at the northern 
border of the state; and St. Paul is a port 
of delivery. The imports at Duluth during 
the year ending June 80, 1874, amounted to 
$12,129, and the domestic exports to $13,819. 
In the Minnesota district the imports were 
$182,054; domestic exports, $690,066; foreign 
exports, $2,521. The chief articles of export 
were oats, flour, and lumber. The number 
and tonnage of vessels that entered and cleared 
in the foreign trade, together with those regis- 
tered, enrolled, and licensed, were as follows: 


ENTERED, | CLEARED. stapes: 
DISTRICTS. a ae ee 

No Tons No. | Tons, No. | Tons, 

Duluthy, cease. 55 | 19,166} 53 | 19,240 T 1,832 
Minnesota 40 | 4,410} 40 | 4,403) 98 §,048 
Total. ota veces 95 | 28,576 | 93 | 28,643) 100 | 9,380 


Of those enrolled in the Minnesota district, 
54 were steamers and 389 unrigged vessels; 
and of those in the Duluth district, 6 of 1,282 
tons were steamers. Besides the above, 259 
vessels of 153,792 tons entered at Duluth 
| in the coastwise trade, and 264 of 154,292 


MINNESOTA 


tons cleared. In 1873 5 steam vessels of 510 
tons and 4 barges were built in the Minne- 
sota district.—Since 1857, when congress made 
to Minnesota a grant of six sections per mile 
of the public lands to aid in the construction 
of railroads, which was increased to ten sec- 
tions per mile in 1865, not less than 13,200,000 
acres of land, or more than one fourth of the 
entire area of the state, has been granted to 
railroad corporations, either by the general 
government or the state. These grants com- 
prise 11,250,000 acres by congress and 1,950,- 
000 by the state; and 5,515,007 acres have 
already been conveyed to the companies. The 
railroad companies in the state organized under 
special charters are required to pay to the 
state, in lieu of all other taxes, 1 per cent. of 
their gross earnings for the first three years, 
2 per cent. during the next seven years, and 8 
per cent. thereafter. Other railroad compa- 
nies can acquire the same privileges by com- 


607 


plying with the provisions of the law. The 
gross earnings of the companies subject to 
this law in 1872 were reported at $5,399,578, 
on which the tax amounted to $106,876. The 
gross earnings during the year ending Sept. 1, 
1878, were $5,536,104, including $1,885,272 
from passengers and $8,811,603 from freight. 
The total expenses of all the companies 
amounted to $4,140,885. A commissioner is 
appointed by the state, whose duty is to re- 
port to the legislature annually concerning 
the finances, business, and general condition 
of every railroad cempany in the state. Min- 
nesota had 31 m. of railroad in 1868, 298 in 
1866, and 1,092 in 1870. In 1874 there were 
1,833 m. of main track and branches, exclusive 
of side track, &c. ‘The railroads completed in 
the state, and their termini, in 1874, with the 
capital stock issued, the latter items being re- 
ported by the state commissioner for the year 
ending Sept. 1, 1873, are as follows: 


ee Pr eo ee ee 
gen [Pieie| 2228 | Ez, 
NAME OF CORPORATION. TERMINI. ee Cee ec Meee oe ae 
L3H > & Sod ° be 
Sai Ebaas) eeeee| S88 
=F 8 BSS/o7s sm = 
Chicago, Dubuque, and Minnesota.... | Dubuque, Ia., to La Crescent......... 24 118 BA26 OLDE limuscceies< 
Chicago, Milwaukeo sand Stee alee tailpiece ace nciiciste nec clas cslelsisai «seus aye ayeie:cispe Bbae ate Seb O00 air enacts « 
V2 Lee CLOSSC sath aiaiw.ccusiclen sida eiete's Milwaukee, Wis., to St. Paul......... 130 O24 ee eet ey it mere micas 
Prairie du Chien... ccc. -~. a we i : Sa Macht. soy: ‘a SOD A Saale eka stds (Nl nteite cts 
endota to Minneapolis......-...... mists ll Mik ais ore tolooe Man Msi ata) ecais 
Branches. .......+.++sseseeeeess Mason City, Ia., to Ansthh Meee meraiel ee 10 40%. | Gateerenn [Neestet ccs 
Leased (Hastings and Dakota)..... Hastines to Glencoe)... :..sscc ee. s 75 an. 750,000 500,000 
Lake Superior and Mississippi....... SOME aU tO LI ULUTN sees cere tora seis 156 it 5,125,000 430,854 
Stillwater and St, Paul....| White Bear to Stillwater............. 18 aie A00;000 |) Bocce es 
Leased Minneapolis and Duluth, .| White Bear to Minneapolis........... 14 ae 200:000" eae mee 
Minneapolis and St. Louis.| Minneapolis to Sioux City Junction... 28 airs 92,0000) Venema ee 
Northern Pacific...... Arana ate Duluth to Puget Sound.............. 254 1,800 18,239,300 2,918,400 
St Paul and Pacitiou. 0.5 ss se nese St. Paul to Breckenridge............. 217 oe 500,000 1,248,638 
IBPANCHIAS Whe pied ses ee ae Sie cice hehe St. Anthony to Brainerd............. 75 125 1,468,600 940,000 
BivwVineent extension....5- scaacss ss a St, Cloud tot. Vincents. 246. 0. os 85 GISs ide tees es 2,000,000 
Bt. aul and Sioux City..2.-......:.-- BSE baul CO tre MINES yess isis ce cele. 122 nae 1,851,500 850,000 
St. Paul, Stillwater, and Taylor’s Falls| Near St. Paul to Stiilwater..:........ al — 2 OU OIE lee atelerreests 
Rioux Oityvand St.Paul s 2222 cer ee: Sioux City, Ia., to St. James.......:. 66 148 OLD: (SOI we entaeen crete 
DOUNEerN: MiINNesOta..dcecescie sce ce =e Grand Crossing to Winnebago....... 168 as 8,825,000 450,000 
WHERE NV ISCONSING tn eee eres ens eae e St. Paul to Elroy, Wis............... 4 LO Tog ely dere cto taca a. | Peers 
Winona and St. Peter.......1....... Winona to Lake Kampeska, Dak.... 288 826 400,000 710,000 
1,888 


—There were 32 national banks in operation in 
Minnesota, Nov. 1, 1874, with a paid-in capital 
of $4,448,700; total amount of circulation is- 
sued, $4,455,000; amount outstanding at that 
date, $3,393,501, the latter being $7 71 per 
capita. The ratio of circulation to the wealth 
of the state was 1°5 per cent.; to bank capital, 
76°3 per cent. There were five savings banks, 
with deposits aggregating $843,498. The total 
number of fire and marine insurance com- 
panies transacting business in the state in 
1873 was 45, including 2 Minnesota and 36 
other American and 7 foreign companies. The 
number of life insurance companies was 35, 
of which only one was organized under the 
laws of the state—The present constitution 
of Minnesota was adopted Oct. 18, 1857, and 
the government organized May 22, 1858. The 
qualifications for voters are, that they be 
males, 21 years of age, who are or have de- 
clared their intention of becoming citizens of 
560 VOL, XI.—39 


the United States, and who have resided in 
the United States one year, and in the state 
four months next preceding. Indians and 
persons of mixed white and Indian blood, 
who have adopted the language, customs, and 
habits of civilization, are also allowed to vote 
in any district in which they have resided for 
the ten days next preceding. The legislature 
consists of 41 senators elected for two years, 
and 106 representatives elected for one year. 
They must be qualified voters and residents 
in the state one year, and in their respective 
districts six months next before the election. 
The election is held on the Tuesday after the 
first Monday in November of each year, and 
the legislature meets on the Tuesday after the 
first Monday in January. Its sessions are lim- 
ited to 60 days. The executive department 
consists of a governor (salary $3,000), lieuten- 
ant governor, secretary of state ($1,800), trea- 
surer ($8,500), attorney general ($1,000), ali 


608 


elected for two years, and an auditor ($2,500), 
elected for three years. The judiciary com- 
prises a supreme court consisting of a chief 
and two associate justices (salary $3,000), 
nine district courts, and a probate court in 
each county, besides justices of the peace, who 
have jurisdiction where the amount in dispute 
does not exceed $100, and where the title to 
real estate is not involved. All judges are 
elected by the people, those of the supreme 
and district courts for seven years and the 
others for two years. The supreme court has 
power to issue all remedial writs, and appel- 
late jurisdiction of judgments and orders of 
the district courts. The latter have original 


jurisdiction of all civil actions within their | 


respective districts when the sum in contro- 
versy exceeds $100, all civil actions not within 
the jurisdiction of justices of the peace, and 
in equity; also appellate jurisdiction from 
courts of ‘probate and justices of the peace. 
Besides the above named state officers, there 
is a commissioner of railroads and a commis- 
sioner of insurance. In 1872 a state board 
of health was established, consisting of seven 
physicians appointed by the governor from 
different sections of the state, who are re- 
quired to make sanitary investigations, and 
collect and disseminate information concerning 
the causes of disease and the effects of locali- 
ties, occupations, &c., on the general health. 
The public institutions are also made subject 
to their sanitary inspection, and they are re- 
quired to report annually to the legislature. 
The state commissioner of statistics makes an 
annual report to the legislature, embodying 
the vital statistics of the state, agriculture, 
property, taxation, &c. The constitution pro- 
vides for the taking of a state census in 1865 
and every ten years thereafter. The property, 
real or personal, owned by a married woman 
at the time of her marriage, continues to be 
her separate property. During marriage she 
may use and enjoy property and the earnings 
of her industry free from the husband’s con- 
trol and from liability for his debts. She may 
contract, and sue and be sued, as if she were 
single, the husband not being liable for her 
debts or contracts either before or during cov- 
erture, except for necessaries furnished to the 
wife after marriage. In sales of real estate by 
a married woman, however, the husband must 
jo in in the conveyance, unless he has deserted 

er for one year or she has cause of divorce 
against him. The causes of divorce are adul- 
tery, impotence, cruel and inhuman treatment, 
sentence to imprisonment in the state prison, 
wilful desertion for three years, habitual drunk- 
enness for a year, and cruelty. A married 
woman may make a will without the consent 
of her husband. A homestead comprising not 
more than 80 acres of land in the country 
with the buildings, or one lot with the build- 
ing thereon in any town, city, or village, is 
exempt from execution. The legal rate of in- 
terest is 7 per cent. in the absence of agree- 


MINNESOTA 


ment; but any rate not exceeding 12 per cent., 

if agreed upon, will be valid. Registry of 
births and deaths is required to be made by 
the clerk of every city and town. Minnesota 
is represented in congress by three represen- 
tatives and two senators, and has therefore 
five votes in the electoral college.—The ac- 
knowledged bonded debt of the state on Jan. 
1, 1875, amounted to $480,000, which has been 
contracted since 1867 for the erection of build- 
ings for state institutions. (For an account of 
the disputed indebtedness of the state see p. 
611.) During the year ending Dee. 1, 1874, 
the entire revenue of the state amounted to 
$1,112,812, and the expenditures to $1,148,150. 
The chief items of the receipts and disburse- 
ments are represented in the following state- 
ment: 

RECEIPTS. 


State. taxesicollectedn men senerateme nerkcieesieaie nits $575,164 
Tax on gross receipts of railroad companies........ 129,907 
st of insurance companies...... 23,505 
Fees of insurance companies...................005 4,345 
Taxes of telegraph companies..............200..-- 673 
Statecsprison labor. 6. cmc he teres coke cie cee 9,634 
Board of United States convicts...............-+. 6,772 
Naleof state bonds 22 een otras emer eo nee 20,000 
ts) sOL BCROOLIANGS some.eer, chien ensine aiut oe eee eee 63,196 
Vor timberonischool lands a7. eee cee ee 23,428 
“of university lands and timber............... 11,070 
Interest on permanent schoolaund). ss suen eee eer 188,031 
University funds )..aeeees 10,555 
st © State deposits, aaucdeais ooo seve near ent ees 9,270 
cc “ bonus railroad bouds,.. .-.eeecmenint 10,925 
Internal improvement fund............5......00+s 17,413 
DISBURSEMENTS. 

Legislative ci iierces oct aise letseratne nah sede eee eRee $69,310 
FUR OCULLV. O03. casa dceaes eld Steers eae cate aie te anette 48,564 
J UGICIAL...c 72, tote «nie relue nah tir mice esos 45,694 
Public’ printing: spci\stacc)eesticice os aerate h cee abe ite 49,366 
Support Of tate PrisOMs,. icc se odie eee este RENE se SOT 
of reform schooly 7... oa cies ene eee 80,000 
cs Of soldiersi orphans)... ..ne< coer tencned 20,017 
te OLdeat dumb and blind! ce nee eee 26,000 
ee of hospital:for insanes). 2)... ly. cn anes see 84,500 

“a of normal schoolsia).. sccm see ee ere 6, 
st OL Slate UNIVELPSI ty... mses aes sien ae 80,000 
Erection of public. buildings ee. ee ene eee 188,099 
Interestomstate bonGss,..cse cma cm esc cine vate meio 31,255 


School ding apportioned... seme anseleedee ae ait 194,654 
Purchase of bonds for invested funds.............. 


Appropriations from internalimprovement fund... 14,518 
Hrontior rélietsimesristren silacsies jones +e sate netics 1,970 
Interest coupons, bonus railroad bonds............ 10,562 
Support of agricuitural societies................... 8,000 
Geological survey?e.c.c}. Acetic ccc s ee cee eeeene 2,000 
Teachers’ institutes and training schools........ .. 2,710 
State: historicalasocieiye. cc ade esse einer cheer heres 2,980 


The total equalized valuation of taxable prop- 
erty was $39,264,740 in 1861, $45,184,063 in 
1865, $87,133,673 in 1870, $112,035,561 in 
1873, and $217,427,211 in 1874. The great 
increase of the last year is due largely to anew 
tax law requiring property to be assessed at its 
cash value. The total for 1874 includes 13,- 
741,404 acres of land, exclusive of town and 
city lots, valued with buildings at $113,410,- 
620; town and city real estate, $58,994,798 ; 
personal property, $45,021,798. Besides this, 
90,533 persons had each $100 of property ex- 
empt, or $9,053,300. The total taxes levied on 
this equalized valuation amounted to $4,102,- 
835, including $507,369 for state purposes, 
$1,331,772 for common schools (a two-mill tax 
yielding $433,193 and a special tax of $898,- 


MINNESOTA 


579), and $1,085,967 for county and $1,177,727 
for town and city purposes. The rate of the 
state tax was 2°33 mills. Of the amount raised, 
$329,790 was for general revenue, $101,474 for 
state institutions, $50,737 for interest on the 
state debt, and $25,368 for the sinking fund. 
In 1873 a state tax of five mills was levied, 
producing $561,459. All lands belonging to 
railroads are subject to. taxation whenever sold 
or their sale is agreed upon. The number of 
acres of public lands surveyed up to Aug. 1, 
1878, was 34,659,751, of which 10,990,795 had 
not yet been disposed of. The land not yet 
surveyed is in the northern part of the state.— 
The hospital for the insane at St. Peter will 
accommodate when completed 450 patients. 
The whole number under treatment in 1874 
was 497, of whom 219 were women; number 
at the close of the year, 381; daily average, 
341. Of those discharged during the year, 56 
were recovered, 32 improved, and 4 unim- 
proved; there were 24 deaths. The current 
expenses amounted to $83,017. The institu- 
tion for the education of the deaf and dumb 
and the blind, opened in 1863, is beautifully 
situated at Faribault, and is free to all deaf 
and dumb and blind persons in the state be- 
tween the ages of 10 and 25 years. In 1874 
104 deaf and dumb and 22 blind students were 
in attendance, and there were reported in the 
state 71 persons of the former and 18 of the 
latter class who were not in any institution. 
Seven teachers are employed in the deaf-mute 
and three in the blind department. The com- 
plete course of study embraces seven years, 
and comprises, besides the usual subjects, in- 
struction in industrial branches. Articulation 
and lip reading are taught to about 10 per cent. 
of the deaf mutes. The expenses for 1874 
amounted to $30,818. The soldiers’ orphans’ 
home, at Winona, at the close of 1873 had 85 
pupils, of whom 88 were girls. The total ex- 
penditures in that year amounted to $17,481. 
Unlike institutions of this class in other states, 
except that in Pennsylvania, the home is a pri- 
vate incorporated association, having an agree- 
ment with the state for the support upon spe- 
cified conditions of soldiers’ orphans who are 
destitute. Only those between the ages of 4 
and 16 years are admitted, and they are dis- 
charged at the age of 18 or younger. There 
is no school connected with the institution, 
but the inmates receive instruction in the state 
normal school. The state prison is at Still- 
water, and will have when completed a capa- 
city for 300 convicts. United States military 
and civil convicts are confined here. In 1874 
the average number of prisoners was 112, and 
the number remaining at the close of the year 
134. The entire earnings of the prison amount- 
ed to $19,261, including $11,723 for convict 
labor and $6,499 for boarding United States 
military convicts. The cost of the prison after 
deducting the earnings was $17,618, or $158 27 
for each convict. The labor of the prisoners 
is let out by contract.: The reform school at 


609 


St. Paul, opened in 1868, is intended for incor- 
rigible and criminal boys and girls under the 
age of 16 years. At the beginning of 1874 
there were in the institution 107 boys and 13 
girls, all of whom were receiving instruction 
in the ordinary branches and industrial pur- 
suits. Provision has been made for the estab- 
lishment of an asylum for inebriates.—The per- 
manent school fund is derived from the pro- 
ceeds of the school lands, which comprise every 
16th and 36th section, constituting one eigh- 
teenth of the entire public domain. It is esti- 
mated that these lands will amount to 2,900,- 
000 acres. At the beginning of 1875, 450,857 
acres had been sold, from which and the sales 
of timber a productive fund of $3,030,127 
had been realized. The income of this fund 
amounted to $189,826 in 1874, which was dis- 
tributed among the counties in proportion to 
the school population. The total distribution 
($192,264) was based on the school population 
of 1873, 196,065, making the per capita appor- 
tionment 98 cents. The principal of this fund 
is protected by the constitution against diminu- 
tion; and it is estimated that when the remain- 
der of the school lands are sold the permanent 
school fund will exceed $15,000,000. The state 
superintendent of education is appointed by 
the governor, with the consent of the senate, 
for two years, and receives an annual salary of 
$2,500. County superintendents are appoint- 
ed by the county commissioners. The most 
important statistics for the year ending Sept. 


80, 1874, are given in the following statement: 


Number of persons between 5 and 21 yearsold.... 210,194 
is e < TG WO) CA GA seat 57,650 
oe a attending school.............. 128,902 
SEOlsChoOOliGIstrictareiac ecm siaeiea ae ek aca 8,266 
He v SE TEDOLUNE se. es SOOO 8,114 
Number of: winter schoolssnaceissaiceeiste saleiieeers 2,769 
Average length in months,.............ccecees 8°55 
‘Dotalattendan cesta mess aciisicis sets cisrte ca cess 99,842 
ASVOLAren els. Sas cic crs sia aetrtaralvelsiong sia'stea cea ere 71,362 
Number of summer schools...........0...0220+20 2,718 
Ayerageilengthiin: monthss <0 240. s)csleess ce « 8°11 
Potallattendance sc. tye sus etaeet ssiners «+ sore arate) ae 81,781 
PA VOVAE Ope come Mortars eielatncinley viacersisre ase ae ore! Eoatersaps 55,248 
Number of teachers in all schools (male 1,884, fe- 
WALES. G45 Oy ee cy cps ase eras Gut ateee chevata aia « 5,582 
Average monthly wages of teachers, male........ $41 46 
af He ce He femisleceee $28 91 
Numbetiotischoolshousegivmcsrtaa aucssiae ceteinecde 2,75 
Value se | BY, rere bei baa. lena chee Apel os $2,288,700 
Amount received from school fund, including 
DeMill tax, AMES, AoCh. oe ass -elped cist obits « eles cinists $362,708 


Amount apportioned from permanent school fund $192,264 ~ 


“ received from taxes voted by districts.... $889,890 
“ expended for school purposes, total...... $1,155,542 
i oO for teacher's’ wageS............ $678,606 
1 oo fOr SCHOO! NOUSES. <wcicls ccicjed cc. $328,601 


According to the federal census of 1870, the 
total number of educational institutions in Min- 
nesota was 2,479, having 2,886 teachers, of 
whom 1,907 were females, and 107,264 pupils. 
The total income of all was $1,011,769, of which 
$2,000 was from endowment, $903,101 from 
taxation and public funds, and $106,668 from 
tuition and other sources. There were 2,424 
public schools with 2,758 teachers and 103,408 
pupils, 4 colleges with 31 teachers and 524 stu- 
dents, 3 academies having 10 teachers and 1388 
pupils, and 28 private schools with 28 teachers 


610 


and 959 pupils. In 1874, 487 pupils were in- 
structed in academies, 582 in colleges, and 
2,980 in private schools, making with those 
in the common and normal schools a total of 
133,854. Minnesota has three state normal 
schools: at Winona, opened in 1860; Mankato, 
1868; and St. Cloud, 1869. The number of 
instructors and pupils in these during the year 
ending Nov. 30, 1874, together with the annual 
appropriation made by the legislature, was as 
follows: 


PUPILS. 
NORMAL Instruc- Appropria- 
SCHOOLS. tors. |Model de-| Normal de- tions. 
Total. 
partment.| partment. 

Winona..... 11 261 255 516 | $12,000 
Mankato.... 3) 46 171 217 10,000 
St. Cloud.... 6 48 122 170 6,000 

Total ..... 22 | 3855 548 | 903 | $28,000 


For the further training of teachers, the super- 
intendent of public instruction is required to 
hold annually in the thinly settled counties as 
many state teachers’ institutes as practicable, 
each to continue in session at least one week. 
In 1874 six training schools of four weeks each 
and five institutes of one week each were held 
in 11 counties, and were attended by 1,024 
teachers. The expense, $2,710, was borne by 
the state. These institutes are regarded as an 
_ important feature of the public school system. 
Applicants for position as teachers, if not 
graduates of a normal school, are required to 
obtain a graded certificate, which is granted 
on examination by county superintendents.— 
The state university is described in the article 
Minnesota, University or. Carleton college 
(Congregational), at Northfield, was organized 
in 1866, and has an English preparatory and a 
collegiate course, which are open to students 
of both sexes. In 1873-4 it had 10 instruc- 
tors and 171 pupils, of whom 7 were in the 
college and 165 in the preparatory department ; 
64 were females. St. John’s college is an im- 
portant Roman Catholic school at St. Joseph’s, 
organized in 1856, and haying in 1873-4 22 
instructors and 26 students in the ecclesias- 
tical and 97 in the classical and commercial 
course. Macalester college (Presbyterian) at 
Minneapolis was opened in 1874. Besides the 
theological department of St. John’s college, 
instruction in theology is afforded by Augs- 
burg seminary (Evangelical Lutheran) at Min- 
neapolis, which was founded in 1869, and in 
1873 had 5 instructors and 68 students. The 
only institution exclusively for the higher edu- 
cation of women which reported to the United 
States bureau of education in 1878 was St. 
Mary’s Hall at Faribault (Protestant Episco- 
pal), which in 1873-4 had 14 instructors and 
114 pupils. There are, however, seminaries 
for the secondary instruction of girls at Has- 
tings, Minneapolis, and St. Paul. There are 
also several well conducted academies open to 
boys and girls in St. Paul, Red Wing, Caledo- 


MINNESOTA 


nia, and other places. There are from 15 to 
20 excellent high schools in the state, in which 
students may be prepared to enter the state 
university. Several private schools afford in- 
struction in the Norwegian and Swedish lan- 
guages. There are business colleges in St. 
Paul and Minneapolis.—According to the cen- 
sus of 1870, there were in the state 26,763 libra- 
ries, with an aggregate of 2,174,744 volumes; 
23,761 with 1,596,118 volumes were private, 
and 3,002 with 578,631 volumes were other 
than private, including the state library of 
10,000 volumes, and 28 circulating libraries 
containing 16,601 volumes. Besides the state 
library, the most important ones are that of 


| the university of Minnesota, which contains 


about 10,000 volumes; St. Paul library, 6,000 ; 
the Minneapolis Atheneum, 4,000; and that 
of the state historical society at St. Paul, . 
which has 5,643 bound and 8,730 unbound 
volumes. The whole number of newspapers 
and periodicals was 95, having an aggregate 
circulation of 110,778 copies, and issuing an- 
nually 9,548,656. There were 6 daily, with 
a circulation of 14,800; 5 tri-weekly, 4,200; 
79 weekly, 79,978; and 5 monthly, 11,800. 
In 1874 the number reported was 128, inclu- 
ding 7 daily, 4 tri-weekly, 112 weekly, and 
5 monthly. The total number of religious 
organizations in 1870 was 677, having 582 
edifices, with 158,266 sittings and property 


valued at $2,401,750. The denominations 
were represented as follows: 
DENOMINATIONS. ee Edifices. | Sittings. | Property. 
Baptist, regular... .. 80 43 11,185 | $140,400 
t: OUNOL es es 14 T 1,300 19,100 
Christians. eee eee 6 6 1,550 7,450 
Congregational....... 57 89 11,400 148,200 
Episcopal, Protestant.| 64 54 14,595 400,500 
Evangelical Associa’n.| 20 16 8,875 24,100 
uutheran. a. eee. oe 185 OF 23,825 222,150 
Methodist. cyje-m oa 225 106 26,890 | 887,550 
Moravia. sss. ete 6 5 1,400 8,500 
New Jerusalem...... 1 il 200 2,200 
Presbyterian, regular.| 75 59 16,756 278,000 
eS other... 1 1 200 2,000 
Reformed church (late 
German Reformed). 2 2 400 45,000 
Roman Catholic...... 154 1385 42.370 755,000 
Second Advent....... vg 1 150 2,100 
United Brethren in 
Obristere saves scke 5 2 500 1,000 
Universalist.......... 18 6 1,720 55,000 


—Though of recent settlement, Minnesota has 
long been the seat of a considerable traffic 
with the Indians, and of missionary enterprise. 
As early as 1680 Hennepin and La Salle pene- 
trated these wilds, followed by La Hontan and 
Le Sueur, and in the last century by Carver ; 
and within the present century this region has 
been thoroughly explored by Pike, Long, Keat- 
ing, Nicollet, Schoolcraft, Owen, and others, 
But it was not until 1812 that the United States 
had any authority within the limits of Min- 
nesota. In 1816 a law was passed excluding 
foreigners from the Indian trade; and the 
military post at Fort Snelling was established 


MINNESOTA 


in 1819. In 1837 a small tract of country be- 
tween the St. Croix and Mississippi was ceded 
by the Indians to the United States, and lumber- 
ing operations commenced upon the St. Croix. 
The territory of Minnesota was established by 
an act of congress passed March 3, 1849, and 
the government was organized in June. It 
embraced nearly twice the area of the present 
state, its western limits extending to the Mis- 
souri and White Earth rivers. Up to this pe- 
riod the country was occupied almost entirely 
by Indians; but a small civilized population of 
whites and haif-breeds had grown up around 
the trading posts and mission stations, amount- 
ing in 1849 to 4,857. In 1851 the Sioux ceded 
to the United States all their lands in the ter- 
ritory W. of the Mississippi to the Big Sioux 
river. The population increased so rapidly 
after this, that in 1857 application was made 
for admission into the Union. In the con- 
vention assembled to frame a state constitu- 
tion, a dispute arose among the delegates, 
which resulted in the secession of a portion 
and the formation of another convention. The 
two conventions, known as the republican and 
the democratic, held sessions at the same time 
in St. Paul. A compromise was effected, and 
the same constitution was signed by the dele- 
gates of both conventions and submitted sepa- 
rately to the people by each convention, with 
the names only of its officers and delegates. 
It was ratified by an overwhelming majority. 
According to the census ordered in the ena- 
bling act, and dated Sept. 21, 1857, the terri- 
tory contained 150,092 inhabitants. The act 
authorizing the formation of a state govern- 
ment passed congress Feb. 26, 1857, and the 
state was admitted into the Union May 11, 
1858, with the boundaries above described. 
That portion of the state lying on the E. side 
of the Mississippi originally belonged to the 
country termed the “ Territory Northwest of 
the Ohio,” and had the ordinance of 1787 been 
fully complied with would have been included 
in the fifth state (Wisconsin) formed from that 
region. This section comprises an area of 22,336 
square miles. The part of the country lying 
W. of the Mississippi, and embracing more 
than two thirds of its area, was originally a 
portion of Louisiana, and came into the pos- 
session of the United States in 1803; and be- 
fore it was included in Minnesota it had been 
a part of the territory of Missouri, and subse- 
quently of Iowa. There are bonds amounting 
to $2,275,000 outstanding against the state, 
the validity of which has been disputed. These 
bonds were issued in 1858 and lent to railroad 
companies, upon the authority of an amend- 
ment to the constitution made in that year. 
Soon after receiving them the companies, as 
is alleged, failed to comply with the condi- 
tions upon which the bonds were granted, and 
payment was refused by the state. In 1860 
another amendment to the constitution was 
adopted ‘‘expunging ” the amendment of 1858, 
and providing that ‘no law levying a tax or 


MINNESOTA (Universiry oF) 611 


making other provisions for the payment of 
principal or interest of the bonds denominated 
Minnesota state railroad bonds shall take effect 
or be in force until such law shall have been 
submitted to a vote of the people of the state 
and adopted by a majority of the electors of 
the state voting upon the same.” Before this 
amendment was adopted the mortgages held 
by the state had been purchased and the mort- 
gaged railroads bought by the government at 
nominal prices. In May, 1871, a popular vote 
was taken on a proposition for settlement by 
arbitration of these claims, when 21,499 votes 
were cast against and 9,293 in favor of the 
proposition, the total vote being less than half 
the average. The total number of men furnished 
by Minnesota to the army and navy during the 
civil war was 25,034, or 19,675 reduced to a 
three years’ standard, (See supplement.) 

MINNESOTA, or St. Peter’s, a river of Min- 
nesota, having its source in a series of lakes on 
the Dakota border, between lat. 45° and 46° 
N., and pursuing aS. E. course for about 820 
m. to its confluence with the Blue Earth; then 
turning N. E. it flows in that direction for 
about 120 m., falling into the Mississippi at 
Mendota. Its course is principally in the val- 
ley lying between the Coteau du Grand Bois 
and the Coteau des Prairies. For its whole 
distance from Big Stone lake it has a fall of 
only 220 ft. It is navigable for steamers about 
40 m. to a point where at low water a ledge 
of rocks obstructs further progress; but ordi- 
narily small boats can ascend to Patterson’s 
rapids, 295 m. from its mouth. 

MINNESOTA, University of, an institution of 
learning in Minneapolis, Minn., beautifully sit- 
uated on a bluff on the E. bank of the Missis- 
sippi river, one mile below the falls of St. An- 
thony. The college grounds comprise about 
30 acres. The experimental farm of the agri- 
cultural college is about half.a mile below, near 
the Bridal Veil falls. The buildings comprise 
a main academic edifice, 180 by 90 ft. and four 
stories high, and an agricultural college, 150 
by 54 ft., two stories high, including a chem- 
ical laboratory and a plant house of glass. 
The total cost of these buildings was $100,000, 
appropriated by the state. The university had 
a nominal existence, under a provision of 
the state constitution, as early as 1857, but it 
was not till 1867 that a preparatory depart- 
ment was opened. In 1868 the university 
was reorganized, and to the board of regents 
was intrusted the income to be derived from 
the state’s share of the lands given in 1862 by 
the general government for the endowment of 
colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. 
In September, 1869, the first faculty was or- 
ganized, the president being William W. Fol- 
well, M. A., who still retains that office (1875). 
In 1870 the board of regents adopted a plan of 
university organization in some respects novel. 
The work of the first two years of the ordinary 
college course was merged with the last two 
years of the existing preparatory department 


612 MINNESOTA (Universiry oF} 


into a department of elementary instruction, 
otherwise called the collegiate department. 
Having completed a four years’ course in the 
collegiate department, the student then has 
his option to enter at once some one of the 
professional schools, or to proceed with higher 
academical studies in the college of science, 
literature, and the arts. The collegiate de- 


partment is merely a temporary attachment, . 


it. being part of the plan of organization to 
drop off its studies as fast as the schools can 
assume them. The lowest class is to be dis- 
continued at the close of the year 18745. In 
1875 the following colleges or departments, 
with the courses and degrees named, had been 
opened: 1. The collegiate department, known 
in the organic law as the department of ele- 
mentary instruction, having three courses of 
study: classical, scientific, and modern. The 
faculty have authority to permit students to 
select studies from the various courses, but 
the programme is arranged with reference 
to the wants of the regular students. No de- 
grees are conferred in this secondary depart- 
ment. 2. The college of science, literature, 
and the arts, which presents a similar variety 
of courses, but with a large increase of op- 
tions. The degrees of B. A., B.S., and B. L. 
are conferred upon students who complete the 
respective courses and pass the examinations. 
3. The college of agriculture, offering an ad- 
vanced or university course, based on the prep- 
aration of the collegiate department and lead- 
ing to the degree of B. Agr.; and an ele- 
mentary course coinciding in the main with 
the scientific course of the collegiate depart- 
ment. 4. The college of mechanic arts, with 
courses in civil engineering, mechanical engi- 
neering, and architecture, leading to appro- 
priate baccalaureate degrees. Post-graduate 
courses are to be arranged, leading to the mas- 
ter’s and other higher degrees. In 1870 the 
announcement was made, ‘‘ No degrees except 
upon examinations.” The government of the 
university is vested in a board of ten regents, 
of which the governor, the superintendent of 
public instruction, and the president of the uni- 
versity are members e# officio, the remaining 
seven being appointed by the governor with 
the consent of the senate, and holding their 
offices for three years. No applicant is admit- 
ted to the university without examination, and 
the only tests of progress are the examinations. 
The university maintains no dormitories. Tui- 
tion is free in all departments. Both sexes are 
admitted. The number of students in 1874—’5 
was 285. The faculty numbered 14 resident 
officers and one non-resident. The library con- 
tained about 10,000 volumes. By a law of 
1872 the geological and natural history surveys 
of the state were intrusted to the university. 
Considerable collections have been made by 
the professors engaged in the surveys. The 
financial basis of the university consists in the 
following grants of public lands: 1, 46,000 
acres to the territorial university; 2, 46,000 


| quarrel, 


MINNETAREES 


acres to the state university; 38, 120,000 acres, 
being the so-called agricultural grant of 1862, 
for the benefit of colleges of agriculture and 
the mechanic arts; 4, 12 sections of salt lands 
for the expenses of the geological survey. In 
1874 the state legislature made an annual appro- 
priation of $19,000. The total annual income 
at that time amounted to $30,000, the institu- 
tion still retaining about 135,000 acres of pub- 
lic lands, all within the state. 

MINNETAREES, a tribe of Indians on the up- 
per Missouri, who are called by the Canadians 
Gros Ventres of the Missouri, but by them- 
selves Hidatsa. They were originally part of 
the Crow nation, but separated from it after a 
They came to the Mandans in a state 
of destitution, nearly all the men having fallen 
in battle. The Mandans did not allow them to 
enter their village, but permitted them to settle 
near. They gradually recovered, and adopted 
many Mandan customs and ideas, but have re- 
tained their own language. Lewis and Clarke 
in 1804 found the tribe in two villages on op- 
posite sides of Knife river near the Missouri. 
They numbered 2,500, and traded with the 
great English fur companies, defending them- 
selves against the Sioux, and making war on 
the Shoshones and Flatheads. The United 
States made a treaty with them at the lower 
Mandan village, July 30, 1825. They have 
never been hostile to the whites. When the 
smallpox swept away most of the Mandans in 
1838, the Minnetarees were reduced to about 
500. In 1842 they numbered about 300 males 
and 800 females, in 75 lodges, their village 
lying about 8 m. above the Mandans; but in 
1845, under the constant attacks of the Sioux, 
they united with a part of the Mandans in a 
palisaded village at their present site, where 
Fort Berthold was erected the same year. 
They were then estimated at 760 souls. Though 
a treaty was made at Laramie in September, 
1851, to which they adhered, the Sioux con- 
tinued their hostilities, and in 1862 killed Four 
Bears, their head chief, a man of remarkable 
ability. During the civil war no arms or am- 
munition was issued to these tribes, while the 
Sioux procured supplies from the British terri- 
tory, and in spite of all treaty obligations killed 
and plundered these unoffending Indians, who 
were unable to go on their usual hunts. They 
ceded some of their lands in 1864. In 1870 
peace was again made with the Sioux and arms 
were furnished to the Minnetarees; atthe same 
time a reservation in Dakota and Montana was 
set apart for them, but in 1878 they were still 
at Fort Berthold. They are reduced to 528, 
the Mandans, and since 1863 the Rickarees 
occupying part of the village. The Minne- 
tarees are tall, well made, and light in color. 
They dwell chiefly in peculiar earth-covered 
lodges like those of the Mandans, 30 to 50 ft. 
in diameter. Every winter they go many 
hundred miles up the Missouri and Yellow- 
stone valleys to hunt. Their religious ideas 
and rites are similar to those of the Man- 


MINNOW 


dans. No attempt has been made to civilize 
or Christianize them beyond occasional visits 
of Roman Catholic missionaries, An account 
of the tribe and its language is given in Wash- 
ington Matthews’s ‘“‘ Grammar and Dictionary 
of the Hidatsa” (New York, 1873); see also 
‘*‘ Hidatsa (Minnetaree)-English Dictionary ” 
(New York, 1874). 

MINNOW, the common name of many small 
cyprinodont fishes, of the genera fundulus 
(Lacép.) and hydrargyra (Lacép.). In fundu- 
lus the upper surface of the head is flattened ; 
fine card-like teeth upon the jaws, and short 
ones on the posterior part of the hyoid arch, 
with opposite velvet-like patches on the roof 
of the mouth; no teeth on palate or vomer; 
branchial rays five; dorsal opposite the anal, 
and caudal rounded; upper surface and sides 
of head covered with scales. The common 
minnow, or ‘‘cobbler” of the young smelt 
fishers (/. piseulentus, Cuv. and Val.), is from 
1 to 5 in. long; the females are of a uniform 
brown color; the males with lighter intervals 
on the sides arranged like transverse bands, 
the dorsal and anal with black dots, and anal 
slightly emarginated posteriorly, mouth pro- 
tractile, and upward when closed. It abounds 
about the salt marshes of the northern and 
middle states, and is caught in large numbers 
in hand nets, as bait for other fish, particularly 


Minnow (Fundulus pisculentus). 


smelts.—The yellow-bellied minnow (hydrar- 
gyra jflavula, Storer) is from 1 to 5 in. long; 
the female is yellowish green above, lighter on 
the sides, and white beneath, with from one 
to five longitudinal interrupted black bands 
extending along the sides from the gill covers 
to near the tail, where there are three or more 
indistinct transverse bands. In this genus the 
head is more flattened, and the branchial rays 
are six. It is found in southern New England 
and New York.—tThe cyprinoid black-nosed 
dace (argyreus atronasus, Heck.) is sometimes 
called brook minnow. The British minnow or 
minim (leuciscus phoxinus, Cuv.) rarely exceeds 
3 in. in length; it is generally found in the 
same streams with trout, swimming in shoals. 
MINO BIRD (gracula religiosa, Linn.), a coni- 
rostral bird of the starling family and subfami- 
ly graculine. In this genus the bill is as long 
as the head, broad at the base and strong, with 
the culmen curved, sides compressed and near- 
ly straight, and tip slightly notched; nostrils 
partially covered by the frontal plumes; wings 
long, with the first quill rudimental, and the 
second shorter than the third and fourth, which 
are longest; tail short and nearly even; tarsi 
shorter than the middle toe, stout, and covered 


MIN ORCA 613 


with strong scales; toes long, the outer the 
longest, and the hind one very Jong and strong; 
claws curved and robust; some parts of the 
head are naked or carunculated. ‘This species, 
the best known of the genus, is about 104 in. 
long, of which the tail is 8, and the expanse of 
wings 19 in.; the body is round and plump; 


Mino Bird (Gracula religiosa). 


the color is velvet black, with green, blue, and 
purple reflections; on the wings is a white 


speculum; the bill, feet, and caruncles behind 


the eyes, yellow. Itis found in Java, Sumatra, 
and other islands of the East Indian archipela- 
go, inhabiting the jungles, where it is seen in 
pairs or small parties in the tops of lofty trees, 
searching for fruits, berries, and insects. It is 
easily domesticated, and becomes very familiar ; 
it soon learns to whistle, sing, and talk, imi- 
tating the human voice, according to Latham, 
more nearly than any other bird; it is fre- 
quently kept as a cage bird in the East Indies, 
and sometimes in Europe and in this country, 
where as much as $100 has been paid for a 
single bird. Another species, with similar hab- 
its, is the musical grakle (@. musica, Temm.), 
found also in the East Indies. 

MINORCA (Span. Menorca; anc. Balearis 
Minor), the second in size of the Balearic isl- 
ands, lying 24m. E. N. E. of Majorca, about 
125 m. S. E. of Barcelona, between lat. 39° 47’ 
and 40° 5’ N., and lon. 8° 50’ and 4° 23/ E.; 
greatest length 33 m., greatest breadth 13 m. ; 
area, 288 sq.m.; pop. about 45,000. The coast 
is indented on every side with small bays, sev- 
eral of which form excellent harbors. The 
surface is rugged, and rises gradually toward 
the centre, where it attains in Monte Toro an 
elevation of nearly 5,000 ft. 
very hot in summer and cold in winter, and 
the soil is rather sterile. Iron, lead, copper, 
and marble are found. The inhabitants are 
almost entirely engaged in agriculture, fishing, 
and commerce. . Minorca is of great commer- 
cial importance in the Mediterranean trade, and 
the capital, Port Mahon, has an excellent har- 
bor. During the greater part of the 18th cen- 
tury Minorca belonged to the British, who 
ceded it to Spain at the peace of Amiens (1802). 
(See BaLEArio IsLanps.) 


The climate is , 


614 MINORITES 


MINORITES. See FrANcISOANS. 
- MINOS, in Greek mythology and legends, 
a Cretan hero and lawgiver. According to 
Homer, he was the son of Jupiter by Europa, 
brother of Rhadamanthus, and the father of 
Deucalion and Ariadne. The logographers 
make him also the brother of Sarpedon and 
husband of Pasiphaé. Some later writers dis- 
tinguish two kings of the name, grandfather 
and grandson, but only one Minos was known 
to Homer, Hesiod, or the poets and historians 
to the time of Aristotle. ‘To obtain possession 
of the throne of Crete, he affirmed that the 
gods granted to him everything for which he 
prayed. He accordingly prayed that a bull 


might come forth from the sea, and promised | 


to sacrifice it to Neptune. The bull appeared, 
and he obtained the kingdom; but, admiring 
the beauty of the animal, he sacrificed another 
in its place. Thereupon Neptune afflicted his 
wife Pasiphaé with a monstrous passion for 
the bull, for the gratification of which the in- 
ventor Deedalus contrived means, and she be- 
came the mother of Minotaur, a creature with 
the body of a man and the head of a bull, 
which was imprisoned by Minos in the Cnos- 
sian labyrinth. The Cretans traced their legal 
and political institutions to Minos, and he was 
said to have been instructed in the art of law- 
giving by Jupiter himself; and Lycurgus was 
believed to have followed his legislation as 
a model. After death he was constituted 
one of the judges in Hades. Later accounts 
represent him as an unjust and cruel tyrant. 
He is ‘said to have acquired great maritime 
power, conquered the Aigean islands, made 
war upon Athens, and compelled the Athenians 
to send to Crete periodically a tribute of seven 
youths and seven maidens to be devoured by 
the Minotaur. Theseus with the aid of Ariadne 
at length slew the monster and abolished the 
tribute. In a subsequent attempt to conquer 
Sicily Minos failed and was killed. 

MINOT, George Richards, an American jurist, 
born in Boston, Dec. 28, 1758, died Jan. 2, 
1802.' He graduated at Harvard college in 
1778, practised law in Boston, became clerk of 
the Massachusetts house of representatives in 
1781, secretary of the convention which rati- 
fied the federal constitution, judge of probate 
for the county of Suffolk in 1792, and judge 
of the municipal court of Boston. He pub- 
lished an oration on the Boston massacre; a 
‘History of Shays’s Rebellion” (8vo, 1788); 
‘Eulogy on Washington” (1800); and a 
“History of Massachusetts Bay” from 1748 to 
1765 (2 vols., 1798-1803), in continuation of 
Gov. Hutchinson’s. 

MINOTAUR. See Mrvos. 

MINOT’S LEDGE. See Licguruovuse. 

MINSIS. See Munszzs. 

MINSK. I. AS. W. government of European 
Russia, bordering on Vitebsk, Mohilev, Tcher- 
nigov, Kiev, Volhynia, Grodno, and Wilna; 
area, 35,295 sq. m.; pop. in 1867, 1,135,588. 
The territory of Minsk is a vast plain, over 


MINT 


which are scattered a féw hills of moderate ele- 
vation. In the north and east are large for- 
ests, and toward the south and southwest ex- 
tensive marshes. The principal rivers are the 
Dnieper (which partly bounds it on the east), 
Niemen, Pripet, and Beresina. The climate is 
very severe in winter, but pleasant in summer. 
Agriculture is the principal occupation. The 
chief manufactures are fine cloths, linen, and 
sugar. The principal exports are timber, salt, 
and grain, which are brought by the rivers 
to the ports of the Baltic and Black seas, The 
population is composed chiefly of Lithuanians, 
Poles, Russians, and Jews. Five sevenths of 
them adhere to the Greek church. The in- 
habitants of the southern marshy portion are 
subject to the disease called plica Polonica. 
Among the more important towns are Pinsk 
and Slutzk. Minsk is divided into 10 circles, 
and was formerly a part of the Lithuanian 
provinces of Poland. II. A city, capital of the 
government, on the Svislotch, 110 m. 8. E. of 
Wilna; pop. in 1867, 36,277, a large part of 
whom are Jews. Itis the seat of a Greek arch- 
bishop and a Roman Catholic bishop. It has 
a fine cathedral, a number of other churches, 
a& gymnasium, and a theatre. An important 
trade in grain is carried on. The nuns of 
Minsk were subjected to persecution by the 
emperor Nicholas in 1840. 

MINSTRELS (Lat. minstrellus, diminutive of 
minister ; Fr. ménestrel), a class of men in the 
middle ages who amused their patrons by the 
arts of poetry and music, singing to the harp 
their own verses, or the popular ballads and 
metrical histories of the time. They some- 
times accompanied their music with mimicry 
and action, so that they were often called mimi 
and histriones. The name minstrel is of Nor- 
man origin, and they were successors of the 
skalds and bards of the north. The office be- 
came degraded, the minstrel on the continent 
being commonly classed with the dancer and 
mimic; while the Latin names mimi, scune, 
histriones, and joculatores are grouped together. 
In England Edward II., Henry V., and Henry 
VI. showed great regard for minstrels; but the 
reign of Richard Coeur de Lion was their gold- 
en age. When Henry V. set out on his great 
expedition to France, 18 minstrels, with an 
allowance of 12d. a day each, accompanied 
him. But from the reign of Edward IV. their 
art seems to have declined. Toward the close 
of Elizabeth’s reign a statute was enacted, by 
which wandering minstrels were punished 
along with rogues, tinkers, peddlers, vaga- 
bonds, and beggars. 

MINT, the name of plants of the genus mentha 
(from Mintha, a nymph changed into this plant), 
of the order labiate, which is distinguished 
from related genera by an almost regular co- 
rolla and four fertile stamens; there are about 
30 species, but few of which have any other 
than a botanical interest. Generally, when mint 
is spoken of, that which is also known as 
spearmint (1/. viridis) is understood, while the 


MINT 


common names of the other species have a 
descriptive prefix. Spearmint, common mint, 
garden mint, or usually simply mint, is a native 
of Europe, though found about moist ground 


Spearmint (Mentha viridis). 


and waste places in the United States, having 
strayed from gardens and fields where it has 
been cultivated. It is handsome, cleanly, of a 
deep green color, with an erect stem 1 to 2 ft. 
high, furnished with oblong-lanceolate, nearly 
sessile, acutely serrate leaves, and ending in 
slender, tapering spikes of pale purple flowers. 
The fresh leaves, chopped fine and mixed with 
sugar and vinegar, form the mint sauce much 
eaten with lamb, and bruised they are used 
for compounding various beverages, especially 
mint julep. An oil, upon which the properties 
of the plant depend, is separated by distilla- 
tion in the same manner as described for pep- 
permint; from this is prepared an essence, by 
dissolving it in alcohol, and a water, by mix- 
ture with that liquid, both of which are used 
to cover the taste of other medicines.—Pepper- 
mint (M. piperita) is more sparingly natural- 
ized than the preceding, from which it differs 
in its more interrupted spikes and petioled 
leaves; it has a more pungent and camphorous 
taste and similar stimulating properties. The 
plant is largely cultivated for the production 
of the oil of peppermint, a culture that was at 
one time exclusively confined, in this country, 
to Massachusetts, the western part of New 
York, and some counties in Ohio, but was 
later taken up by the farmers in southwestern 
Michigan, where some years ago the breadth 
of land devoted to this crop was between 2,000 
and 8,000 acres. At one time St. Joseph’s 
county, Mich., was the headquarters for oil of 
peppermint, but recently the makers in Wayne 
county, N. Y., have by attention to the quality 
of the product established a reputation which 
has led to increased production, and this county 
now produces more in value if not in quantity 
than any other district. Those engaged in the 


615 


business have met with variable success, as the 
oil has been the subject of the operations of 
speculators; at one time the whole production 
of the country was controlled by a single firm, 
which in order to diminish the supply con- 
tracted with many large growers to discontinue 
the cultivation for five years. Peppermint re- 
quires a warm, rich soil; the land is laid off 
in furrows 15 to 24 in. apart, and sets, or parts 
of old plants, are planted thickly in the rows; 
the plants are kept free from weeds until they 
cover the soil; the harvest begins early in 
August and continues until October; the first 
crop of the field is the best, the second and 
third being much less; the fourth year the 
field is ploughed, and the crop springs up from 
the broken roots; the yield of the fifth year 
is about equal to that of the second, and 
after this the land is diverted to other uses. 
The first year’s crop is best, not only because 
the plants are young and vigorous, but the 
mint is then free from a weed which is apt to 
spring up later, and also yields a volatile oil, 
which is bitter and pungent, and deteriorates 
the product; this weed, called mare’s-tail, fire- 
weed, and by several other names, is erechthites 
hieractfolius, a composite somewhat resem- 
bling lettuce in appearance. The mint is cut 
with a cradle having two fingers, and raked 
into cocks, where it remains 12 hours to wilt 
before it is distilled. The still is a wooden vat 
of heavy staves hooped with iron, 44 ft. deep 
and 6 ft. in diameter; the wilted mint is packed 
into this vat by treading it close with the feet 
until the vat is full, when the lid is fastened 
down steam-tight; a pipe enters the lower 
part of the vat to convey steam from a boiler, 
and another from the top of the vat connects 
with a worm, as in an ordinary still. The 
steam being let on, the oil from the mint is 
volatilized, and its vapor, mixed with steam, 
is condensed in the worm; the mixed oil and 
water are collected in a receiver, when they 
separate by their difference in specific gravity. 
The oil is packed in tin cans holding 20 Ibs. 
each, and a large share of the product is ex- 
ported. The chief consumption of the oil is 
for flavoring confectionery, and it also enters 
into the preparation of essences, cordials, and 
the like. Essence of peppermint, a popular 
carminative, is a solution of the oil in alcohol, 
of a strength proportioned to the price. Pep- 
permint water is prepared like other similar 
waters by first rubbing up the oil with carbon- 
ate of magnesia, slowly adding water, and fil- 
tering, a fluid dram of the oil to a pint of water ; 
the use of the magnesia is to finely divide the 
oil and expose a large surface to the water, in 
which it is slightly soluble; any other inert 
powder will answer as well.—Corn mint (W/. 
arvensis), which has the odor of decaying 
cheese, the round-leaved mint (WZ. rotundifo- 
lia), the water mint (Jf. aquatica), and the 
whorled mint (1. sativa), are other European 
species naturalized in some localities, but most- 
ly rare.—Our only native species, the wild mint 


616 


(M. Canadensis), is a common plant in damp 
places from Kentucky northward; it has hairy 
stems and leaves, and flowers in axillary whorls; 
its taste and odor are like those of pennyroyal. 
A smooth form of this, which has been called 
M. borealis, has a pleasanter odor. 

MINT (Ang.-Sax. mynet, from mynetian, to 
mark), a place where money is coined by a 
government. The early methods of coining 
money were exceedingly imperfect. The met- 
al, brought to the required standard of fine- 
ness, was melted and cast into small bars, 
which were reduced to thin plates under the 
hammer. Square pieces cut from these plates 
were rounded at the forge, and then by means 
of rude dies, one fixed like an anvil, and the 
other held in the hand and struck with a 
mallet, the round lump of metal was flattened 
and coined at the same time. The coins were 
apt to be irregular in weight and form, and not 
entirely round, and were liable to be clipped. 
It was not until the middle of the 17th cen- 
tury that the forge and the hammer gave way 
permanently in France and England to the 
mill and screw.—In Britain, in the 1st cen- 
tury of the Christian era, Cunobelin, king of 
the countries lying between the Thames and 
the Nene, established his mint at Camulodu- 
num (Colchester), and there coined money of 
gold, silver, and brass. In early Saxon and 
Norman times establishments under the crown 
for the coinage of money existed in almost 
every important town. In the reign of Ethel- 
red II. (978-1016) there were 38 mints, and in 
that of Canute (1016-1035) 37. In those days 
communication between the different parts of 
the realm was at once difficult and dangerous, 
and it therefore became important to have the 
sources for the supply of money for the vari- 
ous districts within those districts. After the 
Norman conquest the number of these mints 
was gradually reduced, so that in the reign of 
Henry VI. (1422-60) the only ones in England 
were at Bristol, Canterbury,Coventry, Durham, 
London, Norwich, Oxford, and York; in the 
reign of Henry VII. they were only at Canter- 
bury, Durham, York, and London; and it is 
supposed that in the time of Elizabeth all coins 
were made at the mint in London. But when, 
in the reign of William III., a very extensive 
coinage of silver took place, several local es- 
tablishments outside of London were employed. 
Athelstan appears to have been the first mon- 
arch who established any regulations for the 
government of the mints of the kingdom. His 
law, proclaimed about 928, provided that but 
one sort of coin should pass current, and grant- 
ed to various towns each a number of coiners 
or moneyers, and to boroughs of inferior size 
each one moneyer. All provincial mints re- 
ceived their dies from the mint of London. 
The moneyers coined money and distributed 
it, received that which was clipped or worn, 
and bought bullion, the right to do which the 
monarch claimed as his own exclusive privilege. 
The moneyers seem in those early times to 


MINT 


have had almost entire control of the mints. 
Their names were stamped upon the coins, as 
a guarantee of their genuineness, as early as 
the time of Egbert, king of Kent, about the 
middle of the 7th century. Edward II., in the 
18th year of his reign, made a considerable 
change in the organization of the mint. He 
appointed a master, warden, comptroller, king’s 
and master’s assay master, and king’s clerk; 
and under this constitution it continued sub- 
stantially till 1815. From an early period in 
English history, the clergy of the superior 
ranks shared with the king the prerogative of 
coinage; the bishops of Durham had for cen- 
turies enjoyed the privilege of coining sterlings 


and pennies, and about 1473 the then bishop, 


who did not consider himself authorized to 
coin halfpence without obtaining the king’s 
permission, applied for it, and it was granted. 
During the civil war in the reign of Stephen, 
when the country was in great disorder, almost 
every baron usurped the prerogative of coining 
and issuing money, which consequently became 
very much debased. In 1156 Henry II. issued 
anew coinage, and prohibited the use of any 
other money. Hammer money passed current 
in England until the reign of William III., al- 
though the system of milling had been intro- 
duced from France in 1562, during the reign of 
Queen Elizabeth; but it remained in practice 
only ten years, when the old system was again 
resorted to on account of its greater cheapness. 
The invention of the mill for coining is attrib- 
uted to Antoine Brucher, a French engraver, 
who first tried it in Paris, in the palace of 
Henry IL, for coining counters. It was con- 
tinued in use till 1585, in the reign of Henry 
III., when it was abandoned on account of its 
expense. In 1631 a commission was appointed 
in England to examine into the process of coin- 
ing milled money proposed by Nicholas Bryitt 
of Lorraine; but nevertheless all coins contin- 
ued to be hammered till 1662 or 1663, when 
the milling process was finally and permanently 
adopted; and Bryitt seems to have been ap- 
pointed chief engraver 
to the mint, and to 
have put the system 
into practice. It had 
already been adopted 
in France in 1645,— 
The early milling ope- 
rations employed four 
different machines: 
the rolling mill, for 
laminating the metals 
to plates of the proper 
thickness; the punch- 
ing-out machine (fig. 
1), for cutting out the 
blanks or planchets; the machine for milling 
the edges (fig. 2); and the coining press (fig. 3), 
which stamped the impression on both sides 
at once. The hammer money which was called 
in by William III. had been so much clipped 
and filed as to have lost about half its value. 


Fie. 1.—Punching-out Ma- 
chine. 


MINT 


Such confidence was felt in the new money by 
reason of its being milled on the edge, that it 
was deemed almost if not quite impossible to 
abstract any portion of the metal from it. But 


ii Ruufonnrir 


AT 


Fie. 2.—Machine for Milling Edges. 


it was soon found that this money could with 
facility be subjected to the ‘‘sweating” pro- 
cess, in which a portion was dissolved by acids 
from the surfaces of both gold and silver coin 


©) 


4 

. 

BA 
« 


SSS 


te 


PL TTT 
| DOTATEERUCU UENCE 
i) 


HDUUIEALL A411 


Tia 


Fic. 8.—Coining Press. 


without being perceptible to the eye. In 1810 
the mint, which from an early age had existed 
in the tower of London, was removed to a 
new building on Tower hill, with new and im- 
proved machinery and engines. In 1815 it was 
placed under a new system of organization, 
which lasted till 1851, when it was again re- 
organized.—Seigniorage, the deduction made 
from the bullion to cover expenses and to pay 
the sovereign for his prerogative, at one time 
formed a considerable part of the revenues of 
the crown; and it was not always fixed by 
law or uniform in amount, but was very often 
subject to the caprice of the monarch. In the 
time of Henry III. it was 6d. in the pound, and 
Henry VIII. had 50s. for every pound weight 
of gold coined. Charles II. relinquished it en- 


617 


tirely, but in the reign of George III. it was 
again imposed upon the silver coinage, and 
when the market price of silver is 5s. an ounce 
it is equivalent to 10 per cent. apparent profit; 
but as the government is obliged to keep up at 
its own cost the renewal of the silver coin, the 
wear and tear of which is considerable, the real 
profit is. trifling. While the English mint is 
said to be one of the most economical and efti- 
cient manufacturing establishments in Great 
Britain, the loss by the abandonment of the 
seigniorage is 3d. on each sovereign. This 
free coinage of Charles II., says a recent Eng- 
lish writer, ‘‘ was made partly as a concession 
to the goldsmiths, and partly under the impres- 
sion that with afree mint we should attract all 
the gold of Golconda and Peru to our coffers. 
Till then it had been the custom of the English 
government, as it is still the custom of every 
government but our own, and even of our own 
government in India and Australia, to levy a 
seigniorage of 1 per cent. or thereabouts upon 
the work of the mint.” This seigniorage was 
relinquished by Charles II. in consideration of 
the house of commons presenting him with the 
customs duties.—ints and Assay Offices in the 
United States. Under the coinage act of 1873, 
which reorganized this branch of the public 
service, the following mints and assay offices 
are in operation: the mints of Philadelphia, 
Pa., San Francisco, Cal., Carson City, Nev., 
and Denver, Col.; and the assay offices of New 
York, Charlotte, N. C., and Boise City, Idaho. 
The mint, by the act of April 2, 1792, was es- 
tablished for the purpose of a national coinage 
at Philadelphia. The machinery, as well as 
the metal first used, was imported. Steam 
power was first introduced in 1816. The first 
money coined by authority of the United States 
was copper cents in 1793. In 1794 silver dol- 
lars were coined, and in 1795 gold eagles. 
Branch mints were established in 1835 at New 
Orleans, La., Charlotte, N. C., and Dahlonega, 
Ga.; in 1854 at San Francisco, Cal.; and in 
1870 at Carson City, Nev. Assay offices were 
established at New York in 1854, at Denver, 
Col., in 1864, and at Boise City, Idaho, in 1872. 
These various establishments were branches 
of the mint at Philadelphia, and under this or- 
ganization the coinage was conducted till Apri? 
1, 1878, when the new law became operative. 
This law established the mint and assay oftices 
as a bureau of the treasury department, placed . 
the several institutions upon substantially an 
equal basis, and brought them all under the 
general supervision of the chief officer of the 
bureau. Under this act the officer previously 
called director of the mint took the title and 
assumed the duties of the superintendent of 
the mint at Philadelphia. The bureau of tho 
mint of the United States is in charge of the 
director of the mint, who is under the general 
direction of the secretary of the treasury, and 
is appointed by the president, by and with the 
advice and consent of the senate, for five years, 
unless sooner removed by the president for rea- 


618 


sons to be communicated by him to the senate. 
The officers of each mint are a superintendent, 
an assayer, a melter and refiner, and a coiner, 
and for the mint of Philadelphia an engraver. 
The following are the usual forms in which 
gold bullion is received: lumps, grains, and 
dust in their native state; amalgam with the 
quicksilver burned off; foreign coin, United 
States coin issued before 1834, and United 
States defaced coin issued since; jewelry, den- 
tists’ plate, bars, rings, &c. The following are the 
usual forms in which silver bullion is received : 
foreign coin, United States coin issued before 
1853, and United States whole dollars and de- 
faced coin issued since; plate, bars, rings, &c. ; 
native lumps and grains in their native state; 
and, as an accommodation to the holders, the 
coppery silver of Lake Superior, but it must 
contain at least one fourth silver. Deposits of 
bullion, not less than $100 in value, are receiv- 
able by the superintendent, who causes it to be 
weighed in the presence of the depositor, and 
gives him a receipt therefor expressing the 
weight in troy ounces. Each deposit is kept 
separate during the process of melting and as- 
saying, and until its precise value is determined. 
This is generally accomplished in three days, 
when, on presentation of the original receipt, 
the net proceeds are paid to the depositor or 
his order. The charge for converting standard 
gold bullion into coin is one fifth of 1 per cent. ; 
and the charges for converting standard silver 
into trade dollars, for melting, refining, tough- 
ening, &c., are fixed from time to time by the 
director so as to equal but not to exceed the 
actual average cost. Deposits of gold are paid 
in gold, and if the deposit contains the value 
of over one dollar of silver clear of parting 
charges, the value of such silver is paid in sil- 
ver coin. The charges for refining and sepa- 
rating silver from gold vary from one cent to 
six cents an ounce; for coinage of gold, one 
half of 1 per cent.; and for making fine gold 
bars, six cents per $100 if the deposit contains 
silver, and if not, five cents an ounce. Deposits 
of silver are paid in silver. If the silver deposit 
contains the value of over one dollar in gold, 
clear of parting charges, the value of such gold 
is estimated and paid in gold coin. The charges 
for refining and separating gold from silver 
vary from one third of one cent to six cents an 
ounce; for coinage into trade dollars they are 
50 cents per 100 pieces; for making fine silver 
bars, one half cent an ounce on the fine silver. 
Silver bullion is purchased at 118 cents an 
ounce (standard fineness nine tenths pure sil- 
ver), and paid for in silver coin of less denom- 
ination than the dollar. Each deposit of gold 
or silver is melted and cast into bars, being thus 
brought into a homogeneous state, so that an 
assay piece taken from it shall fairly represent 
the mass. The assayer, operating upon a small 
quantity of the assay piece which he has taken, 
determines by an exceedingly delicate chemi- 
cal analysis the proportion of gold or silver or 
both which it contains. The fineness and the 


MINT 


weight of the deposit after melting are the 
data for calculating its value. Deliveries of 
bullion, composed of these various deposits, 
are made from time to time to the melter and 
refiner, and are charged to him in account. 
It is his province to refine them, and convert 
them into ingots of standard metal, 900 thou- 
sandths fine, suitable for the fabrication of 
coins. Gold and silver in their pure state, on 
account of their softness, are altogether un- 
adapted for coin. Consequently, each metal is 
alloyed with a certain quantity of.some other 
metal baser than itself, to give it greater hard- 
ness and durability. In the United States sil- 
ver, in the manufacture of silver coin, is alloyed 
with copper; the proportion in 1,000 being 
900 parts silver and 100 parts copper; and in 
gold coin, 1,000 parts, 900 being pure gold, 100 
alloy of silver and copper, of which not more 
than 50 parts is allowed by law to be of silver. 
In practice a very small fraction of this alloy 


SSS 


Fic. 4.—Rollers. 


is silver. By means of powerful but accurately 
constructed rollers, driven by steam, the ingots 
(which are bars sharpened at one end like the 
blade of a chisel, and about one foot long, three 
fourths of an inch to two and a half inches 
broad, and half an inch thick) are rolled into 
thin strips or ribbons of the proper thickness 
for the coin to be made, through the rollers 
exhibited in the drawing (fig. 4) just above the 
clock dial. This process is required to be gone 
through ten times for gold and eight times for 
silver. These strips must occasionally be an- 
nealed in furnaces, in order to soften them, 
before they are drawn, which latter operation 
is done by means of the drawing bench (fig. 5), 
in which they are drawn like wire through a 
steel gauge to make them straight and of uni- 
form thickness. Next comes the cutting press 
(fig. 6), a vertical steel punch working accu- 
rately into a matrix or round hole in a steel 
plate of the size of the planchet required, and 
operated rapidly by an eccentric, under which 


MINT 


the strips are fed by hand. The gold planchets 
are subjected before coining to a careful adjust- 
ment by weight. This is done by women, 
whose delicacy of touch fits them admirably 


—— 


Fig. 5.—Drawing Bench. 


for this service. Seated at a long table, each 
one has a balance before her and a flat file in 
her hand; and the gold planchets are succes- 


sively tried against a counter weight. Those 
that are too light are thrown aside to be re- 
melted, and those that are too heavy are brought 
to the proper weight by moving the file lightly 
round the edge. The planchets are now ready 


m 
im ——=$ — 
hi "TTT ee 


| 
i 


(2 r 
Fic. 6.—Cutting Press. 


for the milling machine (fig. 7), an American 
invention, by which the planchets, as rapidly 
as they can be fed by hand into a vertical 
tube, are caught one by one edgewise, and 


619 


caused to rotate in a horizontal plane in a 
channel formed on one side by a revolving 
wheel, and on the other by a fixed segment of 
corresponding curve, but slightly nearer the 
wheel at one end than at the other. The effect 
is that each piece in passing through this nar- 
rowing channel has its edge evenly crowded 
up into a border orrim. After being annealed 
and cleaned or “ whitened,” the planchets are 
ready for the coining press, The coining press 
(fig. 8) in use in all the mints of the United 
States is constructed after the plan of the 
French lever press invented by Thonnelier. 
The pressure upon the die is effected by a 
lever moved by a crank and operating a toggle 


iN 


[ 


ES 


UT) Wy 


/) l . ) : 
a 


<> 
1) 
/ 


/} 


s\\ 


) 


If 
h 


Wz 


wn 


I) 
\ 


My) 


i} 


Y 


HUH 
/ 


lh. 
\\\ 


Nyy, 


Un) 


Fig. 7.—Milling Machine. 


joint. The planchets being fed by hand into a 
tube or hopper in front of the machine, the 
lower piece in the tube is seized by steel feed- 
ers and carried forward and lodged in the col- 
lar between the upper and lower dies. At the 
same moment the lever is descending, and by 
the time the planchet is in position the toggle 
joint, brought into a vertical position, imparts 
to the piece a pressure which within the nar- 
row limits of its motion is almost incalculable. 
The immediate relaxation of the joint causes 
the upper die to be lifted, when the feeders, 
coming up with a second planchet, push away 
the one already coined. The planchet before 
being struck is slightly less in diameter than 


620 


the steel ring or collar into which it drops; 
but the pressure upon the dies causes the piece 
to expand into the collar and take from it the 
reeding or fluting of its edge. The coins, after 


hin ee, 


a 
I 


Fic. 8.—Coining Press. 


being carefully inspected by the coiner to elim- 
inate defective pieces, are counted and put 
up in bags, and delivered to the superintendent, 
by whom the coiner is held to the same ac- 
countability as the melter and refiner. The 
counting is performed with great accuracy and 
despatch by a counting board of very ingenious 
construction. The dies used in all the mints 
of the United States are made under the su- 
pervision of the engraver of the Philadelphia 
mint. The production of original dies cut by 
the engraver’s hand in steel is a work of great 
labor, and it would be impossible in this man- 
ner to supply the dies necessary for the coinage 
of the country. The original dies, being care- 
fully finished and hardened, are used simply to 
strike copies in softened steel, which is done 
by repeated blows under a powerful screw 
press. As the devices upon the original dies 
were sunk, these copies will be in relief. To 
prepare dies for coinage, therefore, this harden- 
ing and copying process must be repeated. A 
rigid system of registration and accountability 
is necessary to keep the old dies from falling 
into improper hands.—In the various opera- 
tions of the mint, particularly in those of the 
melter and refiner’s department, a large amount 
of precious metals will be temporarily lost by 
becoming absorbed in the melting pots and 
fluxes and mixed with the ashes and débris of 
the furnaces. These materials are carefully 
gathered up, and the gold and silver extracted 


MINT 


by various methods, The chlorination process 
of Prof. Miller of the Australian mint, for 
refining and parting the precious metals, has 
lately been introduced at the Philadelphia 
mint. Under the coinage act of 1873, pro- 
vision is made for the purchase of silver bul- 
lion, and the gain arising from its conversion 
into coin of a nominal value exceeding the 
cost thereof is credited to a special fund called 
the silver profit fund. In adjusting the weights 
of gold coins the following deviations cannot 
by law be exceeded in any single piece: in 
the double eagle and the eagle, one half of a 
grain; in the half eagle, the three-dollar piece, 
the quarter eagle, and the one-dollar piece, one 
fourth of a grain; and in weighing a number 
of pieces together when delivered by the coiner, 
the deviation from the standard must not ex- 
ceed 4, of an ounce in $5,000 in double eagles, 
eagles, half eagles, or quarter eagles, in 1,000 
three-dollar pieces, and in 1,000 one-dollar 
pieces. In the silver coins the following de- 
viations must not be exceeded: in the dollar, 
the half dollar, the quarter dollar, and the 
dime, one and a half grain; and in weighing 
large numbers of pieces together when delivered 
by the coiner, the deviations from the standard 
must not exceed +2, of an ounce in 1,000 dol- 
lars, half dollars, or quarter dollars, and z}> of 
an ounce in 1,000 dimes. In the minor coins 
no greater deviation is allowed than three 
grains for the five-cent piece and two grains 
for the three-cent and one-cent pieces.—Du- 
ring the year ending June 30, 1874, the amount 
of gold deposits at the mints and assay offices 
of the United States was $68,861,595; silver 
deposits and purchases, $15,122,151. Deduct- 
ing the redeposits of bars made and issued by 
one institution and deposited at another, the 
deposits were: gold, $49,142,511; silver, $11,- 
485,678. The amount in bars transmitted from 
the New York assay office to the mint at Phil- 
adelphia for coinage during the fiscal year was: 
gold, $18,704,101; silver, $2,613,636; total, 
$21,317,737. The distribution of the gold and 
silver bullion deposited and purchased, inclu- 
ding receipts, was as follows: 

ESTABLISHMENTS. Gold. 


Silver. Total. 


$3,060,829 | $27,947,282 
2,868,608 | 24,934,789 


Philadelphia mint....| $24,886,453 
San Francisco mint...| 22,066,181 


Carson mint.......... 2,213,042 | 2,875,117 5,088,159 
Denver mint......... 962,804 26.969 989,773 
New York assay office} 18,611,959 | 6,288,762 | 24,900,721 
Charlotte assay office 8,68 74 8,763 
Boise City assay office 112,466 1,792 114,258 


—The directors of the mint since its organiza- 
tion have been as follows: David Rittenhouse 
of Pennsylvania, July, 1792, to July, 1795; 
Henry De Saussure of South Carolina, July 11 
to Oct. 28, 1795; Elias Boudinot of New Jer- 
sey, October, 1795, to July, 1805; Robert 
Patterson of Pennsylvania, July, 1805, to July, 
1824; Samuel Moore of Pennsylvania, July, 
1824, to July, 1835; Rebert M. Patterson of 
Pennsylvania, July, 1835, to July, 1851; George 


MINTO 


N. Eckert, of Pennsylvania, July, 1851, to 
April, 1853; Thomas M. Pettit of Pennsy!- 
vania, April to June, 1853; James Ross Snow- 
den of Pennsylvania, June, 1853, to April, 
1861; James Pollock of Pennsylvania, April, 
1861, to October, 1866; William Milward of 
Pennsylvania, October, 1866 (not confirmed 
by the senate); Henry R. Linderman of Penn- 
sylvania, April, 1867, to May, 1869; James 
Pollock of Pennsylvania, May, 1869, to April, 
1873 (date of reorganization, since superinten- 
dent at Philadelphia); Henry R. Linderman, 
April, 1873.—The present mint of France, a 
very complete and magnificent establishment, 
where probably the finest work of the kind in 
the world is done, was built in 1771 and the 
following years, and commenced work in 1775. 
In this mint, besides the operations connected 
with the public coinage and making of medals, 
the assaying of gold and silver is done for jew- 
ellers, who are obliged by law to have every 
article stamped before it can be sold. The 
coinage of gold from 1850 to 1872 was of the 
value of 6,517,507,385 francs, and of silver 
during the same period 848,821,208 francs. 

MINTO, Gilbert Elliot, first earl of, an English 
statesman, born April 23, 1751, died June 21, 
1814. He was the elder son of the third bar- 
onet, Sir Gilbert Elliot of Roxburghshire, Scot- 
land, and entered the house of commons in 
1774 as a liberal whig. He was ambassador at 
Copenhagen from 1788 to 1794, and was sent 
as viceroy to Corsica during the English occu- 
pation of that island in the earlier years of the 
war with the French republic. On his return 
to England he was raised to the peerage (Oct. 
10, 1797) as Baron Minto. In 1799 he was 
appointed ambassador at Vienna. Onresuming 
his seat in the house of lords, he urged the 
union of Ireland with England, and subse- 
quently opposed the emancipation of the Irish 
Catholics. In 1806-7 he was president of the 
board of control for Indian affairs, and he was 
governor general of Bengal from 1807 to 1818, 
when he was made Viscount Melgund and earl 
of Minto (Feb. 24).—See ‘‘ Life and Letters of 
Sir Gilbert Elliot, first Earl of Minto,” by his 
grandniece the countess of Minto (London, 
1874).—His son Girpert Evziot-Morray-Ky- 
NYNMOUND, second earl, born Nov. 16, 1782, 
was minister to Berlin in 1832, first lord of 
the admiralty 1885-41, lord privy seal in the 
administration of Lord John Russell (his son- 
in-law) 184652, and in 1847 was sent on a 
special mission to the Italian courts for the 
purpose of promoting liberal reforms. He 
died July 31, 1859. 

MINUCIUS FELIX, Marens, a Latin Christian 
writer, belonging, according to St. Jerome, to 
the first half of the 8d century. He was a 
native of Africa, but removed to Rome, and 
became distinguished as an advocate before his 
conversion to Christianity. He wrote an apol- 
ogy for Christianity entitled Octavius. It is 
a dialogue defending the Christians from the 


calumnies then in circulation against them, and | 


MINUIT 621 
giving much information concerning the man- 
ners and customs of the times. It was at one 
time supposed that Octavius formed part of 
Arnobius’s treatise Adversus Gentes. Baldwin 
first published it in an independent form, 
and assigned it to its real author (Heidelberg, 
1560). Editions of the dialogue were pub- 
lished at Leyden in 1709, and at Cambridge, 
Eng., in 1712; and it has been translated into 
German by Kusswurm (Hamburg, 1824) and 
Liibkert (Leipsic, 1836), and into English by 
Richard James (Oxford, 1836), 

MINUET (Fr. menviet), a graceful and stately 
dance, which had a celebrity in the last cen- 
tury equal to that at present enjoyed by the 
quadrille, the waltz, and the polka, but which 
is now rarely practised except on the stage. It 
is supposed to have originated in the French 
province of Poitou, and to have made its ap- 
pearance in the latter half of the 17th century. 
The first minuet, said to have been composed 
by Sully the elder, was danced by Louis XIV. 
at Versailles in 1653. The name has been de- 
rived from menu, ‘‘little,” the steps of the 
dance being short. The time regulating the 
movements of the minuet consists of two strains 
or parts, of eight bars each, in three-crotchet 
time, both of which from being repeated are 
called reprises.—The minuet or minuetto has 
also been effectively employed by composers 
as an exclusively musical movement in sym- 
phonies, quartets, &c. In this use the two 
strains consist of 16 bars each, and after being 
repeated are succeeded by a trio, after which 
the minuet is again played through somewhat 
more quickly. The time of this movement, 
which is of German origin, is an allegro, and 
in the second performance of the minuet it is 
accelerated to presto. 

MINUIT, or Minuits (properly Mrynewir), Pe- 
ter, an American colonial governor, born in 
Wesel, Germany, in the latter part of the 16th 
century, died near Fort Christiana, Delaware, 
in 1641. He was a Protestant deacon in his 
native town, and on Dec. 19, 1625, was ap- 
pointed by the Dutch West India company its 
director general in New Netherland, and land- 
ed on Manhattan island May 4, 1626. His first 
measure was to purchase the island from the 
aborigines for 60 guilders. He built Fort Am- 
sterdam, and maintained the right of the Dutch 
against the claims of English supremacy over 
New Netherland. The colony prospered under 
his administration, but the West India company 
held him responsible for abuses which had led 
to the accumulation of landed property in the 
hands of the patroons, and he was recalled 
in August, 1631. He sailed in’ March, 1682. 
Stress of weather drove his ship into Ply- 
mouth, England, where it was attached at the 
suit of the council of New England, on a charge 
of illegally trading within the English domin- 
ions. The Dutch ambassador in London pro- 
tested, but the ship was not released till May 
27. Minuit, failing to regain his position 
under the West India company, offered his 


622 MINUTE 


services to the Swedish government in 1687, 
and toward the close of that year sailed from 
Gothenburg under the auspices of Oxenstiern, 
and with a commission from the queen of Swe- 
den authorizing him to plant a new colony on 
the W. coast of Delaware bay. He anchored 
in Chesapeake bay in March, 1638, and soon 
began to build Fort Christiana, 2 m. from the 
confluence of Minqua’s Kill with the South 
river, near the present site of Wilmington, 
and despite the opposition of the Dutch he 
increased the settlement, which he called New 
Sweden. It was the first permanent European 
settlement of Delaware, and was annexed to 
the Dutch possessions in 1655. 


MINUTE (Lat. minutum), the 60th part of an. 


hour; also used to denote a portion of the arc 
of a circle, and as a measure of angles. When 
the circumference of the circle is divided into 
24 hours, the minute is =;45 part of the circle. 
When the circle is divided into 360°, the min- 
ute is the 60th part of a degree, consequently 
equal to 57,455 of the circumference. . To dis- 
tinguish these two measures, the former is 
called a minute of time, the latter a minute of 
are; 15 minutes of are of a parallel of latitude 
being equal to one minute of time, and 4 min- 
utes of time to a degree.—The term is used in 
architecture to indicate the 60th part of the 
diameter of the shaft of a column, measured 
at the base, and serves as a measure to deter- 
mine the proportions of the order. 

MINUTOLI. I. Heinrich Menu von, baron, a 
German archeologist, born in Geneva, May 
12, 1772, died near Lausanne, Sept. 16, 1846. 
He entered the Prussian army at an early age, 
was wounded during the campaign on the 
Rhine in 1793, and made professor in the mil- 
itary school in Berlin. In 1820 he led a scien- 
tific expedition to Egypt under the patronage 
of the Prussian government, and visited Cairo, 
Thebes, and Asswan, whence he returned to 
Alexandria, reaching Berlin in August, 1822. 
The architect Liman, the naturalist Hemprich, 
and seven of his other companions had died 
on the journey, and a great portion of his col- 
lection was lost by shipwreck. The remainder 
of it was purchased by the king of Prussia. 
Minutoli passed his last years in Switzerland. 
He published Betrachtungen iiber die Kriegs- 
kunst (3d ed., Berlin, 1816); a narrative of his 
travels under the title of Reise zum Tempel des 
' Jupiter Ammon und nach Oberiigypten (1824— 
7); Beitrage zu einer kiinftigen Biographie 
Friedrich Withelms ITI. (1848); Militdrische 
Hrinnerungen (1845); and various historical 
and archeological works.—While in Italy he 
married in 1820 WoLrrapINnE, countess von 
der Schulenburg, the widow of a Saxon offi- 
cer, who accompanied him in his travels, and 
wrote in French an admirable work on Egypt 
(Sowenirs d’ Hgypte, 2 vols., Paris, 1826; Ger- 
man translation by Gersdorf, Leipsic, 1829). 
II. Julius von, baron, son of the preceding, born 
in Berlin in 1805, died near Shiraz, Persia, 
Noy. 5, 1860. He became well known in 1846 


MIOLAN-CARVALHO 


by his discovery of the Polish conspiracy while 
he was director of police at Posen. Im 1851 
he was appointed Prussian consul general for 
Spain and Portugal, and in 1860 ambassador 
to Persia. He wrote on jurisprudence and 
Prussian history, and most extensively on 
Spain and Portugal and the Canary islands. 
The principal of the latter works are Altes 
und Neues aus Spanien (2 vols., Berlin, 1854), 
and Portugal und seine Colonien im Jahre 
1854 (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1855). 

MIOCENE, in geology, the intermediate of the 
three epochs of the tertiary or mammalian 
age, having the eocene below and the pliocene 
above. The term is derived from Gr. peioy, 
less, and xacvéc, recent, from less than half its 
species being of living forms. Some geolo- 
gists make a fourth division, called oligocene, 
by separating an upper portion of the eocene 
and uniting it with the lower section of the 
miocene. The beds of the miocene epoch are 
of either marine or fresh-water formation. 
The marine beds cover a large part of the 
Atlantic border of the United States, belong- 
ing to what is known in American geology as 
the Yorktown period. They are full of fos- 
sils, and occur at Gay Head on Martha’s Vine- 
yard, in‘ Cumberland co., N. J., on both sides 
of the Chesapeake in Maryland, and in Vir- 
ginia at Yorktown, Suffolk, Smithfield, and 
other places. Fresh-water beds of miocene 
occur in the upper Missouri region, along the 
White river, called mauvaises terres or ‘‘ bad 
lands.” They constitute the ‘“‘ White river” 
group of Hayden, and have a thickness of 
1,000 ft. and upward. In these beds are found 
the remains of the titanotherium, which also 
occurs in the eocene. There are also in the 
Wind river valley and on the west side of the 
Wind River mountains other fresh-water de- 
posits from 1,500 to 2,000 ft. thick, called the 
Wind river group. In California and Oregon 
the miocene formation consists of sandstone 
and shale, in some places attaining a thick- 
ness of 4,000 or 5,000 ft. They occur near 
Astoria on the Columbia river, and also in 
the coast ranges both north and south of San 
Francisco, in the Santa Inez mountains, and 
at various other places. 

MIOLAN - CARVALHO, Caroline Marie Félix, a 
French singer, born in Marseilles, Dec. 31, 
1831. She studied under Delsarte and subse- 
quently under Duprez at the Paris conserva- 
tory, where she obtained the first prize after 
having appeared in the first act of Lucia di 
Lammermoor and the second act of La Juive. 
In 1850 she won great applause in L’ Ambassa- 
drice at the Opéra Comique. In 1853 she 
married M. Léon Carvalho (Carvaille), who be- 
came manager of the Théatre Lyrique, with 
his wife as the leading prima donna. She per- 
formed with brilliant success in London in 1859, 
as successor of Mme. Bosio. Her chief réles 
are Margaret in ‘‘ Faust,” Dinorah, Juliet in 
‘Romeo and Juliet,” Zerline in “Don Juan,” 
and Rosine in ‘‘ The Barber of Seville.” 


— 


MIOT 


MIOT, André Fran¢ois, count de Melito, a French 
author, born in Versailles, about 1762, died 
in Paris, Jan. 5, 1841. He was connected 
with the ministries of war and foreign affairs 
and the diplomatic service, and was councillor 
of state under the empire, minister of war and 
the interior under Joseph Bonaparte in Na- 
ples, and intendant of his court in Madrid. In 
1835 he was admitted to the French academy. 
His principal works are: a translation of He- 
rodotus with a life of Homer attached (8 vols., 
Paris, 1822); Bibliotheque historique de Dio- 
dore de Sicile, a translation containing all new 
fragments of the works of Diodorus (¥ vols., 
1835-8); and his posthumous Mémoires sur le 
consulat, Vempire et le roi Joseph (8 vols., 1858). 

MIQUELON. See.Sarnt-Pierre. 

MIRABEAD, Gabriel Honoré Riquetti, count de, 
a French author and statesman, born on his 
father’s estate of Bignon, near Nemours, March 
9, 1749, died in Paris, April 2, 1791. A huge- 
headed infant, who had come into the world 
with a pair of grinders, one foot twisted, and 
tongue-tied, disfigured when three years old 
by confluent smallpox, he grew up ‘‘as ugly as 
the nephew of Satan,” but giving signs of bod- 
ily strength, passionate temper, and intellectual 
power. His father was a philanthropist and 
the author of a work entitled LZ’ Ami des hom- 
mes, but was a tyrant at home, and tried to 
subdue his son by severity and contempt. The 
boy was educated at first by private tutors, and 
then was entered at a military school in Paris, 
under the assumed name of Pierre Buffiére, 
because his family were ashamed of him. On 
July 19, 1767, his father placed him as a vol- 
unteer in the Berry regiment of cavalry, under 
a colonel notorious for his severity. He con- 
tracted a few debts, lost 40 louis at the gaming 
table, and surpassed his colonel in the affec- 
tions of a young girl at Saintes. These of- 
fences brought upon him the wrath of his 
father, who in the autumn of 1768 banished 
him by a lettre de cachet to the fortress on the 
isle of Ré. Here he made a friend of his jail- 
er, who reported favorably concerning him, 
and his father procured him a commission as 
second lieutenant in the regiment of Lorraine, 
which was sent to Corsica in 1769. During a 
year of hard service he evinced such alacrity, 
courage, and fidelity as to command the esteem 
of his officers and the affections of his com- 
rades. On his return he was sent to his uncle, 
the bailli of -Mirabeau in Provence, who under- 
took to conciliate his father. At last Mirabeau 
was allowed to assume his true title, and was 
presented at court. By his father’s advice he 
married, June 22, 1772, Marie Emilie de Covet, 
the only daughter of the marquis of Mari- 
gnane. She had no portion, and he soon be- 
came involved in pecuniary difficulties. His 
father not only declined to help him, but pre- 
vented the marquis of Marignane from doing 
so, and on Aug. 23, 1774, imprisoned him in 
the castle of If at Marseilles; and when his 


MIRABEAU 623 
him removed, May 25, 1775, to the fort of 
Joux, in the Jura mountains, Being allowed 
occasionally to visit the neighboring town of 
Pontarlier, Mirabeau fell in love with Sophie, 
marchioness de Monnier, the young and gifted 
wife of an old magistrate. In August, 1776, 
he eloped with her to Verriéres, Switzerland. 
A few weeks later they were in Amsterdam, 
where Mirabeau, under the fictitious name of 
Saint-Mathieu, tried to make a living by wri- 
ting for Dutch publishers. He made some 
translations from the English, and wrote his 
Avis aux Hessois, a pamphlet against the Hes- 
sian sale of soldiers to England for service in 
the American war. On May 10, 1777, he and 
his paramour were condemned by the tribunal 
of Pontarlier, he being sentenced to be be- 
headed for “‘ forcible abduction and seduction,” 
while she was condemned to imprisonment for 
life. On May 14 they were arrested and taken 
to Paris; he was imprisoned at Vincennes, and 
she was sent to a convent at Gien. His father 
had resolved to keep him a prisoner for life. In 
his dungeon he constantly wrote love letters to 
Sophie (a favor which had been granted to him 
by the chief of police, as the only means of pre- 
venting his suicide), and accomplished a good 
deal of literary work, the most important part 
of which was his Lettres de cachet et prisons 
d@état. In spite of the fact that he was at- 
tacked by several serious diseases, and was los- 
ing his eyesight, his father was deaf to all ap- 
peals, until the death of his little grandson sug- 
gested the ‘necessity of perpetuating the fam- 
ily,” and Mirabeau regained his liberty Dee; 
13, 1780, after an imprisonment of three years 
and a half. He at once set to work to settle a 
warfare that had been going on between his pa- 
rents for many years; but here he failed. His 
mother was for ever alienated from him; but 
the success which she obtained in her lawsuit 
against her husband was followed by a recon- 
ciliation between father and son, May 20, 1781. 
Meanwhile Mirabeau had had an interview 
with Sophie; but jealousy had sprung up be- 
tween them, they parted in anger, and in 1789 
she committed suicide. An attempt at recon- 
ciliation with his wife was unsuccessful, and 
he resorted to legal proceedings for her recov- 
ery. These he conducted himself, with marked 
ability and eloquence. His pleadings before 
the parliament of Aix created deep emotion 
among the people of that city, the majority of 
whom sided with him; but one half of the judges 
were relatives of Marignane, and the court de- 
creed, July 5, 1783, that the wife should re- 
main separated from her husband. Though 
defeated, Mirabeau became a popular idol. 
After a futile attempt to appeal the suit, he 
went to England, where he published his Con- 
sidérations sur Vordre de Cincinnatus, and his 
Doutes sur la liberté de V Escaut, a defence of 
the Dutch monopoly against the designs of the 
emperor Joseph II. He returned to Paris in 
April, 1785, and wrote several able pamphlets 


wife and family prayed for his release, he had | on financial subjects. At the close of this year 


561 VOL, x1.—40 


624 


he visited Berlin, where he published a pam- 
phlet upon Cagliostro and Lavater, and doses 
Mendelssohn, ou la Réforme politique des Juifs. 
After paying a short visit to Paris, he re- 
turned with a secret mission from the French 
ministry. For six months he held a semi-ofli- 
cial correspondence, and accumulated materi- 
als for a great work upon the Prussian mon- 
archy. In 1787 he returned to France, and 
wrote a pamphlet, Dénonciation de Vagiotage, 
directed against Calonne, and followed some 
time after by a similar attack on Necker’s 
policy. Being threatened with another lettre 
de cachet, he went to Brunswick, where he 
completed his work De la monarchie prus- 


sienne, which was published the next year (8. 


vols. 8vo and 4 vols. 4to). With the exception 
of the few months of his mission to Prussia, 
he had recently been greatly embarrassed by pe- 
cuniary difficulties; but now he found himself 
in the most wretched situation, and it was prob- 
ably under the pressure of sheer penury that 
he published, under the title of Histoire secréte 
de la cour de Berlin, his confidential letters to 
the French ministry. This publication was or- 
dered to be burned by the executioner. The 
convocation of the states general being now 
announced, he went to Provence in the begin- 
ning of 1789, and presented himself for elec- 
tion to the nobility of this province; but he 
soon drew upon himself their implacable hos- 
tility by his boldness in the discussions as to 
the mode of election. He was finally expelled 
from their assembly, as having no fief of his 
own, and threw himself into the arms of the 
third estate. Several times he was called 
upon by the authorities to exhort the people 
during riotous disturbances. He waselected to 
the states general for both Marseilles and Aix, 
and decided to sit for Aix. In the assembly 
he never had a party; but by logic and elo- 
quence he swayed it at will on almost every 
important occasion. He encouraged the third 
estate to maintain their rights against the pre- 
tensions of the other orders, and at the end of 
the royal sitting of June 23 he sent the grand 
master of ceremonies back to the king with 
this bold answer: ‘Go and tell your master 
we are here by the power of the people, and 
that we are only to be driven out by that of 
the bayonet.” But, detesting mob license no 
less than tyranny, he advocated the royal pre- 
rogative of the veto, and, while “utterly op- 
posed to a counter revolution,” declared himself 
ready to make an effort for ‘‘the restoration 
of the king’s legitimate authority as the only 
means of saving France.” In consequence of 
this, part of his debts, about 80,000 francs, 
were secretly paid by order of the king, and he 
received a monthly pension of 6,000 francs. 
He also received four notes of 250,000 francs 
each; but these were given back to the king 
at Mirabeau’s death. This has been cited as 
evidence of his venality, though he pursued a 
line of policy dictated by his convictions. On 
May 20, 1790, in an elaborate oration, he sup- 


MIRABEAU 


ported the king’s right to declare peace or war, 
in opposition to several celebrated orators, and 
especially Barnave, whose popularity was now 
more than equal to his own. Barnave was 
borne in triumph, while Mirabeau was charged 
with treason and corruption. ‘Three days la- 
ter he ascended the tribune, defended himself 
with fervid and convincing eloquence, and 
came out triumphant. The mass of business 
which Mirabeau now carried on simultaneously 
was prodigious. In addition to his duties as a 
deputy, he published a journal, which, first un- 
der the title of Journal des Etats Généraua, 
then Lettres &@ mes Constituants, and finally 
Courrier de Provence, gave a report of the sit- 
tings, and freely discussed all the questions of 
the day. In these labors he called around him 
coadjutors, such as Dumont, Duroveray, Rei- 
baz, and others, who not only wrote for his pe- 
riodical, but assisted him in the preparation of 
documents, and even of his speeches. But his 
strength became exhausted by his herculean 
labors, rendered still more dangerous by high 
living and licentiousness. On March 27, 1791, 
though very ill, he occupied his seat in the as- 
sembly and spoke five times. When he went 
home, his friend and physician Cabanis saw that 
his end was approaching. The news of his ill- 
ness spread over Paris like a public calamity ; 
the chaussée d’Antin, the street in which he 
lived, was thronged by the multitude; bulletins 
were printed and distributed every hour; twice 
a day the king sent to his house for tidings. 
After a night of terrific suffering, at the dawn 
of day he addressed Cabanis: ‘‘ My friend, I 
shall die to-day. When one has come to sucha 
juncture, there remains only one thing to be 
done; that is, to be perfumed, crowned with 
flowers, and surrounded with music, in order 
to enter sweetly into that slumber from which 
there is no awaking.” He ordered his bed to 
be brought near the window, and looked with 
rapture at the brightness of the sun and the 
freshness of his garden. His death was mourn- 
ed by the whole nation; every one felt that 
the ruling spirit of the revolution had passed 
away. His body was carried in pomp by the 
assembly and the people to the church of Ste. 
Geneviéve; but three years later, by order of 
the convention, it was removed to the church- 
yard of St. Catherine, the burial place of crim- 
inals.—Editions of Mirabeau’s works have been 
published by Barthe (8 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1819- 
20), and by Mérilhou (9 vols. 8vo, 1825-7) ; 
but neither of these collections is complete, 
while their biographical notices are far from 
correct. Many of his productions have had but 
one edition, and are now difficult to find. The 
Mémotres biographiques, littéraires et poli- 
tiqgues de Mirabeau, by Lucas Montigny, his 
adopted son (9 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1834~’5), are as 
yet, in spite of serious defects, the most valu- 
able source of information on the subject. See 
also Correspondance entre le comte de Mirabeau 
et le comte de La Marck pendant les années 1789, 
1790 et 1791 (8 vols., Paris, 1851); Dumont’s 


MIRACLE 


posthumous Souvenirs (1831); Schneidewind’s 
Mirabeau und seine Zeit (Leipsic, 1831); ‘“ Mi- 
rabeau, a Life History ” (London, 1848); Ver- 
morel, Mirabeau, sa vie, ses opinions et ses dis- 
cours (5 vols., Paris, 1864~’6); Reynald, M/i- 
rabeau et la constituante (Paris, 1872); and 
Loménie, Mirabeau et son pére (Paris, 1874). 
MIRACLE (Lat. miraculum, from mirari, to 
wonder), in the stricter usage of the word, a 
work of divine power, interrupting (or viola- 
ting) the ordmary course of nature, and directly 
designed to attest the divine commission of him 
who works the miracle. In fhe Scriptures of 
the Old and New Testament, both the répac, 
or prodigium, and the onueiov, or sign of divine 
power, are included in the general idea of 
miracle, but not dissociated. In the New 
Testament these words (répac, dtvapuc, onpeiov) 
are used to express the supernatural acts and 
occurrences by which the character and mis- 
sion of Christ and his apostles were declared 
and attested. The first is the most general 
and indefinite, properly an extraordinary and 
portending phenomenon, something monstrous 
and out of the course of nature. The second 
is more specific, implying the possession of 
supernatural power, through which such acts 
were performed. The third is still more spe- 
cific, expressing the object of such acts, namely, 
as signs or indications by which something is 
made known. Christ says: ‘‘The works that 
I do bear witness of me, that the Father hath 
sent me.” Augustine, De Civitate Dei, 21, 8, 
argues that a miracle is not against nature 
in its highest aspect: ‘‘ How is that against 
nature which comes from the will of God, 
since the will of such a great Creator is what 
makes the nature of everything?” Abélard 
maintained that, in relation to the divine 
omnipotence, nought is miraculous. Aquinas 
sharpens the contrast between the miraculous 
and the natural. The schoolmen set up two 
criteria of miracles: that they are, 1, above 
the ordinary course of nature; 2, by the power 
of God. After the reformation, in connection 
with the progress of modern philosophy, both 
physical and metaphysical, the necessity of yet 
further distinctions and limitations became man- 
ifest. Bacon in his ‘‘ Advancement of Learn- 
ing’’ asserts: ‘There never was a miracle 
wrought by God to convert an atheist, because 
the light of nature might have led him to con- 
fess a God; but miracles are designed to con- 
vert idolaters and the superstitious, who have 
acknowledged a deity but erred in his adora- 
tion; because no light of nature extends to de- 
clare the will and worship of God.” Spinoza 
in his Tractatus Theologico-politicus led the way 
in the historical criticism of the Biblical narra- 
tives, on the basis of the definition: ‘‘ A mira- 
cle signifies any work the natural cause of which 
we cannot explain after the example of any- 
thing else to which we are accustomed ; or, at 
least, he who writes about or relates the mira- 
cle cannot explain it.” German rationalism, in 


625 


the gospel miracles by material and spiritual 
causes. Some alleged that Jesus had unusual 
knowledge of the powers of nature, or effected 
his cures by his spiritual influence over men’s 
souls. Others, as Paulus, explained them by 
the supposition that the disciples confounded 
natural events with supernatural; ¢. g., the 
two angels in the tomb, clad in white, were 
an illusion caused by linen garments hanging 
there; or by such violent interpretations as 
that the walking upon the sea meant walk- 
ing on the border of the sea. Some, again, 
found in them only a symbolical or allegori- 
cal sense, and interpreted them as images of 
spiritual truths. In the mythical theory of 
Strauss they are denied as facts, and explained, 
not as wilful deceptions, but as a spontaneous 
expression of popular religious feeling, ascri- 
bing to Christ what is false in fact, but true in 
some very general philosophical idea. As to 
the position of miracles in the evidences, some 
divines, in the reaction against rationalism, 
have laid the chief stress upon these external 
signs of divine power, making the miracle to be 
the main source of an undoubting belief, while 
others put the truth of the doctrine in the front 
rank, and made the doctrine the test of the 
miracle, rather than the miracle the proof of 
the doctrine. Thus Dr. Wardlaw would test 
the doctrine by the miracle, while Dean Trench 
advocates the converse order. But it seems 
difficult, and even illogical, to construct on this 
point an absolute dilemma; for, on the one 
hand, the mind receives spiritual and divine 
truth on its own evidence, and for its own 
sake; while, on the other hand, all who are 
enlisted in this debate allow that miracles have 
an important position in the external evidences 
for the Christian faith.—For a full discussion 
of miracles, see Douglas, ‘‘ Criterion, or Mira- 
cles Examined” (London, 1754); Campbell, 
‘Dissertation on Miracles” (Edinburgh, 1768) ; 
Farmer, “‘ Dissertation on the Miracles ” (1771); 
Leland, “‘ View of Deistical Writers ” (1798) ; 
Schleiermacher, Der Christliche Glaube (Ber- 
lin, 1821-’2); Strauss, Das Leben Jesu (Tiibin- 
gen, 1835; abridged ed., 1864; English transla- 
tion, 1865); Tholuck, Glaubenswiirdigkeit der 
evangelischen Geschichte (Hamburg, 1837), and 
on the miracles of Mohammed and those in the 
Catholic church, in his Vermischte Schriften 
(1839); Leslie, ‘‘ Truth of Christignity ” (1848) ; 
Wardlaw, ‘‘On Miracles” (1858); W. L. Alex- 
ander, ‘‘ Christ and Christianity’ (New York, 
1854); N. W. Taylor, ‘‘ Lectures on Moral 
Government” (1859); McCosh, ‘‘The Super- 
natural in relation to the Natural” (New 
York, 1862); Mozley, ‘‘Bampton Lectures on 
Miracles ” (London, 1865); G. P. Fisher, ‘‘ Es- 
says on the Supernatural Origin of Christian- 
ity” (New York, 1865); the duke of Argyle, 
“The Reign of Law” (London, 1866); and 
“Christianity and Skepticism,” the Boston 
lectures for 1870 (Boston, 1870). On the con- 
tinuance of miracles in the church, besides the 


its earlier form, attempted the explanation of | works of Blunt and Bishop Kaye, see Middle- 


626 


ton, ‘Miraculous Powers” (London, 1749; 
new ed., 1844); J. H. Newman (in reply to 
Taylor’s ‘‘ Ancient Christianity”), ‘‘ Essay on 
Miracles,” prefixed to his translation of Fleury’s 
Histoire ecclésiastique, and also published sepa- 
rately (1843 and 1873); H. Bushnell, ‘‘ Nature 
and the Supernatural” (New York, 1858) ; 
and Mountford, ‘‘ Miracles Past and Present” 
(Boston, 1870). 

MIRACLES AND MORALITIES, religious and 
allegorical plays, which constituted the drama 
of the middle ages. They were often called 
miracle plays and moral plays, and in later 
times have more frequently been indiscrim- 
inately styled mysteries. The subjects of the 


miracles were either the narratives of the Bible | 


or the legends chiefly of the lives of the saints; 
and the’moralities, which appeared later, inter- 
mingled allegory with sacred history, or were 
represented exclusively by allegorical person- 
ages. In the first ages of Christianity bap- 
tism was refused to any one concerned with 
the theatre, and both the Greek and Latin fa- 
thers anathematized the dramatic art. In the 
4th century the church succeeded in extin- 
guishing the theatre everywhere except in 
Constantinople, where the genius and the arts 
of antiquity lingered in decay. This triumph 
had hardly been accomplished when from the 
bosom of the church sprang a new drama and 
spectacle. The emperor Julian ridiculed the 
asceticism of the church by a law forbidding 
any Christian to be taught in heathen learn- 
ing. Apollinaris, presbyter of Laodicea, and 
his more celebrated son of the same name, 
bishop of that see (died about 390), were fine 
classical scholars. The former versified the 
Pentateuch and the history of Israel, and the 
latter paraphrased the gospels after the man- 
ner of the dialogues of Plato. Soon the sacred 
ceremonies and commemorations of the Chris- 
tian faith, in the name of which profane games 
had been proscribed, were transformed into 
dramatic representations. Gregory Nazian- 
zen, patriarch of Constantinople, is the reputed 
author of a play on Christ’s passion, and of 
others of the same kind, written to supersede 
those of Sophocles and Euripides. The pro- 
gress of this Christian drama cannot be traced 
till about the 11th century, when Theophylact 
of Constantinople introduced the feast of fools, 
the feast of asses, and other religious pastimes, 
which were celebrated in churches. To these 
sports the clergy added the acting of miracle 
plays, which originally were not only com- 
posed by ecclesiastics, but were performed by 
them in churches and the chapels of monaste- 
ries. They were afterward exhibited by com- 
panies of tradesmen, each guild sharing the 
expense and undertaking a portion of the per- 
formance; and they served the purpose of 
amusing the people on public occasions and 
festivals, while the clergy were at length for- 
bidden by popes and councils to take any part 
inthem. Jugglers and minstrels attended the 
travelling companies. - The stages, either tem- 


MIRACLES AND MORALITIES 


porary or portable on wheels, usually consisted 
of three platforms, one above another. On 
the uppermost sat the Pater Celestis, surround- 
ed by his angels; on the second appeared the 
saints and glorified men; while living men oc- 
cupied the lowest. On one side of the stage 
was a dark, pitchy, flaming cavern, from which 
issued hideous howlings, as of souls tormented 
by demons; its occupants were the greatest 
jesters and buffoons of the company, who fre- 
quently ascended upon the stage to act the 
comic parts. It is probable that miracles were 
introduced, perhaps by returning pilgrims, from 
Constantinople into Italy, and thence into 
France and England. The oldest known are 
in Latin, but in the 12th and 138th centuries 
they became common in the modern langua- 
ges; and with some exceptious there is a gen- 
eral resemblance in subjects, characters, and 
theatrical machinery between those of differ- 
ent countries. They probably had a common 
origin, and were introduced about the same 
date, being communicated from one religious 
| body to another. Three Latin miracles written 
| early in the 12th century by Hilarius, a disciple 
| of Abélard, are extant; the subjects are the 
raising of Lazarus, the life of St. Nicholas, and 
the history of Daniel. The miracle of St. Cath- 
arine, by Geoffrey, abbot of St. Albans, was 
performed in Dunstable, England, and in Paris 
about the same time, and it was then no nov- - 
elty. Other Latin plays are preserved which 
seem to have been very popular, both as scho- 
lastic exercises among the younger monks, and 
as popular exhibitions, the greater part of the 
story being told by pantomime. The mystery 
of the wise and foolish virgins, in which Latin 
and Provencal are used alternately, indicates 
the period of transition to the vernacular lan- 
guages, and may stand at the beginning of Eu- 
ropean dramatic literature—The miracle of 
the passion was one of the earliest and most 
wide-spread, and from it the first theatrical 
company of Paris, established in 1402, was 
called the brethren of the passion. It em- 
braced the principal events in the life of Christ, 
was exhibited with splendid pomp, and its 
representation occupied several days. Among 
its characters were the three members of the 
Trinity, angels or archangels, the apostles, dev- 
ils, and Herod with all his court. The Virgin 
Mary is a favorite character in French myste- 
ries, and several of them bear the title of mi- 
racles de Notre Dame. Others are entitled 
mysteries of the conception, of the nativity, of 
the resurrection, and of divers events in the 
legends of the saints and in the narratives of 
the Old and New Testaments. The splendor 
of the theatrical decorations and appliances 
for inspiring terror increased during the 15th 
century. In one of the Parisian. mysteries 
St. Barbara was hung up by the heels on the 
stage, and, after uttering her remonstrances, 
was torn with pincers and scorched with lamps 
before the audience. In a mystery exhibited 
at Mentz in 1437, an immense dragon sprang 


MIRACLES AND MORALITIES 


out of hell, and threw the spectators into con- 
sternation by spreading his wings close by 
them. The mystery of the “ Acts of the Apos- 
tles”” was acted for many successive days in 
1541 before the nobility, the clergy, and a large 
popular assemblage in Paris. The dramatis 
persone are God the Father, Son, and Holy 
Ghost, the Virgin and Joseph, archangels, an- 
gels, the apostles and disciples, Jewish priests, 
emperors, philosophers, magicians, Lucifer, 
Satan, Beelzebub, Belial the attorney general 
of hell,-Cerberus the porter, and a multitude of 
other personages, amounting altogether to 485. 
A large number of French miracles exist in 
manuscript, and many have been printed or 
reprinted during the present century.—The 
Germans have numerous miracle plays, two of 
which cannot be traced in the contemporary 
productions of other European nations. The 
subject of the first of these is Dr. Faustus, 
which represents the life, death, and damna- 
tion of a daring libertine. The subject of the 
second is the canonization of Pope Joan, which 
was written in 1480 and attained general pop- 
ularity. It has 25 characters, among which 
are the devil and his mother Lilis, three good 
angels, the Virgin Mary, her Son, Pope Basil, 
four cardinals, a Roman senator, and Death. 
The scene shifts between earth, hell, purga- 
tory, and heaven. It begins with a council of 
‘devils, who agree to tempt Jutta, the heroine, 
to profane the papacy. She assumes boy’s 
clothes, accompanies a young clerk to the uni- 
versity of Paris, acquires a doctor’s degree, 
goes to Rome, and is made successively car- 
dinal and pope. The Virgin Mary sends an 
angel to ask Jutta whether she prefers perdi- 
tion or penance and final pardon, She resolves 
to repent, but death suddenly seizes upon her 
soul while she is lying-in, and carries it to the 
devils in hell. The Virgin again intercedes, 
and sends an angel from the throne of grace 
to release her from torment. The play ter- 
minates with the magnificent spectacle of her 
ascension into heaven. Germany was celebra- 
ted for its Fastnachtsspiele, or carnival plays, 
in which religious subjects were treated with 
unbounded license. In one of them, which is 
extant, Virgil accompanies the shepherds to 
adore the new-born Christ.—The records of 
English miracle plays are at least as ancient as 
those of France or Germany. Their early 
popularity is attested by Langlande and Chau- 
cer, and subsequently immense crowds assem- 
bled with the greatest enthusiasm to witness 
their performance. They may be traced from 
the beginning of the 12th century, but whether 
they were originally in Latin or in Norman 
French is not certain. Higden, who wrote, 
translated, or compiled the Chester plays in 
1828, is said to have been obliged to visit Rome 
three times before he could obtain leave to 
have them acted in the English tongue. The 
Chester, Coventry, and Towneley mysteries 
form three great series. As early as 1268 re- 
ligious dramas were exhibited by the incorpo- 


627 


rated trades in Chester, where they continued 
with some interruptions till 1577. They con- 
sist of 24 dramas, which were annually repre- 
sented from Whit Monday to the following 
Wednesday. Among the subjects are the fall 
of Lucifer, performed by the tanners; the crea- 
tion, by the drapers ; the deluge, by the dyers; 
Abraham, Melchizedek, and Lot, by the bar- 
bers and wax chandlers; Moses, Balak, and 
Balaam, by the hatters and linen drapers; the 
killing of the innocents, by the goldsmiths; 
the descent into hell, by the cooks; the ascen- 
sion, by the tailors; Antichrist, by the dyers; 
and the day of judgment, by the websters. 
The sacred dramas of Coventry drew immense 
multitudes to that city, as well from its cen- 
tral position as from the patronage of royalty. 
They were performed by the trade companies 
of Coventry on Corpus Christi day, from 1416 
to 1591. The subjects are nearly identical with 
those of the two other series, but more numer- 
ous, the plays being 42 in number. The friars 
encouraged them as a means of stigmatizing 
the labors of Wycliffe, branding his Testament 
as false, anathematizing Scriptural inquiry as 
heresy, and enlivening the attachment of the 
people to the ‘good old customs” of the church. 
The Towneley mysteries, so named from the 
family having possession of the manuscripts, 
belonged according to tradition to the abbey 
of Widkirk, and are supposed to be the plays 
written and performed by the Augustinian 
friars of Woodkirk. Fairs were held there 
annually on the feast of the Assumption and 
on the feast of the Nativity of the Blessed 
Mary, and internal evidence indicates that these 
were the occasions of their exhibition. The 
series consists of 32 plays, bearing a near re- 
semblance to those of the Chester and Coven- 
try collections. The artificers and tradesmen 
of York also annually celebrated a Corpus 
Christi play, and the same day was similarly 
observed by the incorporated trades at New- 
castle-on-Tyne and several other large towns, 
and by the parish clerks and gray friars of 
London. Christmas also was observed in this 
way in connection with the festivities of the 
abbot of misrule. At York every trade was 
obliged to furnish out a pageant to adorn the 
occasion, and these pageants were 54 in num- 
ber in 1415. The first part of the miracle of 
that year, in which God the Father appears 
creating the heavens, the angels, archangels, 
Lucifer, and the angels that fell with him, was 
performed by the tanners. The second part, 
in which God the Father creates the earth 
and all which is therein in the space of five 
days, was represented by the plasterers. The 
third part, in which God the Father creates 
Adam and Eve and breathes into them the 
spirit of life, was played by the card makers. 
The 54th part, which includes Jesus, Mary, 
the apostles, four angels with trumpets, four 
angels with lances and scourges, four good and 
four bad spirits, and six devils, was performed 
by the mercers. There are in the Bodleian 


628 MIRACLES AND MORALITIES" 


library three miracle plays in the Digby manu- 
scripts relating to the conversion of St. Paul, 
and two manuscripts containing the Cornish 
plays of the deluge, the passion, and the resur- 
rection. Only a single example of the New- 
castle mysteries remains, entitled ‘‘ Noah’s Ark, 
or the Shipwrights’ Ancient Play,” in which 
God, an angel, Noah and his wife, and the devil 
are the characters. According to Malone, the 
last mystery performed in England was that 
of Christ’s passion in the reign of James I., 
but other authorities say they were acted in 
churches, and even on Sunday, as late as the 
reign of Charles I. They had, however, gen- 
erally ceased to be written from the time of 
John Bale (1538). 
cle plays have been published, and no other 
portion of medizval literature is so strikingly 
marked by mingled drollery and solemnity.— 
From the reign of Henry VI. miracles had been 
encroached upon and superseded by moral 
plays or moralities, in which abstract allegori- 
cal personages took the place of Scripture 
characters. The change was gradual. In one 
of the Coventry miracles the representatives 
of ‘Veritas, Justitia, Pax, and Misericordia ap- 
pear in the parliament of heaven. Death and 
the mother of Death were successively add- 
ed; and as these characters increased, Bibli- 
cal history fell into the background and was 
at length eliminated. Moralities reached their 
highest perfection in the reigns of Henry VII. 
and Henry VIII, though they subsequently 
exhibited greater complication and ingenuity. 
They contained two standing characters, the 
Devil and the Vice. The former, the leader 
of the Seven Deadly Sins, was made as hideous 
as possible, shaggy, bottle-nosed, and with a 
tail. He entered upon the stage crying “ Ho, 
ho, ho!” and his part consisted largely in roar- 
ing when castigated by the Vice. The latter, 
though represented as ‘‘ most wicked by design 
and never good by accident,” was chiefly em- 
ployed in belaboring the Devil. He was gen- 
erally dressed in a fool’s habit, and the char- 
acter was gradually blended with that of the 
domestic fool. Moralities were abundant in 
France and England in the 15th and 16th cen- 
turies. The interludes of John Heywood mark 
the transition in England from them to legiti- 
mate tragedy and comedy. In Paris the devout 
buffoonery of the brethren of the passion gave 
offence and caused their suppression in 1547, 
and the company which purchased the Hotel 
de Bourgogne was enjoined to abstain from 
‘‘all mysteries of the passion, or other sacred 
mysteries.” In French the Moralité tressingu- 
liere et tresbonne des blasphemateurs du nom 
de Dieu is one of the most celebrated; and in 
English Skelton’s ‘‘ Magnyfycence,” designed to 
show the vanity of worldly grandeur, in which 
the characters are Felicity, Liberty, Measure, 
Adversity, Poverty, Despair, Mischief, Good- 
hope, Redress, Circumspection, Perseverance, 
Fancy, Folly, and Orafty-conveyance.—Mys- 
teries are still occasionally performed at sev- 


The principal English mira-. 


MIRAGE 


eral places in Europe, the most celebrated be- 
ing that of Ober-Ammergau, in southern Ba- 
varia, which is represented every tenth year. 
(See Oper-AMMERGAU.)—See Onésime Le Roy, 
Ktudes sur les mystéres (Paris, 1837); Achille 
Jubinal, Mystéres inédits du quinziéme siécle (2 
vols., Paris, 1837); Heinrich Hoffmann, /und- 
gruben fiir Geschichte deutscher Sprache und 
Literatur (Breslau, 1830-37); ‘‘The Chester 
Mysteries” (London, 1818); William Hone, 
‘‘ Ancient Mysteries Described” (1823); Tho- 
mas Sharp, ‘‘A Dissertation on the Pageants 
or Dramatic Mysteries anciently Performed at 
Coventry” (Coventry, 1825); Collier, ‘‘ History 
of English Dramatic Poetry” (3 vols., London, 
1831); ‘‘ Ancient Mysteries from the Digby 
MSS.” (Edinburgh, 1835); ‘‘The Towneley 
Mysteries,” published for the Surtees society 
(London, 1836); William Marriott, ‘‘ A Collec- 
tion of English Miracle Plays” (Basel, 1838) ; 
Thomas Wright, ‘‘ Early Mysteries, and other 
Latin Poems of the 12th and 13th Centuries” 
(London, 1838); Edwin Norris, ‘‘ The Ancient 
Cornish Drama” (Oxford, 1859); and H. N. 
Oxenham, ‘‘Ober-Ammergau in 1871” (Lon- 
don, 1871). A large number of the French 
miracles and moralities have been published 
separately, among which are Les blasphéma- 
teurs (1831) and La vendition de Joseph (1835), 
both exact reproductions in form and type of 
the manuscripts in the national library. 
MIRAFLORES, Mannel de Pando, marquis of, a 
Spanish statesman, born in Madrid, Dec. 24, 
1792, died there, March 17, 1872. He was 
Spanish ambassador at London (1834), at Paris 
(1838-40), and at Vienna (1861), was presi- 
dent of the council of ministers in 1846 and 
1863, and was seven times president of the 
senate, resigning in 1868. He wrote several 
works relating to the political history of his 
own times, the most important of which is 
Memorias para servir d la historia contempo- 
rdnea de los siete primeros afios del reinado de 
Isabel IT. (2 vols. 8vo, Madrid, 1843-’4). 
MIRAGE (Fr., from Lat. mirari, to wonder), 
an appearance of distant objects in the air, as 
if standing in the sky, or reflected from the 
surface of water. It is produced by refraction 
in strata of different densities, decreasing or 
increasing rapidly, and sometimes by refrac- 
tion and reflection combined. The appear- 
ances are those which have received the gen- 
eral name of unusual refraction. The phe- 
nomena of mirage are said to have been first 
explained by Monge, while accompanying Bo- 
naparte’s Egyptian expedition. There are sev- 
eral cases, of which the four following are the 
most common: 1, the mirage of the desert, 
which has the appearance of inverted objects, 
or reflections from the surface of water; 2, 
that which has the appearance of objects in- 
verted in the air, and which is seen over the 
surface of water; 3, simple looming, when ob- 
jects appear to be elevated above their real 
level, but are not inverted, the appearance 
usually taking place over the surface of water; 


MIRAGE 


4, a combination of the two preeeding, in 
which there are appearances of objects both 
erect and inverted. The causes, in many in- 
stances, are not easy to assign definitely. The 
mirage of the desert and the appearance of an 
inverted image of an object over the surface of 
water are usually explained as follows. In the 
first case the aérial strata decrease in density 
from above downward, in consequence of the 
cooling of the upper strata from radiation, and 
the warming of the lower by the hot sand. 
Let fig. 1, in which the curves are exaggerated, 
serve for explanation. By referring to the ar- 
ticle Lieut it will be seen that in refraction 
there is a certain angle at which a ray of light, 
having passed through one medium, on coming 
to the surface will mot pass out of the medium 
into the next and suffer refraction, but will be 
totally reflected back into the first medium. 
This angle is called the critical angle, or angle 
of total reflection, and varies with different 
media. Now an effect analogous to this may 
take place when a ray of light is passing 
through different strata of air at a very small 


angle, which at last becomes reduced to a de- | 


gree or part of a degree which may be called 
the critical angle. Suppose the aérial strata in 
fig. 1 to decrease in density from a to d; aray 


Fig. 1.—Mirage of the Desert. 


of light coming from the object will be refract- 
ed from the perpendicular in passing down- 
ward through the stratum a, still more in pass- 
ing through 8, and so on until it penetrates a 
stratum, which we will suppose is d, where the 
critical angle is reached, and the ray becomes 
totally reflected. The direction of the ray will 
then be upward, but will be refracted toward 
the perpendicular as it passes through succes- 
sive strata of increasing density, so that when 
the ray reaches the eye the object will appear 
in the direction of e. In the second case, 
which takes place over the surface of water, 
and where the lower strata of air are cooled 
by the water so as to be denser than the upper, 
the course of the rays is shown in the exag- 
gerated drawing in fig. 2. A vessel which may 
be so distant as to be partly or entirely hidden 
by the curvature of the earth, will appear in- 
verted above the horizon when the rays of 
light are at first refracted from the perpendic- 
ular until the critical angle is reached at the 
stratum d, when total reflection takes place, by 
which the ray is given an inclination down- 


MIRAMICHI 629 


ward, so that the object appears in the direc- 
tion of ¢. Simple looming, in which the object 
is seen in an erect position, will take place 
when the rays of light from it reach the eye 


Fie. 2.—Mirage over Water. 


before total reflection takes place, or before 
the critical angle is reached. When the object 
is seen both in an inverted and erect position, 
the case is, as has been remarked, a mixed one, 
and explainable by the examples already given. 
When the strata are regular, the inverted will 
be above the erect image; but inequalities 
sometimes exist which cause, it is said, a con- 
trary appearance, and lateral mirage may some- 
times be produced in consequence of strata of 
different densities lying in a vertical position, 
as when a stratum of air is heated by a wall 
which is exposed to the rays of the sun. It is 
said that on the lake of Geneva boats have been 
seen doubled from the unequal density of two 
contiguous columns of air, more or less satu- 
rated with moisture, one being on the point 
of forming a fog. Many remarkable cases of 
mirage and looming have been recorded. In 
1822, in the arctic regions, Captain Scoresby 
recognized by its inverted image in the air the 
ship Fame, which afterward proved to be at 
the moment 17 m. beyond the visible horizon 
of the observer. Dr. Vince, on Aug. 6, 1806, 
at 7 P. M., saw from Ramsgate, at which place 
usually only the tops of its towers are visible, 
the whole of Dover castle, appearing as if lift- 
ed and placed bodily on the near side of the 
intervening hill. So perfect was the illusion, 
that the hill itself could not be seen through 
the figure. The phenomenon called fata Mor- 
gana is a complicated case of mirage. (See 
Fata MorGana.) 

MIRAMICHI, a bay and river of New Bruns- 
wick. The bay is about 21 m. long and 20 m. 
wide at its mouth, Blackland point being on 
the north and Esquiminac point on the south. 
It contains Fox and Portage and a number of 
smaller islands. The river is formed by the 
junction of two branches about 50 m. from 
the sea. At its mouth, which is obstructed by 
a sand bar, are landing places for cargoes, but 
the chief business places are Newcastle and 
Chatham, 20m. up the stream. It is navigable 
for a distance of 40 m. from its mouth. Great 
forests of pine cover the banks of the river and 
the surrounding country. In 1825 a conflagra- 
tion destroyed the forests on the N. bank and 
all the towns and villages within an extent of 
85 m. long, and in some parts as much as 25 
m. broad. The smoke and cinders were seen 
at Quebec, more than 250 m. distant, and as 


630 MIRAMON 


far S. as Bermuda. The pines in the burned 
district have been succeeded principally by 
poplar, white birch, and maple. 

MIRAMON, Miguel, a Mexican soldier, born in 
the city of Mexico, Sept. 29, 1832, shot at 
Querétaro, June 19, 1867. He was of French 
descent. In 1846 he entered the military acad- 
emy at Chapultepec, and in September, 1847, 
participated with his classmates in the defence 
of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec against the 
Americans. He was wounded and taken pris- 
oner, but after the treaty of peace returned to 
the academy and completed his studies. En- 
tering the army in 1852, he was often engaged 
in suppressing local insurrections in the states 
of Jalisco and Mexico, until in October, 1854, 
he was sent with the rank of captain in the 
expedition against Alvarez, who had_pro- 
nounced for the plan of Ayutla. He distin- 
guished himself in several actions, especially 
in that of Temajalco, for which he was pro- 
moted (July, 1855) to a colonelcy. A few 
weeks later, on the accession of Alvarez to 
the presidency, the regular army was placed 
under the control of its late enemies. This 
was so irksome to Miramon that in December, 
being sent as second in command of an ex- 
pedition against the rebels of Zacapoaxatla, he 
imprisoned his superior, and with the entire 
force joined the pronunciados, leading them 
soon after to Puebla, which city submitted 
without resistance. In the memorable siege 
of Puebla, March, 1856, Miramon was the soul 
of the defence; and six months later he again 
pronounced at Puebla against Comonfort, de- 
fending that city a second time for 43 days 
against 10,000 besiegers. Escaping just before 
the capitulation, he engaged in a guerilla war- 
fare, capturing Toluca in January, 1857. He 
was soon after wounded and made prisoner, but 
escaped in September, rejoined the revolution- 
ists of the south as second in command, seized 
the town of Cuernavaca, and held it until the 
outbreak of the final movement against Co- 
monfort headed by Zuloaga. During the fight- 
ing in the streets of Mexico in January, 1858, 
Miramon hastened thither with Osollo, and 
took by storm the Hospicio and the Acordada, 
thus deciding the withdrawal of Comonfort 
and the accession of Zuloaga to the presidency. 
Miramon was now, at the age of 25, made a 
brigadier general. Already the idol of the re- 
actionary or church party, he was its most con- 
spicuous leader in the three years’ ‘war of 
reform” which commenced at this time. In 
March he gained the battle of Salamanca, which 
led to the flight of Juarez from the country 
and the surrender to the conservatives of the 
chief cities of the interior. He defeated the 
liberal coalition in the important battles of 
Ahualulco (September) and Atequiza (Decem- 
ber), besides scores of minor engagements. 
The news of the battle of Atequiza having 
reached Mexico at a moment when a junta was 
engaged in the election of a president to suc- 
ceed Zuloaga, overthrown by the plan of Navyi- 


MIRANDA 


dad a few days before, Miramon was chosen, 
Jan. 2, 1859. He came at once to the capital, 
but declined the presidency and reinstated 
Zuloaga. The latter voluntarily retired from 
office a few days later, appointing Miramon 
president ad interim. Taking possession of the 
government on Feb. 2, Miramon soon placed 
himself again at the head of the army, with 
which he laid siege to Vera Cruz, then the 
capital of the liberal government of Juarez. 
Obliged to raise the siege in April, he returned 
to Mexico in time to witness the battle of Ta- 
cubaya, in which Gen. Marquez defeated the 
forces of Degollado. The execution of the 
prisoners of Tacubaya, including many non- 
combants and several medical students (April 


‘11, 1859), is the chief blot upon the character 


of Miramon. With alternate successes and re- 
verses, the war of reform was prolonged until 
the close of 1860, when the decisive battle of 
Calpulalpam (Dec. 22) opened the gates of 
Mexico to the liberal army under Gonzalez Or- 
tega, and Miramon was forced to seek safety in 
flight from the country. In 1862 he attempted 
to return under cover of the intervention, but 
was not permitted by the allies to land at Vera 
Cruz. The succeeding» years he passed in Eu- 
rope. He approved the choice of Maximilian 
as emperor, but was requested to remain abroad 
in the nominal discharge of diplomatic func- 
tions, in order that his popularity might not 
embarrass the imperial administration. At the 
close of 1866, when it was believed that Maxi- 
milian was about to resign, Miramon returned 
to Mexico along with Marquez. As the result 
of conferences at Orizaba, Maximilian aban- 
doned the intention of abdicating, returned to 
Mexico, placed Miramon and Marquez at the 
head of his diminished army, and with them 
and Mejia undertook the desperate campaign 
of Querétaro. Captured on May 15, 1867, 
Miramon was tried and condemned by a mili- 
tary commission, and was shot on the Cerro 
de las Campanas, along with Maximilian and 
Mejia. He left a widow and several children, 
who reside in Austria. : 
MIRANDA, Francisco, a Venezuelan revolution- 
ist, born in Caradcas about 1754, died in prison 
in Cadiz, Spain, July 14,1816. He entered the 
Spanish army at an early age, and at 17 was 
captain in the Guatemala troops. He was in 
the French service in the American revolution- 
ary war from 1779 to 1781, and conceived the 
idea of freeing the South American colonies 
from Spain. He went to South America in 
1783, but his plans were discovered and he 
fled to Europe. After extensive travels, part- 
ly on foot, he then entered the French ser- 
vice as general of division, took part in the 
campaign of 1792, and in 1793 accompanied 
Dumouriez to Belgium, where he commanded 
a division of the army at Neerwinden. He 
was held responsible for the loss of that battle, 
and was accused of being implicated in the 
treason of Dumouriez, and brought before the 
revolutionary tribunal, but acquitted. He soon 


MIRANDOLA 


again gave umbrage to the revolutionists, and 
was compelled to seek refuge in England. In 
1803 he returned to France, but was again 
expelled from the country by the first consul. 
In 1806 he fitted out an expedition in the 
United States, enlisting many Americans, and 
returned to South America, with the view of 
establishing a republic at Caracas, but was not 
successful. Toward the close of 1810 he again 
went to South America, during the disorder of 
the Spanish government, and maintained him- 
self at the head of an army of insurgents; but 
he was delivered by Bolivar (July 81, 1812) 
into the hands of the Spaniards, and carried 
to Cadiz, where he died after four years’ im- 
prisonment.—See ‘History of Miranda’s At- 
tempt to effect a Revolution in South Amer- 
ica” (New York, 1808). 

MIRANDOLA, Giovanni Pico della, count and 
prince of Concordia, an Italian scholar, born at 
Mirandola, Modena, Feb. 24, 1463, died in Flor- 
ence, Nov. 17, 1494. Almost from childhood 
he displayed an extraordinary memory. At 
the age of 14 he was sent to Bologna to study 
canon law; but he soon went to Ferrara and 
applied himself to philosophy, theology, and 
languages, acquiring a knowledge of Latin, 
Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, and the 
different systems of philosophy. After master- 
ing all the learning of the time, he went to 
Rome in 1486, and propounded there 900 theses 
as subjects of controversy. His challenge was 
not accepted, but some of his theses were de- 
nounced to Pope Innocent VIII. as heretical ; 
and though he ultimately proved their ortho- 
doxy, hesuffered much persecution. These trials 
induced him to give up the study of profane 
literature and to devote his attention to reli- 
gion and philosophy. Resigning his principal- 
ity in favor of his nephew, he lived at Florence 
until his death, a year before which Pope 
Alexander VI. absolved him of all heresy. <A 
collective edition of his works was published 
at Bologna in 1496, Venice in 1498, Strasburg 
in 1504, and Basel in 1557-1601. 

MIRBEL, Charles Fran¢ois Brissean de, a French 
naturalist, born in Paris, March 27, 1776, died 
near there, Sept. 12, 1854. In 1794 he en- 
tered the topographical bureau, but in 1796 
fled to the south of France for political rea- 
sons. He studied botany at Tarbes under Ra- 
mond, and made several botanical tours across 
the Pyrenees. In 1798 he returned to Paris, 
and became connected with the museum of 
natural history. He published some essays in 
the Bulletin de la société philomathique, and 
in 1800 began a course of botanical lectures at 
the Atheneum. In 1803 he became superin- 
tendent of the gardens and conservatories of 
Malmaison. In 1806 he went to Holland, 
when Louis Bonaparte appointed him his pri- 
vate secretary and counsellor of state. He 
soon returned to Paris, and in 1808 became a 
member of the institute, and assistant profes- 
sor of botany and vegetable physiology to the 
faculty of sciences, and in 1828 professor of 


MIRIAM 631 


culture in the jardin des plantes. His works 
comprise Zraité d’anatomie et de physiologie 
végétale (2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1802); Exposition 
de la théorie de Vorganisation végétale (8vo, 
Amsterdam, 1808); Lléments de physiologie 
végétale et de botanique (8 vols. 8vo, Paris, 
1815). He also wrote 5 of the 18 volumes de- 
voted to the history of plants in Sonnini’s 
Cours Whistoire naturelle.—His second wife, 
LizinskA Aimf£E Zo& Rur, born in Cherbourg, 
July 26, 1796, was one of the best miniature 
portrait painters of her day. She died in 


‘Paris, Aug. 31, 1849. 


MIRECOURT, a town of France, in the de- 
partment of Vosges, on the Madon, a tributary 
of the Moselle, 17 m. N. W. of Epinal; pop. in 
1866, 5,735. Nearly the entire male popula- 
tion are engaged in the manufacure of musical 
instruments, principally violins, guitars, and 
barrel organs. The town has a communal 
college, a tribunal of commerce, and a public 
library of about 7,000 volumes. 

MIRES, Jules, a French speculator, born of 
Jewish parentage in Bordeaux, Dec. 9, 1809, 
died near Marseilles, June 6, 1871. He settled 
in Paris as a broker, and became director of a 
gas company. In conjunction with his towns- 
man Moise Millaud, also a Jew, he purchased 
in 1848 the Journal des Chemins de Fer, which 
gave them considerable control over railway 
enterprise; and they increased their influence 
by purchasing an interest in the Conseiller du 
Peuple, the Constitutionnel, and other journals. 
They next founded the railway bank (la caisse 
des chemins de fer), by which they made seve- 
ral millions. Mirés remained the sole director 
of this establishment in 1853, and thencefor- 
ward was prominent in many loans and in- 
dustrial enterprises. In 1860 he negotiated a 
Turkish loan. In February, 1861, he was ar- 
rested for maladministration, and sentenced to 
five years’ imprisonment and a fine of 3,000 
francs. The imperial tribunal confirmed the 
sentence, but the court of cassation set it aside 
and ordered a new trial at Douai, which ended 
in a reversal of the judgment, and his escaping 
with one month’s imprisonment for an inci- 
dental misdemeanor, But when the case was 
again brought before the court of cassation, the 
Douai decision was reversed, and Mirés served 
out his term of imprisonment till 1866. On 
gaining his liberty, he came forward as a nego- 
tiator of loans, and attempted to reorganize his 
bank; and though the bank of France declined 
to deal with him, he recovered his influence 
among his old followers. In 1869 he was in- 
volved in a libel suit with Péreire, and in 1870 
he was sentenced to six months’ imprisonment 
and 8,000 francs fine for attacking his former 
judges in his pamphlet Un crime judiciaire. 

MIRIAM, the sister of Moses, the Hebrew 
lawgiver. She was present on the bank of 
the Nile, watching the fate of the infant child 
Moses, when he was found by the daughter 
of Pharaoh, and she called her mother Joche- 
bed, the wife of Amram, to nurse him for 


632 


the princess. In the Bible she is called ‘the 
prophetess;” and after the passage of the Red 
sea she headed the triumphal procession of 
women, and led their song of victory. Having 
together with Aaron spoken against Moses in 
the desert, on account of his having married 
an Ethiopian (Cushite) woman, she was struck 
with leprosy, and was excluded from the camp 
seven days. According to Josephus, she was 
the wife of Hur, and grandmother of Bezaleel, 
the architect of the tabernacle. Her name 
is the Hebrew form of Mary, and the Arabic 


traditions confound her with the Virgin Mary.’ 


She died in Kadesh. 

MIRROR (Fr. miroir, from Lat. mirari, to 
wonder, admire), a looking glass or speculum; 
any bright surface that reflects the rays of 
light falling upon it. The surface of smooth 
water is a natural mirror, which the ancient 
poets sometimes refer to as having been used 
by persons for viewing their own forms. Me- 
tallic mirrors are mentioned in Exod, xxxviii. 
8, and Job xxxvii. 18. With the ancient 
Egyptians one of the principal articles of the 
toilet was the mirror. Wilkinson says it was of 
mixed metal, chiefly copper, carefully wrought 
and highly polished. It was circular, and had 
an elaborately ornamented handle, the designs 
of which were sometimes beautiful female 
figures, and sometimes hideous monsters, 
whose ugliness contrasted most strongly with 
the features reflected by its polished surface. 
The practice of using polished basins for mir- 
rors is alluded to by Artemidorus; and the 
ancients also had drinking vessels, as men- 
tioned by Pliny, the inside of which was so 
cut and polished that the image of one drink- 
ing from them was reflected many times. The 
composition of some of the ancient mirrors 
has been found by William Francis to have 
been: copper 67°12, tin 24°75, and lead 8:13 
parts in 100; and by Klaproth: copper 62, 
tin 32, and lead 6 per cent. Their manufac- 
ture appears to have been most extensively 
carried on at Brundusium. Pliny gives to 
Pasiteles, a native of S. Italy and contempo- 
rary of Pompey, the credit of introducing mir- 
rors of silver. They are spoken of by Plautus, 
and in the time of the first emperors they be- 
came. very common among the Romans, so that 
they were in use, according to Pliny and Sene- 
ca, even by maid servants, and the manufacture 
of them was one of the important trades of 
Rome. From several statements of Pliny it 
appears that various stones were employed as 
mirrors, set into the walls as panels, and other- 
wise used to reflect images of objects. Ob- 
sidian appears to have been most employed for 
this purpose. A similar stone called the itz¢dz, 
-and by the Spaniards gallinazo, was used for 
the same purpose by the Aztecs, of which 
hard vitreous stone they also fashioned sword 
blades and razors. There were other stones 
of which they made excellent mirrors; but 
the description of these is too indefinite to de- 
termine their names.—Beckmann thinks that 


MIRROR 


the use of the dark obsidian stone for mirrors 
suggested the use of glass, that this was a+- 
tempted at the celebrated glass works of Sidon 
of which Pliny makes mention, and that they 
were first made of black glass, and afterward 
of glass covered on the back with black foil. 
But from the time of Pliny no certain refer- 
ence is again found to glass mirrors until the 
13th century. In the treatise on optics of 
Alhazen, the Arabian, of about the year 1000, 
mention is made of mirrors of iron (steel) and 
also of silver, but not of glass; and the same 
thing is remarked of the “‘ Optics” of Vitello, 
of about the middle of the 13th century. But 
in the treatise on optics of John Peckham, 


an English Franciscan monk, who taught at 


Oxford, Paris, and Rome, and died in 1292, 
mirrors of iron, steel, and polished marble are 
spoken of, and also of glass covered on the 
back with lead. After this time various writers 
allude to mirrors of this sort, and describe 
their being made by pouring melted lead over 
the hot glass plates. In the 14th century glass 
mirrors were extremely rare in France, while 
metallic ones were in common use. Beck- 
mann describes the following method of pre- 
paring small convex glass mirrors as common 
in Germany in the beginning of the 16th cen- 
tury: A hollow ball of glass being blown, 
while it was still hot a metallic mixture of 
lead or tin and antimony, with a little resin 
or salt of tartar, was introduced into it, and 
coated its inner surface, the resin or salt aid- 
ing the fusion of the metal and preventing its 
oxidation. The glass, being entirely coated 
within, and having become cool, was cut into 
small round mirrors. It is not many years 
since they were sold in Germany by the name 
of Ochsenaugen, ox eyes. They were set in 
a round painted board, and had a very broad 
border, and reflected a diminished but very 
clear image. The coating of glass with an 
amalgam of tin foil and mercury was practised 
by the Venetians in the 16th century. The 
process, as described by Porta, who witnessed 
it at Murano, consisted in spreading the tin 
foil smoothly upon a plane surface, and pour- 
ing upon it mercury, which was rubbed in 
with the hand or a hare’s foot. The amalgam 
thus formed was then covered with a sheet 
of paper, and the glass being laid upon this 
and pressed down, the paper was drawn out. 
Weights were then laid upon the glass, and it 
was left for some time for the excess of mer- 
cury to drain off. The introduction of this 
manufacture into France is noticed in the 
article Giass. The chief modern improve- 
ment in the art consists in the use of very 
large plates, the process of coating them not 
differing essentially from that of the Vene- 
tians 800 years ago. The present method is 
as follows: A large stone table, ground per- 
fectly smooth, is so arranged as to be easily 
canted a little on one side by means of a 
screw set beneath it. Around the edges of 
the table is a groove, in which mercury may 


MIRROR 


flow and drop from one corner into bowls. 
The table is first made perfectly horizontal, 
and then tin foil is carefully laid over it, cov- 
ering a greater space than the glass to be 
coated. A strip of glass is placed along each 
of three sides of the foil to prevent the mer- 
cury from flowing off. The metal is then 
poured from ladles upon the foil till it is near- 
ly a quarter of an inch deep, and its tendency 
to flow is checked by its affinity for the tin 
foil: and the mechanical obstruction of the 
slips of glass. The plate of glass, cleaned 
with especial care, is dexterously slid on from 
the open side, and its advancing edge is kept 
in the mercury, so that no air or floating oxide 
of the metal or other impurities can get be- 
tween the glass and the clean surface of the 
mercury. When exactly in its place, it is held 
till one edge of the table has been elevated 10° 
or 12° and the superfluous mereury has run 
off. Heavy weights are placed on the glass, 
and it is left for several hours. It is then 
turned over and placed upon a frame, the side 
covered with the amalgam, which adheres to 
it, being uppermost. In this position the 
amalgam becomes hard, and the plate can then 
be set on edge; but for several weeks it is 
necessary to guard against turning it over, as 
until the amalgam is thoroughly dried the 
coating is easily injured.—Several serious difi- 
culties attend this process. The health of the 
workmen is so affected by the fumes of the 
mercury that they can rarely follow the busi- 
ness more than a few years; for this no rem- 
edy has been found so effectual as thorough 
ventilation and the frequent use of sulphur 
baths. The glass plates are liable to be bro- 
ken by the weights placed upon them; and the 
coating of amalgam is frequently spoiled by 
the drops of mercury removing portions of it 
as they trickle down, or by its crystallizing, 
or by mechanical abrasion. Many methods of 
silvering have been contrived and patented 
with the view of obviating these defects, some 
of which are important. In 1855 a patent was 
granted in England to Tony Petitjean for a 
method of precipitating silver, gold, or plati- 
num upon glass, so as to form a coating upon 
it, by the use of two solutions, the effect of 
which when mixed upon the glass is to decom- 
pose each other. The solutions he employed 
were different compounds of ammonio-nitrate 
of silver, tartaric acid, and distilled water; 
and they were placed upon the plate while 
this was at the temperature of 150° F. The 
precipitated silver within 20 minutes covered 
the glass, to which it adhered; and the solu- 
tion being then turned off, all that remained to 
complete the mirror was to wash the surface, 
and when dry cover it with a coat of var- 
nish to protect it from injury. The silvering 
thus obtained is not so white, and is rarely so 
free from blemishes, as the amalgam coating. 
In 1849 Mr. Drayton made known a similar 
method, an improvement upon a process which 
he patented in 1843. He employed ammonia 


MISDEMEANOR 633 


1 oz., nitrate of silver 2 oz., water 3 oz., and 
alcohol 3 0z.; these, being earefully mixed, 
were all allowed to stand a few hours, when to 
each ounce of the liquid was added an ounce of 
saccharine matter, as of grape sugar, dissolved 
in equal portions of spirit and water. Liebig 
invented a method of coating glass with silver, 
in which, after the silver coating is laid on, it 
is covered with a coating of copper precipi- 
tated upon it by the galvanic current, or is 
protected by varnish. Silver mirrors are now 
extensively made in New York. For platini- 


‘zing glass, R. Bottger recommends the follow- 


ing process: Pour rosemary oil upon the dry 
chloride of platinum in a porcelain dish, and 
knead it well until all parts are moistened; 
then rub this up with five times its weight of 
lavender oil, and leave the liquid a short time 
to clarify. . The objects to be platinized are 
to be thinly coated with the preparation and 
afterward heated for a few minutes in a muf- 
fle or over a Bunsen burner. The brillianey 
of aluminum has caused the suggestion of its 
application to the coating of mirrors; but no 
successful experiments have yet been made 
with it for this purpose. Large mirrors are 
made in the United States by coating the im- 
ported plates. The old amalgamation method 
with tin foil and mercury is preferred to any of 
the more recent inventions, by reason of the 
greater whiteness and brilliancy of the reflec- 
tion and the greater permanence of the coat- 
ing.—For telescopes, philosophical instruments, 
and lighthouses, various sorts of mirrors are in 
use, and reference to them may be found under 
various heads in this work, as Buryine Grass, 
Fresnet, Lignruovse, Optics, Specttum, TEL- 
ESCOPE, &c. Concave mirrors serve to con- 
centrate the rays of the sun in one point and 
produce intense heat. 

MIRZAPORE, a town of British India, in the 
province and 50 m. E. §. E. of the city of Allah- 
abad, and 30 m. W. by 8. of Benares, on the 
right bank of the Ganges; pop. about 80,000. 
It is the capital of a district containing more 
than 800,000 inhabitants, is the principal cot- 
ton market of the province, and is noted for 
carpet and cotton manufactures. The town 
contains fine European residences and many 
Hindoo temples, the latter mostly situated on 
the bank of the river. It is of comparatively 
modern origin. 

MISDEMEANOR. Offences less than treason 
are, in law, divided into felonies (see FELony) 
and misdemeanors. Any crime less than a 
felony isa misdemeanor. Statutes sometimes 
declare that the offences which they contem- 
plate shall be punishable as misdemeanors, but 
the term applies equally to all those crimes, 
whether of commission or omission, for which 
the law has not provided a name. Misdemean- 
ors are either those which exist at common 
law, mala in se, or they are those which are 
created by statute, mala prohibita. Under 
the former class, whatever, in the language of 
Blackstone, mischievously affects the person 


634 MISDEMEANOR 


or property of another, openly outrages de- 
cency, disturbs public order, is injurious to the 
public morals, or is a corrupt breach of official 
duty, is indictable as a misdemeanor at com- 
mon law. Thus it has been held to be an in- 
dictable misdemeanor at common law to drive 
a carriage along the crowded street so as to 
endanger the lives of foot passengers; to go 
armed with dangerous and unusual weapons; 
to disturb a town meeting or a congregation 
engaged in religious worship. It is an indict- 
able nuisance and scandal to the community to 
disinter a dead body without lawful authority ; 
to throw a corpse into a river without the 
rites of Christian burial; to sell knowingly un- 
wholesome provisions; to be guilty of notori- 
ous lewdness or drunkenness; to indulge pub- 
licly in profane swearing and blasphemy; or, 
as some authorities hold, to let a house know- 
ing that it is to be used for the purpose of 
prostitution. So it has been held to be a mis- 
demeanor, indictable at common law, to de- 
posit more than one vote upon a single ballot- 
ing; to killa tree standing upon public ground ; 
to treat an animal with wanton cruelty; to send 
threatening letters; or to give a challenge to 
fight.—Misdemeanors which are created by 
statute are of two kinds. The one kind em- 
braces those which consist in the omission or 
commission of an act enjoined or forbidden by 
the statute, though the transgression be not 
specially made the subject of indictment. For 
when a statute prohibits a matter of public 
grievance or commands a matter of public 
convenience, all infractions of its provisions 
are indictable, unless this mode of proceed- 
ing be positively excluded; because the doing 
what competent authority forbids, or not do- 
ing what it requires, is itself an offence at 
common law. The second kind includes those 
statutory offences which are made specially 
indictable. If the punishment is expressly 
defined, the provision of the statute must 
be strictly followed. If the statute merely 
attaches a new penalty to what was already a 
common law offence, the remedy may be pur- 
sued either as at common law or under the 
statute.—In respect to misdemeanors, the dis- 
tinction between principals of the first and 
second degree is unknown; and those who in 
treasons and felonies would be accessories 
after the fact, are themselves liable for the 
commission of a distinct misdemeanor.—The 
ordinary punishment of misdemeanor at com- 
mon law is fine and imprisonment, or either of 
them, in the discretion of the court; and these 
are regularly inflicted when no other penalty 
is prescribed. In Connecticut it has been de- 
cided that the fine must be less than the whole 
value of a man’s property, and that the im- 
prisonment must be for a less term than the 
whole of his life. Finally, in all sentences for 
misdemeanor, the court may require the de- 
fendant to give bonds to keep the peace.—It is 
inconsistent with the general policy of the law 
to allow a criminal charge to be referred to 


MISHNAH 


arbitration or to any cther mode of private 
settlement. An agreement to compound a fel- 
ony has always been held entirely illegal and 
void. Properly speaking, indeed, the injured 
party has nothing to compromise. A crime, 
whatever be the degree of its criminality, is 
committed against the public order, and it is 
therefore only upon a public prosecution that 
the matter can be disposed of. Yet in the 
slighter offences against the public peace, a 
compromise, it is said, may be valid. Quoting 
from Mr. Chitty’s notes to the English stat- 
utes of arbitration, Mr. Justice Patteson said 
in an English case, that such penal offences 
as assault, libel, nuisance, and the like, for 


which an action of damages would lie, may be 


submitted to arbitration at common law; and 
although an indictment has already been pre- 
ferred, the matter of complaint may still be 
referred by leave of court. Plainly nothing 
can prevent an injured individual from sub- 
mitting to arbitration the private wrong which 
may be measured and compensated by dam- 
ages. But the public wrong done, in the 
slighter misdemeanors even, cannot in strict- 
ness be removed from public cognizance ex- 
cept by consent of the proper authority. 
Hence it seems to be the common law doctrine 
that though, in such misdemeanors as those 
just referred to, where the public interest is 
but little concerned, the criminal process will 
be waived almost as matter of course upon 
acknowledgment of private satisfaction, yet 
express or implied consent of the court to the 
waiver is still essential to the valid compro- 
mise of the matter. This doctrine of the com- 
mon law is carried out in those statutes by 
which in several states it is provided, that upon 
a criminal charge of assault and battery or 
other misdemeanor, for which a remedy by 
civil action is given, if the injured party ap- 
pear before a magistrate and acknowledge 
that he has received satisfaction, the accused 
may, or in some cases shall, be discharged on 
payment of costs. 

MISERERE (Lat., have mercy), the name ap- 
plied in the Roman Catholic church to the 51st 
psalm, which commences in the Vulgate with 
that word, and is employed as a penitential 
hymn at all times, but particularly during Lent. 
At the end of the office of Tenebre on Wed- 
nesday, Thursday, and Friday of Holy Week, 
the choir chants or recites it kneeling. At 
Rome, on Good Friday evening, the Miserere, 
set to music by Allegri, is sung with great so- 
lemnity in the Sistine chapel. Many other 
eminent composers have also set it to music. 

MISHNAH, or Mishna (late Heb., study), the 
earlier part or text of the Talmud, forming a 
compendium of decisions, based on oral tradi- 
tions, respecting the laws and religious rites 
of the Jews, and first systematically arranged 
by the patriarch Rabbi Judah the Holy and his 
school, toward the close of the 2d, or accord- 
ing to others in the first half of the 3d century. 
It is written in Hebrew, and divided into six 


MISKOLCZ 


principal parts and 63 treatises. Of the for- 
mer, the ist treats chiefly of prayers and the 
duties of husbandmen; the 2d, festivals; the 
3d, marriage relations; the 4th, judicial sub- 
jects; the 5th, matters concerning the temple; 
and the 6th, the institutions respecting purifi- 
cation. For a full analysis of the contents of 
the Mishnah, see Herzog’s Real Encyklopddie, 
article Thalmud, which also contains an extract 
from the Talmud, showing the relation of the 
Mishnah text to the commentaries (Gemara) 
of the early rabbis. Among the numerous 
separate editions of the Mishnah are those by 
Surenhuis (6 vols. fol., Amsterdam, 1698-17038, 
translation and notes in Latin), and by Heine- 
mann and others (6 vols. 4to, Berlin, 1831-’4, 
with punctuated text, German translation in 
Hebrew characters, rabbinical commentaries, 
and brief explanations). A free translation in 
German, with occasional paraphrase and ex- 
planatory notes, was published by Rabe (3 vols. 
4to, Onolzbach, 1760-’63). De Sola and Rap- 
hall published an English translation of 18 
treatises (London, 1843), and Geiger a valuable 
Lehr- und Lesebuch zur Sprache der Mischna 
(Breslau, 1845).—The Mishnah is a very im- 
portant aid in the critical study of the New 
Testament, illustrating many allusions to Jew- 
ish usages. But in Christian Europe this body 
of Jewish learning, of priceless value to Chris- 
tianity as well as Judaism, narrowly escaped 
destruction from the fanatical violence of ig- 
norant zealots. Only a few manuscript copies 
remain. (See Hrsrews, vol. viii., pp. 594~5, 
and TALMUD.) 

MISKOLCZ, a town of Hungary, capital of 
the county of Borsod, near the Sajé, and on 
the railway from Pesth to Kaschau, 90 m. N. 
KE. of Pesth; pop. in 1870, 21,199. It is situa- 
ted at the foot of a vine-clad mountain called 
Avas. It is well built, and has five churches, 
a convent, a synagogue, three gymnasia, a large 
county house, a theatre, and a fine hospital. 
The inhabitants, consisting of Magyars, who 
are the majority, Rascians, Slovaks, Germans, 
and Jews, are actively engaged in trade and 
manufactures; the wine trade is important. 
A large part of the town was destroyed by 
fire in 1843. 

MISNIA. See Meissen. 

MISSISSAGAS, an Algonquin tribe originally 
found, in the middle of the 17th century, at 
the mouth of ariver of the same name north 
of Lake Huron. After the destruction of the 
Hurons they fled inland, and then moved to 
Keweenaw on Lake Superior, but returned be- 
fore 1670 to their old ground. Missions were 
then attempted among them, but they were 
strongly attached to their superstitions and to 
polygamy. They took part in the assassination 
of the Sioux deputies at Sault Ste. Marie in 
1678, which drew on the western Algonquins 
the fury of that nation. About 1700 they be- 
gan to treat with the Five Nations, and to move 
eastward, so that by 1718 they were scattered 
along the northern line of the lakes from their 


~ MISSAL 635 


old home to the Thousand Islands, most of them 
being north of Lake Ontario. When the strug- 
gle between France and England began, they 
were the only Canadian tribe whom the Eng- 
lish won over through the Six Nations, who 
adopted them as a seventh nation in 1746. 
They aided the English in arms, and traded at 
Oswego; but the English neglected them, and 
when war again broke out the Mississagas 
showed little inclination to join them. The 
mass of the nation were again secured by the 
French. After the fall of the French power 
they made a treaty. with Col. Bradstreet, but 
took an active part in Pontiac’s war. They were 
also active in the Miami war against the United 
States in 1792-’3, and in the hostile movements 
of the Six Nations in the war of 1812. Their 
only settlement in the United States was a tem- 
porary one at Erie; they are now in the proy- 
ince of Ontario, Dominion of Canada. Missions 
have been established among them since 1824 
by the Methodists and the New England com- 
pany, and they are improving. They comprise 
the Mississagas of Mud, Rice, and Scugog lakes, 
returned in 1869 at 315, and in 1873 at 305. 
The Rice Lake Indians sold most of their lands 
in 1818 for an annuity of £740. Those on 
Scugog lake reside on 600 acres bought by them 
in 1843. All these bands cultivate the soil and 
have comfortable houses and chapels. In 1873 
the Mississagas at Alnwick numbered 205; 
they formerly roamed destitute around Quinté 
bay. The Mississagas of Crédit river, lately 
removed to the Grand, numbered 215 in 1878. 
They embraced Christianity and began to im- 
prove in 1824 under the exertions of the Rev. 
Peter Jones, a half-breed. 

MISSAL (Lat. missale), the mass book of the 
Roman Catholic church, containing the daily 
eucharistic service for the whole year. During 
the first eight centuries the parts to be recited 
or sung by the bishop or priest, the deacon, 
subdeacon, and choir, were arranged in separate 
volumes. The sacramentary, or missal proper, 
contained what immediately related to the con- 
secration of the eucharist (the sacrament by 
preéminence), such as the canon, with the pre- 
faces and collects; the evangelary or deacon’s 
book contained either one of the four gospels, 
or all four in a volume, or only the passages 
selected and arranged for daily mass; the lec- 
tionary or epistolary contained the lessons 
from the other portions of the Bible which 
were sung by the subdeacon; in the antiphona- 
ry or gradual were found the anthems, psalms, 
and hymns chanted by the choir throughout 
the service; and in the benedictional were the 
solemn forms of benediction pronounced over 
the people before communion on the great fes- 
tivals. St. Jerome, by order of Pope Damasus, 
collected the four gospels into one volume, 
with tables indicating the passages for daily 
use. The deacon’s and subdeacon’s books soon 
contained respectively only the tabulated gos- 
pels and lessons of the daily mass. The evan- 
gelary in particular was often splendidly illu- 


638 MISSAUKEE 


minated, and its rich cover was adorned with 
precious stones. The most ancient known is 
that of Vercelli, said to have been entirely writ- 
ten by St. Eusebius, bishop of that city (died 
about 370).—In the 9th century (see Lirurey) 
all these separate parts were united in one vol- 
ume, called plenary missal, the use of which 
was made obligatory in all churches. The evan- 
gelary, lectionary, and antiphonary have been 
continued in separate volumes, for the con- 
venience of the inferior ministers and the choir. 
The Roman missal consists of three principal 
parts: 1, the Proprium Missarum de Tempore, 
containing the formularies for the masses of 
the Sundays; 2, the Proprium Missarum de 
Sanctis, containing special formularies of mass 
for the festivals of several saints; 3, the Com- 
mune Sanctorum, containing general formula- 
ries for classes of saints (as apostles, martyrs, 
confessors, &c.), serving as an appendix to the 
second part for such saints as have no special 
service assigned them. The Ordo Missa, con- 
taining that part of the mass which is invari- 
able, is inserted in the first part of the missal 
between Saturday of Passion week and Easter. 
(Concerning the Ambrosian, Mozarabic, and 
Gallican missals, see Lirurey.) Some dioceses 
and religious orders have in an appendix special 
formularies for the masses of certain favorite 
saints; but the congregation of rites, to which 
belongs the direction of liturgic matters, dis- 
countenances everything that tends to lessen 
uniformity.—See the Rev. Daniel Rock, Hie- 
rurgia (2 vols., London, 1833; 2d ed., 1 vol., 
1851), and “‘The Church of our Fathers, as 
seen in St. Osmond’s Rite for the Cathedral of 
Salisbury ” (3 vols., London, 1849). 

MISSAUKEE, a N. central county of the S. 
peninsula of Michigan, watered by the Manis- 
tee and Muskegon rivers; area, 576 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1870, 180. The surface is rolling and 
well timbered, and the soil moderately fertile. 
Capital, Falmouth. 

MISSINNIPPI RIVER. See Cuurcuitt. 

MISSIONS, Foreign. In a theological sense, 
this term denotes the efforts made by the pro- 
fessors of a religious creed to propagate their 
doctrines in countries following other religious 
persuasions. The disciples of Christ received 
from their master the command: “ Go ye into 
all the world, and preach the gospel to every 
creature.” In compliance with this call, the 
apostolic church at once began missionary op- 
erations on a larger scale than the world had 
ever seen before. Unfortunately the records of 
this first brilliant period of the missionary his- 
tory of the church have been mostly lost; but 
enough has been preserved to show that the doc- 
trines of Christianity were taught by the apos- 
tles themselves and their disciples far beyend the 
eonfines of the Roman empire. Toward the 
close of the 1st century the heroic missionary 
efforts of the church had called into existence 
numerous and flourishing congregations in the 
towns of Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, the islands 
of the Mediterranean, northern Africa, India, 


FOREIGN MISSIONS 


and probably several other countries. In the 
2d and 8d centuries we see the missionaries suc- 
cessful in parts of southern Germany, Gaul, Ara- 
bia, and Ethiopia. Under Constantine Chris- 
tianity became the state church, and the custom 
was gradually introduced of using coercive 
measures for the advancement of the Christian 
doctrines. The missionary zeal seems not to 
have abated, but it is frequently difficult for the 
historian to determine what share the missions 
and what the secular arm had severally in 
completing the Christianization of the various 
countries constituting the Roman empire. At 
the death of St. Patrick in the latter part 
of the 5th century Ireland possessed numer- 


ous flourishing churches and monastic schools, 


which became during the next two centuries 
nurseries of missionaries for Great Britain and 
continental Europe. Thus from Iona Columba 
and his companions evangelized Scotland, and 
his successors sent missionaries and monks to 
the Hebrides, the Orkneys, and Iceland; while 
Columbanus and his followers planted monas- 
teries and schools in Gaul, Switzerland, north- 
ern Germany, and Lombardy. England, too, 
as soon as she had been restored to the faith 
by Augustin, sent missionaries to Germany, 
to whose labors Boniface gave unity. After 
him another great Englishman, Alcuin, guided 
and encouraged in the same direction Liudger 
and Willehad, who preached successfully to 
the Saxons and Frisians, and Arno, who was 
equally successful among the Huns. Under 
Louis le Débonnaire these missionary efforts 
were kept up by the schools founded by Boni- 
face at Utrecht and elsewhere. The first seeds 
of Christianity were then sown in Jutland, the 
Danish islands, Sweden, and Norway, by Arch- 
bishop Ebbo, Anscarius, and others. In the 
East, Iberia, Armenia, and Persia were the 
most important missionary fields. After the 
separation of the eastern church from the west- 
ern, the interest in the missionary cause almost 
wholly ceased in the former. The progress 
of Christianity eastward was arrested, while a 
considerable portion of its own territory was 
taken possession of by the Mohammedans. The 
Nestorians continued for a long time to carry 
on, especially in China and India, successful 
missionary operations, of which little is now 
known. The Latin church continued her spir- 
itual conquests in northern Europe. The Scan- 
dinavian kingdoms were finally gained over 
one after another in the 10th and 11th centu- 
ries, Cyril and Methodius opened for Chris- 
tianity the way to the great Slavic race, by 
preaching to the Khazars, Bulgarians, and Mo- 
ravians. Adalbert, bishop of Prague, was mar- 
tyred in a mission among the Prussians. From 
Iceland, missionaries accompanied the adventu- 
rous Norsemen on their expeditions of discov- 
ery; and Greenland is believed to have received 
from them the first account of Christianity 
and the first foundation of a Christian church. 
The extension of Christianity in northern 
Europe was in some instances procured by 


FOREIGN 


means which churchmen themselves disavowed 
and condemned. Thus Alcuin openly censured 
Charlemagne for the oppressive measures by 
which that emperor compelled the pagan Sax- 
ons to receive baptism. This habitual inter- 
ference of the eastern and western emperors, 
while it injured the cause it was designed to 
serve, did not prevent zealous missionaries in 
every country from risking their lives in preach- 
ing to the heathen. The further treatment of 
the subject may be more conveniently divided 
under two heads. I. Roman Catruotio Mis- 
sions. A new missionary zeal awoke in the 
Roman Catholic church after the foundation 
of the mendicant ordérs, which endeavored to 
excel each other in extending the territory of 
their church. Innocent IV. in 1245, and St. 
Louis in 1248, sent mendicant friars as mis- 
sionaries among the Mengols; and in 1289 
John de Monte Corvino translated the New 
Testament and Psalms into the Tartar lan- 
guage. Several bishops were appointed for 
China, where the mission assumed large dimen- 
sions, but half a century later it was nearly 
exterminated. Toward the close of the 14th 
century the Franciscans supported a flourishing 
mission in northern Persia, with about 10,000 
adherents. The missionaries to the East did 
not confine their labors to the pagans, but also 
endeavored to bring about a union of the east- 
ern episcopal denominations, and were partly 
successful in the case of the Greeks, Arme- 
nians, Copts, and others. In the 15th century 
Portuguese missionaries settled in the islands 
discovered by their countrymen, and with the 
aid of the secular arm soon effected the nominal 
Christianization of Porto Santo and Madeira 
(1418-19), of the Azores (1482-'57), and of 
several districts along the African coast (1486- 
97). Very extensive new fields for missions 
were opened by the discovery of America in 
1492, and the circumnavigation of the cape of 
Good Hopein 1497. Great numbers of mission- 
aries volunteered to be sent to the newly discov- 
ered countries, and in the East as well as West 
Indies missionary operations were commenced 
on a very large scale. In the East Indies the 
bishopric of Goa was established in 1520 under 
Franciscan missionaries, several other bishops 
for the East were appointed and sent out by 
the Portuguese govérnment, and a large part 
of the Christians of St. Thomas were prevailed 
upon to unite with the Roman Catholic church. 
In Mexico and Central and South America, the 
16th century completed the victory of the Ro- 
man Catholic missions, as far as the country 
was under the dominion of the Spaniards and 
the Portuguese. In many instances, however, 
the aid of the inquisition was invoked to sup- 
press the pagan worship.—An extraordinary 
impulse to missionary labors was given by the 
establishment of the order of Jesuits. As 
shortly before a large part of Europe had sep- 
arated from the Roman Catholic church, they 
directed their efforts equally to the conversion 
of the pagans and to inducing the Protestants 


MISSIONS 637 


and eastern Christians to submit again to the 
authority of the pope. St. Francis Xavier, 
who has been canonized as the apostle of the 
Indies and Japan, surpassed all Christian mis- 
sionaries who had lived since the apostolic age 
in the extent of his missionary travels, and in 
the number of converts whom he baptized. 
At the time of his death about 100 Jesuits 
were laboring in the East Indies. Soon after, 
the east of Asia presented the brightest pros- 
pects. But it is particularly in Spanish and 
Portuguese America that the Jesuit missionaries 
found a fruitful field. Their first ‘‘ missions” 
or Christian parishes along the Parana and the 
Uruguay were again and again destroyed by 
the Mamelucos, who only aimed at reducing 
the natives to slavery. But having obtained 
from: the home government official decrees 
declaring the Indian converts to be free men 
and forbidding the European settlers to molest 
or hold intercourse with them, a native Chris- 
tian population of between 100,000 and 200,000 
were united under the missionaries, taught the 
art of agriculture, and governed peacefully for 
a period of 80 years. A similar result was 
reached in the mining districts of Peru; while 
Jesuits, Franciscans, and Dominicans vied with 
each other in civilizing the wild tribes on 
the eastern slopes of the Andes and along the 
head waters and affluents of the Amazon. In 
New Granada the missionaries were no less ac- 
tive both among the native populations and the 
numerous African slaves; the most conspic- 
uous among them was the Jesuit Pietro Claver, 
called “‘the apostle of Cartagena,” who is said 
to have instructed and baptized upward of 200,- 
000 negro slaves. Prescott, in his ‘‘ Conquest 
of Mexico,” recounts the enlightened efforts 
of Cortes to obtain efficient missionaries for the 
natives. The Augustinians, Franciscans, and 
Dominicans responded to his call, and did much 
to civilize and protect the indigenous tribes, 
while establishing everywhere schools and col- 
leges. Later the labors of the Jesuits in Cali- 
fornia and New Mexico were attended with 
the same success as in South America, and 
their missions were ruined in the last century 
by the same causes. The Philippines became 
a Catholic country under the rule of Philip 
II., and even in the mighty empire of Japan 
the conversion of a number of princes prom- 
ised the speedy victory of Christianity, when 
internal wars and dread of foreign rule called 
forth (after 1587) a bloody persecution, which 
ended in the second half of the 17th cen 
tury in what was thought to be the com 
plete extirpation of Christianity. In China, 
several Jesuits, especially Ricci and Schall, 
obtained great influence at the court by means 
of their astronomical and mathematical knowl- 
edge, and among the educated classes of the 
people by the classic works which they com- 
posed in the Chinese language; and this ex- 
tensive influence was used with great success 
in gaining converts for their creed. While 
Spanish missionaries from Mexico were press- 


638 


ing northward, the French in 1608 began to 
send missionaries to North America, and es- 
tablished prosperous settlements among the 
Abenaquis, Hurons, Iroquois, and other Indian 
tribes. Biard, Brebeuf, Lalemant, and Sébas- 
tien Rasle were the most celebrated among 
those who devoted their whole lives to thor- 
oughly organizing the colonies of native Chris- 
tians. The French missions gradually advanced 
up the St. Lawrence and along the lakes. In 
Abyssinia repeated efforts were made from 
1550 to 1634, mostly by Jesuits, to bring the 
national church, which had been isolated from 
the rest of the Christian world for more than 
1,000 years, into an organic connection with 
the Roman Catholic church. Several princes 
entered into their views, and a member of the 
Jesuit order was appointed patriarch; but at 
length a successful insurrection thwarted the 
project. Several other portions of Africa re- 
ceived Catholic missionaries in the course of 
the 17th century, as Morocco (1630) and Mada- 
gascar (1648), but without permanent success. 
—In the 18th century the Jesuit missions in 
the East greatly declined. In China and India 
they were involved in a controversy with the 
Dominicans respecting certain accommodations 
to native customs, which the Jesuits regarded 
as lawful, while the Dominicans stigmatized 
them as idolatrous. Rome then gave against 
the Jesuits a decision which has since been 
cancelled; and from that time the prosperity 
of their missions declined. In China, more- 
over, a fierce persecution broke out, which be- 
tween 1722 and 1754 diminished the number 
of Christians from 800,000 to 100,000. In 
Thibet, the Capuchins tried to establish mis- 
sions, but with only slight success. A larger 
number of conversions were made in Indo- 
China, especially in Cochin China and Tonquin, 
and the Catholic population gradually rose to 
several hundred thousand, mostly attended by 
native priests. A firm foundation, amid the 
continuance of persecution, was also laid in 
Corea. In Africa a third attempt was made 
(1750-54) to unite the Abyssinian church with 
Rome, but without success. The Portuguese 
missions on the W. coast of Africa almost en- 
tirely decayed. In the Spanish and Portuguese 
possessions of America the progress of the 
missions among the Indians was completely 
arrested by the expulsion of the Jesuits, and 
the attitude which the governments of Spain 
and Portugal assumed toward the Roman Cath- 
olic church. The French revolution greatly 
diminished the power and resources of the Ro- 
man Catholic church, in consequence of which 
nearly all the foreign missions declined, while 
some were given up entirely. Since 1814 the 
operations in the various missionary fields have 
again been taken up with renewed zeal; the 
number of missionary bishops and priests has 
been greatly increased, but no extraordinary suc- 
cesses have as yet been announced. In China 
proper, in Corea, and in India, the Catholic 
population has, however, considerably risen. 


FOREIGN MISSIONS 


Cochin China and Tonquin enjoyed likewise 
for some time a season of great prosperity, 
until, about 1857, the persecution to which 
more or less the Christians were generally 
exposed assumed such dimensions that nearly 
all the priests were killed or obliged to flee, 
and nearly every congregation was scattered. 
This led in 1858 to an intervention of the 
French and Spaniards, which terminated in ~ 
1862 in the cession to France of three proy- 
inces, and in stipulations guaranteeing the free 
exercise of the Christian religion. Neverthe- 
less the persecution broke out more fiercely than 
ever in 1868, and four Christian parishes with 
about 10,000 converts have been blotted out. 
Japan was reopened to Catholic missionaries 
in consequence of the treaties of 1858, and 
was at once occupied as a mission field. In 
the summer of 1868 a most cruel persecution 
was begun against the native Christians, espe- 
cially at Nagasaki and vicinity. The imperial 
decree recited that the rigorous measures pur- 
sued in the 17th century against the Christian 
religion had not entirely extirpated it, and that 
of late the number of Christians had consider- 
ably increased. Consequently 4,100 persons 
were taken away from their homes and distrib- 
uted among 34 daimios, who were to isolate 
them from their fellow citizens and employ 
them in the most rigorous penal servitude. The 
several consuls at Nagasaki and the ministers 
resident at Tokio protested in vain against the 
merciless acts of the government. In1873 the 
representatives of the Christian powers obtained 
a promise that the persecution should cease; 
but 660 persons had in the interval perished in 
prison. The whole number of native Cath- 
olics in Japan was variously estimated in 1873 
at from 13,000 to 24,000, with two resident Ro- 
man Catholic bishops. The missions in Turkey, 
and more particularly those among the eastern 
churches, were in recent times greatly enlarged, 
and considerable numbers of Armenians, Jaco- 
bites, and Nestorians entered into union with 
Rome. The same step was taken in 1859 by 
the king of Tigré in Abyssinia, with 50,000 of 
his subjects. The conquest of Algeria by the 
French gave rise to some enterprises for the 
conversion of the Mohammedans, but without 
notable results. Special missionary associa- 
tions were formed in Austria for Khartoom in 
Nubia, and in France for western Africa; but 
the majority of missionaries were swept away 
by the deadly climate soon after their arrival 
at the missionary stations. In North America, 
the labors among the Indians were taken up 
again, especially by the Jesuits and Oblates, and 
the missionaries advanced up to the northern- 
most settlements in the British possessions. 
In South America the Jesuits have made repeat- 
ed attempts at reéntering the fields of their 
former missionary labors along the Parana, . 
the Amazon, and their affluents; but their ef- 
forts, being looked upon with disfavor by the 
local authorities, have had but a partial suc- 
cess. In Australasia numerous congregations 


FOREIGN 


of natives have been formed, especially in New 
Zealand ; several smaller islands, as Wallis and 
Futuna, have been wholly gained for the Ro- 
man Catholic church; and, under the patron- 
age of the French, a firm footing has also been 
obtained in some islands which had been pre- 
occupied by Protestant missionaries, as Tahiti 
and the Hawaiian islands.—The Roman Catho- 
lic church has a number of institutions for the 
training of missionaries. The oldest and most 
celebrated among them is the propaganda in 
Rome. (See PropaGanpDA.) Other institutions 
of this kind are Greek, German, English, Irish, 
Scotch, Belgian, and South American colleges 
at Rome, and the Chinese college in Naples, 
founded in the first half of the 18th century 
by an Italian missionary in China. All the 
pupils are natives of China, who, after being 
ordained as priests, return to their country as 
missionaries. At Verona is a seminary which 
educates priests for the missions of central 
Africa; and in connection with this the ‘‘ Af- 
rican Institute” of Alexandria trains native 
missionaries. The Greek seminary at Palermo 
educates priests for the United Greeks. The 


_ American college at Rome, for the training of 


ct 


missionary priests for the United States, was 
opened by Pius IX. in 1859. The seminary of 
foreign missions at Paris is probably the most 
fruitful nursery of Roman Catholic mission- 
aries; it supplies a number of the missionary 
dioceses in China and Indo-China. The col- 
lege of Old Hallows, ‘near Dublin, Ireland, is 
of growing importance. The number of its 
pupils amounts to about 200. It mostly trains 
priests for Irish emigrants to Protestant coun- 
tries; but many of them are called upon to 
preach to the heathen also, especially those in 
India. Moreover, most of the religious orders 
educate a number of their members for foreign 
missions, and some of them have special houses 
for this purpose. A number of missionary 
dioceses in pagan countries are intrusted by the 
propaganda to the several orders, which engage 
to send there the necessary number of mission- 
aries. Those most numerously represented in 
the foreign mission field are the Jesuits, Fran- 
ciscans, Dominicans, Lazarists, the Picpus so- 
ciety, the Marists, Capuchins, and Carmelites. 
There are also supported in the missions a num- 
ber of seminaries for the training of a native 
clergy, of which that at Penang in British Asia 
is one of the largest.—The first general asso- 
ciation for the support of Catholic missions 
was formed at Lyons, France, in 1822, under 
the name of the “Society for the Propagation 
of the Faith.” The society gradually extended 
over nearly all countries of the globe. Its 
members pledge themselves to pay one sou a 
week. Its total receipts in 1873 amounted to 
5,629,375 francs. It publishes a bi-monthly 
periodical, the ‘‘ Annals of the Propagation of 
the Faith,” of which more than 200,000 copies 
are issued in French, German, English, Italian, 
Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Flemish, and Po- 
lish languages. The society contributes to the 
562 VOL. x1.—41 


MISSIONS 639 


support of all Roman Catholic missions. An 
important auxiliary to this society is the “ As- 
sociation of the Holy Childhood of Jesus,” a 
children’s missionary society, founded in Paris 
in 1844, for baptizing and rescuing pagan chil- 
dren of China, and, if possible, for providing 
a Christian education for them. Its annual re- 
ceipts amount to about 1,500,000 francs, The 
Leopoldine association in Austria, and the Louis 
association of Bavaria, support almost exclu- 
sively missions among the German emigrants 
in North America. The St. Mary’s association 
of Austria was established for the sole support 
of the Austrian missionsin Khartoom. France 
has special associations for the support of the 
missions in western Africa, for the foundation 
of Christian schools in Turkish Asia, and for 
missions among the Mohammedans.—The prin- 
cipal Roman Catholic missionary fields in pagan 
countries at present are: China, with a bish- 
opric in the Portuguese possessions, 22 vicari- 
ates apostolic, 3 prefectures apostolic, and a 
native Catholic population estimated at 700,000; 
Anam, said to have 7 vicariates apostolic, 58 
European and 205 native priests, with 1,280,- 
000 Christians; and India and Ceylon, which 
have, besides an archbishop at Goa and 3 
bishops for the Portuguese possessions, 20 vic- 
ars apostolic, and a population of 147,000, of 
which only a very small portion are English, 
Irish, French, and Portuguese Catholics, the 
others being natives. The Roman Catholic 
population of Africa live mostly in the Por- 
tuguese, French, English, and Spanish posses- 
sions. The most important missions among 
the pagans are carried on in and near the French 
possessions in Senegambia, in Natal, and in 
the country of the Gallas in central Africa. 
In Polynesia there are 7 vicariates apostolic for 
the native population. New Zealand is re- 
ported to have 5,000 native Roman Catholics, 
and the Hawaiian islands stillmore. Themem- 
bership of the church among the Indians of 
North America amounts to several thousands, 
and is constantly increasing.—See Lockman, 
‘Travels of the Jesuits into various parts of 
the World” (2 vols., London, 1762); Lettres édi- 
Jiantes et curieuses (26 vols., Paris, 1780-’88) ; 
W. J. Kip, ‘Jesuit Missions in North America” 
(New York, 1846); De Smet, ‘Oregon Mis- 
sions’’ (1847); Hue, ‘‘ Christianity in China, 
Tartary, and Thibet” (2 vols., London, 1853) ; 
J. G. Shea, ‘‘ History of Catholic Missions 
among the Indian Tribes of the United States” 
(New York, 1855); Relations des Jésuites (8 
vols., Quebec, 1858); Marshall, ‘‘ History of 
Missions” (2 vols., London and New York); 
and Annales de la propagation de la foi since 
1822. II. Protestant Missions. The reform- 
ers were not indifferent to the duty of giving the 
gospel to the heathen. Luther took frequent 
opportunity to remind the Christians of the 
‘“‘misery of pagans and Turks,” and to exhort 
to prayers for them, and to the sending of 
missionaries to them. While the Protestant 
church was itself struggling for an existence, 


640 FOREIGN 


however, the time was not auspicious for 
inaugurating extensive missionary operations. 
Yet a beginning was made in 1555. Villega- 
gnon, a knight of Malta, under the patronage 
of Henry II. of France, began the formation 
of a French colony in Brazil, and, on the 
promise that the reformed religion should be 
taught there, 14 spiritual teachers were fur- 
nished by Calvin. On landing in 1556, they 
immediately set themselves to work in the or- 
ganization of the future church, but their ef- 
forts were soon arrested, as Villegagnon de- 
manded and obtained their return to France. 
Some evangelical princes showed a great in- 
terest in the cause. Gustavus Vasa of Swe- 
den, in whose dominion paganism still existed 
among the Lapps, founded a mission in their 
country, which was vigorously supported by 
some of his successors, especially by Charles 
IX. Many of the German princes, as Duke 
Christopher of Wirtemberg and Duke Ernest 
the Pious of Saxe-Gotha, made great efforts to 
awaken an interest in the missionary cause. 
In 1664 a German baron, Ernst von Wels, 
published two pamphlets in order to awaken 
a& greater interest in foreign missions, and 
proposed the formation of a ‘Jesus Associa- 
tion” for the propagation of Christianity 
among the pagans. But few German theolo- 
gians supported him, and the majority called 
him a fanatic and heretic. Wels went to Hol- 
land, where he was ordained as a minister, 
and then set out as a missionary to Surinam, 
where he soon fell a victim to his zealous la- 
bors. About this time three Protestant na- 
tions, the Dutch, English, and Danes, began 
to wrest from the Spaniards and Portuguese 
many of their transmarine possessions, and 
thus to open to Protestant missionaries a vast 
field of labor. The Dutch founded a number 
of colonies in the Molucca islands, Ceylon, 
and Sumatra, and displayed a great zeal in 
gaining the natives for the Reformed church. 
The motives and means of these missionary: 
efforts were not always pure; thus, the gov- 
ernor of Ceylon declared that only those na- 
tives would get any kind of employment from 
the government who would sign the Helvetic 
confession. This declaration induced thou- 
sands to demand baptism, which was generally 
refused to none who were able to recite the 
Lord’s Prayer and the Ten Commandments. 
At the close of the 17th century about 800,- 
000 Cingalese had been baptized. There were, 
however, many devoted missionaries, who 
earnestly labored to spread a spiritual Chris- 
tianity. The learned Waleus of Leyden ad- 
vocated the formation of a missionary semi- 
nary, and the Dutch East India company cor- 
dially approved of the scheme, the execution 
of which proved eminently useful to the cause 
of reformed religion.—The early settlers of 
New England (1620) took a deep interest in 
the welfare of the pagan Indians around them. 
The settlement of the country was undertaken 
partly as a missionary enterprise. Indeed, this 


MISSIONS 


was embodied in the Massachusetts charter, as 
‘the principal end of the plantation ;” and the 
seal of the colony had for its device the figure 
of an Indian, with the words of the Macedo- 
nian entreaty, ‘‘Come over and help us.” In 
1646 the Massachusetts legislature passed an 
act for the encouragement of Christian mis- 
sions among the Indians, and in the same year 
the celebrated John Eliot, ‘‘the apostle of the 
Indians,” began his labors among them. The 
first Bible printed in America was that which 
he translated for the aborigines. A few cop- 
ies of that Bible are still in existence, but no 
living Indian can read it. But Eliot was not 
the first to preach the gospel to the natives. 
Thomas Mayhew began his labors among them 
on Martha’s Vineyard in 1648, and soon num- 
bered 300 converts. Five successive genera- 
tions of the Mayhews continued these labors, 
In 1674 the Indians of the district were about 
8,000, half of them professing Christianity; 
but in 1792 they numbered only 440. The 
Rev. Jobn Sergeant and Jonathan Edwards 
did like missionary service among the Stock- 
bridge Indians in western Massachusetts, and 
David Brainerd among the Delawares of east- 
ern New York and New Jersey.—A vast 
scheme of uniting all the Protestant churches 
of the world into one great missionary society 
was conceived by Cromwell. He intended to 
establish a Protestant college for the defence 
and propagation of the evangelical faith, which 
was to consist of seven directors and four sec- 
retaries, and to receive from the state a fixed 
annual support. The whole earth was divided 
into four missionary provinces, each of which 
was to have its representative in the college. 
Though this scheme was not carried through, 
it prepared the English nation for an active 
support of the missionary societies which soon 
after sprang into existence. The formation of 
the first great missionary society of the Prot- 
estant world took place at the beginning of 
the 18th century. Some members of a ‘So- 
ciety for promoting Christian Knowledge,” 
which had been founded in 1698, constituted 
themselves in 1701 a committee for sending 
missionaries to the pagans. They assumed 
the name of ‘Society for the Propagation of 
the Gospel in Foreign Parts,” and the new 
association was sanctioned by William III. 
The original design was the formation of colo- 
nial churches, and mostly for this purpose the 
operations have been extended to the East and 
West Indies, southern Africa, the Seychelles, 
Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. In 
1873 it had 484 ordained missionaries, inclu- 
ding 45 native clergy in India, 822 teachers and 
catechists, 141 students in colleges abroad, and 
an income of £110,259. Itis under the con- 
trol of the church of England, and the influ- 
ence of the “high church” school at present . 
prevails in its management. The ‘Scottish 
Society for propagating Christian Knowledge,” 
founded in 1709, labored for some years among 
the North American Indians, but without per- 


FOREIGN 


manent success.—Denmark, though it had be- 
gun in 1620 to found colonies in the East and 
West Indies, made no missionary exertions in 
behalf of the pagans until the reign of Fred- 
erick [V., who in 1711 established an annual 
appropriation of 2,000 rix dollars for mission- 
ary purposes, and in 1714 organized the royal 
college of missions. Unable to find the prop- 
er persons for foreign missions in Denmark, 
the government entered into arrangements 
with A. H. Francke, who furnished the first 
men, Ziegenbalg and Plutscho, for establishing 
a mission in Tranquebar. The society after- 
ward extended their Indian missions consider- 
ably, though Denmark took very little inter- 
est in them. Most of the missionaries, among 
whom Christian Friedrich Schwartz shone 
forth as a model, came from Germany, and the 
expenses for the missions in the territories of 
the East India company were mostly defrayed 
by the London society for promoting Christian 
knowledge. In 1835 the chief missions of this 
body were transferred to the society for the 
propagation of the gospel; and in 1845, when 
the last Danish possessions in India were trans- 
ferred to Great Britain, the labors of the col- 
lege of missions there ceased altogether. The 
impulse given by King Frederick IV. to the 
missionary cause called into existence two other 
remarkable enterprises. The one was a mission 
in Greenland, commenced in 1721 by a Norwe- 
gian pastor, Hans Egede; the other a new mis- 
sion to Lapland, undertaken by the Norwegian 
Thomas von Westen. Both were conducted 
with great zeal and self-sacrifice. Egede in- 
duced the king to establish at Copenhagen a 
seminary, which trained catechists and mis- 
sionaries for the Greenlanders, until the mis- 
sion was wholly committed to the Moravians. 
It was in Copenhagen also that Count Zinzen- 
dorf received his first impulse toward spread- 
ing the gospel. On his return to Herrnhut 
the Moravians engaged at once in the cause 
with a zeal unprecedented in the history of 
Protestantism. The support of foreign mis- 
sions was for the first time officially declared 
to be a duty of the entire church, and an offi- 
cial board was intrusted with the charge of it. 
The guiding principles of the Moravians were 
to await a special call from God before going 
to any part of the pagan world, to avoid as 
much as possible selecting missionary fields 
preoccupied by others, and to give the prefer- 
ence to those countries which were among the 
most abandoned, difficult, and miserable. All 
the missionaries gained a part or the whole 
of their support by mechanical or agricultural 
labor; and the congregations of natives, which 
were all organized after the model of the 
church at home, were likewise bound to con- 
tribute for missionary purposes. Thus their 
enterprises stand forth as a great success. The 
fields which they occupied in succession were 
the Danish West India islands (1732), Green- 
land (1733), North American Indians (17384), 
Surinam (1735), South Africa (1736, renewed 


MISSIONS 


641 


in 1792), Jamaica (1754), Antigua (1756), Bar- 
badoes (1765), Labrador (1770), St. Kitts 
(1775), Tobago (1790, renewed in 1827), the 
Mosquito coast (1848), Australia (1849), and 
Thibet (1853). In 1878 they reported in all 
90 stations, 822 missionary “agents,” 1,427 
native helpers, 21,969 communicants, and an 
income of £18,017. One out of every 50 of 
its communicants is engaged in mission service, 
with three times as many members in its mission 
churches as in those at home.—There is a great 
gap in the history of Protestant missions from 
1782 to 1792. No new society was formed, and 
no efforts were made for the propagation of 
Christianity except by the few agencies above 
mentioned. Toward the close of the 18th cen- 
tury there arose a widespread dissatisfaction 
with the results of the rationalistic intellec- 
tualism of the day, and a powerful countercur- 
rent led vast numbers back to a belief in the ~ 
supreme necessity of experimental religion and 
personal piety. At the same time, members 
of different communions longed to find ways 
of working together for a common Chris- 
tianity, in spite of denominational differences. 
The first foreign missionary society born of 
this movement was the Baptist of England, 
established in 1792. The effect.of this exam- 
ple throughout Christendom was unparalleled. 
Other societies arose in England and America, 
until almost every religious denomination had 
its own. Money was freely given, mission- 
aries were sent abroad, and converts from 
paganism were multiplied. In continental Eu- 
rope the interest in the missionary cause devel- 
oped more slowly, but has attained considerable 
proportions. Brief sketches of the: most im- 
portant Protestant missionary societies follow, 
arranged according to nationality. 1. British 
Societies. The Baptist society, already named, 
was the first, organized October 2, 1792, under 
the lead of William Carey, who was also its 
first missionary. He went to India in 1793, 
and Serampore soon became the centre of 
successful and extensive missionary operations. 
A controversy between the Serampore mission 
and the parent society brought on a separation 
lasting ten years, during which the two soci- 
eties acted independently, but it did not arrest 
the progress of the mission. The Bible entire 
or in parts was issued from the Serampore 
press in 27 different versions, and the school 
operations were singularly prosperous. Among 
the missionaries, Marshman and Ward were 
especially distinguished. Besides India, the 
West Indies, western Africa, and France re- 
ceived missionaries from the Baptist society. 
In the West Indies, the churches in Jamaica 
separated from the home society in 1842, and 
charged themselves with the maintenance of 
the mission. In western Africa, the mission- 
aries were expelled in 1858 by the Spanish 
government from the island of Fernando Po, 
and their missions forcibly suppressed. The 
society now has missions in France, Norway, 
Italy, western Africa, India, China, and the 


642 FOREIGN 


West Indies, with 423 stations, 87 missionaries, 
229 native pastors and preachers, 52,444 com- 
municants, 280 teachers, 12,101 scholars, and 
an income of £40,255. The General or Ar- 
minian Baptists formed a separate society in 
1816, and began a mission at Orissa, India, in 
1822, and at Ningpo, China, in 1845. In 1873 
they had 8 stations in India, 7 missionaries, 15 
native preachers, 731 communicants, and an 
income of £14,216, much of which is raised in 
India where the work is done. ‘The mission in 
Ningpo has ceased after a feeble existence, and 
one has been commenced in Rome.—The 
‘*London Missionary Society’ owed its origin 
to a spirited paper in the ‘ Evangelical Maga- 
zine,” advocating the formation of a missionary 
society on the broadest possible basis. An in- 
vitation for that purpose was signed by 18 In- 
dependent, 7 Presbyterian, 3 Wesleyan, and 3 
Episcopal clergymen; and the constitutive as- 
sembly took place Sept. 22, 1795, in a chapel 
of the countess of Huntingdon. The islands of 
the Pacific were selected as the first missionary 
field, and 29 young men were selected from the 
large number of those who had offered them- 
selves. On March 4, 1797, the missionaries 
landed on Tahiti and opened the first mission 
of the London society. Soon the society oc- 
cupied also China and the East Indies, where 
Morrison and Milne prepared a translation 
of the Bible into Chinese, the islands of the 
Indian archipelago and Mauritius, southern 
Africa, the West Indies, Guiana, and North 
America. Their most important stations are 
at present those in the South seas, where John 
Williams labored so nobly and successfully, 
in southern Africa, where Moffat and Living- 
stone distinguished themselves, and in Mada- 
gascar.. In 1873 the society had 156 ordain- 
ed missionaries, 175 native ordained ministers, 
4,006 native preachers, 97,967 communicants, 
2,601 schools, 72,289 pupils, and an income of 
£115,909, of which about £21,950 was from 
English and native contributions in the mission 
fields. The society still adheres to its origi- 
nal basis, avoiding denominational differences 
of doctrine and church government; but the 
subsequent organization of separate denomi- 
national societies has left the London society 
mostly in the hands of the Independents.—The 
“Church Missionary Society”? was organized 
April 12, 1799, by distinguished men belong- 
ing to the evangelical school of the established 
church, among whom William Wilberforce, 
Charles Simeon, and others took an active part. 
Its progress was slow at first; no mission- 
aries could be found for it in England, and 
it employed only Germans. Its first mission 
on the west coast of Africa was unsuccess- 
ful, in consequence of the deleterious climate 
and the plots of the slave traders; but after 
1818 mission labors were very prosperous in 
Sierra Leone. In 1814 the society had sta- 
tions also in India and New Zealand; in 1822 
in Rupert’s Land, North America; in 1826 in 
the West Indies; in 1844 in China; and in 


MISSIONS 


1857 on the banks of the Niger. In 1873 it 
had 157 mission stations, 207 European mis- 
sionaries, 147 native clergy, 2,278 catechists 
and teachers, 22,555 communicants, and 45,- 
782 scholars, not counting 4,856 communicants 
and 12,866 scholars recently transferred to the 
native church of Sierra Leone. The income of 
the society for 1873 reached the extraordinary 
sum of £261,221, nearly £100,000 above its 
usual receipts. The president of the society 
must always be elected from among the mem- 
bers of parliament. Vice presidents are, ac- 
cording to a resolution of 1841, all the bishops 
of the Anglican church. Since 1825 the soci- 
ety has owned a missionary institute at Isling- 
ton, which has room for 50 students, and gen- 
erally counts about 30. The low church party 
of the establishment has always had a decided 
control over this society; yet all its mission- 
aries have to submit to episcopal ordination 
and to subscribe the thirty-nine articles; even 
the Germans who are employed by the society 
are now no longer exempt from the latter con- 
dition.—The first missions of the Wesleyan 
Methodists were commenced in 1786, when 
Dr. Thomas Coke, with three other mission- 
aries, went to the West Indies. After the 
death of Wesley, Coke remained at the head 
of the Wesleyan missions, and crossed the At- 
lantic for missionary purposes no fewer than 
18 times. Within 20 years the number of 
Methodist missionaries in the West Indies and 
North America rose to 43. In 1813 Coke em- 
barked with five companions for the East In- 
dies, but died before that country was reached. 
His companions founded a mission in Ceylon, 
which soon spread ‘to the mainland of India. 
As long as Coke lived, the administration of 
foreign missions lay almost exclusively in his 
hands, under the advice of a committee con- 
sisting of all the resident Wesleyan ministers 
of London; but after his death the necessity 
of amore complete organization was felt. The | 
‘‘ Wesleyan Missionary Society” was consti- 
tuted in 1817, and soon took a foremost rank 
among such agencies. It has missions in Italy, 
Spain, Portugal, Africa, India, China, Austra- 
lia, Polynesia, and the West Indiaislands. But 
much the larger part of this society’s work is 
in nominally Christian lands, or in British de- 
pendencies and among English colonists. Even 
in Africa and India its labors are much among 
English-speaking people ; but its most success- 
ful missions are among the negroes of the West 
Indies and among the heathen and cannibals of 
the Feejee and Friendly islands. In 1873 it 
had in all 847 stations, 6,647 chapels and other 
preaching places, 1,125 ministers and assistant 
missionaries, 4,783 other paid agents, 170,360 
communicants, 15,616 probationers, 245,733 
pupils, and an income of £167,993.—Besides 
these larger societies, there are a number of 
smaller ones, as the Welsh Calvinistic Metho- 
dist, founded in 1840; the English Presbyte- 
rian, 1844; the ‘Turkish Missions Aid So- 


| ciety ;” and the New Connection Methodists’ 


FOREIGN 


foreign mission, commenced in China in 1859.— 
A ‘Scotch Missionary Society” was organized 
at Edinburgh in 1796, and sent the first mission- 
aries among the Tartars near the Black and Cas- 
pian seas. After the suppression of all the Prot- 
estant missions in those regions by the Rus- 
sian government in 1833,the association direct- 
ed its efforts to western Asia and the West In- 
dies. More recently the society has confined 
its labors to Jamaica. ‘The established church 
of Scotland, at its general assembly of 1796, 
rejected as a folly a motion to send missiona- 
ries among the pagans; but in 1824 a similar 
motion was entertained and carried. It.was 
not however till 1829 that its first missionary, 
Dr. Duff, was sent out to Calcutta. In 18438, 
when a large portion of the ministers and laity 
left the established church of Scotland, and 
organized the Free church, all the missionaries 
joined the latter. The missionary cause greatly 
gained by this separation, for the established 
church sent out new missionaries to carry on 
the work, and both churches ‘henceforth tried 
to excel each other in zeal. The church of 
Scotland has four missionaries in India (one at 
Calcutta, one at Madras, one at Sealkote, and 
one at Darjeeling), and a mission at Bombay, 
superintended by a European teacher, and an 
income of £10,000. The Free church of Scot- 
land has missions also in India, south Africa, 
Australia, and Syria, with 45 European and 
196 native laborers, 2,163 communicants, 11,086 
scholars, and an income of £19,959. It is also 
engaged in mission work among the Jews, hay- 
ing one of its important centres at Constanti- 
nople, with an imposing mission house, em- 
bracing chapel and school rooms and abou 
200 scholars. The United Presbyterian church 
of Scotland has missions in the West Indies, 
Spain, Old Calabar, south Africa, India, and 
China, with 54 stations, 138 out stations, 48 
European missionaries, 8 medical missionaries, 
8 native preachers, 6,927 communicants, 9,183 
scholars, and an income of £38,000. The Pres- 
byterian church of Ireland has 7 missionaries 
in India, with 138 communicants and 1,199 
scholars, and one missionary in China, and an 
income of £6,371.—Among the other societies 
established by Great Britain and its colonies 
are: the Glasgow missionary society, in 1796; 
the United Secession church’s foreign mission, 
18385; the Glasgow African mission society, 
1837; the Edinburgh medical missionary soci- 
ety, 1841; the Reformed Presbyterian church’s 
foreign mission, 1842; the Loo Choo naval mis- 
sion, 1843; the Patagonian mission, 1844; the 
Chinese evangelization society, 1850; and the 
Chinese society for furthering the gospel, 1850. 
One of the most useful societies at work in 
India is the “‘ Christian Vernacular Education 
Society,” with 8 training institutions, 209 na- 
tive teachers, and 7,000 children in Christian 
schools. The society has printed 4,000,000 cop- 
ies of various publications, in 14 different lan- 
guages, and has 27 depots for the sale of books 
with 60 colporteurs at work. There is also a 


MISSIONS 


643 


“China Inland Mission,” whick is hardly an 


organized body, as it consists only of volun- 
teers who go forth independently and with no 
pledge of support from any society. They are 
from England, mostly uneducated, and are en- 
deavoring, as their name imports, to carry the 
gospel to the interior cities of China. 
are 31 such laborers, male and female, with 50 
native assistants, occupying 80 stations. 


There 


They 
adopt the costume of the country, and find 


their living among the people, but so far their 
mission is not eminently successful.—2. Amer- 
ica. 


In the United States attention was early 
called to the necessity of missionary efforts 
among the Indians and negroes. The first gen- 
eral foreign missionary society was founded 


under the name of the ‘‘ American Board of 


Commissioners for Foreign Missions” in 1810. 
It owed its origin to a society of students of An- 
dover theological seminary, among whom was 
Adoniram Judson, whose object was to inves- 
tigate the best ways and means of making the 
gospel known to pagan nations. After the 
model of the London society, they adopted no 
denominational basis; but the society soon 
became prominently the organ of the Congre- 
gationalists and some of the Presbyterian 
churches. One of the latter, the Reformed 
(Dutch) church, separated in 1857, and organ- 
ized a denominational board, which now has 
three missions (one at Arcot in India, one at 
Amoy, China, and one at Yokohama, Japan), 
with 11 stations, 61 out stations, 13 missionaries, 
153 other laborers, 1,823 communicants, 1,022 
scholars, 8 medical dispensaries, in which 12,- 
283 patients were treated in 1873, an income of 
$55,352, and an expenditure of $68,106. The 


““ New School” branch of the Presbyterian 


church continued to coéperate with the Amer- 
ican board till 1870, when, upon the reunion 
of the two branches of the northern Presby- 
terian church, most of its churches withdrew 
and gave their support to the Presbyterian 
board, taking with them, by an amicable trans- 
fer, the missions in Syria, Persia, west Africa, 
and that to the Seneca Indians of New York. 
The American board now has missions in In- 
dia, China, Japan, south Africa, Turkey, Aus- 
tria, Spain, Mexico, the Hawaiian islands, the 
Micronesian islands, and among the Indians of 
our own country. Its success in the Hawaiian 
islands has been most remarkable, the board 
numbering at one time more than 22,000 mem- 
bers in its churches. It has 19 missions, 72 
stations, 497 out stations, 151 missionaries, 222 
churches, 10,604 communicants (not including 
some 12,000 in the Hawaiian islands), 12 train- 
ing schools or theological seminaries, 21 board- 
ing schools for girls, 551 common schools, 
20,490 scholars, an income of $469,000, and 
an expenditure (1873-’4) of $482,000.—‘‘ The 
American Baptist Missionary Union” was 
founded in 1814, and like some others does not 
confine its operations to heathen lands, having 
missions in Germany, Sweden, France, Spain, 
Greece, Africa, Burmah, Assam, India, China, 


644 


and Japan; 20 missions in all, 21 central sta- 
tions, 400 out stations, and 54,735 communi- 
cants (30,782 of them in Europe); income 
(1873-4), $261,000; expenditures, $289,309. 
The missionary society of the Methodist Epis- 
copal church was organized in 1819, and has 
missions in Germany, Denmark, Norway, Swe- 
den, Italy, European Turkey, Africa, India, 
China, Japan, the West Indies, Mexico, and 
South America, with 200 missionaries, 435 
assistants, 317 teachers, 14,683 communicants, 
5,335 probationers, 21,242 pupils, and an income 
of $337,190. The Protestant Episcopal church 
organized a board of missions in 1820. It has 
missions in Greece, west Africa, China, Japan, 
the West Indies, and among the American In- 
dians, with 3 missionary bishops, 17 mission- 
aries, 23 native clergy, 22 churches, 400 com- 
municants, 50 schools, 1,700 scholars, and an 
income (1873) of $114,110.—The board of for- 
eign missions of the Presbyterian church was 
formed in 1837, sustained by the ‘‘ Old School,”’ 
while the other branch still codperated till 
1870, as before mentioned, with the American 
board. It was preceded by a number of small- 
er societies, which confined their labors mainly 
to the Indians. Presbyterian missions were 
begun in Africa in 1832, in India in.1838, in 
China in 1838, and among the Chinese in Cali- 
fornia in 1852; and more recently the board 
has sent missionaries to South America, Mexico, 
Siam, and Japan, besides reénforcing and enlarg- 
ing the missions in Syria, Persia, and Africa, 
which were received from the American board. 
It has 134 missionaries, 116 native pastors and 
preachers, 440 other native laborers, 6,272 
communicants, 12,533 scholars, and an income 
(1873) of $623,000, $128,000 having.been raised 
by special effort to pay a debt. The Presby- 
terian church, South, organized a separate 
board in 1861, and now has 21 missionaries 
and 38 assistants, laboring among our own In- 
dians, in Mexico, South America, Italy, Greece, 
and China. The society reports an income 
(1873) of $42,431. The United Presbyterian 
missionary society, organized in 1859, has mis- 
sions in Syria, Egypt, India, and China, 23 
stations, 13 missionaries, 83 native ministers 
and teachers, 21 churches, 655 members, 22 
schools, 2,358 scholars, and an income of $65,- 
653. The Evangelical Lutheran church has 
sustained a mission in India since 1841, which 
now has 5 ordained missionaries and 40 native 
assistants; it has also a station in Liberia, 
with 3 missionaries. Its receipts in 1873 were 
$28,000. The Seventh Day Baptists com- 
menced missionary operations in 1842, and 
have small missions in west Africa and China. 
The Baptist church, South, constituted a soci- 
ety in 1845, and has missionaries in China (4), 
Africa (10), Italy (6), and among the American 
Indians (56 native preachers and 2,800 mem- 
bers), with an income of $52,000. The Meth- 
odist Episcopal church, South, has 2 mission- 
aries in China, with 3 or 4 native laborers, and 
12 white preachers and 16 native ministers 


FOREIGN MISSIONS 


among the American Indians. The Freewill 
Baptists and the Unitarians have done some- 
thing in India.—Some of the friends of mis- 
sions separated from the older organizations 
on the ground of their complicity with slavery, 
and thus the ‘‘ Free Baptist Missionary Society ”’ 
was organized in 1848, with a mission in Hayti; 
and the ‘‘ American Missionary Association” 
was formed in 1846. In the latter three smaller 
organizations, the ‘‘ Union Missionary Society,” 
the ‘‘ Committee for the West Indian Mission,” 
and the ‘‘ Western Evangelical Missionary As- 
sociation,” were soon merged, and gave it mis- 
sions in the West Indies, among the North 
American Indians, and in western Africa. It 
has also had a small mission in Siam, and an- 
other in the Hawaiian islands. Since the civil 
war, however, its energies have been devoted 
to the freedmen of the south, establishing 
schools and colleges, furnishing teachers and 
professors, and aiding in forming churches. 
It has three missionaries in the West Indies, 
two in west Africa, one in Siam, and one in 
the Hawaiian islands. It has recently an- 
nounced its purpose of relinquishing all its for- 
eign work, except the Mendi mission in west 
Africa, and concentrating its efforts upon the 
colored people of the south, where it already 
has 47 churches, 2,898 members, 65 schools, 
7 colleges, 323 ministers, missionaries, and 
teachers, and 14,048 scholars. The society has 
also a mission among the Chinese in Califor- 
nia. Its income in 1873 was $345,277. The 
‘‘American and Foreign Christian Union,” 
supported by several denominations, was es- 
tablished in 1849 by the union of three small- 
er societies, and its labors have been devoted 
chiefly to the Roman Catholics of America 
and Europe, with missions in Mexico, South 
America, France, and Italy. But of late 
years the various denominations have under- 
taken the same work by their separate socie- 
ties, and as the society was thus losing a large 
part of its constituency and resources, in 
1872 it transferred its foreign work to other 
societies, and now confines its efforts to the 
Roman Catholics of the United States. Its 
receipts in 1873 were $28,571.—Recently a 
number of ladies’ missionary societies have 
come into existence. The first was the ‘‘ Wo- 
man’s Union Missionary Society,” established 
in New York in 1861, with special reference 
to work among the zenanas of India, sustained 
by different denominations; it has 350 auxili- 
aries, with female laborers in India, China, and 
Japan, and an income (1873) of $46,000. The 
‘*Woman’s Board of Missions,” sustained chief- 
ly by the Congregationalists and auxiliary to 
the American Board, was organized in 1868; 
it has 500 auxiliaries, and an income of $77,- 
000. Similar societies have been organized in 
connection with the Methodist church (1869), 
with 1,500 auxiliaries and an income of $64,- 
309; in the Presbyterian church (1871), with 
376 auxiliaries and receipts of $87,816; and 
in the Baptist church (1871), with 600 auxilia- 


FOREIGN 


ries, and receipts of $33,378.—8. Continental 
Europe. The continent of Europe has re- 
mained, in zeal for the missionary cause, far 
behind England and America. The first coun- 
try which, at the close of the 18th century, 
followed the example of the English, was Hol- 
land, which formed in 1797, mainly through 
the influence of Dr. Vanderkemp, a Dutch 
missionary employed by the London mission- 
ary society, the ‘‘ Netherlands Missionary So- 
ciety,” at Rotterdam. The political events, in 
consequence of which Holland lost her colo- 
nies, caused a postponement of independent 
operations till 1819, when they commenced 
in the Indian archipelago, which is still their 
chief seat. The missions in India proper, when 
Holland exchanged with Britain these settle- 
ments, were transferred to English societies, 
but other missions were founded at Surinam, 
Guiana, and in Curacoa in the West Indies. 
The society sustains a seminary at Rotterdam, 
and counted among its missionaries the cele- 
brated Dr. Gitzlaff.—The most extensive of 
the missionary societies of continental Europe 
is that of Basel. Unlike the others, it was 
preceded by the establishment of a missionary 
seminary in 1815, which has furnished a num- 
ber of devoted missionaries to other societies, 
especially English. An independent society, 
the ‘‘ Evangelical Missionary Society of Basel,” 
was formed in 1821, which now sustains mis- 
sionaries in west Africa, India, and China. 
The income in 1872 was 864,167 francs. The 
society employs 98 European missionaries, 59 
European ladies, and 210 native laborers, and 
has 3,718 communicants. The Basel society 
has received from its foundation the mission- 
ary contributions from a number of the Ger- 
man churches. Afterward several other soci- 
eties sprang up, whose operations, however, 
have been thus far inferior to those of the 
English and American societies. Those ex- 
clusively or mainly Lutheran are the Evangel- 
ical Lutheran missionary association of Leip- 
sic, founded in 1836, and occupying in south- 
ern India the former missionary field of the 
Danes, with 17 European missionaries, 16 sta- 
tions, embracing 397 villages, and numerous 
native agents; the Berlin missionary society, 
instituted in 1824, and supporting a mission in 
southern Africa with 31 stations and 48 labor- 
ers; and the Hermannsburg society, founded 
in 1854, which has adopted the plan of sending 
out entire missionary colonies. Those whose 
sympathies are with the evangelical party are 
the Rhenish missionary society, founded in 
1828, Gossner’s missionary union, in 1836, and 
the North German missionary society, in 1836, 
which have missions in Africa, India, China, 
the Indian archipelago, and the islands of the 
Pacific. The Rhenish society has 11 mission- 
aries, 13 native helpers, 9 stations, and more than 
1,400 adherents, among the Batta people of 
Sumatra. Special associations for China have 
been formed in Cassel, Berlin, and Pomerania, 
mostly occasioned by the reports of Dr: Gitz- 


MISSIONS 645 


laff ; and it was intended to unite them all into 
a central Chinese missionary association, but 
this proved unsuccessful. Of late years, the 
aggregate receipts of the German missionary 
associations have rapidly risen, as the supreme 
authorities of nearly all the state churches 
have strongly recommended them and _ pre- 
scribed the taking up of an annual collection 
in every church.—France has had a missionary 
society since 1822, which sustains a flourishing 
mission among the Bassutos of southern Africa, 
where it now has 17 stations, 69 native help- 
ers, and 2,229 communicants. Its income is 
13,784 francs.—The Scandinavians have been 
as yet hardly represented in the foreign mis- 
sionary field. The Swedes have almost re- 
stricted themselves to sending preachers to 
the Laplanders, and only China has received a 
few missionaries from a society in Lund. The 
Norwegian missionary society, established in 
1842, has some agents among the Zooloos in 
southern Africa. But in Scandinavia also the 
activity of the missionary societies is increas- 
ing. Norway founded a foreign missionary 
seminary at Bergen in 1859; the second Scan- 
dinavian church diet recommended the forma- 
tion of one great Scandinavian missionary 
society; and in Denmark, the union of all 
the local societies into a Danish missionary so- 
ciety was effected in June, 1860.—There are 
now 52 Protestant evangelical missionary so- 
cieties engaged in giving the gospel to the un- 
evangelized nations, with an aggregate year- 
ly expenditure of over $5,500,000. Our own 
country has 574 Protestant missionaries in va- 
rious fields, supported in their work at an ex- 
pense of $1,704,000.—The Missionary Field. 
Having thus considered the different missionary 
organizations of the Protestant world, it re- 
mains to glance at the various mission fields 
and see what has been accomplished. We be- 
gin with Japan, with its 33,000,000 people, one 
of the fields most recently opened to Protestant 
missionary efforts. But little direct missionary 
labor has yet been accomplished there, and the 
government has not yet granted entire free- 
dom for the proclamation of the gospel. Still, 
80 Protestant missionaries, of 11 different so- 
cieties, are at work, in a limited way, in a few 
of the coast cities. They have done something 
in education, and have gathered a few con- 
verts into four churches already formed, one 
at Kobe, one at Ozaka, one at Yokohama, and 
one at Tokio, the capital. It is confidently 
anticipated that the government will soon 
remove all restrictions against the preaching 
of the gospel. Meantime, the readiness of the 
government and people to adopt the western 
civilization is one of the wonders of the age. 
Robert Morrison may be regarded as the found- 
er of Protestant missions in China. He be- 
gan his labors at Canton in 1807, and in seven 
years gave to the Chinese a translation of the 
New Testament, together with a dictionary 
and grammar of their own language; and in 
eleven years he had published the entire Bible 


646 FOREIGN 


in their own tongue, having meantime been 
joined in his labors by Mr. Milne, another 
English missionary. But the operations of 
Protestant missionaries were greatly circum- 
scribed for many years by the exclusiveness 
of the Chinese. It was not till 1861 that the 
empire was really open to their labors. From 
1842 to that time the residence of foreigners, 
for trade or other purposes, was restricted to 
five cities upon the coast; but now mission- 
aries of 22 different societies, about 150 in all, 
are residing in various parts of the empire, 
with missions virtually established in 40 walled 
cities and 360 villages, with 100,000 adherents 
and 10,000 church members. A remarkable 
religious movement has been developed in 
Chimi, a district of northern China. Thou- 
sands of people were found there called the 
‘“nameless sect,” repudiating idolatry, recog- 
nizing the existence of a Supreme Being, be- 
lieving in a final judgment, and looking for a 
‘““deliverer.” Missionaries have visited them 
and given them more perfect instruction, bap- 
tized many, and organized a church among 
them, and many of them now recognize Jesus 
Christ as the “deliverer ” for whom they were 
looking. In the province of Chikiang are 
1,500 native Christians, with at least 100 na- 
tive ministers, catechists, and teachers. There 
are 12 Protestant chapels and 20 missiona- 
ries in Peking. The Bible and other religious 
books have been given to the Chinese in sev- 
eral of the different dialects of their language, 
together with a dictionary of the Canton dialect 
by Dr. Morrison, as already mentioned, of the 
Fokien dialect by Dr. Medhurst, and of the 
Mandarin by S. Wells Williams. Eight presses 
are in constant operation at Shanghai alone, 
where 18,000,000 pages a year are printed. 
As many as 150 works on science, medicine, 
history, geography, law, and miscellaneous 
subjects, have been published in China by 
Protestant missionaries. These works are in 
a style acceptable to the learned classes, and 
many of them have been reprinted by the Chi- 
nese themselves, and thus added to the per- 
manent literature of the country. Conspicu- 
ous among such works is Wheaton’s ‘“ Interna- 
tional Law,” translated by an American mis- 
sionary and published at the expense of the 
government. <A healthful influence has thus 
been exerted upon the educational interests 
of the country, and a demand for the west- 
ern sciences has been created. An American 
missionary is president of the imperial uni- 
versity of Peking, and Chinese youth are being 
sent in considerable numbers to America and 
Europe for education. Another striking illus- 
tration of the influence of missions in China is 
the fact that the Chinese in some places are 
resorting to preaching to meet and oppose the 
progress of Christian truth, defending idolatry 
by public sermons in halls and temples. Men 
are selected for this service by competitive ex- 
amination. The people are also resorting to 
works of benevolence, founding hospitals and 


MISSIONS 


dispensaries, distributing medicines and coffins 
gratuitously to the poor, and establishing free 
schools and lyceums. Coming westward, we 
find Moravian missionaries laboring on the bor- 
ders of Thibet. American Presbyterians have 
3 churches and 60 members in Siam. Amer- 
ican Baptists are at work successfully in As- 
sam, especially among the Garrows, a hill tribe, 
where many are accepting Christianity. Euro- 
pean missionaries are in the islands of Sumatra, 
Borneo, Celebes, and the Moluccas, with en- 
couraging prospects, but no great results yet 
reached.—Work was begun in Burmah by the 
Baptists of America in 1813, under the lead 
of the celebrated Adoniram Judson. Their 


greatest success has been among the Karens, 


a native tribe more accessible than the ruling 
classes. There are 75 Protestant missionaries 
laboring in that land, with 421 native preach- 
ers, 3872 churches, 20,000 members, more 
than 60,000 adherents, and 6,000 children in 
schools. The king is friendly to the mission- 
aries, and disposed to encourage his people to 
receive at least the western civilization. He 
has ordered the translation of an English cyclo- 
pedia into the Burmese tongue, that his people 
may have access to the treasures of knowledge, 
and has built a school house for 1,000 scholars, 
to educate the best of the young men for teach- 
ers of the people.—India is as large as all the 
United States of America east of the Missis- 
sippi, and inhabited by nearly 240,000,000 peo- 
ple, speaking a large number of languages and 
dialects. The first Protestant missionaries to 
India were from Denmark, sent to Tranquebar 
by the king in 1706. They were few, however, 
and accomplished but little. The real work 
for that land was begun by Carey in 1793. 
Since that time 383 societies have established 
missions in India. The American board has 
labored among the Mahrattas in Bombay, Ah- 
mednuggur, Seroor, Sattara, and that region, 
and among the Tamil people of the Madras 
and Madura districts and Ceylon. The church 
missionary and London societies have labored 
with great success among the Shanars, or devil 
worshippers, and other tribes in southern India, 
where they now number among the Shanars 
alone 90,000 adherents and 12,000 communi- 
cants. Of this region the official ‘ Blue Book” 
says: ‘The districts are dotted over with 
flourishing villages and Christian churches. 
There are hundreds of native teachers em- 
ployed among them, of whom 56 are ordained 
and supported to a great extent by their con- 
gregations. Order and peace rule these simple 
communities, which give the government little 
trouble; while large tracts of country have 
been brought under cultivation, and the peas- 
antry enjoy a larger share of material comfort 
than in days gone by.” A great revival has 
recently occurred among the Syrian Christians 
of Malabar and Travancore, an ancient Christian 
sect which had lost almost all of Christian- 
ity except the name. The church missionary 
and London societies have long been laboring 


FOREIGN MISSIONS 


647 


among them, but this revival has been promoted | the propagation of the gospel 594. Little or 


mainly by the preaching of native evangelists, 
and, though marked with some extravagances, 
thousands are thought to be truly converted. 
American Baptist missionaries are meeting 
with like encouragement among the Telugus in 
the east. In 10 years the converts have in- 
creased from 23 to 6,418. The church at On- 
gole had two members in 1866, and 2,357 
in 1878. Like success has been realized by 
European missionaries among the Kols and 
Santals, aboriginal tribes W. and N. W. of 
Calcutta, 10,000 adherents having been gained 
among the former since 1845, and 220 added 
to the churches among the latter in 1872. 
American Presbyterians are occupying Myn- 
pooree, Futtehghur, Saharunpoor, and Allah- 
abad, principal cities to the northwest, along 
the valley of the Ganges. American Methodists 
are in Bareilly, Lucknow, and Moradabad, of 
the same region; and European missionaries 
are in almost every part of the land. Naryan 
Sheshadri, the Brahman whose visit to England 
and America excited great interest in 1878, is 
establishing and superintending a chain of mis- 
sionary operations through several cities and 
villages 800 miles N. E. of Bombay. Other 
Brahmans are preaching the gospel, and learned 
pundits are attacking the popular idolatry. 
Nearly 500 Protestant missionaries are now 
laboring in India (Ceylon included), with 400 
principal stations and 2,000 out stations, aided 
by 240 native preachers, with 60,000 members 
of Christian churches, and 140,000 pupils in 
Christian schools. The whole Bible, or parts 
of it, and other books have been translated 
into 80 of the different languages of the coun- 
try. And the above numbers by no means 
represent the entire change wrought there by 
missions. The increase in conversions in the 
last ten years is 50 per cent. greater than it 
was in the previous ten, and many of the 
churches are self-supporting, the native con- 
verts paying already $100,000 a year for the 
maintenance of their own Christian institu- 
tions, while other thousands have renounced 
idolatry and caste, who have not yet accepted 
Christianity. One marked indication of this 
is in the rise of the society called the Brahmo 
Somaj, of which Chunder Sen, an educated 
Hindoo, is the acknowledged leader. Its mem- 
bers discard the entire Hindoo mythology, be- 
lieve in one God, Creator of heaven and earth, 
and accept the morality of the Bible, but not 
the doctrines of the Trinity, atonement, &c. 
They are regarded as deists; and yet Chunder 
Sen is reported as, saying: ‘‘The spirit of 
Christianity has pervaded the whole of Indian 
society, and we breathe, think, feel, and move 
in a Christian atmosphere. Native society is 
being roused, enlightened, and reformed under 
the influence of Christian education.” —English 
missionaries are at work among the aborigines 
of Australia and in the island of Mauritius. 
In the latter the church missionary society 
has 1,118 communicants, and the society for 


i 


nothing has been attempted by Protestant mis- 
sionaries among the people of Afghanistan, 
Beloochistan, or Arabia. Protestant mission- 
aries from America entered Persia in 1834. 
Their work has been confined almost exclu- 
sively to the Nestorians, an ancient Christian 
sect, chiefly in the N. W. part of the empire; 
the city of Oroomiah, with its 25,000 inhabi- 
tants, being the chief seat of their operations. 
Among the Nestorians of Persia, who number 
about 150,000, 7 missionaries of the American 
Presbyterian church are laboring, with 54 native 
pastors and preachers, 17 churches, 767 com- 
municants, 70 schools, and 1,124 scholars. The 
cities of Tabriz and Teheran have more recent- 
ly been occupied, and more direct efforts are 
to be made to reach the Mohammedans, some 
of whom have already embraced the Christian 
faith. The Nestorians had the Scriptures, but 
in an unknown tongue. The missionaries have 
translated the Bible into the modern Syriac, 
the language of the people. Constantinople has 
been the principal centre of operations for the 
40,000,000 of the Turkish empire, especially 
for the work of the press. Able men have 
devoted much time to the translation of the 
Scriptures and other books into the languages 
of the empire. Religious papers are also pub- 
lished in that city and widely scattered through 
the empire. Nothing could be done at first 
among the Mohammedans, it being death to any 
Mussulman to change his religion; but that law 
has been abrogated, and religious liberty secured 
to all classes, by imperial firman, although perse- 
cution has not altogether ceased. But the labors 
of the missionaries have been devoted chiefly 
to the Armenians, Greeks, and other Christian 
sects, with a view to reaching the Mohammedans 
intheend. For this purpose 50 missionaries of 
the American board are now occupying most 
of the principal cities of the empire, not only 
preaching the gospel, but establishing schools, 
training up teachers and preachers, translating 
and printing books for schools and for gen- 
eral reading, gathering converts into native 
churches, and ordaining native pastors over 
them. The Protestant churches now number 
over 4,000 members, and the Protestant adhe- 
rents over 23,000, making one of the recognized 
sects or communities of the empire, with its 
civil head residing at the capital and guarding 
‘its interests. A great demand for education has 
been created by these missionary operations. 
Previously female education was a thing al- 
most entirely unknown; now female semina- 
ries and primary schools for girls are found 
in many parts of the empire, and thousands 
of women can read and are teaching others. 
Schools and academies for boys are multiplied, 
and colleges have become a necessity. One has 
been for years in successful operation at Con- 
stantinople, endowed chiefly by the liberality 
of Christopher R. Robert, a merchant of New 
York, whose name it bears. It has 250 students 
of 138 different nationalities. Another is just 


648 FOREIGN 


starting at Aintab, a city of about 35,000 inhab- 
itants, in northern Syria. The native converts 
themselves have asked for it, and have contrib- 
uted liberally toward founding it. The native 
Turkish schools have felt the impulse of im- 
provement, and are far better than they were 
before mission schools were established among 
them. Training schools or theological semina- 
ries are also in operation at four of the princi- 
pal cities of the interior (Marsivan, Kharput, 
Marash, and Mardin), to educate native minis- 
ters. A similar work has been done mainly 
by American missionaries in Syria, the Bible 
having been translated into pure Arabic, and 
60 Protestant schools established with 3,000 
scholars, besides a college proper, a medical 
college, and a theological seminary. In self- 
defence the Greeks, Roman Catholics, and Ar- 
menians of the land have started as many 
more schools, to keep their children from 
Protestant influences. There are about 20 
missionaries in Syria, 500 church members, 
and printing presses issuing 11,000,000 pages 
of religious books yearly.—In 1830 the Amer- 
ican board and American Episcopalians en- 
tered Greece, and American Baptists followed 
in 1836. The Episcopalians have done little 
besides maintaining a school at Athens.. Dr. 
King of the American board contended ear- 
nestly for liberty to preach the gospel and 
make converts. Although as strongly op- 
posed by the leading powers in church and 
state, he finally succeeded; religious liberty 
has been secured, a few churches have been 
formed, and some native Greeks are preach- 
ing the Protestant faith.—In Africa, with its 
200,000,000 people, we find 10 missionaries 
of the United Presbyterian church of Ameri- 
ca, male and female, laboring in Egypt, chiefly 
among the 150,000 Copts, an ancient Christian 
sect, who have been sunk for ages in a dark- 
ness and superstition equal almost to any 
heathenism. Their most prosperous station 
is at Sioot. They have 9 stations in all, 508 
church members, 14 schools, 600 scholars, and 
22 theological students. Miss Whately, an 
English lady, has also a large school in Cairo, 
and the Kaiserswerth deaconesses are laboring 
in Alexandria. English missionaries labored 
in Abyssinia from 1829 to 1888, but were then 
expelled by the king at the instance of the 
Jesuits. Another mission was started in 1854, 
but was soon crushed out by similar influ- 
ences. The “Pilgrim Society of St. Krisha- 
na” now has one missionary at Adowa, capi- 
tal of Tigré, and another at Ankobar, in the 
kingdom of Shoa; and eight African youths, 
educated at St. Krishana, have returned un- 
der the guidance of a missionary of the Lon- 
don Jewish society to labor among the Jews. 
Swedish missionaries are laboring at Massowah 
and Ailat, on the borders, where they have 
met with some success in their schools. A 
beginning has been made by English missiona- 
ries at Zanzibar, east Africa, in two small 
stations, but as yet with insignificant results. 


MISSIONS 


The west coast presents a different aspect. 
Between Sierra Leone and the Gaboon, a dis- 
tance of nearly 2,000 miles, 12 or more Prot- 
estant societies have missions, with about 20,- 
000 children in Christian schools and as many 
members gathered into Christian churches. 
The slave trade has disappeared from this re- 
gion, where it formerly had 20,000 victims a 
year. Mohammedanism is said to be making 
some advances in the interior of Africa, while 
Protestant Christianity is disputing its sway 
upon the coast. About 20 societies are oper- 
ating in southern Africa, among the Bushmen, 
the Hottentots, the Bechuanas, the Zooloo Caf- 
fres, and other tribes. Large colonies of Eu- 


ropean settlers have occupied portions of the 


country, so that the whole territory, for 1,000 
miles north of the Cape of Good Hope, is pos- 
sessed by these colonists, or dotted over with 
mission stations among the native tribes. 
Here also, as in west Africa, the people were 
without written Janguages, or schools, or books 
of any sort. The languages have been reduced 
to writing, books prepared, schools established, 
and churches organized, whose members are 
now reckoned at 380,000, some with native 
pastors over them. About 100,000 people in 
southern Africa are thus recovered from hea- 
thenism, and have settled down to habits of 
civilized life. The Lovedale educational insti- 
tution of the Free church of Scotland, with a 
school of 150 boys and 30 girls, is doing much 
to prepare suitable teachers for the people.— 


In Madagascar, inhabited by about 5,000,000 


people, missionary operations were commenced 
in 1818, by the London missionary society, 
but soon suspended by the death of three out 
of the four who composed the first missionary 
party. Other missionaries landed in 1820, and 
met with great success in their labors for sev- 
eral years. The king favored their operations; 
the language was reduced to writing; the Scrip- 
tures and other books were translated into 
the native tongue; schools were established 
and many converts were made. But after the 
death of the king, in 1828, the queen, who 
succeeded him on the throne, began to mani- 
fest hostility to the new religion, soon became 
a fierce and relentless persecutor, drove the 
missionaries from the island, and slaughtered 
thousands of her best subjects, as many as 
2,000 sometimes being killed in a single year. 
Yet secretly the truth was spreading all the 
time, and when at length the queen died (July 
16, 1861) and her own son came to the throne, 
he at once proclaimed entire freedom in reli- 
gious matters, and the missionaries were in- 
vited to return and resume their labors. Not 
long after, however, the king proved treacher- 
ous and was put to death by his own nobles, 
and his widow was crowned queen under a 
written constitution, guaranteeing the fullest 
religious liberty. Although she was herself 
an idolater to the last, she was true to her 
coronation oath. She died April 1, 1868, and 
her sister, who succeeded to the throne, has 


FOREIGN 


been friendly to the new religion from the 
first, and is a member of one of the native 
churches. Ever since the death of the first 
queen, the missionaries have enjoyed the lar- 
gest liberty in the prosecution of their work. 
Nearly half a- million of people have already 
renounced their idolatry; the state idols have 
been burned; large congregations are gathered 
every Sunday for Christian worship; thou- 
sands have learned to read, and 60,000 are 
numbered as communicants in the churches; a 
change more rapid and remarkable than in any 
other mission field.—Turning westward again, 
it is something noticeable that Protestant mis- 
sionaries are now laboring in Italy, Spain, and 
Austria; countries from which until quite re- 
cently they were excluded. The Protestant 
church members in Italy are now 4,000. Such 
are some of the changes in the old world.—In 
America, the labors of the missionaries among 
the Indians have not been altogether in vain. 
The Creeks, Cherokees, and Choctaws had 
virtually received the Christian religion 20 
years ago, but the civil war deprived them for 
a time of their religious teachers and retarded 
their progress. They, however, have schools, 
churches, and native pastors, supported by 
themselves. Missionaries are also at work 
among the Chippewas, the Sioux, the Paw- 
nees, the Delawares, the Oneidas, the Nez 
Percés, and other tribes within the territory 
of the United States. English missionaries 
are in like service in Manitoba, around Hud- 
son bay, in British Columbia, and on Macken- 
zie river. Sixteen different societies have mis- 
sions among the Indians of North America; 
and it is estimated that 10,000 of them are now 
members of Christian churches, and 75,000 
including women and children, have settled 
down to habits of civilized life. The present 
attitude of the government is regarded as 
highly favorable to greater success in Chris- 
tianizing the Indians. The Moravians have 
24 missionary agents, 45 native assistants, and 
948 communicants among the Greenlanders; and 
45 missionary agents, 36 native assistants, and 
434 communicants in Labrador.—Through all 
this modern missionary era many of the blacks 
of the West India islands have been regard- 
ed as but little better than pagans, and Eng- 
lish and American missionaries have labored 
among them with great self-denial. It is esti- 
mated that 80,000 are now members of Prot- 
estant churches. Protestant missionaries, 12 
in number, are laboring in Mexico, occupying 
six of its principal cities, with 12 congrega- 
tions in and around the capital. Great num- 
bers of Bibles are sold; the people are asking 
for schools and learning to read, a new thing 
with them. <A like work has been begun in 
Colombia, Chili, and Brazil, from which coun- 
tries Protestant “missionaries were excluded 
until within afew years. The Moravians have 
long had a prosperous mission in Surinam, and 
now have 18 stations, 65 missionary agents, 
406 native assistants, and 5,507 communicants. 


MISSIONS 649 


—In the islands of the Pacific all was pagan, 
and a large part cannibal, 60 years ago. The 
people were without written languages, with- 
out books, without schools, and sunk in the 
lowest degradation. English and American 
missionaries have vied with each other in the 
work of elevating them. Twenty languages 
have been reduced to writing. Elementary 
books and translations of the Scriptures have 
been prepared in them, schools opened, teach- 
ers trained for them, and hundreds of thou- 
sands of the people have been taught to 
read. Churches have been organized and na- 
tive pastors placed over them. Men are now 
preaching the gospel on these islands who 
had participated in a hundred cannibal feasts. 
The first missionaries to the Hawaiian islands 
landed there in 1820, and since that time the 
number of converts received into their churches 
is about 70,000; the present number is 12,360, 
gathered in 57 churches, most of them having 
native pastors. These churches, with some 
aid in men and means from the American 
board, themselves now sustain a foreign mis- 
sion in the Micronesian islands, 3,000 miles S. 
W. of their own country, and another on the 
Marquesas islands, nearly as far 8. The Ha- 
waiian islands have been for some years re- 
garded as Christianized, and no longer mis- 
sionary ground. Like changes have occurred 
further south, under the labors of English 
missionaries, of the London, Wesleyan, and 
Church missionary societies. They have la- 
bored in New Zealand, and in the Society, 
Friendly, Feejee, and other islands, with such 
success that idolatry and cannibalism have dis- 
appeared from almost the whole of eastern 
Polynesia. More than 800 islands have almost 
entirely relinquished their heathenism, and 
more than 400,000 of these recent savages are 
virtually Christianized. The number of com- 
municants gathered into their churches was 
long since reckoned at 50,000, and now can 
hardly be less than 60,000.—According to the 
estimates given, the number of converts now 
living and gathered into Christian churches by 
the labors of Protestant missionaries through- 
out the world is as follows: m China, 10,000 ; 
Burmah, 20,000 ; India, 60,000; Turkey, 4,000; 
west Africa, 20,000; south Africa, 30,000; 
Madagascar, 60,000; the Indians of North 
America, 10,000; the blacks of the West Indies 
and Guiana, 80,000; and the Pacific islanders, 
60,000; making a total of 354,000 communi- 
cants, representing communities of nominal 
Christians to the number of nearly 2,000,000, 
without including the scattered few in Japan, 
Siam, Persia, Syria, Egypt, Greenland, Mexico, 
Peru, and Brazil. There are now about 2,000 
Protestant missionaries engaged in the work, 
aided by 10,000 native pastors and preachers 
whom they have trained; and missionaries 
have translated the Bible and many other books 
into nearly 200 languages and dialects. Prob- 
ably 100 of the missionaries are medical men, 
who combine the healing art with their reli- 


650 MISSISQUOI 


gious instruction, and thus get access to thou- 
sands -who could not otherwise be reached. 
From 12 to 20 medical dispensaries are in ope- 
ration in India alone for the gratuitous treat- 
ment of diseases, in which generally religious 
services are also held. Dr. Parker treated 55,000 
Chinese during his residence in Canton, reliev- 
ing all sorts of maladies, exciting the liveliest 
gratitude in the minds of most of his patients, 
and preparing the way for Christian instruc- 
tion. More recently female physicians have 
been sent to some mission fields, with special 
reference to reaching the women in the seclu- 
sion of their homes. In Japan Dr. Berry of 
the American board has induced the people to 
establish seven hospitals, of which he is to have 
the oversight.—The literature of Protestant 
missions is very copious, Almost every mis- 
sionary society publishes a periodical, which, 
together with the annual reports of the socie- 
ties, is the most trustworthy source of infor- 
mation for the missionary history of a par- 
ticular denomination. The number of works 
published by missionaries on special countries 
is likewise very large. Among the works ex- 
tending over the whole ground are: W. Brown, 
‘History of the Propagation of Christianity 
among the Heathen since the Reformation” 
(2 vols., London, 1814); Huie, “ History of 
Christian Missions from the Reformation to 
the Present Time” (Edinburgh, 1849); Wig- 
gers, Geschichte der evangelischen Missionen 
(2 vols., 1845-6); Handbdiichlein der Mis- 
sionsgeschichte und Missionsgeographie (Calw, 
1844); Newcomb, ‘‘ Cyclopeedia of Missions ” 
(New York, 1860); Aikman, ‘ Cyclopsedia of 
Christian Missions” (London, 1860); Ander- 
son, ‘‘ Foreign Missions, their Relations and 
Claims” (New York, 1869; Boston, 1870); 
Grundemann, Missions-Atlas (Gotha, 1867- 
71); and ‘“‘ Missionary World” (London, 1878). 

MISSISQUOI, a S. W. county of Quebec, 
Canada, bordering on Vermont, and bounded 
S. W. by the Richelieu river; area, 358 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1871, 16,922, of whom 7,114 were of 
French, 4,513 of English, 2,188 of Irish, 1,950 
of German, and 979 of Scotch origin or de- 
scent. It is indented by Missisquoi bay, an 
inlet of Lake Champlain, and is traversed by 
the N. division of the Vermont Central rail- 
road. Capital, Frelighsburg. 

MISSISSIPPI, one of the 8S. W. states of the 
American Union, and the seventh admitted 
under the federal constitution, situated between 
lat. 30° 13’ and 35° N., and lon. 88° 7’ and 91° 
41’ W.; extreme length N. and §S., 332 m.; 
average breadth 142 m., varying from 78 m. 
below lat. 81° N. to 189 m. on that parallel, 
and 118 m. on the N. line; area, 47,156 sq. m. 
It is bounded N. by Tennessee; E. by Ala- 
bama; 8S. between the Alabama line and Pear] 
river by the gulf of Mexico, and from the Pearl 
to the Mississippi on the parallel of 31° by 
Louisiana; and W. by Louisiana and Arkansas, 
having below lat. 31° the Pearl river, and above 


MISSISSIPPI 


lines. The state is divided into 73 counties, viz. : 
Adams, Alcorn, Amite, Attala, Benton, Bolivar, 
Calhoun, Carroll, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Clai- 
borne, Clark, Coahoma, Colfax, Copiah, Cov- 
ington, De Soto, Franklin, Greene, Grenada, 
Hancock, Harrison, Hinds, Holmes, Issaquena, 
Itawamba, Jackson, Jasper, Jefferson, Jones, 
Kemper, Lafayette, Lauderdale, Lawrence, 
Leake, Lee, Leflore, Lincoln, Lowndes, Madison, 
Marion, Marshall, Monroe, Montgomery, Ne- 
shoba, Newton, Noxubee, Oktibbeha, Panola, 
Pearl, Perry, Pike, Pontotoc, Prentiss, Rankin, 
Scott, Simpson, Smith, Sumner, Sunflower, Tal- 
lahatchie, Tate, Tippah, Tishomingo, Tunica, 
Union, Warren, Washington, Wayne, Wilkin- 
son, Winston, Yalobusha, and Yazoo. There 
are eight. cities, viz.: Vicksburg, pop. in 1870, 
12,443; Natchez, 9,057; Columbus, 4,812; Jack- 
son, the capital, 4,234; Meridian, 2,709; Holly 
Springs, 2,406; Canton, 1,963; and Grenada, 
1,887. The chief towns are Aberdeen, Brook- 
haven, Corinth, Okolona, Oxford, Pass Chris- 
tian, Water Valley, and West Point, each having 
more than 1,000 inhabitants; and Biloxi, Bran- 
don, Crystal Springs, Greenville, Hazlehurst, 
Hernando, Kosciusko, Leaf River, Lexington, 
Liberty, Macon, Ocean Springs, Rodney, and Tu- 
pelo, with more than 500 inhabitants each.— 
The population of Mississippi, according to the 
United States census, has been as follows: 


Colored persons. Total 


White 
popula- 


Increase 


persons. Free. Slave. Hon. per cent. 
18007. ala 5,179 182 | 3,489 8.850 °F Vet es 
1S10/t been +3 28,024 240 | 17,088 | 40,852 | 855°95 
1 42,176 458 | 32,814 | 75,448 | 86°97 
EGOUs ceuemn er 0,443 519 | 65,659 | 186,621 | 81°08 
$840 ees oe 179,074 | 1,866 | 195,211 | 375,651 | 174°96 
pol MER oe 295,718 980 | 309,878 | 606,526 |; 61°46 
TSG Toon swe ote 853,899 1713 6,631 | 791,305 | 80°46 
ASTON SITs 382,896 | 444,201 |....... 827,922 4°63 


Included in the last total are 16 Chinese and 
809 Indians. Mississippi ranked 18th among 


State Seal of Mississippi. 


the states in total population in 1870; 25th in 


that parallel the Mississippi, as the dividing | white population, a gain since 1860 of 8:19 per 


91 
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MISSISSIPPI 


cent.; and 4th in colored population, a gain of 
1°55 per cent. Of the total population at the 
last census, 816,731 were native and 11,191 
foreign born; 413,421 males and 414,501 fe- 
males. Of the colored, 398,798 were blacks 
and 45,403 mulattoes. Of the natives, 564,142 
were born in the state, 59,520 in Alabama, 35,- 
956 in South Carolina, 33,551 in Virginia and 
West Virginia, 31,804 in Tennessee, 28,260 in 
Georgia, 27,941 in North Carolina, 9,417 in 
Louisiana, 8,927 in Kentucky, 3,250 in Mary- 
land, 2,410 in Missouri, 2,176 in Arkansas, 
1,458 in New York, 1,171 in Ohio, and 1,145 
in Texas. Of the foreigners, 3,359 were na- 
tives of Ireland, 2,960 of Germany, 1,088 of 
England, 970 of Sweden, and 630 of France. 
There were 138,542 persons born in the state 
living in other states and territories. The num- 
ber of male citizens of the United States 21 
years old and upward in the state was 169,787. 
There were 166,828 families, with an average 
of 4:96 persons to each, and 164,150 dwellings, 
with an average of 5:04 persons to each. There 
were 291,718 persons 10 years old and over 
who could not read, and 313,310 who could not 
write, of whom 151,265 were males and 162,- 
045 females, 48,028 whites, 264,902 colored, 
and 880 Indians and Chinese; 61,470 were 
between 10 and 15 years of age, 60,359 between 
15 and 21, and 191,481 21 years old and up- 
ward (9,357 white males and 80,810 colored 
males). The number of blind persons in the 
state was 474; deaf and dumb, 245; insane, 
245; idiotic, 485. The number of paupers sup- 
ported during the year ending June 1, 1870, 
was 921, at a cost of $96,707; receiving sup- 
port at that date, 809; number of persons con- 
victed of crimes during the year, 471; in prison 
at the close, 449. Of the whole number of per- 
sons 10 years old and over returned as engaged 
in occupations (318,850), 259,199 were em- 
ployed in agriculture, 40,522 in professional and 
personal services, 9,148 in trade and transpor- 
tation, and 9,981 in manufactures and mining. 
Among special occupations represented there 
were 181,523 agricultural laborers, 77,102 farm- 
ers and planters, 749 clergymen, 15,836 domestic 
servants, 15,969 laborers, 1,969 launderers and 
laundresses, 632 lawyers, 743 government offi- 
cials and employees, 1,511 physicians and sur- 
geons, 1,524 teachers, 3,834 traders and dealers, 
2,429 clerks, salesmen, and accountants, 1,415 
officials and employees of railroad companies, 
500 draymen, teamsters, &c., 1,233 blacksmiths, 
2,072 carpenters and joiners, 561 cotton and 
woollen mill operatives, and 573 milliners and 
dressmakers.—Except in the Mississippi bot- 
tom, the surface of the state is generally hilly 
or undulating, with a slope 8. W. and S. Few 
of the ridges rise as high as 400 ft. above the 
drainage of the surrounding country, the usual 
elevation being from 80 to 120 ft. above the 
minor watercourses, and probably none is 
800 ft. above the sea. The Mississippi bottom 
comprises an elliptical area, extending from 
Vicksburg N. to the Tennessee line; and em- 


651 


bracing on the east the valley of the Yazoo and 
Tallahatchie rivers. It is upward of 50 m. 
wide in the central portion, and is swampy and 
liable to inundation. East of this the country 
is generally hilly, with tracts of prairie in the 
E. portion, and a narrow belt, level but wooded, 
called the “flat woods,” extending from Tip- 
pah creek in Tippah co. to De Kalb in Kemper 
co. The central portion of the state E. of 
Vicksburg is hilly or undulating, interspersed 
with prairies. South of this is an undulating 
and sometimes hilly region, extending to the 
coast. The country along the Mississippi below 
Vicksburg for 10 or 15 m. inland is hilly, ele- 
vated from 50 to 150 ft. above the river; it is 
called the ‘‘cane hills” or “bluffs.” At the 
mouths of the streams along the gulf are exten- 
sive marshes.—Mississippi has a coast on the 
gulf of Mexico of 88 m., or including irregular- 
ities and islands of 287 m. The principal har- 
bors are those of Pascagoula, Biloxi, Mississippi 
City, and Shieldsborough (on bay St. Louis), 
but they do not admit large vessels. About 
10 m. from the shore is a chain of low sandy 
islands, the chief of which are Petit Bois, Horn, 
Ship, and Cat islands, separated from the main- 
land by Mississippi sound. The state, with the 
exception of the N. E. corner, which is sepa- 
rated from Alabama by the Tennessee river, is 
drained either directly or through the Missis- 
sippi river into the gulf of Mexico. The Mis- 
sissippi forms its W. boundary for more than 
500 m. by its windings; but for more than 
three fourths of this distance; from the N. 
limit of the state to Vicksburg, the configura- 
tion of its banks admits of no port, and below 
that city the only one of much importance is 
Natchez. The principal affluents of the Missis- 
sippi from this state, commencing at the south, 


are the Homochitto, Bayou Pierre, the Big 


Black, and the Yazoo rivers. North of the Ya- 
zoo the great swamp is traversed by numerous 
streams, often interlocking, among which may 
be mentioned the Sunflower, which leaves the 
Mississippi in the N. part of the state, and trav- 
ersing the swamp joins the Yazoo about 35 m. 
above its mouth, and the Cold Water, an affluent 
of the Tallahatchie, which is connected by an 
arm with the Mississippi just above the Sunflow- 
er. The Yazoo, which by its affluents drains 
the N. W. part of the state, is formed by the 
junction of the Tallahatchie and Yalobusha 
rivers, and joins the Mississippi a short distance 
above Vicksburg. The main stream is naviga- 
ble throughout, and its constituents for consid- 
erable distances. The Big Black rises in the 
N. central portion of the state, and is navigable 
by steamers for 50 m. above its mouth. The 
principal rivers that enter the gulf from this 
state are the Pearl and Pascagoula. The former 
rises in the central region and flows past Jack- 
son; the latter with its constituents, the Leaf 
and Chickasahay, drains the S. E. portion of 
the state, and just before entering the gulf 
receives the Escatawpa from Alabama; smal] 
boats can ascend for more than 100 m. from 


652 


its mouth. The Tombigbee river rises in the 
N. E. part of Mississippi, and flows into Ala- 
bama; it is navigable to Cottonginport, 10 m. 
above Aberdeen.—Four geological periods, the 
carboniferous, cretaceous, tertiary, and post- 
tertiary, are represented. The first occurs 
only in the N. E. corner, and consists chiefly 
of limestone, chert or hornstone, and silicious 
sandstone. W. and S. of this is the cretace- 
ous, occupying a triangular area, extending W. 
along the Tennessee line beyond the Hatchie 
river (about 35 m.) and 8S. along the Alabama 
border beyond Macon (about 125 m.). This 
formation, which contains many fossils, con- 
sists of four groups, the Eutaw, the Tombig- 
bee sand group, the rotten limestone, and the 
Ripley group. The tertiary occupies the rest 
of the state, except. the W. portion along the 
Mississippi river, and consists of seven groups, 
viz.: the northern lignitic, the silicious Clai- 
borne, the calcareous Claiborne, the Jackson, 
the Vicksburg, the Grand Gulf, and the coast 
pliocene. The post-tertiary has four princi- 
pal divisions: the orange sand, the bluff, the 
yellow loam, and the alluvial formations. The 
first consists of silicious sands, usually colored 
with hydrated peroxide of iron or orange-yel- 
low ochre, and overlies the carboniferous, cre- 
taceous, and tertiary formations, though want- 
ing in portions of the Jackson and rotten lime- 
stone groups and in the flatwoods. It also oc- 
curs to some extent in the bluff formation, 
which coincides with the district already de- 
scribed as the cane hills, and likewise stretches 
in a narrow belt along the E. margin of the 
Mississippi bottom. Deposits of yellow, brown, 
or reddish loam form the actual surface of the 
greater portion of the state. The alluvium 
occupies the Mississippi bottom, and is sepa- 
rated from the northern lignitic by the nar- 
row belt of the bluff formation.—Except in 
the Mississippi bottom, where malarial fevers 
frequently occur in summer, the state is gen- 
erally healthy. The summers are long and 
hot, the winters somewhat colder than in the 
same latitude on the Atlantic coast. The mean 
temperature of the year ending Sept. 80, 1872, 
at Vicksburg (lat. 32° 23’), was 66°4°; of the 
warmest month (August), 84°6°; of the cold- 
est month (January), 42°7°; total annual rain- 
fall, 57-77 inches. The mean temperature of 
the succeeding year at the same place was 
64:67; warmest months (July and August), 
82°; coldest month (January), 48°; total rain- 
fall, 48°04 inches. The number of deaths in 
1870 was 9,172, of which 2,883 were from 
general diseases, 1,043 from diseases of the 
nervous, 224 of the circulatory, 1,707 of the 
respiratory, and 1,274 of the digestive system. 
Among special diseases, measles proved fatal 
in 272 cases, enteric fever in 333, intermit- 
tent fever in 377, remittent fever in 256, 
whooping cough in 159, consumption in 695, 
dropsy in 192, encephalitis in 283, meningitis 
in 125, apoplexy in 66, convulsions in 180, 
croup in 281, pneumonia in 1,177, enteritis in 


MISSISSIPPI 


237, dysentery in 103, diarrhoea in 325, and 
cholera infantum in 143.—The soil of the Mis- 
sissippi bottom is very fertile. The region E. 
of this, characterized by the deposits of yel- 
low loam, is generally fertile, though in places 
easily exhausted. The N. E. portion, except 
the prairies, is less productive. The cane hills 
and the central belt of the state possess a 
generally productive soil. The S. region has 
a generally poor and sandy soil, particularly 
along the coast. The principal forest trees in 
the uplands of the N. portion of the state and 
in the bluff region are the short-leaved pine, 
various species of oak, the chestnut, hickory, 
poplar, black walnut, locust, beech, gum, holly, 
basswood, sassafras, elm, and magnolia. The 
prevalent growth of the sandy region in the 
south is the long-leaved pine. The islands are 
partially covered with sparse forests of pitch 
pine; this species also occurs on the mainland 
near the coast. In the swamps and bottoms 
are dense thickets of cane and cypress. The 
prairies where uncultivated are covered with 
grass during the greater part of the year, and 
the forests of long-leaved pine have commonly 
an undergrowth of long grass, which affords 
good pasturage. Cotton (in the production of 
which Mississippi surpassed all other states in 
1870) and Indian corn are the staple crops. 
Wheat and other grains are grown in the north, 
and rice and the sugar cane in the south. All 
the fruits of temperate climates grow here in 
perfection ; plums, peaches, and figs are abun- 
dant, and in the south the orange. The deer, 
couguar (commonly called panther), wolf, bear, 
and wild cat are still common. Alligators 
occur in the Mississippi as far N. as the mouth 
of the Arkansas, and in some of the smaller 
rivers; and most of the streams abound in fish. 
Paroquets are seen as far N. as Natchez, and 
wild turkeys and pigeons abound. Oysters 
and fish are abundant in Mississippi sound.— 
According to the census of 1870, the number 
of farms was 68,023, of which 11,003 con- 
tained less than 10 acres each, 8,981 from 10 
to 20, 26,048 from 20 to 50, 11,967 from 50 to 
100, 8,938 from 100 to 500, 853 from 500 to 
1,000, and 233 more than 1,000 acres. There 
were 4,209,146 acres of improved land in 
farms; cash value of farms, $81,716,576; of 
farming implements and machinery, $4,456,- 
633; wages paid during the year, including 
the value of board, $10,326,794; estimated 
value of all farm productions, including better- 
ments and additions to stock, $73,137,953 ; 
value of orchard products, $71,018; of pro- 
duce of market gardens, $61,735; of forest 
products, $39,975; of home manufactures, 
$505,298; of animals slaughtered or sold for 
slaughter, $4,090,818; of live stock, $29,940,- 
238. The productions were 66,638 bushels of 
spring wheat, 207,841 of winter wheat, 14,852 
of rye, 15,637,316 of Indian corn, 414,586 of 
oats, 3,973 of barley, 1,619 of buckwheat, 
176,417 of peas and beans, 214,189 of Irish 
potatoes, 1,743,482 of sweet potatoes, 6 of 


MISSISSIPPI 


clover seed, 82 of grass seed, 2 of flax seed, 
874,627 lbs. of rice, 61,012 of tobacco, 288,285 
of wool, 2,613,521 of butter, 3,099 of cheese, 
100 of flax, 31 of silk cocoons, 125 of maple 
sugar, 9,390 of wax, 199,581 of honey, 564,- 
938 bales of cotton, 3,055 gallons of wine, 
17,052 of milk sold, 152,164 of cane molas- 
ses, 67,509 of sorghum molasses, 8,324 tons 
of hay, 3 of hemp, and 49 hogsheads of cane 
sugar. The live stock consisted of 90,221 
horses, 85,886 mules and asses, 173,899 milch 
cows, 58,146 working oxen, 269,030 other cat- 


653 


tle, 232,732 sheep, and 814,881 swine. There 
were also 14,379 horses and 80,172 cattle not 
on farms.—Manufacturing is little developed. 
The number of establishments in 1870 was 
1,731, having 384 steam engines of 10,019 
horse power, and 225 water wheels of 2,453 
horse power; hands employed, 5,941, of whom 
5,500 were males above 16, 191 females above 
15, and 250 youth; capital invested, $4,501,- 
714; wages paid, $1,547,428; value of mate- 
rials used, $4,364,206; of products, $8,154,758. 
The principal industries are shown as follows: 


eof Value of 28: 0F Val f 
INDUSTRIES. establish-| Capital. INDUSTRIES. establish-| Capital. oe 
ase products, CT products. 
Agricultural implements... 11 $21,150 $51,800 || Leather, tanned............ 81 $30,085 | $129,407 
Blacksmithing.......... -++| 295 115,975 860,912 SOMCULTIOUM nents techs sre 25 19,575 133,316 
Boots and shoes........... 92 45,506 159,155 || Lumber, planed........... 9 20,200 68,850 
Carpentering and building..| 195 80,953 655,085 i BAW CCan veisiessie cho uie 265 1,153,917 | 2,160,667 
Carriages and wagons...... $5 188,495 268.0817 |i Machinery a. ateseses nas ess 14 190,825 228,180 
Cars, freight and passen- Oil, cotton-seed............ 4 135,000 165,700 
Ber Was te eae hee 122.500 143,401 || Printing and publishing, 
Gin thing ae ingen eects nctae 28 13,070 61,050 TOW SPAPCM snc cis aide irhayere.e os 11 74,700 121,350 
Cotton, Poods... 4.45 oes o 5 751.500 234,445 || Saddlery and harness...... 46 73,230 106,818 
Grist mill products........ 863 636,813 | 2,058,567 || Sash, doors, and blinds..... 5 81,700 157,050 
a hibast (qitye Qe r ewer ty ersewt ee : 24 18,820 88,796 || Tin, copper, and sheet-iron 
BE aegis pi a sstesaeuseaiae eke ¢ 4 109,050 55,250 WAG srs cin necie eas less ¢ 41 91,650 189,668 
Iron, blooms and pigs...... 2 65,000 21,000 || Wheelwrighting........... 89 18,745 50,797 
SRICASLIN ES Mek tease. 15 112,550 126,082 || Woollen goods............. 5 191,000 122,978 


—The foreign trade of Mississippi is indirect, and 
almost entirely through New Orleans and Mo- 
bile. Cotton and lumber are the chief exports. 
The coasting and river trade is large. The 
coasting trade is chiefly directed to Mobile and 
New Orleans, while the Mississippi river trade 
centres in the latter, and that of the Tombig- 
bee in Mobile. The railroads terminating at 
these two ports and at Memphis are also large 
carriers of merchandise. There are three cus- 
toms districts: Natchez, Pearl River (port of 
entry, Shieldsborough), and Vicksburg. The 
direct foreign and the coasting trade are cen- 
tred entirely in the district of Pearl River. 
The value of foreign commerce for the year 


ending June 30, 1874, was $233,406, almost 
entirely exports, including 13,293,000 feet of 
boards, 529,000 shingles, and 191,563 cubic feet 
of timber. The number of entrances in the 
foreign trade was 93, of 22,523 tons; clearances, 
94, of 20,249 tons; entrances in the coastwise 
trade, 68, of 12,048 tons; clearances, 96, of 21,- 
882 tons. The number of vessels belonging in 
the state was 117, of 6,190 tons, viz.: Natchez, 
4, of 160 tons; Pearl River, 94, of 3,369 tons; 
Vicksburg, 19, of 2,661 tons; sailing vessels, 88, 
of 3,139 tons; steamers, 29, of 3,051 tons.—In 
1844 there were 26 m. of railroad in the state; 
in 1854, 222; in 1864, 862; in 1874, 1,0334. 
The statistics for 1874 are as follows: 


Miles in ope-| Distance 
RAILROADS. TERMINI. ration in |between ter- 
the state. | mini, miles. 
Alabama and Chattanooga....<...000.0-5.c0c-s 06 Chattanooga, Tenn., to Meridian................. 18 295 
Memphis and Charleston..........-seeeeeseeeeees Memphis, Tenn., to Stevenson, Ala...........-.. 39 272 
Mississippi and Tennessee........--..+eecee ceee “ “to Grenada ........6+. seen eee 88 100 
Miaaissippl Contral®:...5.30<0.- < pans mes * ace ais Cantonrto Cairn. osc ees sek oes pate cata 183 850 
Mobile and Ohio.....o. 0. ccc cece nsec rer cvesccns Columbus, Ky., to Mobile, Ala.............-..008 266 472 
Muldon tozAberdeen te oe. S210) face lai Claw duces eieleie 94 9t 
BS PSNCHEB elo = ehteale eiereicca winless oauede aisletbtets cela asta Artesia tO COMMIT Sis asics sais aisle isivis let elereta ast sic 144 144 
MEME LORSLALE VAG rite nts cc acisiare ae teveaiste se 11 11 
New Orleans, Jackson, and Great Northern*...... New Orleans, La., to Canton........ Poet vie le 118 206 
JST bboy) 628 Be SNA IRD CRIED OO AOC O OC BtK Oc Durant via Kosciusko toward Aberdeen......... 39 Abie 
New Orleans, Mobile, and Texas..........-.----- New Orleans, La., to Mobile, Ala................. TT 180 
Ripley...... RU at ON ee re olale ets, syare eral Middleton, Tenn., on Memphis and Charleston 4 
ralirosd, toskipley.;.ehnaeuutes weir pt Risa. y'. 23 26 
Vicksburg and Meridian..........-sseeeseseesee Micksburoto Meridian acacia sec scle see se 0 140 140 
Vat E CUCINA. Petes Soci s 5. -s cece. sb bape ne ee Woodville to Bayou Sara, La..............-..06- t 27 


a penn pe ee Se 


The following lines are projected or in pro- 
gress: the Natchez, Jackson, and Columbus 
railroad, from Natchez to Columbus (180 m.); 
Vicksburg and Nashville, from Vicksburg to 


* Consolidated as the New Orleans, St. Louis, and Chicago 
railroad. 


Nashville, Tenn. (380 m.), with a branch from 
Grenada to the Mississippi river, opposite Eu- 
nice, Ark. (90 m.); Selma, Marion, and Memphis, 
from Selma, Ala., to Memphis, Tenn. (280 m.); 
Mississippi Valley and Ship Island, from Vicks- 
burg to Mississippi City (210 m.); and Vicksburg 


654 


and Brunswick, from Eufaula, Ala., to Me- 
ridian (225 m.).—There are no national banks 
in Mississippi. In 1874 there were six savings 
banks, with an aggregate capital of about 
$300,000, and five banks of deposit, incorpo- 
rated under state law, with an aggregate capi- 
tal of about $550,000. One of each class also 
does an insurance business. At the close of 
1873, 21 insurance companies of other states 
and countries were doing business in the state. 
—The government is administered under the 
constitution of 1869, which declares that all 
citizens of the United States resident in the 
state are citizens thereof; that no property or 
religious qualification for office, nor any prop- 
erty or educational qualification for voting, 


shall ever be required; that neither slavery nor 


involuntary servitude, except in punishment 
of crime, shall exist; that no law in deroga- 
tion of the paramount allegiance of citizens to 
the United States shall be passed, and that the 
right of secession shall never be assumed; that 
no public money shall be appropriated for any 
charitable or other public institution making 
any distinction among citizens of the state; 
and that any person engaging in or abetting 
a duel shall be disfranchised and disqualified 
from holding office. The executive power is 
vested in a governor, lieutenant governor, sec- 
retary of state, treasurer, auditor, attorney 
general, and superintendent of public educa- 
tion, elected by the people for a term of four 
years, and a commissioner of immigration and 
agriculture, chosen by joint ballot of the two 
houses of the legislature for the same term. 
The governor’s veto may be overcome by a two- 
thirds vote of both houses of the legislature. 
Senators are elected by senatorial districts for 
four years, one half retiring biennially; their 
number (at present 37) cannot be less than one 
fourth nor more than one third of that of the 
representatives. The representatives are elect- 
ed for two years; their number cannot be less 
than 100 nor greater than 120 (at present 115). 
The judicial power is vested in a supreme 
court, circuit courts, chancery courts, and jus- 
tices of the peace. The supreme court has 
appellate jurisdiction only, and consists of 
three judges (one from each of the three dis- 
tricts into which the state is divided), appoint- 
ed by the governor with the consent of the 
senate for nine years, one retiring every three 
years. A session is held twice a year at the 
capital. There is a circuit court for each of 
the 15 judicial districts, presided over by ‘a 
single judge appointed by the governor with 
the consent of the senate for six years. These 
courts have original jurisdiction in criminal 
matters and in civil cases at law when the 
amount in dispute exceeds $150, and are held 
at least twice a year in each county. The 
chancery courts have jurisdiction of equity and 
probate matters, and are held at least four times 
a year in each county. <A chancellor is appoint- 
ed by the governor with the consent of the 
senate for four years for each of the 20 chan- 


MISSISSIPPI 


cery districts. Justices of the peace are elected 
for two years, and have jurisdiction of civil 
cases at law when the amount in dispute does 
not exceed $150. The right of suffrage is con- 
ferred upon all male citizens of the United 
States (except convicts and persons of unsound 
mind) 21 years old and upward, who have re- 
sided in the state six months and in the county 
one month, and have been registered. Llec- 
tions are by ballot, and occur biennially (odd 
years) on the Tuesday next after the first Mon- 
day in November. The political year com- 
mences on the first Monday of January, and 
the legislature meets annually on the following 
Tuesday. No one who denies the existence of 
a Supreme Being, or who is not a qualified 
elector, can hold office. The militia consists 
of all able-bodied male citizens between the 
ages of 18 and 45. It is provided that the 
state shall not become a stockholder in any 
corporation or association, nor pledge or lend 
its credit in aid of any person, corporation, or 
association; that no bank of issue shall be 
created or renewed, and that the legislature 
shall by law prohibit individuals or corpora- 
tions from issuing bills as money. Amend- 
ments to the constitution must be proposed by 
a two-thirds vote of each house of the legisla- 
ture, published for at least three months pre- 
ceding the next general election, and ratified 
by the people. Treason, murder, and arson 
committed in the night upon a dwelling are 
punished with death. Other punishments are 
fines and imprisonment. The chief grounds 
of divorce are adultery, sentence to the peni- 
tentiary, impotence, desertion for two years, 
habitual drunkenness, cruel treatment, and 
pregnancy at the time of marriage by another 
unknown to the husband. A married woman 
may convey and devise property belonging to 
her at the time of marriage or afterward ac- 
quired as if single, and the same is not liable 
for the debts of her husband, and she may do 
business as a feme sole. The rate of interest 
is 6 per cent., but 10 per cent. may be stipu- 
lated for by special contract. Mississippi is 
entitled to two senators and six representa- 
tives in congress, and has therefore eight votes 
in the electoral college.—The valuation of prop- 
erty according to the United States censuses 
has been as follows: 


True value of 

real and per- 

Personal estate, sonal, 

sista dae erdeatctota evomeumitts hea le « 228,951,180 

$351,636,175 | $509,472,912 | 607,824,911 
59,000,430 | 177,278,890 | 209,197,345 


— 


ASSESSED VALUE. 


Real estate. 


1860... |$157,886,737 
1870...| 118,278,460 


The diminution in the value of personal prop- 
erty is chiefly due to the emancipation of the 
slaves. The total taxation not national in 1870 
was $3,736,482, of which $1,309,655 was state, 
$2,299,699 county, and $127,078 town, city, 
&c.; total debt, $2,594,415, of which $1,796,- 
230, including $1,138,494 due to the educa- 


MISSISSIPPI 


tional funds, was state, $656,583 county, and 
$141,600 town, city, &c. The state held bonds 
and stocks to the amount of $966,674 as secu- 
rity for loans to railroads, &. According to 
the treasurer’s report, the receipts into the 
treasury during the year ending Dec. 31, 1873, 
including $174,670 70 on hand Jan. 1, but ex- 
cluding uncurrent and worthless funds in the 
treasury to the amount of $795,636 48, were 
$1,332,825, of which $366,122 74 were from 
state taxes, $34,833 38 from the tax on privi- 
leges, $116,345 86 from the penitentiary, $240,- 
191 05 from the school funds, and $381,650 
from the bonds (loans). The disbursements 
amounted to $1,244,475 89, of which $98,- 
113 62 were for legislative expenses, $247,- 
803 70 judiciary, $31,951 57 executive, $157,- 
546 71 on account of the penitentiary, $66,- 
561 93 public printing, $32,350 university of 
Mississippi, $88,145 lunatic asylum, $10,316 15 
executive contingent fund, $72,849 46 interest 
on Chickasaw school fund, $3,153 76 geologi- 
cal survey, $6,887 50 institution for the blind, 
$17,100 deaf and dumb asylum, $38,500 Alcorn 
university, $3,450 state normal schools, $2,730 
90 capitol repairs, $19,237 97 repairs on luna- 
tic asylum, $89,504 79 on account of common 
school fund, $100,000 in payment of state 
bonds, $10,204 40 for interest on state bonds, 
and $17,409 77 for interest on deposits of in- 
surance companies; balance on hand Jan. 1, 
1874, in current funds, $88,349 11. The state 
debt on that date amounted to $3,558,629 24, 
viz.: due school funds, $1,157,415 69; cer- 
tificates of debt, $294,150; auditor’s warrants, 
$1,083,682 57; bonds, $634,650; interest on 
bonds, $73,436 ; interest on insurance deposits, 
$15,294 98. Of the bonds $100,000 were pay- 
able on Jan. 1, 1874, 1875, and 1876; $150,- 
000 on Jan. 1, 1875 and 1876; and $34,650 on 
Jan. 1, 1877. This statement of the debt does 
not include bonds to the amount of $7,000,000, 
of which the principal and interest have re- 
mained unpaid since 1842. The state insti- 
tutions are the penitentiary, blind institute, 
institute for the deaf and dumb, and lunatic 
asylum, situated at Jackson. The penitentiary 
contains 200 cells, and is inadequate for the 
accommodation of the prisoners. The convicts 
are partly employed within the walls in man- 
ufactures, and partly leased to persons who 
employ them on public works in different parts 
of the state. The number on Nov. 30, 1872, 
was 212; received during the year, 227; re- 
maining Noy. 30, 1873, 288, of whom 85 were 
whites and 258 colored, 280 males and 8 fe- 
males; 121 were confined within the walls, 
125 employed on railroads, and 42 on levees. 
The number of officers on July 23, 1874, was 
21; of convicts, 820. In the blind institute, 
besides a literary training, the male pupils 
receive instruction in broom making, mattress 
making, and chair seating, and the females in 
domestic work. The number under instruc- 
tion in 1878 was 25 ; remaining at the close of 
the year, 21; number of officers and teachers, 
3 VOL. xI1.—42 


655 


5. The number under instruction during the 
year in the institute for the deaf and dumb 
was 50, of whom 40 were mutes and 10 semi- 
mutes, 26 males and 24 females; average at- 
tendance, 39; remaining at its close, 86; num- 
ber of officers and instructors, 5. Pupils un- 
able to pay for tuition are educated free. The 
building requires enlargement. The lunatic 
asylum on Dec. 1, 1872, had 231 inmates; re- 
ceived during the ensuing 13 months, 137; re- 
maining Dec. 31, 1873, 304, of whom 150 were 
males and 154 females; number of officers, 4. 
The number received since the opening of the 
asylum was 1,008 (559 males and 449 females) ; 
discharged recovered, 258; discharged im- 
proved, 66; discharged stationary, 128 ; eloped, 
538; died, 204. The building was enlarged in 
1872, but is still overcrowded.—The constitu- 
tion requires the establishment of a system of 
free public schools for all youth between the 
ages of 5 and 21 years, and an act was passed 
in 1871 to carry this provision into effect. 
The schools are under the general charge of 
the state superintendent of public education ; 
that officer, the secretary of state, and the at- 
torney general form the state board of educa- 
tion. There is a superintendent for each coun- 
ty, appointed by the board of education with 
the consent of the senate for two years. Each 
county and each incorporated city of more 
than 8,000 inhabitants forms a school district, 
and has a board of six school directors, those 
for the cities being elected by the qualified 
voters, and those for the school districts out- 
side of cities by the patrons of the schools. 
One or more free public schools, open to all 
of school age, are to be kept in each county 
for at least four months in each year. Teach- 
ers’ institutes are to be held annually, under 
the general supervision of the state superin- 
tendent, for at least two weeks in each con- 
gressional district. According to the report 
of the state superintendent for the period from 
Jan. 1 to Aug. 31, 1873, returns had been re- 
ceived from 54 counties, reporting 252,962 
youth of school age, 1,940 public schools, and 
465 private schools; number of pupils enrolled 
in public schools, 78,066; teachers in same, 
2,130; pupils enrolled in private schools (86 
counties), 9,718. In 5 of the counties report- 
ing there were private but no public schools, 
and in 10 public schools were in operation, but 
no private ones. In 88 counties, having 53,- 
463 pupils enrolled in public schools, the aver- 
age attendance was 46,240. The superinten- 
dent estimates the number of public schools in 
operation in the entire state during the period 
at 2,000, of which 300 were of the first, 700 
of the second, and 1,000 of the third grade; 
number of private schools, 500; pupils en- 
rolled in public schools, 80,000; in private 
schools, 12,000; average attendance in public 
schools, 50,500; number of teachers in pub- 
lic schools, 1,800; length of school term, 4 
months; number of school houses, including 
buildings rented, 4,700; built during the year, 


656 


200; value of public school property, $1,000,- 
000; probable number of public schools to be in 
operation during the year 1873-4, 3,000. The 
common school fund amounted to $1,950,000; 
amount of revenue accruing to the fund from 
various sources provided by the constitution 
and laws, $615,963 49; amount reported as 
arising from capitation and special county 
taxes, $602,481 36; total, $2,565,963 49. The 
reported expenditures were as follows: teach- 
ers’ wages, $336,345 387; salaries of school 
officers, $79,381 11; school houses and con- 
tingencies, $65,935 32; total estimated cost 
of conducting the schools, including normal 
schools, $492,500. The average monthly wages 
of teachers was $50; number of teachers’ 
institutes held, 6; number of: lectures delivered 
by school officers on educational topics, 127; 
number of school districts, 79. There are two 
state normal schools, devoted to the training 
of teachers for the colored schools. One of 
these is connected with Tougaloo university ; 
the other was organized in 1870 at Holly 
Springs, and in 1873 had 3 instructors and 129 


MISSISSIPPI 


titled to nominate one pupil for this school, 
who is instructed gratuitously. In the Touga- 
loo school, which was established by the act 
of Jan. 2, 1872, each county is entitled to the 
free tuition of two students, to be appointed 
by the county superintendent of education. 
The beneficiaries in the normal schools are 
required to sign a declaration of intention to 
make teaching a profession and to teach in 
the public schools of the state for at least three 
years. In 1870, according to the United States 
census, the number of schools of all classes was 
1,564, with 1,054 male and 674 female teach- 
ers, 22,793 male and 20,658 female pupils, and 
an annual income of $780,839 ($11,500 from 
endowment, $167,414 from public funds, and 
$601,425 from other sources, including tuition). 
The schools were classified as follows: classi- 
cal, 19 (18 colleges and 1 academy); profes- 
sional, 1 (law); technical, 1 (for the blind); 
day and boarding, 1,542; parochial and char- 
ity, 1. There were at that time no public 
schools in the state.—The statistics of the prin- 
cipal collegiate institutions of Mississippi for 


pupils. Each member of the legislature is en- | 1873-4 are as follows: 

INSTITUTIONS. Mt Mek Location. Denomination. No. of 0-15 adenine eee 

ganization. structors. libraries. 

University of Mississippi..... 1848 Oxfords . Vie seeks ae oes None jest sisi. ele ce eens 18 208 5,000 
Mississippi college........... 1851 Clintomaeasere ek sea ee Baptiste ise «inc wrs decree 8 163 2,000 
*Pass Christian college....... 1866 Pass Christian......... Roman Catholic.......... 14 151 8,000 
Alcorn university............ 1871 Oaklandan. sien: s.r ONG sae cies Seg nore ae 9 17 5,000 
*Tougaloo university......... 1870 Towgaloowss tee fae Union ah. 3: ise cswatels us! 280 1,000 
Shaw university............. 1873 Holly Springs......... Methodist, 2 ..:ej0.stesuieslase 10 268" iste ers 
*Sharon female college....... 1884 SNAPOM as etc: aaa Methodists32..225 aa2e2 a2), 4 46. 9) Soe 
*Oolumbus female institute... . 1847 Columbuss. 2..%.4: 3-242! Latsins e's elon tee tee 7 100 250 
Chickasaw female college..... 1850 POntOtoc.caeu toe oe ek Presbyterlan............. 6 100 2,000 
Central female institute....... 1853 CUM COn i osiccc na ane ee ol cnees inna this iece taesterte meee teks 9 104 1,000 
Union female college......... 1854 Oxfordsiniecn.s th acm Cumberland Presbyterian. 9 IGT) il eeate 
Whitworth female college..... 1859 Brookhaven,.......... Methodistieedasctre tesa ‘lel 202 248)" Bane ate 
Meridian female college....... 1865 Meridian: ior-2 a ¢ cderacts Baptist 4 qe ves wiete a eecieites 5 66 50 
Franklin female college....... 1870 Holly Springs......... Episcopal.) .seecs sie soon 5 90 250 
*Starkville female institute... BABE Starkville .cs. 4 a.) deni) Gk ateires SuIeee seme bom. os 6 112 oy sis. 
The university of Mississippi, chartered in 1844, | state. The college of agriculture and the me- 


embraces three departments: preparatory edu- 
cation ; science, literature, and the arts; and 
professional education. The department of 
science, literature, and the arts includes six 
courses: four undergraduate (for bachelor of 
arts, four years; for bachelor of science, four 
years ; for bachelor of philosophy, three years; 
and for civil engineer, four years), and two 
post-graduate (for master of arts and for doc- 
tor of philosophy). Students in this depart- 
ment may also pursue selected studies. Can- 
didates for the post-graduate degrees must have 
previously obtained the degree of bachelor of 
arts, or are required to sustain an examination 
in the studies requisite for that degree. The 
department of professional education embraces 
the school of law, the school of medicine and 
surgery (not yet organized), and the college of 
agriculture and the mechanic arts. The diplo- 
. ma of the law school, which may be obtained 
upon passing a satisfactory examination at the 
expiration of a year’s attendance, entitles the 
recipient to practise law in any court of the 
* 18728. 


chanic arts was established by a legislative act 
of 1871, which bestowed upon it two fifths of the 
proceeds of the 210,000 acres of land granted 
by congress to the state for the endowment of 
such an institution. The fund amounted to 
$75,600. The college has a farm connected 
with it, and confers the degree of bachelor of 
scientific agriculture upon graduates of the 
four years’ course. In the department of sci- 
ence, literature, and the arts, and in the college 
of agriculture and the mechanic arts, tuition 
is free to students residing in Mississippi. Stu- 
dents preparing for the ministry and those 
pecuniarily unable to pay also have their tui- 
tion fees remitted. A state scholarship of $100 
a year for four years was provided by an act 
of 1871 for one student from each representa- 
tive district or county, to be selected by a 
board of examiners from pupils of the free 
schools. Alcorn university was incorporated 
by the act of May 13, 1871, which appropri- 
ated $50,000 a year for 10 years for its sup- 
port, and also bestowed upon it three fifths of 
the proceeds of the congressional land grant, 


MISSISSIPPI 


amounting to $113,400, the income to be de- 
voted to the maintenance of an agricultural 
and mechanical department. It occupies the 
site of the institution formerly known as Oak- 
land college. The farm consists of 295 acres. 
There are an academic department (English), 
a collegiate preparatory department of two 
years, a collegiate department of four years 
(with a classical and a scientific course), and spe- 
cial courses in agriculture and mechanical en- 
gineering of four years. Students are admitted 
without distinction of color. Tuition is free to 
students residing in Mississippi, and there are 
the same state scholarships as in the university 
of Mississippi. In Tougaloo university primary, 
intermédiate, and normal departments, and a 
theological class, have been organized. The 
classical department is not yet fully organized. 
Workshops and a farm of 500 acres are con- 
nected with the institution, which enable stu- 
dents to support themselves by labor wholly 
or in part. The number of students in the 
normal department in 1872-’3 was 85. Shaw 
university has preparatory, normal, collegiate, 
theological, and law departments. Tuition is 
free, except in the law department, the instruc- 
tors being paid by the freedmen’s aid society. 
The other institutions mentioned in the table, 
besides a collegiate course, have preparatory 
and in some cases primary departments.—The 
census of 1870 returns 2,788 libraries, contain- 
ing 488,482 volumes, of which 2,251, with 400,- 
106 volumes, were private. The others were 
classified as follows: state, 1, with 7,000 vol- 
umes; town, city, &c., 2, with 1,000; court 
and law, 3, with 121; college, 1, with 5,000; 
Sabbath school, 508, with 69,825; church, 15, 
with 3,000. The number of newspapers and 
periodicals was 111, issuing 4,703,336 copies 
annually, and having a circulation of 71,868, 
viz.: 3 daily, circulation 2,300; 6 tri-weekly, 
3,650; 3 semi-weekly, 2,400; 92 weekly, 60,- 
018 ; 2 semi-monthly, 700; 5 monthly, 2,800. 
They were classified as follows: agricultural 
and horticultural, 3; benevolent and secret so- 
cieties, 1; commercial and financial, 4; illus- 
trated, literary, and miscellaneous, 2; politi- 
cal, 97; religious, 3; technical and professional, 
1. The statistics of churches for 1870 are as 
follows: 


DENOMINATIONS. 


Number of 
organizations. 
Value of prop- 
erty 


s fo 

2| 4 

a = 

es] n 
Bantist, erie ts... 665 | 652 | 174.970 | $582,825 
MO DYTRT AT onc rect ay theres ote 80 28 7,825 50,850 
Congregational........... 2 1 800 1,200 
EDISCODAL as os sate oe ee 83 83 8,6F 0 203,000 
EAL Oran 5.5 o.2 ween a a arate 10 10 2.450 12,300 
DL GUHOCNBE os vss ps3 2 a> 787 | %76 | 208,203 854,475 
Presbyterian, regular.....; 181 | 180 | 51,700 876,200 
Us other ...... 81 78 | 19,400 94,000 
Roman Catholic......... 27 27 8,250 165,850 
Universalist...........4- 1 1 400 800 
ION a xd tee ected 12 14 8,750 19,800 
WOU yee bes viene e 1,829 | 1,800 | 485,898 $2,860,800 


657 


—De Soto and his companions were the first 
Europeans who traversed this region. They 
made no settlements, and the death of the 
leader in 1542 put an end to the expedition. 
In 1682 La Salle descended the Mississippi, 
took formal possession of the adjacent coun- 
try for the king of France, and called it Loui- 
siana. In 1698 Iberville was authorized by the 
French king to colonize the regions of the 
lower Mississippi. He landed on Ship island, 
and in 1699 erected a fort at the bay of Biloxi, 
about 80 m. E. of the site of New Orleans. In 
1716 Fort Rosalie was erected on the site of 
Natchez. The colonies grew slowly, and New 
Orleans, being founded soon after, attracted 
many of the settlers. In 1728, 1783, and 1752 
the settlements suffered much from Indian hos- 
tilities. After the cession of the E. part of 
Louisiana (including what is now Mississippi) 
to Great Britain in 1768, and until the revolu- 
tionary war, immigration into the territory pro- 
ceeded slowly. The territory of Mississippi was 
formed by the act of congress of April 7, 1798, 
being bounded N. by a line drawn due E. from 
the mouth of the Yazoo river to the Chatta- 
hoochee, E. by the Chattahooche, 8S. by the 
31st parallel, and W. by the Mississippi river. 
By the act of March 27, 1804, the region N. 
of these limits and S. of Tennessee, which had 
been ceded to the United States by Georgia in 
1802, was added, and Mississippi territory thus 
comprised the whole of the present states of 
Alabama and Mississippi N. of the 31st parallel. 
The region 8. of that parallel, between the 
Pearl and Perdido rivers, was added by the act 
of May 14, 1812, having been taken possession 
of by the United States in 1811 as a part of 
the Louisiana purchase of 1803, though claimed 
by Spain. Alabama territory was formed from 
the E. portion by the act of March 3, 1817, 
and by a joint resolution of Dec. 10 of the 
same year Mississippi was admitted into the 
Union as a state. In 1832 a new constitution 
was adopted. At the presidential election in 
November, 1860, 3,283 votes were cast for 
Douglas, 40,797 for Breckenridge, and 25,040 
for Bell. Immediately after the election of 
Lincoln became known, the governor called an 
extra session of the legislature, which met on 
Noy. 26, and provided for an election on Dec. 
10 of delegates to a convention to assemble on 
Jan. 7, 1861. On Jan. 9 this convention passed 
an ordinance of secession by a vote of 84 to 
15, and on March 30 ratified the constitution 
of the Confederate States by a vote of 78 to 
7, a resolution to submit it to a vote of the 
people having been rejected. The first move- 
ment of the federal troops inthe state was 
the capture of Biloxi and the removal of a 
battery of two guns by a force from Ship 
island, on Dec. 81, 1861. During 1862 the N. 
portion of the state was the theatre of opera- 
tions. After the battle of Shiloh the confed- 
erates retired to Corinth. The federal troops 
subsequently advanced in force under Gen. 
Halleck, the town was evacuated, and the fed- 


658 MISSISSIPPI 


erals took possession on May 80. On Sept. 19 
a sharp engagement took place near Iuka be- 
tween the confederates under Gen. Price and 
the federals under Gen. Rosecrans, which re- 
sulted in the evacuation of that place by the 
confederates during the following night. Price, 
joined by other forces, made an attack on Cor- 
inth on Oct. 38 and 4, but was repulsed with 
heavy loss. (See CorintH.) The most impor- 
tant operations in 1863 were those resulting in 
the surrender of Vicksburg on July 4. (See 
VioxsBurG.) Subsequent military movements 
were of minor importance. On May 18, 1865, 
the legislature assembled under a call of the 
governor, and ordered an election on June 19 


of delegates to a convention to meet on July 3. - 


But on June 13 President Johnson appointed 
William L. Sharkey provisional governor, who 
immediately entered upon the duties of his 
office, and on July 1 ordered an election, to be 
held on Aug. 7, of delegates to a convention, 
those being entitled to vote who were qualified 
electors under the laws in force prior to seces- 
sion, and who had taken the amnesty oath pre- 
scribed by the proclamation of the president 
of May 29. The convention met Aug. 14. 
On the 21st the constitution was amended by 
abolishing slavery, and on the following day 
the ordinance of secession was repealed. On 
Oct. 2 an election of state officers and con- 
gressmen was held, which resulted in the 
choice of Benjamin G. Humphreys as gov- 
ernor. The legislature elected at this time as- 
sembled on the 16th, and subsequently chose 
United States senators. But the congressmen 
and senators were not admitted to their seats. 
By the congressional reconstruction acts of 
1867, Mississippi with Arkansas was consti- 
tuted the fourth military district, under com- 
mand of Maj. Gen. E. O. C. Ord. A registra- 
tion was ordered, and on Nov. 5 an election 
was held to determine the question of calling 
a convention and for the choice of delegates to 
the same, which resulted in 69,789 votes for 
and 6,277 against a convention. On Dec. 28 
Gen. Ord was directed to turn over his com- 
mand to Gen. A. ©. Gillem. The convention 
assembled on Jan. 7, 1868, and remained in 
session till May 18, when it adjourned after 
adopting a constitution. On June 4 Gen. Ir- 
win McDowell assumed command of the fourth 
district, and on the 16th appointed Maj. Gen. 
Adelbert Ames provisional governor of Mis- 
sissippi, in place of Gov. Humphreys. At 
an election held on June 22 the constitution 
was rejected by a vote of 56,231 to 68,860. 
In July Gen..Gillem relieved Gen. McDowell. 
Soon after the inauguration of President Grant 
(March 4, 1869) Gen. Ames was appointed to 
the command of the district. On April 10 an 
act of congress was passed authorizing the 
president to submit the constitution again to a 
vote of the people, with such clauses separate 
as he might deem proper. A proclamation of 
July 13 appointed Nov. 30 as the day of election, 


MISSISSIPPI RIVER 


vote, the most important of which were those 
disfranchising and disqualifying from _hold- 
ing office persons who had taken part against 
the Union in the civil war. The constitu- 
tion was ratified almost unanimously, and the . 
objectionable clauses were rejected. At the 
same time James L. Alcorn, republican, was 
elected governor over Louis Dent, conserva- 
tive, by a vote of 76,186 against 38,097. The 
legislature met on Jan. 11, 1870, and shortly 
after ratified the 14th and 15th amendments 
to the constitution of the United States. On 
Feb. 23 an act was passed by congress for the 
readmission of the state into the Union, and 
on March 10 Goy. Alcorn was inaugurated 
and the civil authorities assumed control.—See 
‘* Report on the Geology and Agriculture of 
the State of Mississippi,” by Eugene W. Hil- 
gard (Jackson, 1860). (See supplement.) 
MISSISSIPPI. I, A N. E. county of Arkan- 
sas, bordering on Missouri, separated on the E. 
from Tennessee by the Mississippi river, bounded 
W. by the St. Francis river and Lake St. Fran- 
cis, and intersected by Little river; area, 1,080 
sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 3,633, of whom 971 
were colored. The surface is low and level, 
and in the drier portions very fertile, and there 
are several lakes, the largest of which is Big 
lake. The chief productions in 1870 were 
120,700 bushels of Indian corn, 11,196 of po- 
tatoes, and 3,587 bales of cotton. There were 
695 horses, 465 mules and asses, 1,347 milch 
cows, 2,941 other cattle, 583 sheep, and 6,263 
swine. Capital, Osceola. If. A S. E. county 
of Missouri, bounded N. E. and S. by the Mis- 
sissippi river, which separates it from Illinois 
and Kentucky, and drained by James and Oy- 
press bayous; area, 380 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
4,982, of whom 919 were colored. The sur- 
face is level and the soil very fertile. The 
St. Louis and Iron Mountain railroad passes 
through it. The chief productions in 1870 
were 5,225 bushels of wheat, 491,990 of In- 
dian corn, 4,593 of oats, and 57 bales of cot- 
ton. There were 853 horses, 692 mules and 
asses, 1,172 milch cows, 2,814 other cattle, 659 
sheep, and 14,588 swine. Capital, Charleston. 
MISSISSIPPI RIVER (Indian, Miche Sepe, as 
spelled by some old writers, and translated the 
‘“‘Great River” and “the Great Father of 
Waters”’), the principal river of North Amer- 
ica, and, in connection with its largest tributary 
the Missouri, the longest river in the world, 
except perhaps the Nile. It drains the greater 
part of the territory of the United States lying 
between the Alleghany and Rocky mountains, 
a region nearly half as large as Europe. The 
true Mississippi river begins at the confluence 
of the Missouri and the Upper Mississippi. It 
has eight principal tributaries, which, in the 
order of the extent of the regions drained by 
them, are the Missouri, Ohio, Upper Missis- 
sippi, Arkansas, Red, White, Yazoo, and St. 
Francis. The source of the Mississippi, accord- 
ing to Schoolcraft, who visited it in 1832, is a 


and designated certain clauses for a separate | lake called by him Itasca, by the Chippewa 


MISSISSIPPI RIVER 


Indians Omoshkos Sagaigon, and by the French 
traders Lac la Biche. It is a beautiful sheet of 
water, clear and deep, about 7 m. long and 1 
m. to 38 m. wide, in lat. 47° 14’ N., lon. 95° 2’ 
W., about 1,575 ft. above the sea. Five creeks 
fall into Lake Itasca, the principal one of which 
has its origin about 6 m. distant, in a pond 
formed by water oozing from the bases of the 
hills known as Hauteurs de Terre, which are 
about 100 ft. high. ‘The Mississippi at the out- 
let of the lake is 10 or 12 ft. wide and 18 in. 
deep, and flows N. E. over petty falls and 
rapids through a series of small lakes and 
marshes till it reaches Lac Travers, its most 
northern point. This is a beautiful sheet of 
water from 10 to 12 m. long and from 4 to 5 
m. wide, surrounded by wooded hills sloping 
to a beach of pure white sand. From Lac 
Travers the river flows S. E. and S., and in the 
first 25 m. is broken into a series of small 
rapids, from the foot of which it flows with 
an even current 40 or 50 yards wide and from 
2 to 6 ft. deep to Cass lake, which has an area 
of about 120 sq. m.; thence S. through a series 
of savannas, separated by several’ lakes, to the 
falls of Peckagama, where it is compressed into 
a channel 80 ft. wide. Here the river rushes 
down a rugged bed of sandstone 20 ft. in 800 
yards. Below these falls the river is very 
crooked, and averages about 40 yards in width. 
It is broken by six rapids between Swan 
and Sandy Lake rivers. Savanna river enters 
the Sandy lake, and is the main canoe route 
between the Mississippi and Lake Superior. 
From the outlet of Sandy lake to Pine river, 
100 m., the river presents several rapids and 
islands, and receives a number of small tribu- 
taries. Crow Wing river, the largest tributary 
above the falls of St. Anthony, is nearly equal 
to the Mississippi itself. The Elk river, the 
Little falls, Big falls, Prairie rapids, and St. 
Francis river follow in the order named; and 
finally the falls of St. Anthony are reached, 
where the river pitches over a perpendicular 
face of sandstone 18 ft. high. An island at the 
brink of the falls divides the current into. two 
channels, the largest of which flows by the 
west side, and affords a great water power. 
Including the rapids above and below the falls, 
the entire descent of the river is about 65 ft. 
within three quarters of amile. These falls are 
about 2,200 m. from the gulf of Mexico, and 
constitute the natural head of steamboat navi- 
gation; but small vessels ply regularly above the 
falls for several hundred miles, according to the 
stage of water. The next natural obstruction 
to navigation below the falls of St. Anthony 
are the Rock Island rapids, extending from Le- 
claire to the cities of Rock Island and Daven- 
port, a distance of 14m. The descent is 24 ft. 
at extreme low water. The bed of the river 
throughout the rapids is stratified limestone, 
more or less folded, and forming chains or 
barriers which extend entirely across the chan- 
nel at six or seven points. In 1866 congress 
directed the removal of these chains, and also 


659 


the improvement of the lower or Des Moines 
rapid, 130 m. below the upper rapid, and be- 
tween Montrose and Keokuk. The length of 
the latter is 12 m., and the descent 28 ft. at low 
water. Before the improvements were under- 
taken, there was about 11 m. of deep water 
and good navigation on the upper rapids, and 
only 3} m. on the lower rapids. The duty of 
devising plans for the improvement of the rap- 
ids was assigned to Gen. J. H. Wilson, U.S. A., 
who recommended that the obstruction at the 
upper rapids should be removed mainly by the 
use of coffer dams (see Dam, vol. v., p. 650), and 
that the lower rapids should be improved by 
similar means, supplemented by a lateral canal 
7m. long, 300 ft. wide, and having three locks 
each 80 ft. wide and 850 ft. long. A board of 
engineers approved these plans, and congress 
ordered them to be carried into effect. The 
improvements, under the supervision of Gen. 
Wilson and his successor Col. Macomb, have 
been pushed forward as fast as the appropria- 
tions would permit, and are now (November, 
1874) almost completed at the upper rapids, 
while four fifths of the work has been done at 
the lower rapids, The improvements will cost 
about $5,000,000, and when completed will 
enable the largest boats to pass the rapids, 
whenever they can reach them either from 
above or below. But the navigation of the 
entire Upper Mississippi is rendered very difii- 
cult during the dry season by the frequent re- 
currence of sand bars; and although the gov- 
ernment has done something by the use of 
dredge boats and wing dams to deepen the 
water on the worst of these, no systematic 
plan of improvement has yet been devised or 
can be carried out till a much denser and richer 
population shall inhabit the regions to be bene- 
fited. But it is safe to say that between the 
falls of St. Anthony and the mouth of the 
Ohio there is water enough at the driest sea- 
son, if properly regulated and controlled, to 
give a navigable depth of 6 ft. and ample width 
for all uses to which it can be put.—The Mis- 
sissippi river, from the mouth of the Missouri 
to the gulf, is 1,286 m. long; from the source 
of the Upper Mississippi, 2,616 m. . The dis- 
tance from the Madison fork source of the 
Missouri to the gulf is 4,194 m., and from the 
head of the Ohio river at Gloudersport, Pa., 
to the gulf, 2,551 m. The numerous branches 
of the navigable waters connected with the 
Mississippi penetrate all the states and terri- 
tories between the Rocky and Alleghany 
mountains. The capacity of these branches 
for navigation has been as yet only partially 
developed, but a careful compilation shows 
that they constitute a natural system of wa- 
ter communication having an aggregate ex- 
tent of about 15,000 m.—The following table, 
taken from Humphreys and Abbot’s ‘‘ Report 
upon the Hydraulics of the Mississippi River ” 
(4to, Philadelphia, 1861), shows the area of the 
basins, downfall of rain, and annual drainage 
of the Mississippi and its principal tributaries: 


660 
BASIN. aL 
square miles. 

Ohio wivers [ss sl sk teclerd infers Salale + aleld ake AYN eerste 214,000 
Missouri river. «cis csure's stays) stouelain aioe elaine 518,000 
Uppers Mississippi cscs aicitet> scutye eee errat 169,000 
Small tributaries ss. wicce « vss wiseice sol aee eee aeiette 82 400 
Arkansas and White rivers ..........22.-seceee. 189,000 
ROC TIVOr Donncha. fe ah tase sluts ele Eee Eee 97,000 
VAZ00' TIVE SS. cate cles vies qs sles ole eee eteleietnnre nie’ 13,850 
Stbrancis Wiveri stk ek weee icles ee eaa eye 10,500 
Entire Mississippi exclusive of Red river........ 1,147,000 


Below the mouth of Red river, the Mississippi 
is divided into numerous arms or passes, each 
of which pursues an independent course to the 
gulf. The highest of these is the Atchafalaya 
on the W. side of the river. Below its point 
of separation from the Mississippi the region 
of swampy lands, of bayous and creeks,, is 
known as the delta. Above this the alluvial 
plain of the river extends to the Chains, 30 m. 
above the mouth of the Ohio, and to Cape Gi- 
rardeau in Missouri, where precipitous rocky 
banks are first met with. These are the lower 
secondary limestone strata lying in nearly hori- 
zontal beds. The total length of the plain 
from the mouth of the Ohio to the gulf is esti- 
mated at 500 m. Its breadth at the upper 
extremity varies from 30 to 50 m.; at Mem- 
phis it is about 30 m., and at the mouth of 
White river 80 m. The extreme width of the 
delta is rated at 150 m., its average width is 
probably 90 m., and its area 12,300 sq. m. 
The elevation of the bottom lands at Cairo 
above the sea level is about 310 ft., while the 
slope of the high-water surface from that place 
to the gulf is from 322 to 0. These bottom 
lands are subject to inundation, and conse- 
quent annual enrichment. Under the system 
of slave labor large plantations were opened 
in the dense forests which cover them, but 
vast tracts of unsurpassed fertility are yet cov- 
ered with canebrakes and cypress. The allu- 
vial plain, extending from above Cairo to the 
gulf, is terminated on the east and the west by 
a line of bluffs of irregular height and direc- 
tion, composed of strata of the eocene and 
later tertiary formations. Down this plain 
the river flows in a serpentine course, fre- 
quently washing the base of the hills on the 
E. side, as at Columbus, Randolph, Memphis, 
Vicksburg, Grand Gulf, Natchez, and Baton 
Rouge, and once passing to the opposite side 
at Helena. The actual length of the river 
from the mouth of the Ohio to the gulf is 
1,097 m., increasing the distance in a straight 
line by about 600 m., and by its flexures also 
reducing the rate of its descent to less than 
half the inclination of the plain down which 
it flows. The range between high and low 
water at Cairo, near the head of the plain, is 
51 ft., and at New Orleans it is 14-4 ft. The 
river flows in a trough about 4,470 ft. wide 
at the head, and 3,000 ft. at the foot. The 
immense curves of the stream in its course’ 
through the alluvial plain sweep around in 
half circles, and the river sometimes, after 


MISSISSIPPI RIVER 


Annual downfall, Annual drainage, 


in cubic feet. in cubic feet. Ratio 
20,700,000,000,000 5,000,000,000,000 0°24 
25,200,000,000,000 3,780,000,000,000 0-15 
13,800,000,000,000 3,300,000,000,000 0-24 
3,600, 000,000,000 3,240,000,000,000 0-90 
13,000,000,000,000 2,000,000,000,000 0°15 
8,800,000,000,000 1,800,000,000,000 0°20 
1,500,000,000,000 1'350,000,000,000 0-90 
1,100,000,000,000 9,990,000,000,000 0°90 
73/900,000,000,000 18'900,000;000,000 0°25 


traversing 25 or 80 m., is brought within a 
mile or less of the place it had before passed. 
In heavy floods the water occasionally bursts 
through the tongue of land, and form what is 
called a ‘‘ cut-off,” which may become a new 
and permanent channel. The height of the 
banks and the great depth of the river bed 
check the frequent formation of these cut-offs, 
and attempts to produce them artificially have 
often failed, especially when the soil is a tough 
blue clay, which is not readily worn away by 
flowing water. This was the case at Bayou 
Sara, where in 1845 an excavation intended to 
turn the river was made, by which a circuit 
of 25 m. would have been reduced to a cut 
of one mile; and also at Vicksburg in 1862~’3, 
where the Union army endeavored to make a 
cut-off out of range of the confederate guns. 
Semicircular lakes, which are deserted river 
bends, are scattered over the alluvial tract. 
These are inhabited by alligators, wild fowl, 
and gar fish, which the steamboats have nearly 
driven away from the main river. At high 
water the river overflows into these lakes. 
The low country around is then entirely sub- 
merged, and extensive seas spread out on 
either side, the river itself being marked by 
the clear broad band of water in the midst of 
the forests that appear above it. The great 
freshets usually occur in the spring, and are 
often attended with very serious consequences. 
Crevasses are formed in the banks and increase 
with the flow, which becomes so violent that 
boats are occasionally carried with their crews 
into the intricacies of the bayous which lead 
the waters to the streams at the foot of the 
bluffs.—The lower portion of the alluvial plain, 
called the delta, rises from a few inches to 10 
ft. only above the level of the sea, and is 
formed of sands and clays in horizontal layers. 
The delta protrudes into the gulf of Mexico 
far beyond the general coast line, and is slow- 
ly but imperceptibly advancing into the gulf 
by the shoaling caused by the deposition of 
the sediment brought down the river. This is 
mostly dispersed by the waves and currents, 
and distributed over the bottom of the gulf. 
Although the banks of the passes are some- 
times observed to have advanced in the course 
of afew years sensibly into the gulf, these are 
but narrow strips of land, which may be swept 
away by the rush of the gulf waters driven up 
by storms, leaving the long coast of the delta 
but slightly changed. The old French maps of 
the early part of the last century still very cor- 


es ——-v 


MISSISSIPPI RIVER 


rectly represent many of the mud banks and 


661 


very variable, sometimes reaching 150 ft., but 


channels or bayous around the Balize, which | the maximum is more commonly from 120 to 


is the station of the pilots at the mouth of the 
river. Here only, for a distance of 100 m. from 
the gulf, is the river seriously obstructed by 
bars. Over these the depth of water is some- 
times only 15 ft.; but this is very changeable, 
as the channels are shifted by the floods in the 
river and the gulf storms. These bars are com- 
posed of blue clay mud, through which vessels 
drawing 2 or 3 ft. more water than the actual 
depth can be taken by steam tugs. Great ef- 
forts have been made by the government to re- 
move these obstructions by dredging, and the 
depth of water has been increased thereby to 
21 ft.; but owing to the difficulty of maintain- 
ing such a great depth with dredges, congress 
has appointed a board of engineers to investi- 
gate the subject and report a plan.—The sedi- 
ment of the lower Mississippi is chiefly a fine 
clayey matter, so universally suspended in the 
water as to give it a thick muddy appearance. 
The Upper Mississippi is clear, but the Missouri 
pours into it a vast amount of whitish muddy 
matter, which renders the water so turbid that 
at St. Louis one cannot see through a tumbler 
filled with it. This, however, does not prevent 
its being generally used for drinking, and for 
culinary purposes. The Ohio adds to it a green- 
ish current, and the Arkansas and Red rivers 
pour in the red ochreous sediment already re- 
ferred to; while the Mississippi itself excavates 
its alluvial plain and sweeps down, intermingled 
with the rest, vast quantities of vegetable soil 
that falls in the banks of the river. The coarser 
pebbles and sands accumulate in the bends and 
eddies, forming bars, and the lighter materials 
are deposited in the gulf of Mexico. Accord- 
ing to the report of Capt. (mow Gen.) Hum- 
phreys and Lieut. (now Gen.) Abbot, a com- 
parison of the results of many observations 
during a long period leads to the belief that 
the weight of the sediment of the Mississippi 
is z57 that of the water, and its bulk 5,5; 
and if the mean annual discharge of the river 
be assumed to be 19,500,000,000,000 cubic feet, 
it follows that 812,500,000,000 pounds of sedi- 
mentary matter, constituting one square mile 
of deposit 241 ft. in depth, are yearly trans- 
ported to the gulf. In addition to the amount 
held in suspension, the Mississippi pushes along 
large quantities of earthy matter. No exact 
measurement of this can be made, but from 
the yearly rate of progress of the bars into the 
gulf, it appears to be about 750,000,000 cubic 
feet, which would cover a square mile about 27 
ft. deep. The total yearly contributions from 
the river to the gulf amount then to a prism 
268 ft. high, with a base of one square mile.— 


The uniformity of width of the Mississippi is 


very remarkable. At New Orleans it is about 
3,000 ft. wide, and from this it varies little 
for a distance of nearly 2,000 m., except that 
in the bends it swells out to 1 or even 14 
m. The junction of its principal branches pro- 
duces no increase in the width. The depth is 


130 ft. The mean depth at high-water mark 
is about the same at Carrollton and at Natchez, 
300 m. further up. A section of the river at 
Carrollton, made at high-water mark in 1858, 
comprises 184,000 square feet, and at Natchez 
221,000. The mean rate of descent varies at 
low water from ‘005 of a foot per mile at the 
head of the passes, to ‘578 of a foot at Cairo, 
and in high-water from ‘115 of a foot to -497 
of a foot per mile. The velocity varies at 
Carrollton from 1:45 to 2°61 m. per hour, ac- 
cording to the stage of the water and the di- 
rection of the wind.—The Mississippi, like the 
other great rivers of the west, is continually 
gathering into its current numbers of trees, as 
the banks upon which they grew are under- 
mined. They are frequently left in the main 
channels, their roots fixed to the bottom, and 
their tops pointing down stream. In this con- 
dition they are known as snags and sawyers, 
and present to boats ascending the river, espe- 
cially at night, a most dangerous obstruction. 
But continual care is now given to the removal 
of these obstructions. The accumulations of 
the drift materials in the arms of the river 
have sometimes been so great as to bridge 
these over and extend for miles up the current. 
The obstruction is then known by the name of 
raft. From about the year 1778 such an accu- 
mulation had been gathering in the Atchafalaya, 
until in 1816 it had extended to full 10 m. in 
length, over 600 ft. in width and about 8 ft. 
in depth. Though rising and falling with the 
water, it afforded a soil for the growth of 
bushes and of trees, some of which reached the 
height of 60 ft. In 1885 the state of Louisiana 
took measures to have it removed, and this 
was finally accomplished at a heavy cost in the 
course of four years. The Red river raft is 
still more famous for the large sums which 
have been appropriated by congress to effect 
its removal, the work upon which has been 
carried on with great success of late years, and 
is now almost completed. The appropriations 
made from time to time by congress for the 
Mississippi river comprise the following items: 


Mouth of Mississippi river, from 1836 to 1856.,... $690,000 
. me ae - MPV LESG to 1870... : 1,224,850 
Mississippi river. between Illinois and Ohio rivers. — 665,000 
WesPNlOines APCS cect. aeielalss ota stereic apejsiieeusiee.s)- ,028,200 
FRG CRAIS TANG Va PICS. os a cuvteystsrstoveve ornerore sterstny 573) < oe « 1,039,650 

Upper Mississippi river, including falls of St. An- 
CROMY vectra tates spe - red ae TAL wo Eat eeiawlalsie.s 677,640 
Mississippi river, including rapids (1836 to 1856)... 465,000 
ph otal cosieaterc starts tite Sis scares a Sate siels » aavelicnls $7,789,840 


—For a full statement of measurements, all 
the phenomena, physical. elements, and laws 
relating to this great river, see the ‘‘ Report 
upon the Physics and Hydraulics of the Mis- 
sissippi River,” prepared by Capt. A. A. 
Humphreys and Lieut. H. L. Abbot, U. 8. 
army (4to, Philadelphia, 1861), and also the 
official reports of the chief of engineers to the 
war department.—The first European explorer 


663 MISSOLONGHI 


of the Mississippi valley was De Soto, who 
with his party reached the river in June, 1541, 
as is supposed not far below the site of He- 
lena in Arkansas. (See Dr Soro.) In 1673 
Marquette and Joliet descended the river to 
within three days’ journey of its mouth. La 
Salle in 1682 descended the river to the gulf 
of Mexico, and took possession of the country 
in the name of the king. of France. About 
the year 1699 Iberville built a fort upon the 
banks of the river, and in 1703 the settle- 
ment of St. Peter’s was made upon the Yazoo 
branch. New Orleans was laid out in 1718, and 
levees were immediately commenced, which 
were completed in front of the city ten years 


afterward. At that time the levee system of 


lower Louisiana was fully established. 
MISSOLONGHI, or Mesolonghi, a town of Greece, 
capital of the united nomarchy of Acarnania 
and /Etolia, 24 m. W. of Lepanto, on the N. 
side of the gulf of Patras; pop. about 6,000. 
It stands in a level plain 18 m. long and 4 m. 
broad, watered by the Achelous and Evenus, 
and extending from the base of Mt. Aracyn- 
thus to the gulf. The walls are washed by the 
sea, but the water is so shallow that nothing 
larger than a small fishing boat can approach 
nearer than 4 or5 m. Missolonghi is the most 
important strategical point of western Greece, 
and is famous for the sieges it has sustained. 
In 1804 it fell under the dominion of Ali Pasha. 
In 1821 it joined in the revolt against the 
Turks, and on Noy. 5 Mavrocordato and Mar- 
co Bozzaris threw themselves with 400 men 
into the place, which was almost deserted and 
scarcely defensible, the fortifications consisting 
only of alow and ruinous wall, without bas- 
tions, and a small ditch in many places filled 
with rubbish. With only 14 old guns and 
scanty ammunition, Mavrocordato made a bril- 
liant defence for more than two months against 
a Turkish army of 14,000. On Nov. 23 the 
Greeks succeeded in throwing in reénforce- 
ments by sea, and the Turks were compelled 
to raise the siege, Jan. 6, 1823. The town 
was then fortified under the direction of Eng- 
lish officers, at the expense of an Englishman 
named Murray, and became one of the strong- 
est places in Greece. From September to De- 
cember, 1823, Missolonghi was blockaded for 
59 days by the Turks, who besieged the neigh- 
boring Anatolico, and was defended by Con- 
stantine Bozzaris, until relieved by Mavrocor- 
dato. Lord Byron reached Missolonghi Jan. 
5, 1824, and died there April 19. The last 
and greatest siege of Missolonghi began in 
April, 1825, when Reshid Pasha invested it 
with a large army, which was reénforced in 
July by the arrival of a powerful fleet, and in 
January, 1826, by Ibrahim Pasha with an army 
of 20,000 Egyptians. The garrison of 5,000 
Greeks, commanded by Noto Bozzaris, made a 
desperate defence, repulsing repeated assaults, 
and, though suffering terribly from want of 
provisions, refused to capitulate, notwithstand- 
img repeated offers of the most favorable terms. 


MISSOURI 


When continual bombardment had reduced the 
town to a heap of ruins and the last of their 
food had been consumed, at midnight of April 
22, 1826, the garrison, placing the women in 
the centre, sallied forth in a body, and cutting 
their way through the Turkish camp gained 
the mountains, to the number of about 2,000. 
Those who were too feeble to join in the sortie 
assembled in a large mill which was used as a 
powder magazine, and when the Turks entered 
the town blew themselves up together with a 
large number of the enemy. The town has 
been rebuilt of late years, but the fortifications 
are decayed. Marco Bozzaris is buried here, 
and a statuein white marble, presented in 1835 
by the French sculptor David, has been erect- 
ed over his grave. Near this monument is 
a mound of earth with an inscription com- 
memorative of other victims of the war. By- 
ron’s remains were conveyed to England, but 
his heart, which was deposited in a silver box 
in a mausoleum erected to his honor, was lost 
in the confusion of the sortie of 1826. 

MISSOULA, the N. W. county of Montana, 
bounded N. by British America and W. and S. 
by Idaho; area, 20,400 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
2,554. It lies mostly between the Bitter Root 
and Rocky mountains, contains the head waters 
of Clarke’s fork of the Columbia, and is in- 
tersected in the N. W. by the Kootenay river. 
Flathead lake, 10 m. wide and 25 m. long, is 
the only important lake in the territory. Gold 
is found, and the census of 1870 returns 68 
placer mines as in operation. The chief pro- 
ductions were 32,436 bushels of wheat, 15,836 
of oats, 1,534 of barley, 12,152 of potatoes, 
12,925 Ibs. of butter, and 956 tons of hay. 
There were 1,045 horses, 1,134 milch cows, 
1,378 other cattle, and 874swine; 3 flour mills, 
and 4 saw mills. Capital, Missoula. 

MISSOURI, a central state of the American 
Union, and the 11th admitted under the federal 
constitution, situated between lat. 36° and 40° 
30’ N., and lon. 89° 2’ and 95° 42’ W.; length 
N. and 8. 277 m.; average breadth about 244 
m., varying from 208 m. in the north to 312 
m. in the south; area, 65,350 sq. m., including 
a narrow strip between the St. Francois and 
Mississippi rivers, extending beyond the general 
body of the state 4° southward between Arkan- 
sas and Tennessee. Missouri is bounded N. by 
Iowa; E. by Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee, 
from which the Mississippi river divides it; S. 
by Arkansas; and W. by Indian territory, Kan- 
sas, and Nebraska, from which it is divided by a 
N. and §. line on the meridian of the mouth of 
Kansas river, and thence N. by the main chan- 
nel of the Missouri river. The state is divided 
into 114 counties, viz.: Adair, Andrew, Atch- 
ison, Audrain, Barry, Barton, Bates, Benton, 
Bollinger, Boone, Buchanan, Butler, Caldwell, 
Callaway, Camden, Cape Girardeau, Carroll, 
Carter, Cass, Cedar, Chariton, Christian, Clarke, 
Clay, Clinton, Cole, Cooper, Crawford, Dade, 
Dallas, Daviess, De Kalb, Dent, Douglas, Dunk- 
lin, Franklin, Gasconade, Gentry, Greene, Grun- 


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MISSOURI 


dy, Harrison, Henry, Hickory, Holt, Howard, 
Howell, Iron, Jackson, Jasper, Jefferson, John- 
son, Knox, La Clede, Lafayette, Lawrence, 
Lewis, Lincoln, Linn, Livingston, McDonald, 
Macon, Madison, Maries, Marion, Mercer, Mil- 
ler, Mississippi, Moniteau, Monroe, Montgome- 
ry, Morgan, New Madrid, Newton, Nodaway, 
Oregon, Osage, Ozark, Pemiscot, Perry, Pet- 
tis, Phelps, Pike, Platte, Polk, Pulaski, Put- 
nam, Ralls, Randolph, Ray, Reynolds, Ripley, 
St. Charles, St. Clair, St. Francois, Ste. Gene- 
vieve, St. Louis, Saline, Schuyler, Scotland, 
Scott, Shannon, Shelby, Stoddard, Stone, Sul- 
livan, Taney, Texas, Vernon, Warren, Wash- 
ington, Wayne, Webster, Worth, Wright. Jef- 
ferson City, the capital, is near the central part 


ES 


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State Seal of Missouri. 


of the state, on the Missouri river, 125 m. by 
rail W. of St. Louis; its population in 1870 
was 4,420. The other important cities are 
Booneville, with 3,506 inhabitants in 1870; 
Cape Girardeau, 3,585; Hannibal, 10,125; In- 
dependence, 3,184; Kansas City, 32,260; Lex- 
ington, 4,873; Louisiana, 3,639; Macon, 3,678; 
St. Charles, 3,479; St. Joseph, 19,565; St. 
Louis, 310,864; Sedalia, 4,560; and Springfield, 
5,555.—The population of Missouri, according 
to the federal census, has been as follows: 


Free Total 


YEARS White. Slaves. Rank. 
colored. population. 
SUOR. 2c, ceric 17,227 607 8.011 20,845 22 
TS20 cele 55,988 876 | 10,222 66,586 23 
1S80.40: 3 114,795 569 25.091 140,455 21 
1840 fale tears 823,888 1,574 | 58.240 383, 702 16 
TSOORE fects 592,004 2,618 | 87,422 682,044 13 
1860 IS. 1,063,489 8,572 14,981 | 1,182,012 8 
ISTO Sse. ctids 1,608,146 | MUSOU lant set 1,721,295 5 


Included in the population in 1870 were 3 Chi- 
nese and 75 Indians. Of the total population 
in that year, 896,347 were males and 824,948 
females; 1,499,028 were of native and 222,267 
of foreign birth. Of the natives, 874,006 were 
born in the state, 72,628 in Illinois, 51,303 in 
Indiana, 22,456 in Iowa, 102,661 in Kentucky, 
31,805 in New York, 18,755 in North Caro- 
lina, 76,062 in Ohio, 35,384 in Pennsylvania, 


663 


70,212 in Tennessee, and 61,806 in Virginia 
and West Virginia. The foreign population 
comprised 8,448 born in British America, 6,298 
in France, 113,618 in Germany, 14,314 in 
England, 54,988 in Ireland, 8,283 in Scotland, 


2,302 in Sweden, and 6,597 in Switzerland. 


The density of population was 26°34 persons 
toa square mile. There were 316,917 families, 
with an average of 5°43 persons to each, and 
292,769 dwellings, with an average of 5:87 per- 
sons to each. The increase of population from 
1860 to 1870 was 45°62 per cent. The number 
of male citizens 21 years old and upward was 
380,235; persons from 5 to 18 years old, 577,- 
803; number attending school, 824,348. There 
were 146,771 persons 10 years old and upward 
who could not read, and 222,411 who could 
not write, the latter number comprising 206,827 
of native and 15,584 of foreign birth, 161,763 
white, 60,622 colored, and 26 Indians, 105,767 
males, and 116,636 females. Of the total pop- 
ulation 10 years old and over, 18°45 per cent. 
were illiterates; number of illiterates 21 years 
old and over, 124,508, of whom 84,904 were 
white, 88,589 colored, and 15 Indians, 52,788 
males, and 70,717 females. The number of 
paupers supported during the year ending June 
1, 1870, was 2,424, at a cost of $191,171. Of 
the total number (1,854) receiving support June 
1, 1870, 1,415 were native, of whom 1,090 
were white and 325 colored, and 489 were 
foreigners. The number of persons convicted 
of crime during the year was 1,503. Of the 
total number (1,623) in prison June 1, 1870, 
1,217 were natives and 406 foreigners; of the 
former 893 were white and 324 colored. The 
state contained 904 blind, 790 deaf and dumb, 
1,263 insane, and 779 idiotic. Of the total 
population 10 years old and upward (1,205,568), 
there were engaged in all occupations 505,556 ; 
in agriculture, 263,918, of whom 86,807 were 
laborers, and 174,961 farmers and planters; in 
professional and personal services, 106,903, in- 
cluding 1,739 clergymen, 29,338 domestic ser- 
vants, 47,462 laborers not specified, 3,452 law- 
yers, 3,560 physicians and surgeons, and 4,117 
teachers not specified; in trade and transpor- 
tation, 54,885, of whom 9,681 were clerks in 
stores, 6,390 draymen, hackmen, teamsters, &c., 
7,710 employees of railroad companies (not 
clerks), and 4,757 traders and dealers not speci- 
fied; and in manufactures and mechanical and 
mining industries, 79,850. The total number 


of deaths during the year was 27,982, being 


1°63 per cent. of the population. There were 
990 deaths from cholera infantum; 2,717 from 
consumption, there being 10°3 deaths from all 
causes to 1 from that disease; croup, 719; 
measles, 869; pneumonia, 2,800, there being 10 
deaths from all causes to 1 from that disease ; 
smallpox, 1,034; diphtheria and scarlet fever, 
1,405; intermittent and remittent fever, 1,052; 
enteric fever, 1,895; diarrhea, 1,300.—The 
Missouri river divides this state into two dis- 
tinct parts. The S. part is undulating, rising 
into mountains as it approaches the Ozark 


664 


range. That portion N. of the river is more 
level. An extensive bottom land lies along the 


Mississippi, commencing on the N. at Cape. 


Girardeau and extending 8. to the Arkansas 
river. It includes many swamps which are ren- 
dered almost impenetrable by a dense growth 
of trees, mostly cypress. The most extensive 
of these, called the Great swamp, commences 
a few miles 8S. of Cape Girardeau and passes S. 
to the mouth of the St. Francois, penetrating 
far into the state of Arkansas. More than 100 
m. of this swamp are in Missouri. Within 
the bottom are also many lakes and lagoons; 
but it likewise contains many islands elevated 
above the reach of the highest floods. Since 
the earthquakes of 1811-12 much of this tract 


has been inundated; but it is capable of being. 


reclaimed, and has a very fertile soil. The 
highlands along the Mississippi begin below 
Cape Girardeau, and extend to the mouth of 
the Missouri. Between Ste. Genevieve and 
the Meramec the banks, composed of solid 
masses of limestone, rise occasionally 360 ft. 
above the water. This high and undulating 
country extends across the entire breadth of 
the state, its rugged character disappearing as 
the Osage river is approached. This is one of 
the least populous sections of the state, but it 
is exceedingly picturesque. It has a mild, dry, 
and genial climate. Between the Gasconade and 
Osage, both of which are afiluents of the Mis- 
souri, a range of low hills approaches that riv- 
er, rising from. 150 to 200 ft. above its mean 
level. They are thinly wooded, and constitute 
the northernmost offset of the Ozark moun- 
tains, a region of which the undulating country 
on the east may be considered as the lowest por- 
tion. This elevated tract covers more than half 
of that portion of the state S. of the Missouri. 
The surface is extremely broken and hilly ; the 
hills, which rise from 500 to more than 1,000 
ft. above their bases, are exceedingly numer- 
ous, but do not form continuous ranges, being 
divided into knobs and peaks with rounded 
summits, and presenting perpendicular cliffs 
and abrupt precipices of sandstone. The-soil 
covering them is generally shallow, and over- 
grown almost exclusively with oak, and in the 
S. counties with pine and cedar. West of this 
region the country, especially the basin of the 
Osage, is chiefly a rolling prairie, diversified 
with forests of stunted timber; and to the 
north, along both sides of the Missouri, extends 
a rich alluvial bottom. In the country N. of 
the Missouri, which comprehends about one 
third of the state, the surface is generally roll- 
ing or level. The bottoms along the Missouri 
and Mississippi are remarkably fertile. Be- 
tween these rivers the country is much diver- 
sified by the broad valleys of their subsidiary 
streams, and intervening tracts of undulating 
upland which are united with the valleys by gen- 
tle slopes. The woodlands occur only on the 
margins of the watercourses, and the uplands 
are extensive prairies completely destitute of 
timber. These prairies occupy at least nine 


| fined to narrow belts along the streams. 


MISSOURI 


tenths of the whole region, and comprehend 
some of the best lands of the state-—The two 
principal streams are the Missouri, traversing 
the state from the N. W. corner to the middle 
of its E. boundary, and the Mississippi, form- 
ing its entire E. boundary, both navigable the 
whole year except when blocked with ice. The 
Osage, the next largest stream, is navigable for 
small steamboats half the year. Next in impor- 
tance are the St. Francois, White, Black, Cur- 
rent, Gasconade, Grand, and Chariton rivers, 
all navigable for small boats a few weeks in 
early summer. The other principal streams, 
not navigable, are Salt, Fabius, South Grand, 
Platte, Nodaway, Spring, Sac, Niangua, Piney, 
Maramec, Cuivre, and Castor rivers.—The soils 
of Missouri may be divided into four classes, 
referred each to its particular district. The 
first class comprises all the bottom lands and 
the swamps of S. E. Missouri, which latter in- 
clude seven or eight counties, comprising large 
tracts of some of the richest lands in the world, 
yielding often 75 to 100 bushels of corn per 
acre. The S. E. counties produce fine crops of 
cotton. The next richest bodies of land yield 
50 to 75 bushels of corn per acre on uplands, 
and include all N. W. Missouri, with five coun- 
ties §. of Missouri river. This district is most- 
ly underlaid by the upper coal measures, and 
for most farming purposes is the most de- 
sirable part of the state. The third class, or 
second class of upland soil, includes the re- 
mainder of N. and the border counties in S. W. 
Missouri. In these counties 30 to 50 bushels 
of corn per acre are produced, and in the east 
they give a larger yield of wheat per acre than 
any others of the state. The poorest class of 
soils is found on all the hills of southern Mis- 
souri, where the yield is rarely over 20 to 40 
bushels of corn per acre. ‘This part of the state 
is 1,200 to 1,500 ft. above the sea, and chiefly 
underlaid by primordial sandstones and mag- 
nesian limestones, with occasional porphyry 
or granite peaks in the eastern part, which 
sometimes rise 300 to 400 ft. above the unal- 
tered magnesian limestones, but their tops are 
probably not more than 1,500 ft. above the sea. 
While N. and W. Missouri has a gently undu- 
lating or rolling surface, with hills not often 
over 50 ft., and distant ridges 250 ft. high, in 
S. Missouri the stream channels have cut out 
their valleys 200 to 800 ft. below the hill- 
tops, and often 400 ft. below the tops of dis- 
tant ridges. Where the main streams are dis- 
tant, the country spreads out into a flat table 
land. South of the main Ozark ridge, where 
the hills are covered with either sandstone or 
chert, are extensive pine forests. The streams 
that traverse this portion of the state are clear, 
cool, and swift-running, and afford excellent 
water power. S. E. Missouri is heavily tim- 
bered, especially the swamp counties, which 
contain heavy forests of walnut, oak, cypress, 
poplar, gum, and sycamore. N. and W. Mis- 
souri is chiefly prairie, the timber being con- 
The 


MISSOURI 


prairies afford excellent pasturage, and where 
they are grazed down a fine growth of blue 


grass takes the place of the original wild grass.. 


—The geological formations include the coal 
measures, 1,950 ft.; lower carboniferous, inclu- 
ding Chester group, 300 ft.; ferruginous sand- 
stone, 100 ft.; St. Louis limestone, 250 ft. ; 
Keokuk group, 200 ft.; Burlington group, 300 
ft.; and Chouteau group, 230 ft. The Devo- 
nian is represented by the Hamilton and On- 
ondaga, 100 ft.; the upper Silurian by the 
Oriskany, 30 ft., Delthyris shale, 3850 ft., Ni- 
agara group, 225 ft., and Cape Girardeau lime- 
stone, 50 ft. The lower Silurian includes the 
Cincinnati group, 100 ft., Trenton and Black 
river limestone, 400 ft., and magnesian lime- 
stone series, about 1,500 ft.; the latter includes 
300 to 400 ft. of sandstone excellent for glass 
making. The southern part of Missouri, in- 
cluding the Ozark ridge and most of the state 
S. of the Missouri and Osage rivers, except- 
ing the two western tiers of counties, is from 
1,000 to 1,400 ft. above the sea, and includes 
lower Silurian rocks, flanked by lower carbon- 
iferous. On the W. flank, near the state line, 
the country is not often over 800 ft. above 
the sea. On the W. and N. flank of this high- 
land the coal measures commence. On the S, 
side of the Missouri river are found the middle 
and lower coal, not over 800 or 900 ft. above 
the sea. In N. Missouri the same formations 
are about 800 to 1,000 ft. above the sea. The 
elevation of the eastern and southern outcrop 
of the upper coal measures, near the base, is 
875 to 990 ft. Toward the northern part of 
the state the upper measures are more elevated, 
and may reach from 1,000 to 1,100 ft. above 
the sea. The coal measures being composed of 
alternations of shales, sandstones, and lime- 
stones, their topography is such as would re- 
sult from decomposition of such rocks. In 
no place has any limestone been observed of 
greater thickness than 30 ft., and the sand- 
stones often pass into shales; so the topography 
of the coal formations is nowhere very rugged. 
Along the line of outcrop of the limestones 
are sometimes seen steep and rugged hillsides, 
occurring from Cass county on the south, 
through Jackson, Platte, Clay, Ray, Caldwell, 
Daviess, Gentry, Worth, and Harrison counties. 
N. and W. of this are the upper measures, in- 
cluding alternations of thick and thin strata of 
limestone, with sandstones, shales, and clays; 
the resultant being the undulating and roll- 
ing portion of N. W. Missouri. The Missouri 
blufis, in the region of the upper coal measures, 
attain an elevation of 250 to 330 ft. above the 
Missouri bottoms, and the inland ridges are 
but little higher. The summits of the highest 
ridges in Nodaway county, above One Hun- 
dred and Two and Platte rivers, are but little 
over 200 ft., and the bluffs along the streams 
are in no place over 50 ft. high. On North 
Grand river the immediate bluffs measure from 
30 to 120 ft. within the upper coal district. 
Lower down stream, in the middle and lower 


665 


” 


coal regions, the hills recede and become lower. 
Near the base of the upper coal series, it is 
often 200 to 250 ft. from the valleys to the 
top of remote ridges. In the lower and middle 
coal measures are great thicknesses of sand- 
stones and shales, and long gentle slopes are 
found with bluffs on the streams 25 to 50 ft. 
high, rising to 100 ft. at a half mile to a mile. 
When the middle coal measures approach the 
Missouri river its bluffs vary in height from 
100 to 165 ft. Another important character- 
istic is peculiar, especially near the junction 
of the upper and middle coal measures, and 
sometimes to the lower measures. The sand- 
stones are very much denuded, leaving isolated - 
mounds generally 80 to 100 and sometimes 
140 ft. high, rising by very long slopes above 
the lower plains. These mounds are generally 
capped with limestone, which has preserved 
them from entire destruction. They are com- 
mon throughout the lower coal district of S. 
W. Missouri, with sometimes intervening val- 
leys 10 to 15 m. wide. The mounds have a 
circular base, sometimes elongated N. and S. 
This is particularly observable in a range 
trending 8. along the W. line of Bates, Ver- 
non, and Barton counties. From a distance 
these mounds appear like low mountain ranges. 
Aside from the mounds, the surface of the 
country is gently undulating and rolling. The 
Missouri coal field comprises an area of about 
23,100 sq. m., including 160 sq. m. in St. Louis 
county, 8 in St. Charles, a few outliers in Lin- 
coln and Warren, the remainder in N., W., and 
S. W. Missouri. In this area are included 
8,400 sq. m. of upper or barren measures, 
2,000 of exposed middle, and 12,700 of exposed 
lower measures. The southern and eastern 
boundary of the lower coal measures is as fol- 
lows: entering the state about midway the 
west line of Jasper county, thence extending 
northeastwardly through Jasper, Barton, Dade, 
Cedar, St. Clair, Henry, Benton, Pettis, Saline, 
Howard, Boone, Callaway, Audrain, Mont- 
gomery, Ralls, Monroe, Shelby, Knox, Lewis, 
and Clark counties. The aggregate thickness 
of the upper coal measures is 1,317 ft., inclu- 
ding only about 4 ft. of coal, in which are two 
seams 1 ft. thick, with lesser streaks. The 
middle coal measures include a total thickness 
of about 324 ft., in which are embraced about 
8 ft. of coal, including two workable seams 
of 21 and 24 in., one which varies from 1 ft. 
to 8 ft., and six seams too thin to work. The 
lower measures include from 250 to 300 ft., 
embracing about five workable seams of coal, 
varying in thickness from 14 to 44 ft., and 
thin seams from 6 to 11 in. thick, with lesser 
seams and streaks; in all, 18} ft. of coal. 
Missouri has therefore nearly 2,000 ft. of coal 
measures, with a total aggregate of 24 ft. 6 in. 
of coal. All beds over 18 in. thick are estima- 
ted as workable. The estimated area, where 
such may be reached within 200 ft. from the 
surface, is about 7,000 sq.m. The drift for- 
mation spreads over the whole of N. Missouri, 


666, 


and is limited in its southern extension by the 
Missouri river, with the exception of a few 
outliers just south of the river. In some 
counties it is over 100 ft. thick, and where it 
consists chiefly of sand and bowlders the coun- 
try is hilly and rolling, with occasional chaly- 
beate springs., Where blue clay is more abun- 
dant, we find a flat country. Missouri contains 
valuable lead and iron deposits. (See Iron 
Movunrarn, Iron Ores, and Leap.) A geo- 
logical survey of Missouri is now (1875) in 
progress, under the direction of the state ge- 
ologist, G. C. Broadhead.—The climate is in 
some respects extreme. The winters are some- 
times long and severe, the summers often hot; 
and sudden and frequent changes of tempera- 
ture occur. 
at St. Louis (lat. 88° 37’, lon. 90° 16’) in 1872 
was 55°1°, and the total rainfall 31:5 inches. 
The prevailing wind was southerly, and the 
annual mean, as shown by the barometer, was 
30°017. The mean temperature for the differ- 
ent months was: January, 28°3°; February, 


32°4°; March, 39:1° April, 575°; May, 
67-42: June, 76° a ae July, 79°; August, 74:9°; 
September, 69°8° - October, 60° 5°; November, 


40°2°; December, 30°5°.. The greatest amount 
of rainfall, 5°97 inches, was in May.—Maize, 
wheat, oats, and tobacco form the staple pro- 
ductions. Cotton, hemp, and flax are culti- 
vated to some extent in the southern counties. 
The peach, nectarine, apple, and pear are cul- 
tivated, and the wild grape abounds. Grapes 
are extensively cultivated in several counties, 
and large quantities of wine are annually pro- 
duced. The prairies form excellent pasture 
lands, and the bottoms furnish canes and rushes 
for winter fodder. Sheep farming is also suc- 
cessfully and extensively pursued, and swine 
are very numerous, being readily raised in the 
forests. Elk are occasionally found in the 
dense forests of the southeast; deer are still 
met with even in the partially timbered sec- 
tions; and many fur-bearing animals in the 
unsettled parts, but too few to be profitable’to 
the hunter. According to the federal census, 
there were in the state in 1860 92,792 farms 
with an average of 215 acres, and in 1870 
148,328 with an average of 146 acres. In the 
former year the land in farms comprised 
6,246,871 acres of improved and 13,737,939 of 
unimproved land, and in 1870 9, 130, 615 acres 
of improved and 12 ,5 76,605 of unimproved, in- 
cluding 8,965,229 of woodland and 3,611,376 of 
other unimproved land. In 1870 10, 118 farms 
contained from 3 to 10 acres, 17, 431 between 
10 and 20, 55,987 between 20 and 50, 38,595 be- 
tween 50 and 100, 24,898 between 100 and 500, 
514 between 500 and 1,000, and 98 over 1,000 
acres. The cash value of farms was $81, 7 16,- 
576; of farming implements and machinery, 
$4, 456, 633; wages paid during the year, in- 
cluding value of board, $10,326,794; esti- 
mated value of all farm productions, including 
betterments and additions to stock, $73,137,- 
958 ; of orchard products, $71,018 ; of produce 


The mean annual temperature 


MISSOURI 


of market gardens, $61,785 ; of forest products, 
$39,975; of home manufactures, $505,298; of 
animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter, $4, - 
090,818; of all live stock, $29,940,288, The 
productions were 1,093,905 bushels of spring 
and 13,222,021 of ‘winter wheat, 559,532 of 
rye, 66, 034, 075 of Indian corn, 16, 578, 313 of 
oats, 269, 240 of barley, 36,252 ‘of buckwheat, 
43,986 of peas and beans, 4,238,361 of Irish 
and 241,253 of sweet potatoes, 2,494 of clover, 
12,246 of grass, and 10,391 of flax seed, 615,- 
611 tons of hay and 2,816 of hemp, 1,246 bales 


‘of cotton, 12,320,483 lbs. of tobacco, 3,649,390 


of wool, 14,455,825 of butter, 204,090 of 
cheese, 19,297 of hops, 16,613 of flax, 116,980 
of maple sugar, 1,156,444 of honey, 35,248 of 
wax, 326,173 gallons of wine, 857,704 of milk 
sold, 1 730, 171 of sorghum and 16, 317 of maple 
molasses. Besides 543,822 horses and 1 269,065 
neat cattle not on farms, there were on farms 
493,969 horses, 111,502 mules and asses, 398,515 
milch cows, 65,825 working oxen, 689,355 other 
cattle, 1,852,001 sheep, and 2,306,430 swine. 
Missouri produced in 1870, according to the 
census, more Indian corn than any other state 
except Illinois, Iowa, and Ohio, more wine 
than any other except California, and ranked 
after Kentucky, Virginia, Tennessee, Ohio, 
and Maryland in the yield of tobacco; it con- 
tained more mules and asses than any other, 
and more swine than any other except Illi- 
nois; next to Texas and Kentucky the highest 
number of working oxen, and excepting Texas 
and Illinois the most cattle. The reported 
production of cereals in 1873 was: corn, 70,- 
846,000 bushels; wheat, 10,927,000; rye, 446,- 
000; oats, 15,670,000; and barley, 266,000.— 
The great industrial resources of Missouri, its 
abundant water power, and the enterprise of 
its citizens have placed it in the front rank of 
manufacturing states. According to the cen- 
sus of 1870, it ranked next to New York, 
Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Ohio in the 
value of products, while besides those states 
only Connecticut and Illinois surpassed it in 
the amount of capital invested in manufac- 
tures. The general condition of the manufac- 
turing industry in 1870, as compared with that 
of 1860, is shown in the following statement : 


1860. 1870. 

Number of establishments..... 8,157 11.871 
fiteam engines, number... ....| =... se 1,638 
% Ms horse power... 30 Bois 48,418 
Water wheels, number,..,....:/4e% | 12 (h-chie. 883 
; horse power....{ | see 6.644 

Hands employed. total......... 19,681 65,354 
es males above 16..}  — .... 55,904 

vo SS females above15|  —....... 8,884 

¥ S22 AVOULL EY, cosine ate (hee raar tele whe vi 5,566 
Capitals. 20.2. Sas. ether $20, 034,220 $80 257,244 
"Wares inci, cee eteae emiaions $6,669 ‘91 6 $31.055.445 
Value of materials...........-. $23.849.941 $115.533,269 
‘TY Of Products Mkacas. come $41,782,781 | $206,218,429 


Not included in the statement for 1870 is the 
mining industry, the products of which were 
valued at $3,472,513, including bituminous 
coal worth $2,011,820; iron ore, $491,496; 


MISSOURI 


lead, $201,885; and stone, $767,812. The 
number of establishments was 142, employing 
8,423 hands and having a capital of $3,489,- 
250. Missouri in 1870 ranked first in the pro- 
duction of bags other than paper, animal oil, 
paints, and saddlery and harness, and also in 
bridge building; second in the manufacture 
of tobacco, New York being first; and third 
in the production of bread and crackers, brick, 
malt liquors, and patent medicines. There 
were 9,593,591 Ibs. of leaf tobacco, valued 
at $3,752,374, besides other materials worth 
$716,426, used in producing 6,735,362 Ibs. of 
chewing tobacco, valued at $6,209,598, 3,300,- 
938 lbs. of smoking tobacco, worth $1,967,918, 
and 223,900 lbs. of snuff, valued at $154,000. 
Besides this, $817,195 worth of materials were 
used in the manufacture of 47,157 cigars, valu- 
ed at $2,084,093. The relation of the state to 
the United States in those industries in which 
Missouri ranked first is shown ‘in the following 
statement of the value of products: 


667 


INDUSTRIES. Missouri. United States. 
Bags other than paper........ Pes 85, 037,250 | $8.261,679 
Bridge Wuilding....:.3.:cige< eee ds 2,07 2, 620 5, 476, 175 
Ci pantimg lise, sacs o8 alee ne oe ce 4.100.000 9, 728, 667 
Paints, not specified 5 06s... 2,090,850 BT 20.758 
Saddlery and harness............ 5 424,685 | 32,709,981 


Pork packing is also a pebehiiete industry of 
the state. During the season of 1872-3 a 
greater number of hogs were packed in Mis- 
souri than in any other state except Illinois, 
while in 18734 it ranked after Illinois and 
Ohio. The number packed in the former sea- 
son was 890,679, and in the latter 735,868, of 
an average gross weight of 259 lbs., the agere- 
gate cost of which was $8,221 066. The total 
product of lard in 1873- 4 was 26,153,601 lbs. 
The great centre of this industry is St. Louis, 
where 463,793 hogs were packed; Kansas City 
ranked next, 140,348. The most important 
industries of the state, as reported by the cen- 
sus of 1870, are shown in the following table: 


No. of 
INDUSTRIES. establish- 
ments. 
Agriculinralimplements..ic2 ous sestesca ew etclmtieete 88 
Bapsother than: papersicns 2. .irersscteiatehare ofoyersrsbece 6 
(ae Sra ET Fas she taste osc, s: 015 «'s snckopedenstcnciaholotarorater ara 1,380 
Boots\andy shoes (25. stetes <aiccit clonieactera poeeessraiecsten sia. 1,144 
Lote crackers, and other bakery products........ ps 
HOR SEO IG OCe come ate On Ot OME 1 
Bridge UU GIN G52 Passo ic sie Sieraveuieeineln tigers ita T 
Carpentering AiG) buildin gs) Ho. Peele yaiawssie/sisleveisisben we 1,408 
Carriages and Wagonssi. io. fo. kok cts csetarsleldisle s be me 531 
Cars, freight and passenger............eseeecceees 5 
Clothing, TOMS Reseetels stisiaie oe bheeatreasteneRiivs sarc Soles 50T 
WOMNGI Basis iheveiors cia. < crcl retoneretokelave sje orerbte dt vokoie 157 
Wonfection crys ces «settee aes cae bastelowareietoretalavortvacisschsie 20 
COOPEPAL Ol scree arte kao deer a etch navevah stavetordl erctalore era 291 
Flouring and grist mill products................. 2 804 
Furniture, uot AUP iF tors aceiahors, Ovals e's wiaarorerveldtead oH 
CHALCH eee cia « cm ate elevate attacker terete 
Iron, forged and POMOM Says 5 cvcesristsinen oom een 2 
BORMDILS a cicts lage \cale aeiie sae cee Riri eae entkerantet 9 
“ castings not specified 23 
“ stoves, heaters, and hollow ware............. 18 
Liquors, Mintillod. Scat, 0) Wels nt eda aaa 16 
RYTAIG SAF ore ctal siete’ «) 6 ais a= a fopsta\odenpetenctcucheretaratorste 8T 
SEES VATIOUS. Ss oe kl nts oie 2 « ohotatoresablarstevounaigneters 190 
Timmer: mlaneds, cis stele sis. <i sale eoeiseraenspineeirenoee 22 
: SAW .OCL: 5/551 Hate a) fei40/0 ein Soloed aoe cele pean ate 806 
Machinery, steam engines, and boilers............. 82 
Masonry. DICK: ANG: SLONOs. 1s </cid ea ercialars  wsiciel<loaieie 805 
MCA GIDACK EUs POLK: 0, clersle the 01<:01 6) otrs whevebavcrareeloransioma) se 23 
Molasses.and sugar, refined’: 2.6... 20.26 cecese cee 1 
AIM AMAIA etek sass oacais ois osieslorelars Sera dees Micisaretes 3 
Paints, notispechtiod a. sci een] demote olfelpinladeid Cots s 10 
Patent medicines and compounds................. 25 
Printing and publishing, Mot specitied s. cece sec 28 
newspaper. 11.08 mele 52 
ve : HOD. tae tu stems bores 25 
SadUeryveancenaVMCSS crs: wc'.'s crs ¢ cin o'vio's v0.6 o's ayalemia' le 390 
SABUMCOOPSHANG? DUNGS.c oc ees 24 velco este brats vires 25 
Soap andcandlesinsectdes - gud ss ce 2s sb iedive sis’ sfeciad 18 
Tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware..............00.. 853 
Tobacco, chewing, snuffing, and smoking.......... 65 
+ CLEA TBs Pedant e east ils dey clasts cies Bie 818 


Steam 
engines, | Hands . F Value of Value of 
horse j|employed. ie tome SECM ec materials, | products. 
power. 

825 587 $791,485 | $403,847 | $699,876 | $1,588,108 
85 820 511,000 192,600 | 1,464,100 | 5,087,250 
11 2,681 849,555 554,597 766,314 | 2,257,211 

Bb 2,667 | 1,065,994 909,807 | 1,822,718 | 4,099,552 

118 894 697,615 473,499 | 2,061,826 | 8,160,053 

255 2,198 | 1,198,451 652,610 446.639 | 8,148,884 

650 885 | 1,515,100 268,800 | 1,540,805 | 2,072,620 
36 5,017 | 1,796,665 | 2,242,822 | 7,791,594 | 15,561,086 
66 2,170 1,594.679 949,609 | 1,806,587 | 3,258,734 

262 736 660,000 558,700 | 1,812,000 | 2,200,150 

ae 8,470 2,298,025 | 1,821,959 | 3,619,435 | 7,271,962 

AES 884 261,050 209,275 634,850 | 1,080,170 
88 806 290,250 186,800 602,240 | 1,274,855 

185 1,536 851,430 670,635 | 1,107,107 | 2,284,581 

16,471 8,160 8,913,842 | 1,105,980 |24,891,218 | 31,837,352 

658 1,603 2,295,480 844,101 | 1,468,708 ,803,024 

110 412 874,150 220,800 162,710 512,725 

656 401 1,007,143 830,000 §26,750 | 1,455,000 

1,925 1,123 1,914,000 856,780 | 1,875,766 | 2,991,618 

417 89T 321,000 258,210 766,162 | 1,182,255 

635 1,580 2,787,500 | 1,186,674 | 1,431,475 | 2,981,350 

164 110 413,400 56,115 535,786 917,450 

1s 788 | 4,631,050 597,973 | 2,877,028 | 6,519,548 
wate 488 680,875 79,125 683,811 934,442 
611 220 813,100 99, 071 598,509 857,840 

14,697 8,906 8,241,670 | 1,031 ‘518 8,428,235 | 6,808,112 

693 1,421 2,079,900 | 1 "100, 100 | 1,806,064 | 8,825,100 

aee 1,248 227,308 "562,328 897,078 | 1,882,185 

897 952 | 4,042.000 412,965 |10,361,999 | 138,621,995 

820 802 2,000,000 175,000 3, 667,000 | 4,185,250 
82 TT 525,000 62,500 2, 866, 100 | 4,100,000 

445 235 987,500 162,880 1,550,516 2,090,850 
50 812 1,049,000 207,140 771,098 | 2,078,875 

15T 1,188 1,797,500 890,050 | 1,819,270 | 3,887,250 
76 5384 864,700 804,185 870,859 994,577 
29 218 212,100 125,900 206,675 436,800 

ae 1,842 2,025,164 892,518 | 8,189,789 | 5, 404. 685 

824 601 1,185,000 459,288 | 1,800,660 2) 563,416 

859 274 1,075,400 159,850 | 1,288,328 1,794.1 60 

ave 1,386 1,240,405 628,195 | 1,869,206 | 2,945,460 

244 Lote 2,444,700 874,860 | 4, "490, 808 | 8,856,511 

nos 1,417 586,660 611,867 "805, 687 | 2,059,098 


—The commerce of Missouri is very extensive, 
since a large portion of the produce of the 
northwest, as well as of the supplies for that 
section, is borne over the Missouri and Missis- 
sippi rivers and the numerous railroads of the 
state. The great commercial centre of all this 
trade is St. Louis, between which and other 


ers numerous boats are constantly plying. In 
addition to its vast domestic trade, it has an 
important foreign commerce under the act of 
congress of 1870 allowing foreign merchan- 
dise to be transported in bond direct to in- 
terior ports. The value of this import trade 
during the year ending June 30, 1878, was 


leading ports on the western and southern riv- | $1,167,690. St. Louis, St. Joseph, ‘and Kansas 


668 MISSOURI 


City are United States ports of delivery, be- 
longing to the district of Louisiana. In 1878, 
314 vessels, of 131,087 tons, were registered, 
enrolled, and licensed at St. Louis, and 9, of 
1,447 tons, at St. Joseph; 185, of 81,842 tons, 
were steamers. At St. Louis 24 vessels, of 
7,756 tons, were built in 1873.—Missouri had 
88 m. of railroad in 1853, and 817 in 1860. 
The increase of mileage was small up to 1866, 
when the whole number of miles was 925. In 
1870 there were 2,000 m.; in 1871, 2,580; in 
1872, 2,673; in 18738, 2,858; and in 1874, 2,985 
m. of main track and branches, The total cap- 
ital stock in 1873 was stated at $74,440,242, 


and the average cost of the railroads per mile 
at $60,953. The total receipts amounted to 
$12,188,908, of which about 68 per cent. was 
from freight and 32 per cent. from passengers. 
The operating expenses were $7,864,214, and 
the net earnings $4,322,694; dividends paid, 
$250,000. The railroads were valued for tax- 
ation at $24,231,330. The aid granted by the 
state for building them amounts to $16,762,- 
904, and by counties and cities to $28,576,000, 
making a total of $45,338,904. The railroads 
in operation in 1874, with their termini and 
lengths, are indicated in the following state- 
ment: 


; Total length be- 
Miles completed twrcent 0 ganitbel 


CORPORATIONS. TERMINI. in ae day in whens, diferent 
oo from preceding. 
AtianticandSPaciticne ..ccs tin. «<prtereehindssceiee Pacific to ‘Vinita, Ind. ter..222 0 e.le sls 5 leone 293 828 
Burlington and Southwestern................0- Harliagiony is to ene OSEPNS Au oS ciciew st a te 
. nionville to Kansas City...........ee.e-. 

Branches in progress......-.-+-++++s+++++ | Lexington to Neosho... “4 peube mae ecek se et 185 
Cape Girardeau and State Line................. Cape Girardeau to state line, Ark.......... 5 85 
*Chicago and Southwestern.................... Washington, Ia., to Leavenworth, Kan..... 143 271 

Junction to Atchison, Kan................ 80 Fe 
Hannibaland St JOsepl..ies<.ss ais esieccieieai oie Hannibalto St. Joseph. 35. ..00.¢.6csenneis 206 eats 
Palmyraito Quincya len ccicecs cscs cee 15 Ae 
STAN CHES tives owe citetclovelclele i sioreraiere reer cere tee Cameron to Kansas City.................- 53 AS 
St. Joseph to Atchison, Kan............... 22 sigs 
Kansas City, 8t. Joseph, and Council Bluffs..... Kansas City to Council Bluffs, Ia.......... 149 200 

STANCE. Leese Se kicle sscitisbeials eros ea ekelaeh teen Bbne St. Joseph to Hopkins ee ocicsien.c nls ve cies) sieini 60 ae 
Keokuk and Kansas City...........0--.0.00+ Keokuk, Ia., to Kansas City............... 15 235 
TLexington andsSt-siowishw. mess. 45a cotenie s/s <i Sedalia to Lexingtome 72. ccieiseisaiecesiclels wie 55 sh 
{Louisiana and Missouri River................. ‘Louisiana to Mexico... 20 \:25.. seslelem ale oie be 50 aes 

Branches NOM cts tated temic cos-s cee ee eee oe Mexico to Cedar City .fue)ceccceesee anes 50 alent 
Memphis, Carthage, and Northwestern......... Pierce City to Independence, Kan......... 46 1i1 
Mississippi Valley and Western................ Keokuksla:, to Stuouiss.- 2s. .beeseeee er 40 158 
Missouri, lowa, and Nebraska...............00: Alexandria to Nebraska City, Neb.......... T4 800 
Missouri, Kansas, and Texas...........-0.2000- Hannibal to Denison, Texas............... 250 576 

Osagesdivision. $25.8... ces base acta termes Holden to Paola, Kan...........-,-..e.000¢ 85 54 
+Osage Valley and Southern Kansas............ Booneville to Tipton. ce.serararicnceees 25 abt 
+Pacificof, Missourt.7 j.1eeeree-siseem eens est St; Louisito Kansas ‘Clty sources 284 

Branch );... el Penk. casein Me eobes mone Carondelet to Kirkwood................4 15 Bae 
Quincy, Missouri, and Pacific................... Quincy, Ill, to Brownsville, Neb........... 70 230 
St. Louis, Iron Mountain, and Southern......... St. Louis to Columbus, Ky..............6. 196 sate 

raiches { MineralyFoint to Potosi(cee..ccewsccpis celcee 4 

Pe Bee Oy Re a Bismark to Arkansas state line............ 110 

Cairo, Arkansas, and Texas division.......... Cairo, Uitte Ropar blitoeeeser reste. 70 
St. Louis, Kansas City, and Northern.......... St. Louis to Junction (H. and St. J. railr’d). 265 Sous 

Granchie pees ST sie SED Ae bide ee ca ee Moberly to Iowa state line... ...........0. 88 aH 

(Boone County and Jefferson City)..| Centralia to Columbia..................0 22 aa 

Leased. 4 (Chillicothe and Brunswick)......... Brunswick to Chillicothe...............00. 36 5 
‘| (St. Louis, Council Bluffs, and Omaha) Chillicothe to Pattonsburg.............50. 41 

(St. Joseph and St. Louis)........... North Lexington to St. Joseph...........- 76 ans 

+8t. Louis Lawrence, and Denver.............. Pleasant Hill to Lawrence, Kan..... Atkanre 22 61 
St. Louis, Salem, and Little Rock............... Guba tonhalem. S65. 7) sack cameron ee 40 
Dota. opi ev:c) o's clsste’d boo tv EMRE Mies soa eee bate eee ee ei eds eee 2,985 


—The number of national banks in operation 
Nov. 1, 1878, was 35, having a paid-in capital 
of $9,135,300 and an outstanding circulation 
of $5,908,379; circulation per capita, $3 43; 
ratio of circulation to wealth, 0°4 per cent.; 
to bank capital, 64°3 per cent. There were 
in St. Louis 7 banks with a circulation of 
$1,763,150.—The constitution grants the elec- 
tive franchise to every male citizen of the 
United States, and to every foreigner who has 
declared his intention to become a citizen, 
who has attained the age of 21 years, and re- 
sided in the state one year next preceding his 
registration as a voter, and during the last 
* Leased to Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacifia 


+ Leased to Atlantic and Pacific. 
t+ Leased to Chicago and Alton. 


60 days of that period in the place of voting. 
After Jan. 1, 1876, every person who was not 
a qualified voter prior to that time must also 
be able to read and write as a qualification for 
voting. The general elections are held bien- 
nially (even years) on the Tuesday next after 
the first Monday in November. The legislature 
is limited by the constitution to 34 senators, 
elected for four years (one half every two 
years), and 200 representatives, chosen for two 
years. The present number (1875) is 34 sena- 
tors and 131 representatives. New apportion- 
ments are to be made immediately after every 
national census, and also after every state cen- 
sus, which the constitution provides for being 
taken in 1876 and every ten years thereafter. 
The sessions of the legislature are biennial, be- 


a 


MISSOURI 


ginning on the first Wednesday of January in 
odd years. Members of the legislature must 
be white males, and must have paid a state and 
county tax. The governor is elected for two 
years, and is not eligible to that office for more 
than four years in six. His salary is $5,000 
per annum. <A majority of each house of the 
legislature is sufficient to pass a bill over the 
executive veto. The other state officers, who 
are elected for the same term as the governor, 
are a lieutenant governor (who receives $7 a 
day during the session of the general assembly), 
secretary of state, auditor, treasurer (each of 
whom receives $3,000 a year), and attorney 
general. The constitution declares colored citi- 
zens ineligible to the above named state offices 
and also as members of the legislature. The 
supreme court, consisting of five judges elected 
by the people for six years, holds two annual 
sessions at St. Louis, at Jefferson City, and at St. 
Joseph. Besides having appellate jurisdiction, 
it issues remedial writs. There are 29 circuit 
courts, each having one judge elected for six 
years, except that for St. Louis, which has five 
judges. They generally hold two sessions a 
year. Besides these there are county courts of 
three justices in each county, and justices of 
the peace. Imprisonment for debt is prohib- 
ited by the constitution except for fines and 
penalties imposed for violation of law. Amend- 
ments to the constitution must be approved by 
a majority of the members elected to each 
house, and ratified by a vote of the people at 
the next general election. A homestead not 
exceeding $3,000 in value in cities of 40,000 
inhabitants or more, and not exceeding $1,500 
in smaller cities and in the country, is ex- 
empt from levy on execution. The real es- 
tate of a married woman is not liable for the 
debts of the husband. The grounds of di- 
vorce are impotence, desertion for a year, adul- 
tery, conviction of felony or infamous crime, 
habitual drunkenness for a year, cruelties or 
indignities that render life intolerable, the hus- 
band becoming a vagrant, and pregnancy by 
another than the husband without his knowl- 
edge at the time of the marriage. Missouri 
is represented in congress by two senators and 
13 representatives, and has therefore 15 votes 
in the electoral college. The bonded debt of 
the state on Jan. 1, 1875, and the purposes for 
which the bonds were issued, were as follows: 


Hannibal and St. Joseph railroad................ $3,000,000 
Missouri: Pacific railroad’, .....10 52:2. 00). sles ete ele 8,735,000 
St. Louis and Iron Mountain railroad............ 2,340,000 
S. W. Branch Pacific railroad...'........0secee0 1,455,000 
North Missouri SORES Oa. Ea. deat 2,853,000 
Platte County Pap ahh Siisin stuivks, ators sd cepa 504,000 
Cairo and Fulton Soa, ichcia(e oh sveseprers hares stars 892,000 
RSOUSOIS Hee eked Ph aiatete eichs: dicta’ olslalcld ate wae ee cet eel 2,727,000 
Pitate cept propel aamscrils = .iscls--le'sis sid ale sic» syeloieres> 9,000 
Northwestern lunatic asylum..............0506 200,000 
WMUVOEBILY ice tee ete ci se ec ccc cece ssl ce nada 201,000 
S. W. branch Pacific railroad (guaranteed)....... 1,589,000 
Refunding state bank stock...............-ee00+ 04,000 
DRESS DOMOR ce uiiek sa basa sc cc suc evese sen 400,000 
Certificate to'school Tandy. os. . ve ccc ese cece vee 900,000 

EE ig NG Raa ehh 95 oa coe sp wkeds $20,839,000 


The total receipts into the treasury during the 


669 


year ending Jan. 1, 1875, were $3,307,419, 
while the disbursements on warrants amounted 
to $3,434,782. The balance in the treasury 
was $566,215. The constitution provides that 
an annual tax of 15 per cent. shall be levied 
upon the gross:receipts of the Pacific, North 
Missouri, and St. Louis and Iron Mountain rail- 
roads for the payment of the principal and 
interest of the state bonds received by those 
companies; also a tax of one quarter of one 
per cent. on all real and personal taxable prop- 
erty for the payment of the state debt. Accord- 
ing to the federal census of 1870, the assessed 
value of real estate was $418,527,535; person- 
al, $187,602,434. The total taxable wealth in 
1874 (two counties not reported) was $589,- 
174,215, on which there was levied a revenue 
tax (4 of 1 per cent.) of $1,178,496, interest 
tax (4 of 1 per cent.) of $1,473,188, and county 
tax amounting to $5,179,241.—The state asy- 
lum for the insane is in Fulton, and was opened 
in 1851. Of the total number (668) treated 
during the two years ending Dec. 1, 1874, 
136 were discharged recovered, 47 improved, 
65 stationary, and 82 died. In1875 there were 
338 in the asylum. The insane asylum in St. 
Louis is a county institution, but the state ap- 
propriated $30,000 toward its support during 
1873 and 1874. An additional asylum for the 
insane was established at St. Joseph in 1874. 
Deaf and dumb persons between the ages of 7 
and 30 years are received free of charge for 
board and tuition at the state asylum in Fulton. 
This was opened in 1851, and at the beginning 
of 1873 had 146 pupils and 8 instructors. The 
annual appropriation by the state for current 
expenses is $7,000, besides $2,500 to the indi- 
gentfund. St. Bridget’s institute (Roman Cath- 
olic) in St. Louis, for the education of the deaf 
and dumb, was founded in 1860. The institu- 
tion for the blind in St. Louis, opened in 1851, 
receives from the state an annual appropria- 
tion of $15,000, besides the salaries of officers 
and teachers, amounting to about $6,000. 
There were 100 pupils in attendance in 1874. 
The state penitentiary at Jefferson City has a 
capacity for 1,200 convicts; the number in- 
confinement in 1874 was 1,000, including 42 
females. Punishment is by the dungeon, and 
in some cases the lash. The prisoners are em- 
ployed in the manufacture of shoes, furniture, 
saddletrees, and barrels, and in the foundery 
and machine shop; about 500 convicts were 
thus employed in 1874. The penitentiary is 
leased to a company, and is just becoming self- 
sustaining.—The constitution requires the gen- 
eral assembly to maintain free schools open to 
all persons between the ages of 5 and 21 years. 
Separate schools may be established for colored 
children, but all funds provided for the sup- 
port of public schools must be appropriated 
in proportion to the number of children with- 
out regard to color. Certain lands and other 
sources of income are set apart for a perma- 
nent school fund, and in case the income of 
such fund be insufficient to sustain a free school 


670 


at least four months in every year in each 
school district, the general assembly may raise 
the necessary amount bya local tax. The per- 
manent school fund on Jan. 1, 1875, amounted 
to $2,624,354, the income of which, with 25 
per cent. of the state revenue, is distributed 
annually according to the number of pupils 
enumerated. The amount thus distributed 
March 81, 1874, was $410,269. The legal school 
age is from 5 to 21. The general assembly is 
empowered to provide for compulsory educa- 
tion. The supervision of public instruction is 
vested by the constitution in a board of educa- 
tion, consisting of a superintendent of public 
schools, elected by the people for four years, 
and the secretary of state and attorney general. 
A state university, ‘“‘with departments for 
instruction in teaching, in agriculture, and in 
natural science,” is made a part of the free 
public school system of the state. Appropria- 
tions of any public fund for sectarian education 
by the state, county, or any municipal corpora- 
tion, are prohibited by the constitution. The 
most important statistics of the public schools 
of the state for 1873 are thus reported by the 
state superintendent: 


705,817 
843,540 


Number of persons between 5 and 21 years of age. 
DALE EUBION toh acscominins Siebicisleldo's video s/t stein 


eM -foIMales acces ert oe meee: Mee tec Sete ts 824,034 
Coloredimalesis.2™s. .2) 8h. di. eae en ae 20,591 
mi peal OM AGS. se tarstecs ever kee eile inde ences 17,652 
Number between the ages of 5 and 16 years....... 485,249 
Nimbex, of publichschoolsac. tena scts oti seine 829 
Kor} white persOnaiatios taster shit a leeicigee bowie ele 7,547 
HOT COLreGsPOrsOUBs emits smtdesto ey ice ente 282 
Number of school districts: .....22.05). dociee cscs 4,483 
Shot; SCHOOLHOUSES, Jo. eh es bela ehh eee ete 7,224 
eeyeOl Ptivate Schoolsecscck scr eeeste accion: 661 
eS WOLsmorm aleschools-ses. dese ene ere tet 5 
Number enrolled in public schools............... 871,440 
a oy San) Private SChOOIS. peta. oh <i 83,525 
: ‘“« in university and normal schools. 1,252 
Daily average attendance in public schools....... 210,692 
Number of teachers (male 6,281, female 3,395).... 9,676 
Average monthly wages, male.........--......6. $39 87 
se is + TOMAlO eT cr oe. we teed s $30 36 
Total income for school purposes................. $2,117,662 
From state fund, including 25 per cent. state 
TOVODILG, . > eres nies cree te oo aes ee TE Ene ce $252,461 
From county fund 7292). oan eee oe $181,546 
rom township fundss st. .ck ta seleeeie the ts tee $187,222 
AUTOM GbAXGLIOTL Len eee Bie Lp eee eo ees $1,496,483 
WOpalexpendituresancnsacre te oem tenet oe ee $1,638,353 
A me Tenchersu/wagescs. . Si. P eee. ene ee $1,125,605 
Buildings and grounds 4 . jc. .¢ «dee eee ehceaee $295,026 
Ent OLTOOMS/ANG Tepalrs. ss, 5 cee oe eee $84,518 
Fuel and contingencies.................e0s00e- $67,387 
Hurnitureandiapparatus.. ..'..ieieetmceenaes $65,822 
Balance of moneys unaccounted for............ $479.309 
Total valuation of school property............... $6,774,506 
Cost of education per scholar, based on enumera- 
DENT ey aa sha ucts cota s Bis’ okies ac, tim acaecas hale $3 00 
Cost of education per scholar, based on attendance 
OPGOHTOMMEN Gs shire visi Fiesta e ore chide aoe em $5 70 


There are six normal schools, supported at 
public expense and without charge for tuition, 
with an aggregate capacity for upward of 2,300 
pupils, viz.: the normal college connected with 
the state university, with accommodations for 
150 students; the city normal school in St. 
Louis, 150; the North Missouri school, at 
Kirksville, 700; the South Missouri, at War- 
rensburg, 600; the Southeast Missouri, at Cape 
Girardeau, 500; and the normal department of 
Lincoln institute, at Jefferson City, 200. The 


MISSOURI 


condition of these institutions in 1873-’4 is 
shown in the following statement: 


Annual 
Organ No. of in-| No. of 
INSTITUTIONS. at; state APPrO- | i tors. | pupils. 
priation. 
Normal department 
state university....)] 1868 | ...... 13 83 
North Missouri nor- 
mal school-:.2..:-. 1871 $10,000 9 668 
South Missouri nor- 
mal school).c.5 ccm 1871 10,000 11 898 
Southeast Missouri 
normal school...... 1873 5,000 5 113 
St. Louis normal 
SCHOO on < dey eceree SO Uy Weaaetsnats sie 11 123 
Normal department 
Lincoln institute...| 1866 5,000 6 40 


| The normal schools are established upon a broad 


and liberal basis. The North Missouri and South 
Missouri schools have been erected at a cost of 
about $150,000 and $200,000 respectively. The 
complete course embraces four years. The 
normal department of Lincoln institute is for 
the training of colored teachers, while that in 
St. Louis is a city institution, though open to 
applicants from all parts of the state. The 
law requires two teachers’ institutes to be held 
in each county every year.—The state univer- 
sity, organized in 1840, is at Columbia, near 
the centre of the state. It has received Mis- 
souri’s portion of the national grant of land 
made by congress in 1862 for the establish- 
ment of colleges of agriculture and the mechanic 
arts. Its government is vested in a board of 
24 curators, who are appointed by the governor 
with the consent of the senate, and who ap- 
point the president and instructors. There is 
also a board of five visitors, who are required 
to examine into the condition of the university 
at least once a year. The plan of the institu- 
tion embraces the college proper; the normal 
school, opened in 1868; agricultural and me- 
chanical college, 1870; school of mines and 
metallurgy at Rolla, 1871; college of law, 
1872; medical college, 1873; and department 
of analytica] and applied chemistry, 1873. It 
is expected that other departments relating to 
the mechanic arts, the fine arts, engineering, 
and architecture and construction will be or- 
ganized. The total number of students in 
attendance during the year 1873-’4 was 553, 
including 5 resident graduates, 176 in the col- 
lege proper, 216 in the preparatory department, 
107 in the school of mines, 34 in the law, and 
15 in the medical school. The whole number 
of instructors was 29. The university is open 
to women on the same terms as to men. The 
scientific department of Washington university 
in St. Louis was opened in 1857, and the col- 
lege in 1859. It now embraces: 1, the acad- 
emy, a preparatory department; 2, Mary insti- 
tute, a seminary for girls; 8, the college; 4, the 
polytechnic department; 5, the law school. In 
1873-4 the number of instructors in all depart- 
ments was 22, and of pupils 908. The colleges 
and professional schools of the state are repre- 
sented in the following statement for 1873-4: 


MISSOURI 671 
D. No. of | No, of 
ate o 
NAME OF INSTITUTION. Where situated, Denomination. organi- No. of | pupils, | pupils, 
sition. teachers. | prepar-| colle- 
atory. | giate 
Central college............0... uae sacar se te tate Fayette .| M. E. church, South..| 1871 6 80 | 100 
Obristian untvarsitiycg nie wo. eeeae ok vid esetas ots aan oe Canton ........ Christian...... Nb aoDE 1856 8 160 
St. Louis ...... Roman Catholic .....| 1859 ae oan 
Springfield ....| Congregational. ...... 1873 8 92 23 
Hannibal oollegeyoct ads tosh elec oe cv Hannibal ..... . E. church, South.| 1868 5 90 | 145 
Lewis college ..... Ficinid Pocene COC TCO AO OO, Glasgow....... Methodist Episcopal..| 1865 4 ay, 65 
Greenwood....| United Presbyterian..| 1870 4 ADS ilitiels 
McGee college..... Angina codtioouyerede Sopdemeaddnaeder College Mound.| Cumb. Presbyterian..| 1853 10 .. | 184* 
St. Joseph..... Roman Catholic...... 1867 9 100 92 
St. Louis ...... Roman Catholic..... .| 1832 23 oo | Bt4t 
Palmyra....... Protestant Episcopal.| 1844 SS iweste 
Cape Girardeau| Roman Catholic...... 1844 15 IS ee 
Washington mniversiig rae his fristit's as sek eB s Shes SELGUIS cscs cl) sci so AOC ACROSS sobonel) Hey 22 883 34 
Westminster college......... atalelfe eS (ata ale sions ieinverenats Waltons: ves Presbyterian.......... 1852 5 ae v5) 
William Jowell college oe oii ade ici is les MADE. si teen OADUIBSt Wee see eos 1858 9 Ae ty ne FG 
Wondland colleges. icine 25s iss ae bwoars cde cea Independence .| Christian............. 1869 4 80 yous 
THEOLOGIOAL SCHOOLS, 
German Evangelical Lutheran college, Concordia....| St. Louis....... Evangelical Lutheran,| 1839 6 = ell Ok 
St VECCR NG tial Ck nce sls Shoe ig erodis wid Dolaresinarack pie Cape Girardeau.! Roman Catholic...... 1844 16 é 19 
Theological school of Westminster college........... Halonen iastecters Presbyterian’, <.1..¢.c1610 aisle ate : ik 
Vandeman school of theology............seeseeeees EMBO Vesna «5 suc] DADUBt «cece esects.s 0 1869 5 : 49 
LAW SCHOOLS. 
Law college of state university...... Sec etiO.cMRO ABCD Columbiaeeee..cbosvesueose tee ae tere oe 1872 7 84 
Law department of Washington university.......... Sind OMICS Gna AIRS stan kitid a AGogare rhc 1867 10 40 
MEDICAL SCHOOLS. 
Kansas City college of physicians and surgeons...... Kansas! Cityonaniltctetsssteeses sells ae ee 1869 10 15 
Medical college of state university.................. Columbia: satiation oes taee ate erator eles 1873 5 15 
Missouri medicals Coles ote serie ace sreisie 0-0 s/s eter scl BESO S se ecriatotcprsciis cits ciataiotelars at's 1840 18 61 
At.lonis, medicalicolléves eo. Sie... cher dl iles erat Ry ee ee DEENA Sete iteacte iolehere 1841 10 . 164 
Homeopathic medical college of Missouri........... Bae” Oe be SS EISELE Orc Lied to 1858 13 389 
Missouri dentalicolleze. ooo. 2c). 5 saa sjsic.ca cecle ds aneeves Ce Pe IE Opie Gaetan Gc 1865 13 8 
Stwouisicollege oF pharmacy ..0-s-0cc0 ccccet cece te oe PE Amal otras ctcieiere’s ctiere ere ate ete 1864 3 42 
SCIENTIFIO SCHOOLS. 
Agricultural and mechanical college (state university)| Columbia ......|........+s.eeeeeeeeeee 1870 10 183 
Missouri school of mines and metallurgy (state uni-| face ee ec ec ese ceeeeeecs 
VErBity) so scau tess sees baileee Soleo dace ROC Satie FROUBIR= 54404 a cio aeite weeieuelv os eels cote 1871 6 sae [ekOe 
Polytechnic department of Washington university...| St. Louis.......)...0.e.sccececeseecees 1857 16 ac 389 


The leading institutions for the advanced in- 
struction of women are the Ursuline academy, 
Mary institute, and academy of the Visitation, 
in St. Louis; Christian college and Stephen’s 
female college, Columbia; Howard female col- 
lege, Fayette; Independence female college, 
Independence; St. Teresa’s academy, Kansas 
City; Liberty female college, Liberty; Ingle- 
side female college, Palmyra; and Lindenwood 
college for young ladies, St. Charles. The old- 
est of these are the academy of the Visita- 
tion, organized in 1833, and Ursuline academy, 
opened in 1848, both Roman Catholic. Nine 
of these institutions report an aggregate of 
1,136 pupils, of whom 807 were in the colle- 
giate and 829 in preparatory studies, and 97 
instructors, including 11 males. St. Louis has 
four commercial and business colleges, and 
there is one in St. Joseph and one in Kansas 
City.—According to the census of 1870, the 
total number of educational institutions in 
Missouri was 6,750, having 9,028 teachers, of 
whom 3,871 were females, and 370,337 pupils. 
The total income of the whole was $4,340,805, 
of which $57,567 was from endowment, $3,- 
067,449 from taxation and public funds, and 
$1,215,789 from tuition and other sources. 
Besides the 5,996 public schools, having 7,862 
teachers, there were 87 colleges with 261 


* In all departments. 
+ In collegiate commercial courses. 


564 VOL. x1.—43 


teachers and 6,067 students, 45 academies with 
338 teachers and 5,031 pupils, and 586 private 
schools with 770 teachers and 26,816 pupils. 
The total number of libraries in the state was 
5,645, having 1,065,638 volumes; 3,903 with 
566,642 volumes were private, and 1,742 with 
498,996 volumes other than private. Of the 
latter there was 1 state library, with 12,000 
volumes; 11 town, city, &c., 8,097; 125 court 
and law, 35,104; 50 school, college, &c., 
44,825; 1,283 Sabbath school, 188,493; 248 
church, 96,845; and 28 circulating, 112,450. 
The largest libraries in the state are the St. 
Louis mercantile, 45,000 volumes; St. Louis 
university, 25,000; public school library of St. 
Louis, 36,000; and college ‘of the Christian 
Brothers, 10,000. The total number of news- 
papers and periodicals was 279, having an 
ageregate circulation of 522,866, and issuing 
annually 47,980,422 copies. There were 21 
daily, with a circulation of 86,655; 5 tri-weekly, 
18,800; 225 weekly, 342,361; 8semi-monthly, 
22,000; 23 monthly, 53,650; and 1 annual, 
1,500. In 1874 there were reported 24 daily, 
5 tri-weekly, 1 semi-weekly, 284 weekly, 6 
semi-monthly, 80 monthly, 1 bi-monthly, and 1 
quarterly ; total, 352.—In 1870 the state con- 
tained 38,229 religious organizations, having 
2,082 edifices with 691,520 sittings, and prop- 
erty valued at $9,709,358. The different de- 
nominations were represented as follows: 


672 

DENOMINATIONS, i, rae Edifices. | Sittings. | Property. 
Raptist, regular........ 792 | 513 144,210 |$1,090,708 
A, NE ORROP ES sicten he 13 5 1,150 5,000 
Christian’ ten sms 5 894 | 229 68,545 | 514,700 
Congregational......... 37 27 12,295 235,700 
Episcopal, Protestant...| 83 51 20,950 485,650 
Evangelical Association. 5 5 1,800 15,000 
Wriends,, dedcsictes at tie 2 500 2,000 
JOWISH SE. -hecusenetiens 4 4 2,100 217,100 
Lutheran vers cee cess. 94 86 89,550 768,600 
Methodist.s.75..ccsa0:5 1,066 | 626 185,420 | 1,645,300 

New Jerusalem (Swe- 
denborgian),.......-. 4 8 1,000 22,500 
Presbyterian, regular...| 8382 | 2382 %4,500 | 1,210,750 
Cy other..... 144 87 28,850 175,000 

Reformed church in the 

United States (late 
German Reformed)...| 11 9 1,900 16,900 
Roman Catholic........ 184 | 166 97,550 | 3,119,450 
Unitarianw. oes eee i 9 3,200 142,200 
United Breth’nin Christ} 388 20 5,800 82,000 
Universalist...........- 2 900 2,500 
Unknown (Union)...... 5 6 1,800 8,300 


—By the grant of Louis XIV. to Crozat dated 
Sept. 14, 1712, ‘‘all the country drained by the 
waters emptying directly or indirectly into the 
Mississippi is included in the boundaries of Lou- 
isiana.” (See Lovistana.) The states of Ar- 
kansas, Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska were parts 
of the same grand division. The northern por- 
tion was called Upper Louisiana. The settle- 
ment and progress of Missouri were later and 
less rapid than those of the lower districts; 
but as early as 1720 its lead mines had attracted 
attention. In 1755 Ste. Genevieve, its oldest 
town, was founded. In 1762 France ceded to 
Spain the territory W. of the Mississippi, and 
the portion E. of that river to England. France 
had been despoiled of all her North American 
possessions. During the contest numbers of 
Canadian French settled in both Upper and 
Lower Louisiana, and a flourishing river trade 
sprang up between the two sections. Lands 
were granted liberally to the colonists, and 
numerous emigrants from Spain flocked into 
the country. In 1775 St. Louis, originally a 
depot for the fur trade, contained 800 inhab- 
itants, and Ste. Genevieve about 460. At this 
time Spain, siding with the colonists, entered 
into hostilities against England. In Lower 
Louisiana and Florida the arms of Spain were 
successful; but in 1780 St. Louis was attacked 
by a body of English and Indians from Michili- 
mackinac, and was only relieved by the time- 
ly arrival of Gen. Clarke from Kaskaskia. The 
general peace of 1783 put an end to hostilities. 
In the division of the Louisiana purchase in 
1803, Missouri was included in the district of 
Louisiana, which in 1805 was erected into 
the territory of Louisiana, with St. Louis as 
the seat of its government. In 1812, on the 
admission of the present state of Louisiana 
into the Union, the name of the territory 
was changed to Missouri, and its government 
was made representative. The limits on the 
west were gradually extended by treaties with 
the indians. In 1810 the population num- 
bered 20,845, of whom all but about 1,500 
belonging to Arkansas were settled within the 


MISSOURI 


present limits of Missouri. Immigration now 
came in rapidly from the east. In 1817 the 
total population had increased to 60,000, and 
St. Louis contained 5,000 inhabitants. In this 
year the assembly applied to congress for per- 
mission to frame a state constitution. The 
struggle to prevent the extension of slavery 
into the new states led to the celebrated 
compromise of 1820, whereby it was deter- 
mined that Missouri should come into the 
Union as a slaveholding state, but that sla- 
very should never be established in any states 
formed in the future from the lands lying N. 
of lat. 36° 30’. The state constitution was 
framed by a convention of 40 delegates con- 
vened in St. Louis, July 19, 1820; and the 
state was admitted by proclamation of the 
president, Aug. 10, 1821. From this time un- 
til the present the progress of the state in ma- 
terial prosperity has been rapid; immigration 
has been constant, and agriculture, mining, 
commerce, and manufactures have been ex- 
panded into vast interests. The first move- 
ment in Missouri toward secession was made 
on Jan. 16, 1861, when a bill was passed by 
the senate providing for the assembling of a 
state convention. This body was organized 
at Jefferson City on Feb. 28, and reassembled 
in St. Louis March 4. Popular feeling was 
opposed to secession, and the action of the 
convention, which adjourned without passing 
any measures of great importance, as well as 
of the legislature, was strongly in favor of the 
Union. Soon afterward United States troops 
began to assemble under command of Gen. 
Harney in St.’ Louis, which was regarded as 
an important military point for operations 
against the insurgent states. Some minor con- 
flicts having arisen between the federal troops 
and the state militia, and negotiations for the 
maintenance of peace having failed, a procla- 
mation was issued on June 12 by Goy. Jack- 
son, calling into active service 50,000 of the 
state militia “‘for the purpose of repelling in- 
vasion, and for the protection of the lives, 
liberty, and property of the citizens.” On 
the following day 1,500 United States troops 
under command of Gen. Lyon were moved 
from St. Louis to Jefferson City, where 
they arrived on the 15th. About the same 
time other troops were sent to Rolla. Gov. 
Jackson, however, with other officers of the 
state government, had fled from Jefferson City 
on the 13th and gone to Booneville, where he 
summoned the state troops to his support. 
Gen. Lyon immediately advanced upon this 
point, and on June 17 defeated the state troops, 
who subsequently retreated to Syracuse. The 
greater portion of the state at this time was 
under federal control, but hostile state troops 
were organized in the southwest under Gen. 
Price. The state convention, having been re- 
assembled, on July 30 declared vacant the 
offices of governor, lieutenant governor, and 
secretary of state, and filled them by appoint- 
ment. The seats of the members of the legis- 


MISSOURI 


lature were also declared vacant. On Aug. 1 
Gov. Gamble, appointed by the convention, 
was inaugurated. On the 5th Gov. Jackson, 
at New Madrid, issued a proclamation declar- 
ing the separation of the state from the Union. 
Confederate forces were now assembling in 
large numbers in S. W. Missouri under Gens. 
Pillow, Hardee, McCulloch, Price, and Thomp- 
son. From Booneville Gen. Lyon’s force 
moved to Springfield, and on Aug. 10 encoun- 
tered a force of state troops and confederate 
soldiers from Arkansas under Gens. Price and 
McCulloch at Wilson’s creek, near Springfield, 
where Gen. Lyon was killed. After the battle, 
the federal forces, under command of Col. Si- 
gel, retired to Rolla. On Aug. 31 Gen. Fre- 
mont, commanding the department of the 
West, declared martial law throughout the 
state. A large federal force was now gathered 
at St. Louis for operation against the confed- 
erates in the S. W. part of the state. On 
Sept. 20 Lexington, defended by about 3,000 
federal soldiers under Col. Mulligan, was sur- 
rendered after a severe conflict with a much 
larger army under Gen. Price. This caused 
Gen. Fremont, Sept. 27, to hasten from St. 
Louis to Jefferson City. The confederates, 
however, numbering about 20,000, soon re- 
tired from Lexington to Springfield and fur- 
ther south. The advance of Fremont in the 
southwest, which was attended with numerous 
skirmishes, was made in five divisions under 
Gens. Hunter, Pope, Sigel, Asbéth, and Mc- 
Kinstry. On Nov. 2 Fremont was succeed- 
ed by Gen. Hunter. The federal forces soon 
after began to recede, and the confederates 
to advance in the same direction. On Nov. 
18 Gen. Halleck arrived at St. Louis to as- 
sume command of the western department. 
Certain members of the legislature, friendly 
to the confederate cause, having obtained a 
quorum of that body at Neosho, on Nov. 2 
passed an act ratifying an arrangement be- 
tween commissioners of the state and the con- 
federate government, by which Missouri was 
to become a member of the confederacy. At 
the beginning of 1862 nearly half of the state 
was held by the confederate troops; but in 
February a strong federal force under Gen. 
Curtis drove Price into Arkansas. Through- 
out the year the state was much disturbed by 
guerilla warfare. In the summer of 1863 the 
state convention which had been originally 
assembled to consider the subject of secession, 
and had been kept in existence by adjourn- 
ments, passed an ordinance providing for the 
, emancipation of all slaves in the state in 1870. 
In the autumn of 1864 Gen. Price, having again 
invaded Missouri, threatened St. Louis, and 
traversed a large part of the state, but was 
finally forced to retreat into Arkansas. The 
first election for state officers after the begin- 
ning of the war was held in November, 1864, 
the state having been governed during this 
period by officers appointed by the state con- 
vention. On Jan. 6, 1865, a convention as- 


MISSOURI RIVER 673 
sembled in St. Louis and framed a new con- 
stitution, which was ratified by the people in 
June following by a vote of 43,670 to 41,808. 
During the war Missouri furnished to the 
federal army 108,773 troops, equivalent to 
86,192 for three years. The 15th amendment 
to the federal constitution was ratified by the 
legislature in 1869. (See supplement.) 
MISSOURI RIVER (7. e., Mud river), the prin- 
cipal tributary of the Mississippi. It prop- 
erly forms one stream with that river, being 
much greater in length and volume than the 
other branch which bears that name above 
the mouth of the Missouri. It rises near the 
boundary between Montana and Idaho, among 
the Rocky mountains, in several small streams, 
the principal of which are Jefferson and Wis- 
dom rivers (the latter rising within a mile of 
the head springs of Clarke’s fork of the Colum- 
bia), whose sources lie between lat. 44° 20’ and 
45° 35’ N., and lon. 112° and 114° W., uniting 
about lat. 45° 15’, lon. 110° 80’. According to 
some geographers, the Missouri properly be- 
gins about 80 m. further E., where the stream 
formed by the Jefferson and Wisdom, which 
on this hypothesis retains thus far the former 
name, is joined by the Madison and Gallatin. 
The Madison, the middle and largest fork, by 
some considered the true source, rises in the 
National Park in N. W. Wyoming, near the 
sources of the Snake and Yellowstone. After 
a devious course N. from the junction of the 
three forks to about lat. 48°, the Missouri runs 
E. through Montana into Dakota, where it is 
joined by (lesser) White Earth river. Its gen- 
eral direction is 8S. E. thence to the Mississippi, 
which it joins in lat. 88° 50’ 50” N., lon. 90° 
14’ 45” W., after separating Nebraska from 
Iowa, forming a small part of the dividing line 
between Missouri and Kansas and Nebraska, 
and flowing across the whole state of Missouri. 
Its length to the Madison fork source is 2,908 
m., which added to 1,286 m., the length of the 
lower Mississippi, makes its whole course to 
the gulf 4,194 m. It has commonly been navi- 
gated as far as the mouth of the Yellowstone, 
on the border of Dakota and Montana, but it 
may be ascended by steamboats much further, 
to the Great falls almost at the very base of 
the mountains, and about 2,500 m. from the 
Mississippi. ‘There is no serious obstruction to 
navigation below this point, though at certain 
seasons the water is shallow, owing to its pass- 
ing through a dry and open country in its up- 
per course, and being subject to extensive evap- 
oration. It is generally turbid and rapid. In 
its lower course it is bordered by a narrow 
alluvial valley of great fertility, back of which 
lie generally extensive prairies. At its mouth 
it is over half a mile wide, and in many places 
it is much wider. Its principal tributaries are 
the Yellowstone, Little Missouri, Big Cheyenne, 
(greater) White Earth, Niobrarah, Platte or 
Nebraska, Kansas, and Osage on the right, and 
the Milk, Dakota, Big Sioux, Little Sioux, and 
Grand on the left. It will thus be seen that 


674 MISSOURIS 


the Missouri receives all the great rivers which 
rise on the eastern declivity of the Rocky 
mountains, with the single exception of the 
Arkansas, and a large share of the waters which 
lie between its own bed and that of the Upper 
Mississippi. The area which it drains is esti- 
mated at 518,000 sq.m. The most important 
places on its banks are Fort Benton in Mon- 
tana, Yankton in Dakota, Sioux City and 
Council Bluffs in Iowa, Omaha in Nebraska, 
Atchison and Leavenworth in Kansas, and St. 
Joseph, Kansas City, Lexington, Booneville, 
Jefferson City, and St. Charles in Missouri. 
About 400 m. from its source the river passes 
through a narrow gorge denominated the 
‘Gates of the Rocky mountains.” It is 52 m. 
long, and the perpendicular walls of rock, 
which rise directly from the water to the height 
of 1,200 ft., are only 450 ft. apart. For the 
first 8 m. there is but one spot where a foot- 
hold could be obtained between the water and 
the rock. The Great falls are 145 m. below 
this point. They are among the grandest on 
the continent, and consist of four cataracts, re- 
spectively of 26, 47, 19, and 87 ft. perpendicu- 
lar descent, separated by rapids. The whole 
fall in 164 m. is 357 ft. 

MISSOURIS, or Missourias, a tribe of Indians 
belonging to the Dakota family, and calling 
themselves Nudarcha, Missouri being the name 
given them by the Illinois. Marquette in 1673 
first heard of them as the first tribe up the 
river which bears their name. As allies of 
the Illinois they soon established friendly re- 
lations with the French, and were among the 
tribes who in 1712 marched to the relief of 
Detroit. In. 1719 they entrapped and cut to 
pieces a Spanish expedition sent against them 
from Mexico. In 1720 the French under De 


Bourgmont established a fort on an island near. 


the Missouris, and the great chief aided him to 
reach and make peace with the Comanches. 
He took some of the chiefs to France in 1725, 
and Dubois, a sergeant who had married a girl 
of the tribe, returned with them as command- 
er of the post; but the French were soon 
after massacred to a man. Friendly relations 
were afterward restored, and Missouris served 
in the French. operations against’ the. Chick- 
asaws. They were opposed’ to: the English 
ascendancy. Lewis and Clarke found them in 
1805 reduced to a band of 800 souls, with 80 
warriors, on the south side of the Platte, at 
war with the Omahas, Poncas, Osages, Sioux, 
and Kansas. Great numbers had been carried 
off by smallpox, and, abandoning their ancient 
village in a fertile plain on the Missouri below 
the Grand, they had sought refuge with the 
Ottoes, with whom they have ever since been 
connected. After various sales of lands by 
them to the government, the combined tribes 
were removed to the Big Blue. In 1862 they 
numbered 708, and in 1872 had decreased to 
464. They now receive $9,000 a year, but 
when ten payments have been made the annu- 
ity is to be reduced to $5,000. Missions at- 


MISTAKE 


tempted by the Presbyterians, as well as all 
attempts at education, have proved unavailing. 

MISTAKE. It is a fundamental principle of 
law that no man shall avail himself, either to 
establish or resist a claim, of his mistake or 
ignorance of law. So also in criminal law it 
is an ancient maxim: Jgnorantia legis nemi- 
nem excusat. The reason sometimes assigned, 
that the law supposes every one to be acquaint- 
ed with it, is nothing more than a repetition 
of the rule in other words. The true reason 
is, the extreme danger of permitting any per- 
son to shelter himself under his ignorance of 
the law, or to found a right upon it. For this 
would be, in the words of the king’s bench in 
England, “to hold out a premium for igno- 
rance,”’ and ignorance of that which it is of 
the utmost importance that all men should 
know. Hence the law distinguishes most care- 
fully between a mistake of law and a mistake 
of fact; for the latter, as a general rule, -is 
rectified, and all mischievous consequences pre- 
vented, as far as possible; and a mistake as to 
the law of a foreign state or country is regard- 
ed only as a mistake of fact, because no one 
is under any obligation to become acquainted 
with a foreign law.—To this general rule there 
are some important qualifications; the princi- 
pal one being, that no mere acknowledgment, 
or waiver of defence or right, made under a 
mistake of law, is binding. Thus, if one has 
a good legal defence against a promissory 
note, but, through ignorance or mistake of the 
law, supposes himself bound to pay it, and on 
this supposition gives a promise to pay it, the 
promise will not, in general, be binding upon 
him. In many cases also much relief is to be 
obtained by the construction of a contract ; 
but this is always governed and limited by cer- 
tain definite rules. It is often said by ethical 
writers, that a party to a contract is bound to 
execute the contract in the sense which he 
knew the other party to put upon it. This 
may be true always in a moral sense; but it 
certainly is not true in a legal sense, although 
courts have sometimes seemed to think it was 
a good rule of law. The true rule and the 
reason of it are easily seen. If A contracts 
with B in writing to sell him 100 mules, and 
receives the money, and B at the time, being a 
foreigner perhaps or for some other reason, 
understood that he was buying horses, all 
which A knew, nevertheless B could not claim 
horses under the contract. He could, by proy- 
ing his mistake and A’s knowledge of it, make 
out acase of fraud, and this would annul the 
contract, and then he could recover his money. , 
But the reason why he could do no more is, 
that the law will not, under pretence of con- 
struing a contract, make a new contract for 
the parties. Hence, it is another way of ex- 
pressing the same rule, that the actual inten- 
tion of the parties to a contract shall be car- 
ried into effect, so far as it is possible to arrive 
at that intention by a rational construction of 
the words they have actually used, but no fur- 


MISTLETOE 


ther ; for it is one of the most reasonable, safe, 
and well established rules, that no evidence 
from without a written contract shall be per- 
mitted to control or vary it. While parties are 
negotiating they may change their minds and 
vary their demands and concessions, and gen- 
erally do this to some extent. But when they 
have finally put their terms in writing, the law 
supposes that these are what they have con- 
cluded upon, and that they have chosen and 
used the very words which express their mean- 
ing; and that whatever is not therein stated, 
although it may have previously passed be- 
tween them, has been purposely omitted be- 
cause it was not finally agreed to. It would 
therefore be manifestly unjust to permit evi- 
dence of any of these things to come forward 
and vary the written contract; and hence the 
rule, which is concisely expressed in the Scotch 
law thus: “ Writing cannot be cut down or 
taken away by the testimony of witnesses.” 
But while evidence must not vary, it may ex- 
plain, the contract. Thus, in the most solemn 
deed, it may be necessary to explain the terms 
of the instrument, in order to show who the 
_ parties are, what the boundaries of land mean, 
or where it is situated. But it is a very differ- 
ent thing when one of the parties says that the 
deed contains a mistake; that the house or 
the field it conveys is not the house or field 
which it was intended to convey; and on this 
ground demands to hold the house or field 
which, as he alleges, should have been given 
to him. And it may be regarded as the estab- 
lished rule concerning mistakes, that any mis- 
take in an instrument may be corrected by 
construction, if the instrument itself affords 
the means of correction; but not, if it can be 
done only by going outside of the instrument. 
Courts of equity, however, have large powers 
to reform conveyances and contracts where by 
mistake in drafting them they are made to 
express a different intent from the one agreed 
upon. (See CHancery, and Equity.) 
MISTLETOE (Anglo-Saxon mistiltan, from 
mistl, different, and tan, twig, as the plant is 
unlike the tree upon which it grows), a parasi- 
tic evergreen shrub of the family loranthacea. 
The true European mistletoe is viscum album, 
the generic name being the Latin word for the 
plant as well as for bird lime. The family 
comprises about 30 genera of mostly tropical 
evergreen shrubs, all of which are parasitic, 
and some of which have showy flowers; a de- 
scription of the less conspicuous mistletoe will 
give the general characters of the whole fam- 
ily. The genus viscwm, besides the common 
European one, comprises a few Asiatic species. 
The mistletoe is succulent when young, but 
becomes woody when old; its branches are 
repeatedly forked, and form together dense 
tufts 1 to 2 ft. in diameter, and attached to the 
branches of the trees by the thickened base of 
its main stem; the branches break readily at 
the distinct joints, at each of which is borne a 
pair of opposite, sessile, thickish leaves, which 


675 


vary from narrowly oblong to obovate, but 
are always entire and obtuse; the flowers are 
dicecious, nearly sessile in the forks of the 
branches; those in the male plant three to five 
together in a somewhat cup-shaped involucre, 
with short, thick, triangular petals, and the 


Mistletoe (Viscum album), 


same number of stamens, which are sessile in 
the centre of the petals, their anthers opening 
by several pores; the female or pistillate plant 
has its flowers solitary, rarely two or three 
together, and consisting of four minute petals 
at the top of the ovary, which is one-celled, 
with a simple style, and in ripening forms a 
white, semi-transparent berry with a single 
seed, surrounded by an exceedingly viscid or 
glutinous pulp. The mistletoe extends from 
Sweden to the Mediterranean, and is very 
common in the southern and western coun- 
ties of England, where it grows upon a great 
variety of trees; it especially affects the apple, 
and in the cider districts is very destructive to 
the trees, as when once established it continues 
to grow as long as there is any life in its host. 
It is supposed to be disseminated by birds 
which feed upon the berries, and that in their 
attempts to wipe the viscid pulp from their 
bills they attach the seeds to the bark of the 
branches. To establish the plant artificially, a 
small slit of the bark is raised with a knife and 
the seeds are placed beneath it; this is done 
upon the under side of a branch to hide the 
seed from birds. Many experiments have been 
made upon the germination of this plant, and 
it is found that, in whatever position the seed 
may be placed, the radicle, which in ordinary 
plants tends directly downward, will be di- 
rected toward the surface to which the seeds 
are attached, without reference to gravitation, 
light, or any other influence. The radicle is 
frequently obliged to arch itself over to reach 
the bark, and when it comes in contact with 
this its end expands to form adisk which gives 
it a firm hold; from this proceed roots which 


676 MISTLETOE 


penetrate the bark, and thus place the young 
plant in contact with that portion of the tree 
where nutriment is most abundant. An in- 
stance is recorded of the growth of one speci- 
men upon another mistletoe. The plant does 
not grow in the north of England or in Scot- 
land and Ireland, and nurserymen there plant 
the seeds upon the bark of young. apple trees, 
and sell the trees with the mistletoe already 
established upon them. The superstitions and 
legends connected with the mistletoe are nu- 
merous; it was held in high veneration by the 
ancient Britons, and its collection by the druids 
was accompanied with great solemnity; the 
plant is found more rarely upon the oak than 


upon any other tree, hence that which grew. 


on the oak was regarded with peculiar honor; 
it was cut on the sixth day after the first new 
moon of each year, the priest using a golden 
sickle; the plant was received upon a white 
cloth and divided among the people, who pre- 
served the fragments as a charm to protect 
them from disease and every other evil. In 
England it is used among Christmas decora- 
tions, and during the festivities, if a gentleman 
discovers a lady beneath the ‘‘ mistletoe bough” 
he has a right to a kiss; this is a very old cus- 
tom which has descended from feudal times, 
but its real origin and significance are lost. 
Within recent times the mistletoe has been re- 
garded as a valuable remedy in epilepsy and 
other diseases, but at present it is not employed. 
The chief use of the plant is for holiday dec- 
orations, for which purpose it is occasionally 
brought to this country; its berries were for- 
merly used to prepare bird lime, and the leaves 
have been fed to sheep in times of scarcity of 
other forage.—The American mistletoe, which 
was first described as a viscwm, is so different 
from the European that Nuttall made a new 
genus for it, phoradendron (Gr. ¢ép, a thief, 
and dévdpov, a tree); it differs from viscwm in 
having both kinds of flowers in short catkin- 
like, jointed spikes, and sunk in the joints; 
there is also a difference in the structure of 
the anthers. The plant has the same manner 
of growth, and is similar in general appearance 
to the European, but the leaves and stems are 
of a more yellowish green; the berries are 
white. There are several species of phoraden- 
dron, the most common being P. jlavescens, 
which grows from New Jersey and Illinois to 
Texas and Mexico; there are several varieties, 
differing in the shape and smoothness of their 
leaves; it grows upon various deciduous trees, 
and in Texas is especially abundant on the 
mezquite, upon which it often grows in such 
quantities as to hide the proper foliage of the 
tree. There are half a dozen other species, all 
belonging to the far south and west.—Another 
related genus is arceuthobium, the species of 
which are small, much branched, leafless, and 
like the others parasitic. A. orycedri is found 
on various coniferous trees from California to 
New Mexico, and further north it extends east- 
ward to Hudson bay. In 1871 Mrs. Millington 


MITCHEL 


discovered in Warren co., N. Y., a minute 
species of arceuthobium growing upon the 
branches of the black spruce (abies nigra), and 
about the same time it was discovered by Prof. 
Peck of Albany. The plant is scarcely more 
than an inch long, but occurs in such quantities 
as to seriously injure the trees; it is probably 
aform of A. campylopodium. 

MISTRAL, Fréderie, a French poet, born at 
Maillane, near St. Remy, Provence, Sept. 8, 
1830. He studied at Lyons and Avignon, 
where he graduated in jurisprudence, but de- 
voted himself to poetry in his native village. 
His principal work is the pastoral Provengal 
epic Miréio (Mireille), with a French text (Avi- 
gnon, 1859; enlarged ed., 1862; English trans- 
lation by H. Crichton, London, 1868, and by 
Harriet W. Preston, Boston, 1872), for which he 
received in 1861 an academical prize of 2,000 
francs, and which has been set to music by 
Gounod as acomic opera. He published Calen- 
dan, a poem, in 1867. In September, 1868, 
great literary and social entertainments were 
given at St. Remy in honor of Proveneal poetry, 
in which he took the most prominent part. 

MITAU, or Mittan (Russ. Mitavo; Lettish, 
Yelgava), a town of Russia, capital of Cour- 
Jand, situated in a low marshy district on the 
Aa, 25 m. 8. W. of Riga; pop. in 1867, 23,- 
100, chiefly Germans, and including upward 
of 5,000 Jews. It is well built, and contains 
one Reformed, one Greek, one Roman Cath- 
olic, and three Lutheran churches, three syna- 
gogues, a gymnasium with a museum of phys- 
ical science and natural history, a library, and 
various educational and charitable institutions, 
besides the buildings of the local authorities. 
Near Mitau is a palace built by Biron on the 
site of the original castle, after the model of 
the czar’s Winter palace, where Louis XVIII. 
resided for a long time under the name of the 
count de Lille. There is an extensive trade in 
grain, flax, and linseed, which are sent hither 
from the interior of Courland and Lithuania 
for shipment on the Aa to Riga. The nobility 
of Courland reside here in winter, but Mitau 
is especially lively about St. John’s day, when 
transactions are closed both by the nobles and 
the traders. 

MITCHEL, John, an Irish revolutionist, born 
at Dungiven, county Derry, Nov. 3, 1815, died 
March 20, 1875. His father was a Unitarian 
clergyman. He graduated at Trinity college, 
Dublin, in 1836, studied law, and practised for 
six years in Newry and Banbridge. In 1845 
he was called to Dublin to succeed Thomas 
Davis as editor of the Nation.” His articles 
were revolutionary, and for one which ap- 
peared in 1846 showing how the people could 
contend with the army, the “ Nation” was 
prosecuted by government. In consequence of 
differences in policy he quarrelled with his part- 
ner Gavin Duffy toward the end of 1847, and 
soon after founded the ‘‘ United Irishman,” 
which brought him in direct collision with 
the government. After an existence of three 


MITCHEL 


months the journal was suppressed, and its 
editor sentenced to expatriation for 14 years. 
On May 27, 1848, after two weeks’ incarcera- 
tion at Newgate, Mitchel was taken in irons 
from Dublin to Spike island (Cork harbor), 
where a government order was received to 
treat him ‘‘as a person of education and a gen- 
tleman.”” Taken thence in a day or two, he 
passed 10 months in the island of Bermuda, 
whence he was again deported to Australia. 
Here he met Smith O’Brien, Meagher, and other 
political associates. On July 19, 1854, Mitchel 
resigned his parole and escaped from the col- 
ony, landing in New York on Nov. 29. There 
he founded the ‘‘ Citizen,” a weekly journal, 
which he conducted until failing eyesight con- 
strained him to seek a more congenial climate. 
He removed to Tennessee, where he established 
the *‘ Southern Citizen,” in which he advocated 
the reopening of the slave trade. He edited the 
Richmond “‘ Examiner” during the civil war, 
after which he settled in New York. In July, 
1874, he made a visit to Ireland, returning 
in October. In February, 1875, he was elected 
to parliament for Tipperary, though disquali- 
fied for a seat, and again went to Ireland, 
where he died. He published ‘* Hugh O'Neill,” 
his own ‘Jail Journal” (New York, 1854), 
“The Last Conquest of Ireland (perhaps) ” 
(Dublin, 1861), and a continuation of Mac- 
Geoghegan’s ‘‘ History of Ireland.” He also 
edited the poems of Thomas Davis and James 
Clarence Mangan, with biographies. 

MITCHEL, Ormsby Macknight, an American 
astronomer, born in Union co., Ky., Aug. 28, 
1810, died at Beaufort, S. C., Oct. 80, 1862. 
At 12 years of age, with a good knowledge of 
Latin and Greek and the elements of mathe- 
matics, he became clerk in a store in Miami, O., 
and afterward removed to Lebanon, Warren 
co., where he had been educated. Being ap- 
pointed a cadet, he earned the money that took 
him to West Point, which place he reached 
almost penniless in June, 1825. After gradu- 
ating in 1829, he was acting assistant professor 
of mathematics for two years. From 1832 to 
1834 he was a counsellor at law in Cincinnati; 
from 1834 to 1844 professor of mathematics, 
philosophy, and astronomy in Cincinnati col- 
lege; in 18386 and 1887 chief engineer of the 
Little Miami railroad. An observatory having 
been erected at Cincinnati chiefly through his 
exertions, he became its director; and in 1859 
he took the direction of the Dudley observa- 
tory at Albany, retaining his connection with 
that at Cincinnati. In August, 1861, he was 
commissioned brigadier general of volunteers, 
and assigned to the department of the Ohio. 
After the occupation of Bowling Green and 
Nashville, he made a forced march into Ala- 
bama, fought a battle near Bridgeport at the 
close of April, 1862, and seized the railroad 
between Corinth and Chattanooga, for which 
he was promoted to the rank of major gen- 
eral. In July he was relieved of his com- 
mand in the west, and in September was 


MITCHELL 677 


placed in command of the department of the 
South, where he was preparing for an ac- 
tive campaign when he died of yellow fever. 
He was a popular lecturer on astronomy, and 
scarcely less distinguished for his mechanical 
skill, by which he perfected a variety of astro- 
nomical apparatus, among the most important 
of which was that for recording right ascen- 
sions and declinations to within 35,5 of a sec- 
ond of time. Among his discoveries are the 
exact period of rotation of Mars, and the com- 
panion of Antares or Cor Scorpii. He also 
remeasured W. Struve’s double stars S. of the 
equator, which resulted in several interesting 
discoveries. He published “ Planetary and Stel- 
lar Worlds,” a collection of lectures, .a treatise 
on algebra, and a “‘ Popular Astronomy.” In 
1846-’8 he published ‘‘The Sidereal Messen- 
ger,” a periodical. 

MITCHELL. I. A N. W. county of North 
Carolina, bordering on Tennessee, bounded 8. 
W. by the Nolichucky river; area, about 530 
Sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 4,705, of whom 213 were 
colored. It lies between the Blue Ridge and 
Iron mountains. In 1867 five valuable mica 
mines were discovered in this county, which 
have since been extensively worked, and the 
trade has enabled the inhabitants to pay off 
the entire debt of the county. The chief pro- 
ductions in 1870 were 12,530 bushels of wheat, 
6,065 of rye, 72,860 of Indian corn, 21,311 of 
oats, 8,483 of potatoes, 8,725 lbs. of wool, and 
35,760 of butter. There were 665 horses, 1,416 
milch cows, 2,207 other cattle, 5,142 sheep, and 
6,889 swine. Capital, Bakersville. If. AS. W. 
county of Georgia, bounded N. E. by Flint 
river; area, about 500 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 
6,633, of whom 2,950 were colored. The sur- 
face is level and the soil fertile. It is traversed 
by the Albany division of the Atlantic and 
Gulf railroad. The chief productions in 1870 
were 150,526 bushels of Indian corn, 26,240 of 
oats, 21,382 of sweet potatoes, 39,860 Ibs. of 
butter, 4,708 bales of cotton, and 21,412 gal- 
lons of sorghum molasses. There were 2,133 
milch cows, 4,121 other cattle, 2,092 sheep, 
and 7,186 swine. Capital, Camilla. II. A N. 
county of Iowa, bordering on Minnesota and 
intersected by the Red Cedar river and its E. 
fork; area, 431 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 9,582. 
It is intersected by the Burlington, Cedar Rap- 
ids, and Minnesota railroad. The chief produc- 
tions in 1870 were 564,894 bushels of wheat, 
150,847 of Indian corn, 358,105 of oats, 33,804 
of barley, 36,141 of potatoes, 8,906 lbs. of 
wool, 194,060 of butter, and 15,415 tons of 
hay. There were 2,600 horses, 2,986 milch 
cows, 5,685 other cattle, 2,440 sheep, and 2,603 
swine; 2 manufactories of agricultural imple- 
ments, 6 of carriages and wagons, | of iron 
castings, 1 of patent medicines, 1 woollen mill, 
3 saw mills, and 1 flour mill. Capital, Mitchell. 
Iv. AN. central county of Kansas, intersected 
by Solomon river; area, 720 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 485. The surface is undulating, and con- 
sists mostly of fertile prairies. The chief pro- 


678 


duction in 1870 was 6,250 bushels of Indian 
corn. The value of live stock was $56,377. 
Capital, Beloit. 

MITCHELL, Donald Grant, an American author, 
born in Norwich, Conn., in April, 1822. He 
graduated at Yale college in 1841, travelled in 
Europe, studied law in New York, and in 1847 
published, under the pseudonyme of ‘‘ Ik Mar- 
vel,” “Fresh Gleanings, or a New Sheaf from 
the Old Fields of Continental Europe.” He 
was in Europe in 1848, and wrote ‘‘ The Bat- 
tle Summer” (New York, 1849). This was 
succeeded by a satirical work entitled ‘The 
Lorgnette,” which appeared anonymously (2 
vols., 1850). Inthe same year appeared ‘“‘ The 
Reveries of a Bachelor,” and in 1851 his 
‘*Dream Life.” In 1853 he became United 
States consul at Venice, in 1855 returned, and 
has since resided on his farm of ‘‘ Edgewood,” 
near New Haven. He was for some time as- 
sociate editor of the ‘‘ Hearth and Home,” 
New York, and has frequently appeared as a 
lecturer. His later publications are: ‘‘ Fudge 
Doings ” (2 vols., 1854); ‘“‘My Farm of Edge- 
wood” (1863); ‘‘Wet Days at Edgewood” 
(1864); ‘Seven Stories, with Basement and 
Attic” (1864); “Doctor Johns” (2 vols., 
1866); ‘‘ Rural Studies’? (1867); and ‘“ Pic- 
tures of Edgewood” (fol., 1869). 

MITCHELL, Elisha, an American chemist, born 
at Washington, Litchfield co., Conn., Aug. 19, 
1793, died on the Black mountains in North 
Carolina, June 27,1857. He graduated at Yale 
college in 1813, and in 1818 became professor 
of mathematics in the university of North Car- 
olina, and in 1825 of chemistry. In 1821 he 
was ordained a Presbyterian minister. He 
was for some time state surveyor. He first 
ascertained that the mountains of North Caro- 
lina are the highest east of the Rocky moun- 
tains. (See Brack Mountains.) To settle 
some disputed points in regard to these heights, 
he reascended them in 1857, lost his way at 
night, fell down a precipice, and was killed. 

MITCHELL. I. John Kearsley,an American phy- 
sician, born at Shepherdstown, Jefferson co., 
Va., May 12, 1798, died in Philadelphia, April 
4, 1858. He was educated in Scotland. grad- 
uated M.D. at the university of Pennsylvania 
in 1819, made three voyages to China as ship’s 
surgeon, and in 1822 began to practise medi- 
cine and teach physiology in Philadelphia. In 
1826 he became professor of chemistry in the 
Philadelphia medical institute, in 1838 in the 
Franklin institute, and in 1841 of the theory 
and practice of medicine in the Jefferson med- 
ical college. He published ‘Indecision, and 
other Poems” (Philadelphia, 1839), ‘On the 
Cryptogamous Origin of Malarious and Epi- 
demical Fevers” (1849), and several popular 
scientific lectures. After his death appeared a 
selection from his papers entitled “Five Es- 
says,” d&c. (1858). II. S. Weir, an American 
physician, son of the preceding, born in Phila- 
delphia, Feb. 15, 1829. He graduated at Jef- 
ferson medical college in 1850. His earlier 


MITCHELL 


researches were chiefly in toxicology, and are 
especially authoritative on the venom of ser- 
pents. His later writings have been almost 
entirely devoted to diseases of the nervous 
system. He has published, with G. R. More- 
house, M. D., and W. W. Keen, M. D., ‘ Gun- 
shot Wounds and other Injuries of the Nerves” 
(Philadelphia, 1864), and ‘‘Injuries to Nerves, 
and their Consequences ” (1871); and he has 
also made numerous contributions to scientific 
journals, including ‘‘ Experimental Researches 
relative to Corroval and Vao, American Ar- 
row Poisons,” with W. A. Hammond, M. D. 
(‘‘ American Journal of Medical Sciences,” 
1859); ‘Toxicological Study of Ordeal Poi- 
sons, Sassy Bark” (‘‘ Charleston Medical and 
Surgical Journal,” 1859); ‘‘ Researches on the 
Venom of the Rattlesnake” (‘‘ Smithsonian 
Contributions to Knowledge,” 1860); ‘‘ Treat- 
ment of Rattlesnake Bites” (‘‘ North Ameri- 
can Medical and Chirurgical Review,” 1861); 
‘On the Circulation in Chelonura Serpentina”’ 
(‘‘ Memoirs of the American Philosophical So- 
ciety,” 1862); ‘‘Arsenical Albuminuria” (‘‘ New 
York Medical Journal,” 1865); ‘‘ Antagonism 
of Atropia and Morphia,” with Drs. Morehouse 
and Keen (‘‘ American Journal of the Medical 
Sciences,” 1865); ‘‘ Palsy from Peripheral Irri- 
tations ” (“‘ New York Medical Journal,” 1866) ; 
‘‘ Production of Spasms from Cold to the 
Skin” (‘American Journal of the Medical 
Sciences,” two papers, 1867—’8); and ‘‘ Exper- 
imental Contributions to the Toxicology of 
Rattlesnake Venom” (‘‘New York Medical 
Journal,” 1868). 

MITCHELL, Maria, an American astronomer, 
born in Nantucket, Aug. 1,1818. She derived 
from her father, who taught a school in Nan- 
tucket, a fondness for astronomy, and by her 
intelligence in the use of instruments and her 
mathematical attainments soon became an en- 
thusiastic coéperator in his labors. Subse- 
quently she made many careful observations by 
herself, and devoted much time to the ex- 
amination of nebule and the search for comets. 
On Oct. 1, 1847, she discovered a telescopic 
comet, for which she received a gold medal 
from the king of Denmark. She has been 
employed in observations connected with the 
coast survey and in compiling the nautical 
almanac. She is a member of the American 
association for the advancement of science, 
and was the first female member of the Amer- 
ican academy of arts and sciences. In 1865 
she was appointed to the chair of astronomy 
in Vassar college, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. 

MITCHELL, Sir Thomas Livingstone, a British 
engineer, born in Stirlingshire, Scotland, in 
1792, died near Sydney, Australia, Oct. 5, 1855. 
He joined the British army in the peninsula in 
1808, attained the rank of major, and made mil- 
itary maps of the peninsular battle fields. In 
1827 he was appointed deputy surveyor general 
of eastern Australia, and ultimately surveyor 
general, which office he held till his death. He 
conducted four expeditions into the interior of 


MITCHELL’S PEAK 


Australia; the first, in 1831-2, resulted in the 
discovery of the Peel and Nammoy rivers; and 
during the second and third, in 1835-6, the 
Darling and Glenelg rivers were explored, 
and Australia Felix discovered. The fourth 
(1845-’6) was undertaken to trace out a route 
from Sydney to the gulf of Carpentaria; the 
loss of cattle and horses prevented the com- 
pletion of the expedition, but it led to the dis- 
covery of the Victoria river. During a visit 
to England Major Mitchell published ‘‘ Three 
Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Aus- 
tralia, with Descriptions of the recently ex- 
plored Region of Australia Felix,” &. (2 vols. 
8vo, London, 1838); and his ‘‘ Journal of an 
Expedition into the Interior of Tropical Aus- 
tralia” appeared in 1848. In 1853 he published 
a lecture on the boomerang propeller, which 
he had invented for steam vessels. He was 
knighted in 1839, and made a colonel in 1854. 

MITCHELL’S PEAK. See Biaox Movunrarns. 

MITCHILL, Samuel Latham, an American phy- 
sician, born in North Hempstead, Long Island, 
Aug. 20, 1764, died in New York, Sept. 7, 
1831. He graduated as M. D. at the university 
of Edinburgh in 1786, returned to America 
in the following year, and studied law. In 
1792 he was appointed professor of chemistry, 
natural history, and philosophy in Columbia 
college, where his dissent from some of Lavoi- 
sier’s principles involved him in a controver- 
sy with Dr. Priestley, which led to a lasting 
friendship between the two disputants. In 
1796 he made a geological and mineralogical 
tour along the Hudson. In conjunction with 
Dr. Edward Miller and Elihu H. Smith he 
founded the quarterly ‘‘ Medical Repository,” 
of which he continued to be editor for 16 years, 
It was the first scientific periodical published 
in the United States. Twice he was a member 
of the legislature, and in 1801 he became a 
representative in congress, and in 1804 United 
States senator. At the expiration of his term 
of office he was again elected to the house of 
representatives. In 1808 he became professor 
of natural history in the college of physicians 
and surgeons, and in 1820 of botany and mate- 
ria medica. In 1826 the institution gave place 
to the Rutgers medical school, of which Dr. 
Mitchill became vice president. The poems of 
‘““Croaker and co.” contain records of some of 
Dr. Mitchill’s eccentricities. He proposed to 
change the name of this country to Fredonia, 
and wrote in 1804 ‘‘ An Address to the Fredes, 
or People of the United States.” He was the 
author of ‘Observations on the Absorbent 
Tubes of Animal Bodies”? (12mo, New York, 
1787); ‘‘ Nomenclature of the New Chemis- 
try ” (1794); “Life, Exploits, and Precepts of 
Tammany, the famous Indian Chief,” a half his- 
torical, half fanciful address before the Tam- 
many society of New York (1795); and ‘‘ Syn- 
opsis of Chemical Nomenclature and Arrange- 
ment ” (1801).—See “‘ Reminiscences of Sam- 
uel Latham Mitchill, M. D., LL. D.,” by John 
W. Francis, M. D. (New York, 1859). 


MITFORD 679 


MITE, a name applied to many very small 
articulated animals, of the arachnoid order and 
suborder acarina, including the ticks, itch in- 
sects, and other parasites, and the minute acari. 
The abdomen is unarticulated, and fused with 
the cephalothorax ; the external envelope is of 
chitine, solid and indestructible; four pairs of 
feet on the cephalothorax, armed with nails, 
and in some provided with long pedunculated 
disks by which the animal is attached; some, 
when young, have six feet; eyes usually ab- 
sent; mandibles wanting, the antennw being 
changed into prehensile and masticatory or- 
gans, moving vertically, piercing or cutting as 
may be necessary, and sometimes enclosed in 
a sheath in the form of a sucker. The stomach 
has several ceecal appendages, and the short 
and straight intestine opens near the middle of 
the abdomen; salivary glands well developed; 
no apparent heart nor blood vessels, the color- 
less nutritive fluid filling all the interstices of 
the body, and being irregularly circulated by 
the muscular movements and the contractions 
of the intestinal canal; respiration aérial, per- 
formed chiefly by the skin, and in some by 
trachess. The sexes are separate; many have 
an ovipositor, by which they insert their eggs 
under the epidermis of plants and animals, in 
the latter case often causing great irritation; 
some surround their eggs by a tough substance 
which glues them to various objects. Their 
extreme minuteness in some cases may be 
judged of by the fact that they infest flies and 
very small insects; they are exceedingly pro- 
lific. Some live under stones, others on plants, 
on animals, or among decaying organic sub- 
stances, and a few are aquatic; the parasitic 
ones, sucking the blood of animals and man, 
are sometimes very annoying. The itch insect 
has been described under Iron, and the ticks 
and other mites under Erizoa. Among the 
mites, the acarus domes- 
ticus is found especially 
in old cheese (the pow- 
der of which, so agree- 
able to epicures, is made 
up of these little ani- 
mals with their eggs and 
excrement), in flour, 
sugar, and on figs and sugared fruits; the A. 
destructor feeds on the specimens of the ento- 
mologist and zodlogist; the garden mites (trom- 
bidtide) live on fruits, flowers, and leaves; the 
spider mites (gamaside) include the minute 
red spider of hothouses; and the wood mites 
(oribatide) creep among stones and moss. 

MITFORD, Mary Russell, an English authoress, 
born at Alresford, Hampshire, Dec. 16, 1786, 
died near Reading, Jan. 10,1855. She was the 
daughter of a physician whose pecuniary spec- 
ulations early involved his family in ruin. 
Her education was chiefly acquired at a school 
in Chelsea. At 20 years of age she published 
three volumes of poems, some of them long 
narratives in the style of Scott; and about 
1812 she adopted literature as a profession, 


Mite (Acarus domesticus). 


680 MITFORD 


and for several years contributed tales and 
sketches to the magazines and annuals. Ir- 
ving’s ‘Sketch Book” first suggested to her the 
idea of writing sketches of the daily life of the 
rural population, and her most popular work is 
“Our Village,” the scene of which is the little 
hamlet of Three Mile Cross, near Reading. 
These sketches, after being declined by the 
‘‘New Monthly Magazine,” edited by Thomas 
Campbell, were first published in the ‘‘ Lady’s 
Magazine” about 1820, and were extended to 
five volumes or series (1824-82). Among her 
other prose works are ‘‘ Country Stories ” and 
several of the ‘Edinburgh Tales” published 
by Mrs. Johnstone in 1845. She also edited 
three volumes of ‘Stories of American Life 


by American Authors,” and four of the annual 


volumes of Finden’s ‘‘ Tableaux.’”? Her dramas, 
‘“‘ Julian” (1823), ‘‘ Foscari” (1826), ‘‘ Rienzi” 
(1828), and ‘‘Charles the First,” were per- 
formed with success, ‘‘ Rienzi” being the most 
popular. Her ‘‘ Charles the First” was pro- 
hibited by George Colman, the licenser, for 
its supposed revolutionary sentiments, but was 
finally produced at the Coburg theatre in Lon- 
don. She also wrote several dramas which 
were never acted, and an opera, ‘‘Sadak and 
Kalasrade,” the music of which was written 
by Packer. In 1838 she received a pension. 
In 1852 appeared her ‘ Recollections of a Lit- 
erary Life” (3 vols. 12mo), and in 1854 ‘‘ Ath- 
erton and other Tales,” and a collected edi- 
tion of her dramatic works in two volumes. 
For upward of 40 years she lived in a little 
cottage in Berkshire. About three years be- 
fore her death she was injured by the over- 
turning of her chaise, and the remainder of 
her life was passed in much physical suffer- 
ing.—See ‘‘ Life of Mary Russell Mitford,” ed- 
ited by the Rev. A. G. L’Estrange (3 vols., 
London, 1870). 

MITFORD, William, an English historian, born 
in London, Feb. 10, 1744, died in Hampshire, 
Feb. 8, 1827. He entered Queen’s college, Ox- 
ford, left it without a degree, studied law at 
the Middle Temple, but soon retired to his an- 
cestral estate in Hampshire, married, and de- 
voted himself to literature. By the advice of 
Gibbon, he wrote a history of Greece (5 vols., 
1784-1818), bringing the narrative down to 
the death of Alexander the Great. He was 


prevented by age and failing eyesight from. 


carrying on the work, as he had intended, to 
the period of the Roman conquest. An edition 
of it by his brother Lord Redesdale, with an 
introduction, appeared in 1829 (8 vols. 8vo). 
He also published a treatise on the religions of 
ancient Greece and Rome, as a supplement to 
his history; ‘‘An Inquiry into the Principles 
of Harmony in Languages and of tle Mecha- 
nism of Verse, Modern and Ancient” (1774); 
and ‘‘A Treatise on the Military Force, and 
particularly the Militia, of this Kingdom.” He 
was a member of parliament for 21 years, held 
several public offices, and was professor of 
ancient history in the royal academy. 


MITHRIDATES 


MITHRIDATES, or Mithradates, a king of Pon- 
tus, the sixth of the name, surnamed Eupator 
and the Great, born about 132 B. C., died in 638. 
He ascended the throne in 120. He subdued 
the barbarians between the Euxine and the 
Caspian, extended his conquests among the 
tribes beyond the Caucasus, rendered the Tau- 
ric Chersonese tributary, and on the death 
of Parysades, king of Bosporus, annexed that 
country to his dominions. He next expelled 
the kings of Cappadocia and Bithynia, depen- 
dent allies of Rome, from their dominions, 
but the Romans promptly restored them. Ni- 
comedes the Bithynian was not content with 
recovering his kingdom, but invaded the do- 
minions of Mithridates, who, failing to obtain 
redress from Rome, immediately commenced 
hostilities against her generals and allies. In 
88 he again expelled the Cappadocian and 
Bithynian sovereigns, defeated the Roman ar- 
mies that attempted to support them, made 
himself master of Phrygia and Galatia, over- 
ran the whole Roman province of Asia, and 
ordered its Roman citizens to be massacred to 
the number, it is said, of 80,000. When these 
things were known at Rome, Sulla was ap- 
pointed to command the armies sent against 
Mithridates, who transferred the seat of war 
to Greece, where his general Archelaus suf- 
fered two great defeats at Cheronea and Or- 
chomenus in 86, while the king was himself 
defeated in Asia by Fimbria, and was com- 
pelled to abandon his conquests there, to pay 
an indemnity of 2,000 talents, and to surrender 
all his ships to the Romans (84). The events 
of what is called the second Mithridatic war 
are not of much interest; the death of Nico- 
medes IIJ., king of Bithynia, in 74, was the 
signal for the outbreak of the third. That 
monarch had bequeathed his dominions to the 
Roman people, and Bithynia was pronounced 
by the senate a Roman province. Mithridates 
attempted to place a pretended son of the de- 
ceased king on the throne. Entering Bithynia 
at the head of an army of over 120,000 foot 
and 16,000 horse, he vanquished the consul 
Cotta at Chalcedon, and then proceeded to lay 
siege to Cyzicus; but he was compelled by 
Lucullus to retreat with great loss into Pon- 
tus. After completely defeating another vast 
army, Lucullus drove Mithridates from his 
kingdom. A mutiny of the Roman legions, 
however, enabled him to recover Pontus. In 
66 Lucullus was superseded by Pompey, and the 
war was resumed. Mithridates was surprised 
and totally defeated, and with a handful of 
troops retreated north to Panticapeum (now 
Kertch, in the Crimea), the capital of Bosporus, 
Here he was safe from the Romans; but while 
he was planning schemes of aggression against 
Rome, his son Pharnaces rebelled, and was 
proclaimed king by the soldiers and citizens. 
Mithridates, on learning this, took refuge in a 
strong tower, where he sought to end his life 
by poison; but this proving ineffectual, he 
ordered one of .his Gallic mercenaries to de- 


MITRAILLEUSE 


spatch him with his sword. It is said that to 
avoid being poisoned, which he was apprehen- 
sive of, he had accustomed himself to the use 
of antidotes to such a degree that the most 
baneful drugs had little effect on him. His 
son sent his body to Amisus as a peace offer- 
ing to Pompey; but the Roman general caused 
it to be interred with regal honors in the sep- 
ulchre of the Pontic kings at Sinope. Mithri- 
dates had a powerful memory, was well ac- 
quainted with Greek literature, and under- 
stood more than 20 languages which were 
spoken in his dominions. 

MITRAILLEUSE. See ArtitiERy, vol.i., p. 792. 

MITRE (Gr. yitpa), an ornament worn upon 
the head by certain ecclesiastics of the Roman 
Catholic and Greek churches, consisting of a 


Persian Mitra, from a Pompeiian Greek Mitra, from a Bust 
Mosaic, at Dresden. 


stiff cap rising in two points, one before and 
the other behind, and having two ribbon-like 
pendants which fall on the shoulders. In the 
strict generic sense, the ancient mitra was a 
scarf which was sometimes bound around the 
thyrsus of Bacchus and his votaries in the cele- 
bration of his rites. In a secondary sense, it 
was a scarf worn like a turban by the Persians 
and Arabians, and by the women of Greece. 
The mitra worn by 
the Phrygians and 
Amazons was a point- 
ed cloth cap tied by 
strings or lappets un- 
der the chin. Bac- 
chus was often rep- 
resented with a mi- 
tra, from which the 
Greeks gave him the 
name ptpogépoc. The 
Persian deity Mithra 
and the Egyptian god 
Osiris appear with a similar head covering, and 
it has also been traced in India. The Jewish high 
priests wore the mitznepheth, which was copied 
from the mitre made for Aaron (Exod. xxviii.), 
on the front of which, over a blue lace, was a 
plate of pure gold, having engraven on it, “like 
the engravings of a signet, Holiness to the 
Lord.” When the mitre was first adopted by 
Christian ecclesiastics is uncertain, but it is 
supposed that its first form was a circlet of 
silver gilt or of gold, set sometimes with pre- 
cious stones, and called oré¢avocg or corona, and 
nidapic¢ or diadema. In the 6th century John 
of Cappadocia, bishop of Constantinople, added 


Phrygian Mitra, from a Pom- 
peiian Painting. 


MITSCHERLICH 681 


to this band embroidered fringes and sacred 
images. In the western churches a white linen 
kerchief was worn, tied behind by a bandage, 
the ends of which fell on the shoulders. In 
the beginning of the 8th century it was cus- 
tomary to wear both the kerchief and the 
corona. In the latter part of the 10th century 
the mitre was a close-fitting cap with a round 
top; in the 11th the horns began to show them- 
selves in two short points on the sides above 
each ear; and in the 12th century these had 
grown into low round protuberances. Toward 
the beginning of the 18th century the mitre 
took a different shape, the two horns being 
more elevated and worn in front and behind, 
as at present. At the period of the renaissance 
it assumed its present bulging shape and un- 
due height. Three 
kinds of mitres are 
now used in the Ro- 
man church: the pre- 
cious mitre, often 
made of gold or sil- 
ver and adorned with 
gems; the gold-em- 
broidered mitre, made 
of cloth of gold or 
white silk embroi- 
dered with gold; and 
the plain mitre, of 
white damask or linen, with red edging or 
fringe on the lappets. The use of the mitre 
is not restricted to bishops; cardinals, abbots 
of great houses by special papal privilege, and 
canons of highly favored cathedrals or royal 
collegiate churches, are allowed to wear it. 
In the English church the mitre has not been 
worn since the coronation of Queen Elizabeth. 

MITSCHERLICH, Eilhard, a German chemist, 
born at Neuende, near Jever, grand duchy of 
Oldenburg, Jan. 7, 1794, died in Berlin, Aug. 
28, 1863. He was the son of a clergyman, and 
studied at the gymnasium of Jever, where 
Schlosser instructed him in oriental history 
and philology. He pursued his studies espe- 
cially in this department at Paris, Heidelberg, 
and Géttingen, where he published Mirchondi 
Historia Thaheridarum (1815); and in 1818 
he went to Berlin to study chemistry. He 
discovered the law of isomorphism, for which 
he received the medal of the royal society of 
London. At the invitation of Berzelius he 
accompanied him to Stockholm in 1819, and 
passed two years in his laboratory. On his 
return to Berlin, he succeeded Klaproth in the 
academy of sciences and in the chair of chem- 
istry. His first results in the discovery of 
isomorphism were presented to the Berlin 
academy in 1819, and next year they were 
generally accepted. Its doctrine was devel- 
oped by him in a long series of observations. 
In 1823 he completed the theory by the dis- 
covery that some substances, as sulphur and 
carbon, under different circumstances, crys- 
tallize in two dissimilar forms. Such bodies 
are termed dimorphous. The reports of his 


zishop’s Mitre. 


682 MITTERMAIER 


investigations and discoveries are chiefly con- 
tained in a large number of papers in the jour- 
nals of the Berlin academy and in the Annalen 
of Poggendorff. He also published Lehr- 
buch der Chemie (Berlin, 1829-40; 5th ed., 
1853 et seg.). He perfected the instruments 
for measuring the angles of crystals, and ex- 
tended his researches to the influence of heat 
on crystallization. Many instruments of his 
invention have been adopted in Germany and 
other countries. He was one of the few for- 
eign associates of the French institute. His 
posthumous work Ueber die vulkanischen Er- 
scheinungen in der Hifel und iiber die Meta- 
morphie der Gesteine durch erhéhte Tempera- 


tur, edited by J. Roth, was published in Berlin . 


in 1865. See Rose’s Geddchtnissrede (Berlin, 
1864).—His brother, Kart Gustav (born Nov. 
9, 1805, died March 16, 1871), was professor 
of medicine at the university of Berlin. His 
principal work is Lehrbuch der Arzeneimittel- 
lehre (8 vols., Berlin, 1847-’61). 
MITTERMAIER, Karl Joseph Anton, a German 
jurist, born in Munich, Aug. 5, 1787, died in 
Heidelberg, Aug. 28, 1867. He studied at 
Landshut and Heidelberg, was for many years 
professor in the former university, and in 1819 
removed to Bonn. In 1821 he accepted the 
chair of jurisprudence at Heidelberg, which he 
retained until his death. He defended trial by 
jury in Germany, and sustained (theoretically) 
the codification of the French civil law against 
the attacks of Hugo, Savigny, and others. His 
Lehrbuch des deutschen Privatrechts (Lands- 
hut, 1821) was subsequently merged in his 
Grundsdtee des gemeinen deutschen Privat- 
rechts, mit Hinschluss des Handel-, Wechsel- und 
Seerechts (2 vols., Ratisbon, 1887-’8). His 
first work on criminal law, Handbuch des pein- 
lichen Prozesses (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1810-12), 
was republished, enlarged and modified, under 
the title of Das deutsche Strafverfahren in der 
Fortbildung durch Gerichtsgebrauch und Par- 
ticulargesetegebung (2 vols., 1832), and has 
passed through many editions. The princi- 
ples relating to the examination of witnesses 
in criminal law are expounded in his Theorie 
des Beweises im peinlichen Prozesse (2 vols., 
Darmstadt, 1821), in Die Lehre vom Beweise 
im deutschen Strafprozesse (1834; French trans- 
lation, 1848; Spanish, 1851), and in his Anlei- 
tung zur Vertheidigungskunst im Criminal- 
prozesse (translated into Italian by Garba, 
1858). His manual of criminal law (Lehrbuch 
des Criminalprozesses) has passed through nu- 
merous editions. A comprehensive exposition 
of the principles upon which civil trials should 
be conducted is contained in his Der gemeine 
deutsche biirgerliche Prozess (182026). His 
Die Mindlichkeit, das Anklageprincip, die 
Oeffentlichkeit und das Geschworenengericht 
(Stuttgart, 1845), brings the investigation and 
the enactments relating to trial by jury down 
to the period of its publication; and his Das 
englische, schottische und nordamerikanische 
Strafverfahren (Erlangen, 1851), treats of the 


MITTOO 


administration of justice in England, Scot- 
land, and the United States. His subsequent 
works include Die Gefangnissverbesserung 
(1858); Der gegenwartige Zustand der Gefang- 
nissfrage (1860); Die Todesstrafe, &c. (Heidel. 
berg, 1862); and Lrfahrungen iiber die Wirk- 
samkeit der Schwurgerichte in Huropa und 
Amerika (1865). Mittermaier was a member 
of the Baden legislature for nearly 20 years 
previous to 1841, when his grief at the death - 
of his son caused him to withdraw; during 
that time he had been three times president of 
the legislature; and having resumed his seat 
in 1846, he was again president during the 
session of 1847-’8. In 1848 he was first called 
upon to preside over the provisional parlia- 
ment at Frankfort; and he was a member of 
the German parliament, where he advocated 
confederation, but opposed all extreme mea- 
sures. He frequently visited Italy, and embod- 
ied the result of his observations in Jtalie- 
nische Zustinde (Heidelberg, 1844). 

MITTIMUS, in law, the precept which is ad- 
dressed by competent judicial authority to a 
sheriff, constable, or other officer, and to a 
jailer or keeper of a prison, commanding the 
one to take and deliver, and the other to re- 
ceive into custody, a person charged with the 
offence therein described, and safely keep him 
as therein commanded. The command to keep 
varies with the nature of the case. A mitti- 
mus may be issued by an examining magistrate 
who, having inquired into a charge of crime, 
has decided that there is probable cause to be- 
lieve it true; and then, if the offence is bail- 
able and. sureties be not offered, a mittimus 
will issue commanding the jailer safely to keep 
the person charged for want of sureties, or 
until he be discharged by due course of law. 
But a mittimus may also issue for confinement 
in punishment of crime, and then the command 
will be safely to keep the prisoner for a time 
specified. A mittimus should be under the 
hand and seal of the magistrate; it should 
plainly specify the offence charged, and con- 
tain sufficient to show on its face that the 
magistrate had authority to act in the case; 
but it need not recite the evidence. 

MITTOO, a country of central Africa, be 
tween the Roah and Rohl rivers, and between 
lat. 5° and 6° N., bounded N. by the territory 
of the Dinka and S. by that of the Nyam- 
nyam. The most northerly group of tribes 
is that of the Mittoo proper; the other tribes 
are the Madi, the Madi-Kaya, Abbakah, and 
Loobah. Tattooing is practised only among 
the men. Both sexes wear iron and copper 
ornaments and trinkets of every sort; they 
have a great partiality for chains, for fasten- 
ing objects to their bodies, and their inven- 
tive skill in armlets and rings for the ankles 
is remarkable. Thick chains of iron on the 
neck are signs of fashion and wealth, and the 
ambitious often wear four at a time. The 
country is fertile, especially between lat. 5° 
and 5° 30’ N., on the upper Roah and Wohko, 


MITYLENE 


and various cereals, tuberous plants, and oily 
and leguminous fruits are produced with little 
labor. They eat the flesh of dogs, and possess 
goats and poultry, but have no cattle, and are 
hence contemptuously called Dyoor or savages. 
They use the bow and arrow and spears, but 
not shields. They have been lately subjected 
to the authorities at Khartoom, and attempts 
have been made to employ them as “ bearers,” 
in military and trading expeditions, but with 
little success, owing to their debility.—See 
Schweinfurth’s “Heart of Africa’’ (2 vols., 1874). 
MITYLENE. See MytTmLenr. 
MIVART, St. George. See supplement. 
MIXTECAS, a nation of Indians in Mexico, 
who emigrated at an early period from the 
north, under chiefs who were said to have 
sprung from two trees. They displaced the 
Chuchones or Chochos, and occupied most of 
the present states of Oajaca, Guerrero, and 
Puebla. They were industrious and progres- 
sive, and were not governed by one ruler, 
but by independent chiefs. Some of the bands 
were reduced by the Aztecs, and paid them 
tribute in feathers, chalchihuitl, cotton robes, 
maize, and firewood; but those of Oajaca re- 
mained independent. Remains of their cities, 
temples, and fortresses show that they pos- 
sessed considerable civilization. They had sa- 
cred caves in their mountains, and believed in 
a heaven called Sosola. They have held their 
ground in part of the territory, but in Puebla 
have been displaced by Mexicans, and some 
bands were forced down into Guatemala. Their 
language is allied to the Zapoteca, but is more 
melodious and less difficult. It has several 
dialects, 11 according to recent authorities, of 
which the Tepuzculano is the principal. The 
language has no b, 7, p, or vr. It has no proper 
plural, cahite, equivalent to many, being added 
to the singular; it abounds in personal pro- 
nouns, and the negative particle varies accord- 
ing to the tense of the verb. A full diction- 
ary was compiled by F. Diego Rio; an Arte or 
grammar was published at Mexico in 1593 by 
Fray Antonio de los Reyes; and several reli- 
gious treatises were printed in Mixtecan in the 
16th and 17th centuries. At present they are 
peaceable and intelligent Mexican citizens. 
Protected by mountain fastnesses, they take 
little part in revolutions occurring beyond their 
limits. Their chief cities are Huajuapan, Yan- 
huistlan, Tlaxiaco, and Tepascoluta. 
MNEMONICS (Gr. prvfun, memory), the art of 
rendering artificial aid to the memory by asso- 
ciating in the mind things difficult to remem- 
ber with those which are easy of recollection, 
so that the former may be retained and brought 
to mind by association with the latter. The 
art is supposed by some writers to have origi- 
nated with the Egyptians, but the first person 
who reduced it to a system was, according to 
Cicero, the poet Simonides of Cos (about 500 
B. ©.). Having been called from a banquet 
just before the roof of the house fell and 
crushed all the rest of the company, he found 


MNEMONICS 683 


on returning that the bodies were so mutilated 
that no individual could be recognized ; but by 
remembering the places which they had sev- 
erally occupied at table he was able to distin- 
guish them. He was thus led to remark that 
the order of places may by association suggest 
the order of things. The principles of the art 
were introduced at Rome and developed by 
Metrodorus, and Cicero and Quintilian both ad- 
vocated the plan of associating thoughts and 
words with particular places, images, or signs 
which might be recalled at pleasure. One of 
the earliest modern works on the subject is the 
Fenia (1491) of Petrus Ravennas, professor of 
canon law in Padua. One of his artifices was 
to make beautiful maidens the letters of an al- 
phabet. John Romberch de Krypse, in his 
Congestorium Artificiose Memoria (1588), rec- © 
ommended the division of the walls of a series 
of rooms into separate spaces, each of which 
was to be marked with numerical, literal, and 
symbolical alphabets. The distinct rooms were 
to be devoted, like the alcoves of a library, to 
distinct classes of subjects; and the nomen- 
clature having once been mastered, the sugges- 
tions of local relation would enable a man to 
repeat hundreds of words or ideas that had no 
real connection with one another. The same 
method is developed further in the ‘‘ Castel of 
Memorie” of Guilielmo Grataroli of Bergamo, 
published in English in 1562. The Ars Memo- 
rie of Marafortius (1602) grouped all necessa- 
ry reminiscences around 44 images contained 
in the palms of the hands. Giambattista della 
Porta, in his Ars Reminiscendi (1602), seems 
to have first employed the mode of writing 
now common in rebuses. About 1609 Lam- 
bert Schenkel astonished all classes in France, 
Germany, and the Netherlands by his mnemonic 
performances. His system, which was similar 
to that of Simonides, was obscurely explained in 
his Gazophylacium Artis Memoria (1610). He 
was succeeded at the university of Paris, where 
he taught for many years, by his pupil Martin 
Sommer, who became equally celebrated. More 
elaborate than any preceding scheme was the 
repository for ideas suggested by John Wallis 
in his Mnemoniaca (1618). This repository 
was to be a series of imaginary theatre-shaped 
edifices with their interior walls variously di- 
vided and colored. Every person was to have 
his repository constantly present before his 
mind, within which all his ideas were to be 
arranged according to their qualities, quanti- 
ties, positions, and colors. The plan only be- 
came more complicated as improved by Henry 
Herdson (1651). The Memoria Technica of 
Richard Grey (1780; new ed., 1851) contains 
a system which many have found useful in 
remembering dates and numbers. Letters 
are substituted for figures and combined into 
words; certain consonants are selected for 
this purpose, the vowels serving only to con- 
nect them. Grey’s letters, which were adopt- 
ed without reference to any similarity to the 
figuree they stand for, are as follows: 


MNEMOSYNE 


Words formed from these letters by combi- 
nation with any of the vowels are more 
easily numbered than the figures they repre- 
sent. The most complicated system of mne- 
monics is that of Fainaigle, who began to lec- 
ture in Paris in 1807 and in England in 1811. 
He divides the walls, ceiling, and floor of a 
room into 50 imaginary equal compartments. 
To each compartment is assigned a particular 
hieroglyphic, with which it is indelibly asso- 
ciated. These elements having been thorough- 
ly mastered, some association, no matter how 
ridiculous, is formed between the object to be 
remembered and one of the hieroglyphs. 
substitution of letters for figures also belongs 
to his system. His table is as follows: 


to eR ee we eT Gurerg, nO 
ton om ord) dd. ckgegq by we pi. 6xz 


He selected these letters on account of some 
similarity to or association with the figure rep- 
resented; as, for example, t resembles the fig- 
ure 1, n with two strokes suggests 2, m with 
three strokes suggests 3, r occurs in the word 
denoting four in the European languages, &c. 
Fainaigle published a work in English illus- 
trative of his system, entitled ‘“‘The New Art 
of Memory” (London, 1812). His system was 
improved by Aimée Paris (Principes et appli- 
cations diverses de la mnémotechnie, 7th ed., 
Paris, 1833), who applied his method to chro- 
nology, geography, jurisprudence, mathematical 
formulas, and the nomenclature of all the sci- 
ences. Further modifications were made by 
F. Fauvel-Gouraud, who taught in the United 
States and published ‘‘ Phreno-Mnemotechnic 
Dictionary” (part i., New York, 1844), and 
‘“‘Phreno-Mnemotechny, or the Art of Memo- 
ry” (1845). Among other late writers on mne- 
monics are Gen. Bem, Exposé général de la 
méthode mnémonique polonaise, &c. (Paris and 
Leipsic, 1839), an enlargement of Jazwinski’s 
system; Hermann Kothe, System der Mnemo- 
nik (Cassel, 1853); and Karl Otto-Reventlow, 
Mnemotechnischer Commentar zur allgemeinen 
Weltgeschichte (Stuttgart, 1861). 

MNEMOSYNE (Gr.), in classical mythology, 
the goddess of memory, one of the Titanides, 
daughter of Uranus, who became by Jupiter 
the mother of the Muses. 

MOA. See Dinornis. 

MOAB, the ancient name of a region on the 
E. shore of the Dead sea and the E. bank of 
the Jordan, about 50 m. long by 20 broad. 
It is designated in Scripture as the land of 
Moab. The plains are well watered and very 
productive. The uplands consist of a rolling 
plateau about 3,200 ft. above the sea, which 
descends at angles of 45° and 50° into the 
Dead sea. The great chasm of Wady Mojeb, 
the Arnon of Scripture, divides them into two 
districts, of which the northern is called by 
the modern Arabs El-Belka, and extends as 


The 


MOAB 


far N. as the mountain of Gilead; while the 
southern is known as El-Kerak, and reaches 
southward to the wady of that name. The 
village of Kerak is supposed to stand upon the 
site of one of the ancient capitals of Moab, 
called in the Old Testament Kir-Haraseth (2 
Kings iii. 25), Kir-Hareseth (Isa. xvi. 7), Kir- 
Haresh (Isa. xvi. 11), Kir-Heres (Jer. xlviii. 31, 
86), or Kir-Moab, an earlier one having been 
Ar, or Rabbath-Moab. It is built on the top 
of asteep hill surrounded by a deep and narrow 
valley. The land is now inhabited by a few 
scattered Arab tribes, but is covered with 
ruined villages and towns. According to the 
Biblical account, Moab was a child of Lot, and 
his descendants conquered before the time of 
the exodus a gigantic tribe called Emim, and 
took possession of their land; but they lost 
a portion of it to the Amorites, from whom 
it was taken by Moses. Balak, king of Moab, 
formed an alliance with the Midianites to resist 
the invading Hebrews, and sought to persuade 
Balaam the seer to curse them; but Balaam by 
divine direction blessed them. Subsequently 
Balaam seduced the Hebrews to join in the 
worship of Baal-peor. The Midianites were 
thereupon attacked by command of the Lord, 
and suffered great losses, but the Moabites 
were spared. Moses died and was buried in 
the land of Moab, in a ravine facing Beth-peor, 
the house of Baal-peor. During the time of 
the judges Eglon, king of Moab, united with the 
Ammonites and Amalekites and subjugated the 
Israelites; but after ruling and receiving trib- 
ute in Jericho for 18 years, he was killed ‘by 
Ehud the Benjamite, and the Moabites were 
driven back to their own territory. Moab was 
conquered by Saul, and David made it a tribu- 
tary state. After the division of the Hebrew 
state, the Moabites revolted against Ahab, king 
of Israel, whose son Jehoram tried in vain to 
reconquer their territory. They subsequent- 
ly made various incursions into the Hebrew 
possessions, and appear in later times to have 
reoccupied the land between the Jabbok and 
Arnon, probably after the exile of the ten 
tribes, and they also assisted the Babylonians 
in their invasion of Palestine. But they, too, 
were subdued by the conquerors. Their name, 
like those of Ammon and Edom, was finally lost 
under that of the Arabians. Their licentious 
and bloody idolatry of Baal-peor and Chemosh 
made them an object of national detestation to 
the Hebrews, no less than their frequent hos- 
tilities, and they are often contemptuously spo- 
ken of in the prophets.—The discovery in 1868, 
at Dhiban in Moab, of a monument of black 
basaltic granite, with an inscription of 34 lines 
in Hebrew-Pheenician characters, attracted re- 
newed attention to this country. The only Eu- 
ropean who saw the Moabite stone in a com- 
plete state was the Rey. Mr. Klein, of the Je- 
rusalem mission society. The negotiations set 
on foot to obtain possession of it unfortunate- 
ly resulted in quarrels among the Arab tribes, 
and led them to believe that the Turks would 


MOAWIYAH 


make the stone a pretext for interfering in 
the government of the country; they there- 
fore lighted a tire on it, and when it was 
hot threw water upon it, which broke it into 
three large and several small fragments. The 
three large pieces were obtained by Clermont- 
Ganneau, dragoman of the French embassy 
at Constantinople, who had also procured an 
imperfect paper impression of the text before 
the stone was broken. Some of the smaller 
fragments, obtained by Capt. Warren, came 
into the possession of the Palestine exploration 
society. Ganneau published a partially restored 
text, with a translation, in the Revue archéolo- 
gique for March and June, 1870. The alpha- 
bet of the inscription is Hebreo-Pheenician, the 
oldest known form of Semitic. The language 
closely resembles Hebrew, and it is believed 
that the inscription dates from about 920 B. C. 
Owing chiefly to the fragmentary condition of 
the inscription, the decipherment cannot be re- 
garded as finally established ; but the labors of 
Ganneau, Neubauer, Néldeke, Hitzig, Kampf, 
Derenbourg, Haug, Schlottmann, Deutsch, Gins- 
burg, Levy, Harkavy, Wright, Lenormant, and 
others have doubtless determined its general 
contents. It appears that the stone was set 
up by Mesha or Mesa, king of Moab, son of 
Chemosh-Gad, who, speaking in the first per- 
son, records his wars with Omri, king of Is- 
rael, and his successors. Mesha fortified Baal- 
meon, made a successful attack on Kiriathaim, 
took Ashtaroth, and put all the inhabitants to 
death. He then assaulted Nebo, slew 7,000 
men, and devoted the women to Ashtar-Che- 
- mosh, and the vessels of Jehovah to the same 
god. The king of Israel fortified Jahaz and 
attacked Mesha, but was defeated and lost the 
city, which was thereupon occupied by Moab- 
ites. Subsequently Mesha restored Korhah, 
rebuilt Aroer, Beth-bamoth, Bezer, Beth-ga- 
mul, Beth-diblathaim, and Beth-Baal-meon. 
In continuation Mesha narrates his successful 
wars against the Edomites. The fragments of 
the stone were purchased by the French goy- 
ernment for 32,000 francs, and were trans- 
ported to the Louvre in Paris. Recent trav- 
ellers in Moab report that the Arabs are now 
afflicted with a mania for “written stones,” 
and offer many for sale which are only cov- 
ered with tribe marks, or at best fragmentary 
Nabathzan inscriptions.—See Clermont-Gan- 
neau, La stéle de Mesa (Paris, 1870); Ward, 
in the “‘ Bibliotheca Sacra” (Andover, October, 
1870); Ginsburg, ‘‘ The Moabite Stone” (Lon- 
don, 1870; 2d ed., revised and enlarged, 1871) ; 
Palmer, “The Desert of the Exodus” (Lon- 
don, 1872); and Tristram, ‘‘The Land of Mo- 
ab” (London, 1878). 

MOAWIYAH. I. The founder of the dynasty 
of the Ommiyade caliphs, born in Mecca about 
610, died in Damascus in the spring of 680. 
He was the son of Abu Sofian, one of the 
chiefs at Mecca, and the great-grandson of Om- 
miya, a cousin of the grandfather of Moham- 
_med. In 641 Omar appointed him governor of 


MOBILE 685 


Syria; and although he permitted the island of 
Cyprus, which fell into Saracen power about 
048, to be recaptured by its people in 651, he 
subjugated and retained the island of Rhodes. 
On the assassination of the caliph Othman 
in 655, he refused to recognize Ali, his legiti- 
mate successor, but proclaimed himself ca- 
liph. After a long struggle, in which he often 
displayed tyranny and revolting cruelty, he 
succeeded in subjugating the whole Saracen 
empire, and placing its provinces under the 
control of governors friendly to him. His 
armies made large additions to his territory, 
conquering Bokhara and Samarcand on the 
north, and meeting with no important check 
until they attacked Constantinople, which was 
repeatedly besieged until in 678 Moawiyah 
was compelled to make terms of peace. He 
made the caliphate hereditary, though the 
measure excited great opposition, and com- 
pelled the recognition of Yezid, his son, as his 
future successor. If, Grandson of the prece- 
ding, born in Damascus in 660, died there in 
686. He succeeded Yezid as caliph in the au- 
tumn of 688, but abdicated a few months later, 
declaring that the act of his grandfather in 
making the caliphate hereditary had been one 
of usurpation, in the results of which he would 
not share. He refused even to appoint a suc- 
cessor, but retired to a life of complete pri- 
vacy. According to some historians, he died 
of the plague; according to others, he was poi- 
soned. (See OMMIYADES.) 

MOBERLY, George, an English bishop, born in 
1803. He graduated at Oxford in 1825, and 
became successively fellow and tutor of Balliol 
college, public examiner, and select preacher 
before the university. In 1885 he was ap- 
pointed head master of Winchester school. In 
1868 he was the Bampton lecturer, and in 1869 
he was made bishop of Salisbury. His nu- 
merous publications include ‘‘ Introduction to 
Logic” (1838); ‘‘Sermons preached at Win- 
chester College” (2 vols., 1844~-’8) ; ‘‘Sayings 
of the Great Forty Days, with an Examination 
of Mr. Newman’s Theory of Development” 
(1846; 4th ed., 1871); ‘“‘Studies and Discipline 
of Public Schools ” (1861); ‘‘ The Administra- 
tion of the Holy Spirit in the Body of Christ” 
(Bampton lectures, 1868); and ‘ Brightstone 
Sermons” (1869). 

MOBILE, the name of a river and bay in the 
southern part of Alabama, derived from that 
of a tribe of Indians (the Mauvilians or Mo- 
bilians) who inhabited the adjacent country at 
the time of its first settlement by Europeans. 
The river Mobile is formed by the confluence 
of the Alabama and Tombigbee. A few miles 
below this point it divides into two branches, 
the eastern one of which takes the name of 
Tensas, the western retaining that of Mobile. 
Before reuniting, both these streams separate 
into several other subdivisions, all of which 
meet in one common embouchure at the head 
of Mobile bay. The length of the Mobile 
river is about 50 m., and its general direction 


686 


is south. In the lower part of its course the 
banks are marshy and alluvial—The bay of 


Mobile is about 30 m. in length from N. to S.,’ 


with a general width of 10 or 12 m., except 
where it expands on the southeast into the 
subsidiary bay of Bon Secours, which extends 
some 8 or 10 m. further to the eastward. The 
entrance from the gulf of Mexico, between 
Mobile point on the east and Dauphine isl- 
and on the west, is about 3 m. wide, and is 
commanded by Fort Morgan on Mobile point, 
and Fort Gaines on Dauphine island. The bay 
has another outlet on the southwest through 
Grant’s pass, N. of Dauphine island, which 
communicates with Mississippisound. Through 
this channel steamers and other vessels of light 
draught generally pass when plying between 
Mobile and New Orleans. The bar in front of 
the main entrance of the bay admits of the 
passage of vessels drawing 21 or 22 ft. The 
ordinary anchorage for shipsis 4 or 5 m. with- 
in the entrance of the bay. The whole of the 
upper portion of the bay is shallow, and is 
supposed to be gradually filling up with sedi- 
mentary deposits from the rivers that flow 
into it. There is a lighthouse on Mobile point; 
another on Sand island, 3 m. 8., immediately 
in front of the entrance; and one at the head 
of the bay, a little below the city of Mobile. 

MOBILE, aS. W. county of Alabama, bounded 
E. by Mobile river and bay, S. by the gulf of 
Mexico, and W. by Mississippi; area, nearly 
1,400 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 49,311, of whom 
21,107 were colored. The surface is generally 
uneven, except in that portion bordering on 
the bay and gulf, and the soil is sandy and 
poor, mainly covered with forests of pine. It 
has many streams of pure water, and, except 
on the low borders of the river, is very health- 
ful. The county is traversed by the Mobile 
and Ohio, the New Orleans, Mobile, and Texas, 
and other railroads terminating at Mobile. A 
few miles S. of the mainland, in the gulf of 
Mexico, immediately W. of the entrance of 
Mobile bay, and forming a part of the county, 
is Dauphine island, the seat of a French set- 
tlement established by Bienville in 1702. It 
was originally called Massacre island, from the 
number of human bones found upon it. For 
several years it was at intervals the seat of 
government of the colony of Louisiana. The 
chief productions in 1870 were 61,350 bushels 
of Indian corn, 10,394 of Irish and 67,116 of 
sweet potatoes, 90,100 lbs. of rice, 7,532 of 
wool, 1,450 of honey, and 317 bales of cotton. 
There were on farms 451 horses, 492 mules 
and asses, 3,214 milch cows, 518 working oxen, 
4,377 other cattle, 3,013 sheep, and 5,567 
swine. There were 5 flour mills, 12 saw mills, 
11 manufactories of tin, copper, &c., 14 of ci- 
gars, 2 of engines and boilers, and 5 of tar and 
turpentine. Capital, Mobile. 

MOBILE, a port of entry and the capital of 
Mobile co., Alabama, the largest city and only 
seaport of the state, on the W. side of Mo- 
bile river, immediately above its entrance into 


MOBILE 


the bay of the same name, 30 m. from the gulf 
of Mexico, in lat. 30° 42’ N.,-lon. 88° W., 
180 m. 8. W. of Montgomery, and 140 m. by 
rail E. by N. of New Orleans; pop. in 1820, 
2,672; in 1880, 3,194; in 1840, 12,672; in 
1850, 20,515; in 1860, 29,258; in 1870, 32,0384; 
of whom 13,919 were colored and 4,239 for- 
eigners. The number of families was 6,301 ; 
of dwellings, 5,738. The corporate limits ex- 
tend 6 m. N. and §., and 2 or 3 m. W. from 
the river. The thickly inhabited part of the 
city extends for about a mile along the river, 
and nearly the same distance back to the west- 
ward. Its site is a sandy plain, rising as it re- 
cedes from the water. Thestreets are general- 
ly regular, well paved, and shaded. There are 


several fine public buildings, among which is 


a handsome market house with rooms for the 
municipal offices in the upper story. The 
custom house has also accommodations for the 
post office and United States courts. Among 
the other noticeable buildings are the thea- 
tre, Odd Fellows’ and temperance halls, guard 
house and tower, medical college, and the Bar- 
ton academy. Mobile is lighted with gas, and 
supplied with water of unusual purity and ex- 
cellence, which is brought a little more than 5 
m., from the foot of Spring hill. Six lines of 
street railroad traverse the city. The climate 
is generally healthful, except for occasional 
visitations of epidemic yellow fever. High 
and healthful hills within afew miles N. W. 
and S. W. afford permanent or summer resi- 
dences. Four lines of railroad furnish com- 
munication with various points in the south, 
viz.: the Mobile and Ohio; Mobile and Mont- 
gomery ; New Orleans, Mobile, and Texas; and 
Alabama Grand Trunk. The trade of Mobile 
is much hindered by the shallowness of its har- 
bor. Vessels drawing more than 8 or 10 ft. 


-are obliged to anchor in the bay, 25 m. or more 


from the city. In 1873 congress appropriated 
$100,000 for the completion of improvements 
in the harbor, which it is hoped will enable 
vessels of 13 ft. draught to reach the wharves. 
The chief business is the receipt and shipment of 
cotton. The following table exhibits the num- 
ber of bales received and shipped for six years: 


SHIPMENTS. 
XHARS, set et Patel (65 foreign | To domestic Total. 
ports. ports. 
1868-"69..... Aa 230,621 163,154 84,194 247,348 
1869-°70........ 806.061 200,838 97,685 298,523 
ISOS Th ones ens 404,673 287,074 130,429 417,508 
ASUIAN (2p serts 288,012 187,977 157,652 295,629 
18(2T3..500065 832,457 132,130 197,131 829,261 
1878-"74........ 299,578 182,867 172,222 804,589 


The trade in naval stores and lumber pro- 
duced in the vicinity is increasing. In 1878 
the shipments consisted of 15,000 to 20,000 
barrels of spirits of turpentine, 75,000 to 
100,000 of rosin, and 1,000 of tar, together 
valued at $750,000, and 2,627,549 ft. of lumber. 
The importation of coffee is also increasing, 
and in 1872-’8 amounted to 58,956 bags. The 


MOBILE 


trade with foreign ports since 1867 (years end- 
ing June 30) is shown in the following table: 


YEARS. Exports, Imports. 
1BBT ood Sy caw ene ae ag's $22,101,601 $385,530 
ot SOS siciascseietsets eatsteriee enters 22,611,973 566,225 
USOO as saa sgre settee terete 20,541,450 511,297 
ISTO okt epee 22,429, 631 1,447,516 
yp Ba eer, 21,874,708 1,811,614 
ASB a vinu saa ius aes etme c 18,954,660 1,761,657 
STEIN Ei ed beeaeniies 12,249,866 1,097,164 
TSE, oss os Seas pete ane 10,282,784 886,411 


~ 


Of the exports in 1874, $9,884,820 consisted 
of cotton. The entrances from foreign ports 
during the year ending June 80, 1874, num- 
bered 58, with an aggregate tonnage of 83,- 
667; clearances to foreign ports 41, tonnage 
32,509. The coastwise entrances were 185, 
tonnage 48,373; coastwise clearances, 128, ton- 
nage 45,115. In 1873 80 sailing vessels of 
7,586 tons, 30 steamers of 7,316 tons, and 22 
barges of 1,475 tons, belonged to the port. 
Steamers run regularly to Montgomery and 
other points on the Alabama, Tombigbee, and 
Black Warrior rivers. The principal manu- 
factories are two of sash, doors, and blinds, 
one of paper, several of carriages and cabinet 
ware, two cooperages, a brewery, three saw 
mills, and four founderieg and machine shops. 
There are two national banks, with a joint 
capital of $800,000; two state banks, with 
$1,000,000 capital; two savings banks, and 
nine insurance companies.—Mobile is divided 
into eight wards, and is governed by a mayor, 
with a board of councilmen of one member 
and a board of aldermen of three members 
from each ward. It has a municipal court and 
an efficient fire department and police force. 
The United States courts for the southern dis- 
trict of Alabama are held here. The principal 
charitable institutions are four orphan asylums, 
the city hospital, the United States marine hos- 
pital, and the Providence infirmary. The med- 
ical college of Alabama was established here 
in 1859, and in 1873-4 had 9 professors and 
85 students. The number of public schools in 
the entire county in 1873-4 was 71 (42 white 
and 29 colored), with an attendance of about 
4,500. The boys’ and girls’ high schools and 
a number of the lower grades are held in the 
Barton academy in the city. There are seven 
Roman Catholic schools and academies, a He- 
brew school, and a number of private schools 
and academies. Two daily newspapers are 
published. There are 80 churches, viz.: 5 
Baptist (2 colored), 4 Episcopal, 1 German Lu- 
theran, 1 Jewish, 10 Methodist (6 colored), 3 
Presbyterian, and 6 Roman Catholic. In the 
immediate vicinity of Mobile are the college 
of St. Joseph at Spring Hill, under direction 
of the Jesuits, and the academy of the Visita- 
tion, Summerville, conducted by the sisters of 
the Visitation.—Mobile was the original seat of 
French colonization in the southwest, and for 
many years the capital of the colony of Louisi- 
ana. In 1702 Le Moyne de Bienville trans- 
565 VOL, x1.—44 


687 


ferred the principal seat of the colony from 
Biloxi to a point on the river Mobile supposed 
to be about 20 m. above the present city, where 
he established a fort which he called St. Louis 
de la Mobile. At the same time he built a fort 
and warehouse on Isle Dauphine, at the en- 
trance of Mobile bay. Many of the first set- 
tlers were Canadians. In 1705 an epidemic, 
supposed to be the first recorded visitation of 
yellow fever, carried off 85 persons. The year 
1706 was noted for the “petticoat insurrec- 
tion,” a threatened rebellion of the women, in 
consequence of dissatisfaction with the diet of 
Indian corn. The colony frequently suffered 
from famine, as well as from the attacks of 
Indians, although relieved by occasional sup- 
plies from the mother country. In 1711 the 
settlement was nearly destroyed by a hurricane 
and flood, in consequence of which it was re- 
moved to its present situation. In 1728 the 
seat of the colonial government was transferred 
to New Orleans. In 1763, by the treaty of 
Paris, Mobile, with all that portion of Louisi- 
ana lying E. of the Mississippi and N. of Bayou 
Iberville, Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain, 
passed into the possession of Great Britain. 
In 1780 the fort, the name of which had been 
changed to Fort Condé, and subsequently by 
the British to Fort Charlotte, was captured by 
the Spanish general Don Galvez, and in 1788 
its occupancy was confirmed to Spain by the 
cession to that power of all the British posses- 
sions on the gulf of Mexico. On April 18, 1818, 
the Spanish commandant, Cayetano Perez, sur- 
rendered the fort and town to Gen. Wilkinson. 
At that period the population, which in 1785 
had amounted to 746, was estimated at only 
500 (exclusive of the garrison), half of whom 
were blacks. In December, 1819, Mobile was 
incorporated as a city. On Jan. 4, 1861, the 
state authorities of Alabama took possession of 
the United States arsenal at Mount Vernon, 35 
m. from Mobile, and soon afterward garrisoned 
Forts Morgan and Gaines at the entrance.of the 
bay, though the state did not secede until the 
lith. Mobile was not seriously attacked until 
the summer of 1864, when the city had been en- 
compassed with three lines of defensive works, 
while ten batteries commanded the channel 
below the city, which was also, obstructed with 
rows of piles, and a small confederate fleet, car- 
rying 22 guns and 470 men, was anchored under 
the guns of Fort Morgan. On Aug. 5 Admiral 
Farragut, with 18 vessels, carrying 199 guns and 
2,700 men, entered the bay under the fire of the 
two forts, which he returned while passing, but 
without stopping. He was assisted by 1,500 
soldiers, under Gen. Gordon Granger, who 
were intrenched on Dauphine island, within 
half a mile of Fort Gaines. Farragut’s leading 
vessel, the Tecumseh, struck a torpedo and in- 
stantly sank, carrying down her captain and 
112 men. The flag ship Hartford, with the 
admiral in the rigging, then took the lead, and 
after an engagement lasting an hour passed the 
forts and steamed into the bay, followed by 


688 MOBILE POINT 


the remainder of the fleet. They at once en- 
countered the confederate fleet, which after a 
sharp conflict was destroyed or captured; the 
most formidable vessel, the ram Tennessee, did 
not surrender until a 15-inch shot had pene- 
trated her armor, her steering apparatus had 
been disabled, and the commander of the fleet, 
Admiral Buchanan, seriously wounded. The 
Union loss in this engagement was 52 killed, 
170 wounded, and 113 drowned. The confed- 
erate loss in the fleet was 10 killed and 19 
wounded; in the two forts, 8 killed and 21 
wounded. Fort Gaines, with 800 men, sur- 
rendered on the 8th. Fort Morgan was at 
once besieged; it was bombarded and almost 
entirely destroyed on the 22d, and surrendered 
on the morning of the 23d. Late in March, 
1865, Spanish Fort and Blakely, fortified places 
on the eastern shore of the bay and Tensas 
river, were invested by a force of 45,000 men, 
under Gens. Granger, Steele, and A. J. Smith. 
These forts were carried by assault on the 8th 
and 9th of April, 4,000 prisoners being cap- 
tured, while heavy losses were sustained by the 
besiegers. Mobile being thus exposed to at- 
tack from the river, it was evacuated by the 
confederates on the 11th, and occupied by the 
Union troops next day. 

MOBILE POINT, the apex of a long, low, 
narrow, sandy peninsula between the gulf of 
Mexico on the south and Bon Secours bay and 
Navy cove on the north. The point is the 
eastern limit of the entrance into Mobile bay. 
It is the site of Fort Morgan, built in the place 
of Fort Bowyer, famous for the repulse of an 
attack by the British, Sept. 14, 1814. The 
fort, which was very imperfectly constructed, 
was commanded by Major Lawrence, with a 
garrison of only 130, including men and offi- 
cers, and 20 pieces of artillery. It was at- 
tacked by a squadron of two sloops of war 
and two brigs, assisted by 600 Indians on land, 
with whom were associated 130 marines from 
the ships. The attack continued for three 
hours, when the enemy were repulsed, with 
the loss of the Hermes, Commodore Percy’s 
flag ship, which ran aground and was burned, 
and 232 men killed and wounded. Eight of 
the garrison were killed. After the battle of 
New Orleans, Fort Bowyer was again invested 
by the whole British force, and Lawrence sur- 
rendered, Feb. 12, 1815. (See Mosire.) 

MOBIUS. I. August Ferdinand, a German mathe- 
matician, born at Schulpforta, near Naumburg, 
Nov. 17, 1790, died in Leipsic, Sept. 26, 1868. 
He graduated at the university of Leipsic in 
1815, and was a professor there for 50 years. 
He remodelled the observatory, and in his Der 
barycentrische Calcul, ein neues Hiilfsmittel 
eur analytischen Behandlung der Geometrie 
(Leipsic, 1827), established the new principle 
of the affinities of figures. His Lehrbuch der 
Statik (2 vols., 1837) gives a comprehensive 
accotmt of the intimate connection between 
statics and geometry. His most celebrated 
astronomical works are Die Hlemente der 


MOCKING BIRD 


Mechanik des Himmels (1848), and Die Haupt- 
satze der Astronomie (4th ed., 1860). IL. 
Theodor, a German philologist, son of the pre- 
ceding, born in Leipsic, June 22, 1821. He 
graduated at Leipsic in 1852, and in 1859 be- 
came professor of Scandinavian languages and 
literature there. In 1865 he accepted a sim- 
ilar position at Kiel. He has edited many old 
Norse works. III. Paul Heinrich August, a Ger- 
man author, brother of the preceding, born in 
Leipsic, May 31, 1825. He studied theology 
and philosophy, and became a teacher in Leip- 
sic and a preacher at the church of the univer- 
sity. From 1853 to 1865 he was director of 
an educational institution for booksellers, and 
subsequently of one of the principal schools in 
Leipsic. His miscellaneous writings include 
stories, poetry, and a tragedy, and Katechis- 
mus der deutschen Literaturgeschichte (Leip- 
sic, 1857; 4th ed., 1871). 

MOCANNA, or Mokanna. 
HAxKEM. 

MOCHA, or Mokha, a seaport of Arabia, for- 
merly the capital of the province of Yemen, on 
the Red sea, at the head of a little bay near 
the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, 130 m. N. W. of 
Aden; pop. about 7,000. The roadstead is 
protected only by two narrow spits of sand, 
on one of which is a castellated fort and on the 
other an insignificant battery. Vessels draw- 
ing 12 ft. of water can enter it. The houses 
are generally of coral rock or sun-baked brick 
whitewashed, but in the suburbs they are circu- 
lar huts built of date-tree matting, with conical 
roofs. There are three suburbs, one occupied 
by Abyssinian mariners and Mohammedan tra- 
ders, one by Arab laborers, and one by Jews. 
The chief public edifices are the mosques, one 
of which is very large. Mochais celebrated for 
its coffee, the annual export of which, though 
much less than in former times, was recently 
still about 10,000 tons. Other articles of trade 
are dates, gums, balm, ivory, and senna. The 
growth of Hodeida and Aden has injured the 
prosperity of Mocha, and its commerce has de- 
creased greatly in late years. 

MOCHUANA. See Brouuana. 

MOCKING BIRD, an American passerine bird, 
of the subfamily miming, and genus mimus 
(Boie). The subfamily includes the catbird, 
brown thrush, and nearly 20 other mockers, 
arranged by Gray under the single genus mi- 
mus, but subdivided by Cabanis and others into 
nearly as many genera as species. The re- 
stricted genus mémus has the bill shorter than 
the head, slightly curved from the base, and 
notched at the tip; the gape furnished with 
bristles; lower jaw with no longitudinal ridges; 
wings moderate and rounded, with the first 
quill very short, the second longer, and from 
the third to the seventh nearly equal and long- 
est; tail long and graduated; tarsi longer than 
the middle toe, robust, and covered in front 
with broad scales; toes long, with sharp curved 
claws. The size is large, and the general ap- 
pearance thrush-like. The species of this genus 


See ATHA BEN 


i Sn i 


MOCKING BIRD 


are found in North and South America, the West 
Indies, and the Galapagos islands; they are shy, 
active, and migratory, feeding on insects, ber- 
ries, and worms; the song is highly pleasing, 
and the powers of imitation are very great. 


Mocking Bird (Mimus polyglottus). 


The common mocking bird (. polyglottus, 
Boie) is about 94 in. long, with an extent of 
wings of 134; the bill and legs are black; the 
general color above is ashy brown, a little the 
darkest in the centre; the under parts white, 
with a brownish tinge except on the chin, and 
a shade of ash across the breast; a pale super- 
ciliary stripe; wings and tail nearly black; 
lesser wing coverts like the back, the middle 
and greater tipped with white, forming two 
bands; outer tail feather white, the second 
mostly so, the third with a white spot on the 
end, and the rest, except the middle, slightly 
tipped with white. It is found in the southern 
United States, from the Atlantic to the high 
central plains, replaced by the M. montanus 
(Bonap.) to the westward. The song of the 
mocking bird, in its mellowness, modulations 
and gradations, compass, and brilliancy of exe- 
cution, is unrivalled; it can adapt its tongue 
to any note; it deceives the sportsman, cheats 
and terrifies birds, whistles to the dog, and 
imitates almost every sound, animate or in- 
animate; it sings charmingly at night, com- 
mencing as soon as the moon rises; its finest 
song is during the breeding season. It delights 
to build in gardens near houses; the eggs are 
usually five, light green with brown spots and 
blotches. They begin to pair toward the end 
of March, and three broods are generally raised 
between that and the last of September. They 
remain in the gulf states all the year; some go 
to the north in the spring, returning in Octo- 
ber; they are most plentiful near the seashore, 
in sandy districts scantily furnished with trees; 
in winter they live principally about the farm 
houses and plantations. Their motions on the 
ground are light and elegant, accompanied by 


MODENA 689 


frequent openings of the wings and tail; the 
flight is short and jerking. The call note is 
very mournful, like that of the /. rufus (Boie), 
the French mocking bird so called. Its cour- 
age is sufficient to defend it against most birds 
of prey. It is easily reared by hand from the 
nest, and becomes very familiar and affection- 
ate in confinement; its vocal powers, though 
great in captivity, are very much greater in its 
native haunts; it is long-lived, and a good 
singer always commands a high price. The 
female differs little from the male, but the plu- 
mage is somewhat duller. The I. Carolinen- 
sis (Gray) has been described under Carsirp. 
Other species are described in South America, 
and on the Pacific coast of North America, all 
possessing remarkable powers of song. 
MODENA. ¥. A former duchy of northern 
Italy, bordering on Mantua, Ferrara, Bologna, 
Lucca, Genoa, Parma, and the Mediterranean ; 
area, about 2,300 sq.m. It comprised Modena 
proper, Reggio, Guastalla, Frignana, Garfa- 
gnana, Massa-Carrara, and Lunigiana. The 
last three divisions Jie 8. of the Apennines, 
the main ridge of which crosses the southern 
portion of the territory, sending off extensive 
spurs. The highest summit is Monte Cimone, 
7,000 ft. The territory of Modena extended 
from the Po to the Mediterranean, the coast 
being small and destitute of harbors. About 
one third of it, watered by the Panaro, forms 
part of the great and fertile plain of Lombar- 
dy. The principal river is the Secchia, which 
after a winding course of 100 m. joins the Po 
opposite the mouth of the Mincio. The prin- 
cipal productions are wheat, maize, hemp, 
flax, rice, pulse, olives, wine, and silk. Agri- 
culture is backward, but improving. Few of 
the farms exceed 60 acres; dairy pasture pre- 
vails to some extent in the valley of Garfa- 
gnana; a few families own the large flocks of 
Apennine sheep. The vine is most extensive- 
ly cultivated near Reggio and the city of Mo- 
dena. The mountains abound with oak, pine, 
and chestnut. Iron and other minerals are 
found, and the marble of Carrara is a lucrative 
article of export. The territory now forms 
three provinces of the kingdom of Italy: Mo- 
dena, Reggio, and Massa e Carrara. Its his- 
tory is given in connection with that of the 
city. Ii. A province of the kingdom of Italy, 
embracing of the former duchy of Modena 
the provinces of Modena and Frignana; area, 
966 sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 278,231. IM A 
city (anc. dMutina), capital of the province, 
beautifully situated in a plain between the Pa- 
naro and the Secchia, 23 m. N. W. of Bologna; 
pop. in 1872, 56,690. It has a citadel, is sur- 
rounded with ramparts, and is divided into 
the new and old city, a part of the Amilian 
way intersecting it. The Gothic duomo or 
cathedral contains interesting tombs, one of 
which, designed by Giulio Romano, is celebra- 
ted on account of its square marble tower, one 
of the highest in Italy. Famous among the 
numerous churches, on account of their colos- 


690 MODENA 


sal marbles, are those of San Vincenzo, Sant’ 
Agostino, and San Francesco. The former 
ducal (now royal) palace in the great square 
is a fine edifice, and contains a large collection 
of paintings by Guido Reni, the Carracci, An- 
drea del Sarto, Carlo Dolce, and Guercino, Po- 
maranzio’s “‘ Crucifixion,” and other remark- 
able works. It has a recumbent Cleopatra by 
Canova, and the ceiling of the gallery is paint- 
ed in fresco by Francesconi. The library, 
brought from Ferrara by Cesare d’Este, and 
hence known as the biblioteca Estense, has 
about 100,000 volumes, and is rich in manu- 
scripts, coins, and medals. The other public 
buildings of Modena are the university, one of 
the most famous in Italy, the museo Lapidario, 
the theatre, the post office, and the archiepis- 
copal palace. There are many educational in- 
stitutions and an academy of sciences and fine 


arts. Modena is the seat of an archbishop. 
The university in 1873 had 42 professors and 
315 students.—The ancient Mutina is supposed 
to have been of Etruscan origin. According 
to Livy, the territory in which it was situated 
had been taken from the Boians, and after the 
final defeat of the latter it was made a Roman 
colony (183 B.C.). It was a strong place in 
the time of Sulla, and subsequently became 
celebrated by the siege which it sustained and 
the battles fought between Decimus Brutus 
and Mark Antony, a campaign known as the 
bellum Mutinense (43). Afterward it suffered 
much from the general calamities of the em- 
pire, and toward the end of the 4th century, 
according to St. Ambrose, it was in a deplo- 
rable condition. In the middle of the 5th cen- 
tury it endured the still more terrible ravages 
of Attila. Under the Lombard kings Mutina 


Modena. 


became the frontier city of their dominions 
toward the exarchate. At the close of the 6th 
century it was taken by the Greek emperor 
Mauricius. Subsequently it was restored to 
the Lombard kingdom, but according to Mu- 
ratori nearly the whole city was reduced for 
several centuries to a morass, chiefly owing 
to inundations. It was governed by Frankish 
counts for some time after the 9th century, in 
the 11th by its bishops, and at its close by the 
countess Matilda of Tuscany. Subsequently 
it formed part of the Lombard league; and 
after suffering from the feuds which distracted 
for a long period the cities of northern Italy, 
it passed along with Ferrara into the posses- 
sion of the Torrelli family, and at the end of 
the 13th century the house of Este became the 
rulers of the city and its territory. The titles 
of duke of Modena and Reggio and count of 
Rovigo were conferred upon Borso of Este in 


1452 by the emperor Frederick III. of Ger- 
many, and that of duke of Ferrara by Pope 
Paul II. in 1471. (See Estz.) The duchies of 
Modena and Reggio remained in the Este fam- 
ily till 1797, when Napoleon took them from 
Ercole III. (who died in 1808), and annexed 
them to the Cisalpine republic. His daughter 
Maria Beatrice married the Austrian archduke 
Ferdinand, and their son Francis IV., who in- 
herited Massa-Carrara, was reinstated as duke 
of Modena in 1814, and was succeeded in 1846 
by his son Francis V., whose elder sister is the 
wife of the count de Chambord, and his young- 
er sister of the younger son of Don Carlos, 
the first Spanish pretender of that name, and 
mother of the present pretender. (See Car- 
Los.) Even more autocratic than his predeces- 
sors, he was obliged to invoke the assistance 
of Austria at the end of 1847 to maintain his 
authority, and he fled in March, 1848, while 


MODICA 


the Modenese established a provisional gov- 
ernment. After the defeat of the Sardinian 
army by Radetzky he returned to his capital, 
Aug. 10, fled again March 14, 1849, returned 
in May, and feigned to be bent on liberal re- 
forms. But he soon relapsed into absolutism 
and reinstated the Jesuits (June, 1850). In 
1859, after the battle of Magenta, he finally 
left Modena, though the Franco-Austrian treaty 
of Villafranca confirmed him in his posses- 
sions.. His dynasty was deposed by the Mo- 
denese national assembly, Aug. 19; and’ by a 
decree of March 18, 1860, Modena became part 
of the department of Emilia, in the dominions 
of Victor Emanuel. 

MODICA, a town of Sicily, in the province 
and 30 m. S. W. of the city of Syracuse, in a 
narrow valley surrounded by high rocks; pop. 
in 1872, 33,169. It has a castle, a technical 
school, a gymnasium, a beautiful cathedral, 
and several other notable churches, The in- 
habitants are mostly engaged in agriculture 
and in the breeding of horses and mules. A 
brisk trade is carried on in grain, oil, wine, 
cheese, and other products. About 4 m. from 
Modica, in a stony desert, is the valley of Ipsica, 
famous for its excavated rock dwellings, sup- 
posed to be the work of the aboriginal Sicilians. 

MODJESKA, Helena Benda. See supplement. 

MODLIN. See NovoagrorGievsk. 

MODOCS, a tribe of American Indians, origi- 
nally part of the Klamath nation, but in recent 
times hostile to them. The name Modoc was 
given to them by the Shasteecas, and means 
enemies. Their original territory was a dis- 
trict about 100 by 40 m. on the S. shore of 
Klamath lake, California. They were dark- 
colored, with a heavy drowsy face and dull 
yellowish eye. Their houses were pits roofed 
with a conical structure of wooden slabs, cov- 
ered with earth. Both sexes were decently 
clothed in skins. They contended with the 
Shasteecas and the Klamaths, and traded in 
the slaves they captured in war. They recog- 
nized a deity called Komoose. As early as 
1847 and 1849 they are charged with having 
cut off more than 50 whites. The Indians on 
Clear lake chastised by Capt. Nathaniel Lyon 
in 1850 were apparently of this tribe. After 
another massacre of whites in 1852 Ben Wright 
invited the Modocs to a peaceful feast in 1855, 
and killed 41 out of 46 who came. This act 
the Modocs never forgave. A campaign against 
them in 1856 under Gen. Crosby cut off many, 
but the war was kept up till 1864, when a 
treaty was made, by which they ceded their 
lands and agreed to go on areservation. This 
treaty was not ratified by the President’s proc- 
lamation till Feb. 17, 1870, or the reservation 
officially set apart till March 14, 1871. Mean- 
while the Modocs had been induced to go upon 
the Klamath reservation, but it was a part of 
the country where they could not live; their 
own provisions were destroyed, they were 
cheated out of government allowances, and the 
Klamaths harassed them. Some were then 


MRIS 691 


moved to Yainax reservation, but Klamaths 
were put with them, and the trouble continued. 
Two Modoc bands left the reservation. The 
turbulent band of Captain Jack (Krentpoos), 
who had set himself up against Schonchin, the 
hereditary chief, after suffering greatly in the 
winter, returned in February, 1868, to their 
old home on Lost river, while the quiet and 
inoffensive band settled on Hot creek near the 
whites. Loud complaints were made against 
Captain Jack’s band, and the commissioner of 
Indian affairs, on April 11, 1872, ordered Super- 
intendent Odeneal to remove them from Lost 
river to the reservation. On their refusal to 
go, troops from Fort Klamath moved on Cap- 
tain Jack’s camp, Nov. 29, 1872, and some Ore- 
gon citizens on another camp on the opposite 
side of the river. Fighting ensued at both 
camps. The whites withdrew with loss, and 
the Modocs, retreating united, massacred some 
peaceful settlers on the way, and reached the 
Lava Beds, a volcanic region which served asa 
natural fortification. Maj. Gen. Wheaton en- 
tered this tract, Jan. 17, 1878, but could not 
penetrate within three miles of the Modoe 
stronghold, and after losing 11 killed and 21 
wounded drew off. Gen. Gillem then took 
command, but with no greater success. Mean- 
while the government appointed commission- 
ers to inquire into the causes of discontent. A 


conference, April 11, 1878, was broken up by 


the Modocs attacking the commissioners, kill- 
ing Gen. Canby and Dr. Thomas, and wound- 
ing Mr. Meacham, another of the commission- 
ers. Active operations were resumed, and the 
Modocs, after a long and stubborn resistance, 
finally surrendered to Gen. J. C. Davis, about 
June 1. Captain Jack, Schonchin, jr., and two 
other Modocs were tried by a military commis- 
sion and executed at Fort Klamath, Oct. 8. 
The rest of those captured were, by order of 
the secretary of war and the Indian commis- 
sioner (Nov. 4), placed on the Quapaw reser- 
vation, in the Indian territory. This band 
numbered 148; the number of those left at 
the Klamath agency who took no part in the 
war was about 100. 

MRIS, a Jake of Egypt, near the ancient 
Crocodilopolis, now Medinet-el-Fayoom. He- 
rodotus says: '‘ Wonderful as is the labyrinth, 
the work called the lake of Mceris, which is 
close by the labyrinth, is yet more astonishing. 
The measure of its circumference is 3,600 fur- 
longs, which is equal to the entire length of 
Egypt along the seacoast. -The lake stretches 
in its longest direction from north to south, 
and in its deepest parts is of the depth of 50 
fathoms. It is manifestly an artificial excava- 
tion, for nearly in the centre stand two pyra- 
mids, rising to the height of 800 ft. above the 
surface of the water, and extending as far be- 
neath, each crowned with a colossal statue sit- 
ting uponathrone. The water of the lake does 
not come out of the ground, which is here ex- 
cessively dry, but is introduced by a canal from 
the Nile. The current sets for six months into 


692 MESIA 


the lake from the river, and for the next six 
months into the river from the lake.” The 
same historian ascribes the formation of this 
lake to a king Meeris who lived about 1350 B. 
C., and who is identified by modern Egyptolo- 
gists with Amen-hotep (Amenophis) III., the 
Memnon of the later Greeks and Romans. But 
he confounds the natural lake Birket-el-Keroon 
with the artificial lake Mceris. (See Birxer- 
rL-Krroon.) During the annual inundation 
of the Nile the two lakes would appear as one. 
Meeris in reality was an extensive reservoir 
secured by dams and communicating by canals 
with all parts of Fayoom, to supply which 
with water was the object of its construction. 

MOESIA (in Greek, Mysia), an ancient coun- 
try of eastern Europe, bounded N. by the Savus 
(Save) and Ister (Danube), E. by the Euxine, 
S. by the Hemus (Balkan) and Scardus ranges, 
and W. by the Drinus river (Drin). It was di- 
vided by the Romans, who conquered it in the 
early period of the empire, into Meesia Inferior 
or E. Meesia, the present Bulgaria, and Mesia 
Superior or W. Meesia, the present Servia, di- 
vided by the little river Ciabrus (Tzibritza). 
The original inhabitants were chiefly Thracians, 
among them the Triballi. Under Aurelian the 
Dacian colonies were removed there, when the 
middle part of the province also received the 
name of Dacia Aureliani. It was occupied by 
the Goths in the 4th century, who were called 
Mceso-Goths, and who surrendered the territo- 
ry to the emperor Theodosius I. Slavs settled 
here in the 6th and 7th centuries. 

MOFFAT, Robert, a Scottish missionary, born 
at Inverkeithing, Fifeshire, in 1795. He was 
reared in the Secession church, but his religious 
associations from 1811 till 1816 were largely 
with the Methodists of England, where he then 


MOGADORE 


lived. He was a gardener, but devoted his lei- 
sure hours to study, and in 1815 offered him- 
self as a missionary. He was originally des- 
tined to accompany Williams to the South sea, 
but was finally sent to South Africa. He sailed 
in 1817, and immediately on his arrival at Cape 
Town went to Namaqualand, where he entered 
upon his labors at the kraal of Africaner, a 
chief whose name had long been a terror to 
the neighboring districts, but who had lately 
become an enthusiastic convert to Christianity. 
Here Moffat labored for three or four years 
with great success. But the situation being 
unsuitable for a principal mission station, he 
set out in search of a better locality, and labor- 
ed successively with much promise in the coun- 
tries to the north and northeast of Cape Colony, 
and in every place guided the people in the 
arts of civilized life. He often made tours 
among barbarous warlike tribes. His remark- 
able adventures in these journeys are described 
in his ‘‘ Missionary Labors and Scenes in 
Southern Africa” (8vo, London, 1842), which 
he wrote and published during a visit of sev- 
eral years to Britain, rendered necessary by 
the state of his health. During his stay there, 
he also carried through the press a version of 
the New Testament and the Psalms in the 
Bechuana language. He returned to Africa in 
1842, and continued there until recently, when 
he went back to London. He has compiled a 
“Seeuana Hymn Book” (London, 1848), and 
his ‘ Farewell Services’? were edited by Dr. 
Campbell, and published in 1848. Dr. Liv- 
ingstone was Moffat’s son-in-law. 

MOGADORE, or Snirah, a fortified seaport town 
of Morocco, on the Atlantic, 130 m. W. by 8. 
of the city of Morocco; pop. about 20,000, 
many of whom are Jews. The town stands 


Mogadore. 


on an eminence, opposite an island of the same 
name, and is surrounded by a low sandy flat, 
which at high water is overflowed by the sea, 
It consists of two parts, one called the cita- 


del, inhabited by Moors, and the other called 
Mellah, by Jews. The town is well supplied 
with water by an aqueduct. The houses are 
generally large and flat-roofed. ‘Some of the 


MOGHILEV 


mosques are fine. The chief exports are wool, 
gum, wax, hides, almonds, honey, ostrich feath- 
ers, ivory, and gold dust. The harbor is form- 
ed by an island 8. of the town, and is the best 
on the W. coast of Morocco. Mogadore was 
founded in 1760 by the emperor Sidi Moham- 
med, on the site of an old Portuguese fort. It 
was bombarded by the French under the prince 
de Joinville, Aug. 15, 1844. It suffered also 
during the war with Spain (1859-’60). 
MOGHILEYV, or Mogiley. See Mouttey. 
MOGILA, or Mogilas, Peter, a Russian author, 
born in Moldavia about 1597, died Dec. 31, 
1646. He studied at several of the European 
high schools, but stayed longest at the univer- 
sity of Paris. He served in the Polish army 
with distinction, and in 1625 entered a monas- 
tery at Kiev. In 1629 he became archiman- 
drite, and in 1633 metropolitan of Kiev, Gali- 
cia, and Little Russia. He was the first to in- 
troduce in the study of theology at Kiev the 
developments which it had acquired in the Eu- 
ropean universities. He improved the courses 
of study in every particular, obtained permis- 
sion to erect a printing press, invited many 
learned men to the academy, settled upon them 
sources of revenue which had formerly gone 
to the metropolitan, and gave them his own 
valuable collection of books. To confirm the 
views and feelings of the oriental church in 
opposition to the encroachments of Roman and 
Protestant elements, Mogila wrote a ‘‘ Confes- 
sion of Faith,’ which was examined and ap- 
proved by two councils, and, being indorsed 
by the four cecumenical patriarchs, and by the 
Russian patriarchs Joachim and Adrian, be- 
came the first symbolic book of the eastern 
church, and has continued to be the standard 
book in theology. Mogila published also a 
“Catechism” (Kiev, 1645), and some pam- 
phlets.- Many of his dramas were acted by his 
pupils at Kiev, and that on the nativity of 
Christ was for a long time very popular. 
MOGULS, a corruption of the term Mongols, 
used in Hindostan to designate the Tartars who 
repeatedly invaded that country in the middle 
ages, and who made themselves masters of 
Delhi in 1526, and placed their leader Baber, a 
descendant of Tamerlane, on the throne. His 
successors are known as the Mogul emperors, 
of whom the most eminent were Akbar (1556- 
1605), Jehangheer (1605-’27), and Aurungzebe 
(1658-1707). During these reigns the Mogul 
empire comprised nearly the whole of Hindo- 
stan, and in Europe the emperor was called the 
Great Mogul. His authority gradually dwin- 
dled till it became merely nominal; the Eng- 
lish supremacy was formally established in 
1803, and in 1827 the Great Mogul became a 
titled pensioner of the British crown. The 
last of the Mogul dynasty, Mohammed Baha- 
door, being implicated in the sepoy mutiny, 
was deprived of his title and transported in 
December, 1858. ’ 
MOHACS, a town of S. Hungary, in the coun- 
ty of Baranya, on the W. arm of the Danube, 


MOHAMMED 693 


110 m.8. by W. of Pesth; pop. in 1870, 12,140. 
It is an episcopal see, and contains the bishop’s 
palace, a Roman Catholic, a Greek, and a Prot- 
estant church, a monastery, an ancient castle, 
a gymnasium, and the county buildings. It 
is a station of the Danube steamers, and the 
depot of considerable commerce in coal, wood, 
wine, and agricultural produce, most of which 
goes to Vienna. Five annual fairs are held 
here, the principal one being a cattle fair. A 
great battle was fought here, Aug. 29, 1526, 
between an army of 200,000 Turks under Soly- 
man the Magnificent and one of 80,000 under 
the Hungarian king Louis II., which resulted 
in the defeat of the latter, 22,000 of whom, 
including seven prelates and 28 chief magnates, 
were slain, and the king perished on the re- 
treat. A second battle of Mohdcs, Aug. 12, 
1687, resulted in an almost equally decisive de- 
feat of the Turks by the Austro-Hungarian 
army under Oharles of Lorraine; the Turks 
lost 20,000 men, the Christians 600. 
MOHAMMED, or Mahomet (Arab., the Praised, 
or, according to E. Deutsch and Sprenger, the 
Desired or Promised, in allusion to Haggai ii. 
7), the founder of the Mussulman religion, 
born in Mecca, according to some, Nov. 10, 
570, according to others April 20, 571, died 
in Medina, June 8, 632. His Mohammedan 
biographers say that his birth was accompa- 
nied by miracles; the sacred fires of the Par- 
sees were extinguished, the palace of the Per- 
sian king was shaken by an earthquake, the 
lake Sawa dried up, and many other prodigies 
took place. His family (Hashem) belonged to 
the distinguished tribe of Koreish, were hered- 
itary guardians of the Caaba, and were said 
to be directly descended from Abraham by his 
son Ishmael; nevertheless his parents were 
poor. His father Abdallah, a merchant, died 
two months after his birth. The orphan was 
confided for a little more than two years to the 
care of a Bedouin nurse, Halima, who returned 
him to his mother in consequence of spasmodic 
fits which she attributed to evil spirits. At the 
age of six years he lost his mother, and was 
carried by a female slave to his grandfather 
Abd-el-Mottalib. Two years later he lost also 
his grandfather, and was then adopted by his 
uncle Abu Taleb, who held the key of the Caa- 
ba. With him young Mohammed (in his 9th 
or 12th year) made journeys through Syria 
and other countries, and became acquainted 
with a Christian (probably Nestorian) monk, 
called by some Bahira, by others Serjis, who 
predicted his future greatness. Another un- 
cle, Zobair, he accompanied on a mercantile 
trip to southern Arabia, and four years after- 
ward was with him in a campaign against the 
Beni Kinana. In his 25th year he was a 
shepherd near Mecca, and then joined for a 
short time the business of a linen trader named 
Saib, commerce being at that time almost the 
sole occupation of the higher classes in Mec- 
ca. At Hajasha, a market six days’ journey 8. 
of Mecca, Mohammed, compelled by poverty,. - 


694 


entered the service of a rich widow named 
Khadijah. Several business journeys which 
he made for her through Syria and Arabia so 
pleased her that she determined to marry him. 
According to the common tradition Khadijah 
was then 40, and Mohammed a little over 25 
years old. After his marriage Mohammed 
gave up business, and for ten years was chiefly 
occupied with his family, having by Khadijah 
four daughters and two sons; both sons died 
young. From his 35th to his 40th year Mo- 
hammed frequently resorted to a solitary cave 
of Mt. Hara, to give himself up entirely to re- 
ligious contemplation. There, amid spasmodic 
convulsions, he had his first vision, in which 


the angel Gabriel appeared and commanded 


him to recite what he (the angel) said. Mo- 
hammed was troubled as to the nature of, his 
mission, whether it came from an angel or from 
an evil spirit. His wife consulted her cousin 
Waraka, ‘‘who was old and blind” and knew 
the scriptures of the ‘‘ Jews and Christians,” 
and he assured her, and afterward Mohammed 
himself, that ‘‘God had chosen him to be the 
prophet of this people.” The revelations con- 
tinued henceforth without interruption to the 
end of his life, and were dictated by Mohammed 
to several secretaries, committed by his adhe- 
rents to memory, and after his death collected 
and written down. (See Koran.) His wife was 
his first convert. During the first three years 
of his mission only the relatives and friends of 
Mohammed acknowledged him as a prophet, 
and the whole number of believers (A/oslemin or 
Moslems) amounted scarcely to 40, among whom 
were Abubekr and Ali. Inthe fourth or fifth 
year of his mission he came forward publicly 
in compliance with a special message, and pro- 
claimed himself a prophet, but met only with 
imprecations and ill treatment. To protect 
him from attempts on his life, he was removed 
by his uncle Abu Taleb to a fortified castle 
outside of Mecca, where he remained three 
years. 
disciples. When the interdict, after the expi- 
ration of three years, was removed, Moham- 
med returned to Mecca; and soon after, in the 
tenth year of his mission, he lost his uncle and 
protector Abu Taleb, who never acknowledged 
the mission of his nephew. Three days later 
he lost his wife Khadijah, during whose lifetime 
he had not taken other wives; after her death 
he soon married several, nine of whom survived 
him. Mohammed was again expelled from Mec- 
ca, and also from Tayef; but soon he reéntered 
Mecca, greatly strengthened by his celebrated 
journey to heaven. His relation of the jour- 
ney, which he called a dream, increased the 
wrath of his enemies, and caused the defection 
of some of his adherents. Some pilgrims from 
Yathreb, belonging to the tribe of Khazraj, 
were converted in 621, and on their return 
propagated his doctrines at home. In 622, 78 
Moslems from Yathreb appeared at Mecca, and 
concluded with Mohammed a treaty offensive 
and defensive. In September of the same year, 


The Koreishites outlawed him and his 


MOHAMMED 


in consequence of a new plot against his life, he 
fled to Yathreb, whither the Meccan believers, 
45 in number, had partly preceded him, and 
partly soon followed him. On his way he also 
converted the tribe Beni Sahm. At Yathreb 
the new faith was established on a firm: basis, 
and not without reason therefore the era of the 
Moslems begins with the flight of the prophet, 
the Hegira. (See Huaira.) Moreover, the name 
of Yathreb was changed into Medinet en-Nebi, 
‘the city of the prophet” (Medina). Moham- 
med at first endeavored to convert the numer- 
ous Jews in Arabia, and made them important 
concessions; but these he rescinded on their de- 
clining to adopt his religion, and became their 
irreconcilable enemy. During the first year of 
the Hegira he built a mosque at Medina, institu- 
ted religious rites, and proclaimed war against 
the unbelievers. He commenced this sacred 
war with attacks on the caravans of pilgrims, 
which led in 623 to an engagement at Bedr 
between 314 Moslems and 600 Meccans under 
Abu Sofian, the chief of Mecca, in which the 
Moslems were victors. In the following years 
Mohammed suffered many reverses; he was 
defeated by the Koreishites in the battle of Mt. 
Ohod (625), and besieged in Medina (627); and 
even among his followers a party was stirred 
up against him. To restore his reputation and 
influence, he determined to organize a large 
pilgrimage to Mecca, but was impelled by a 
dream to start with only 700 men. The Mec- 
cans prevented him from entering the city, 
but at last concluded a truce for ten years, 
with the promise that the following year he 
would be admitted to the city as a pilgrim. 
To divert the discontent of his fellow pil- 
grims, he led them against several Jewish 
tribes, and on the whole was successful; yet a 
Jewess, Zainab, to avenge the death of her 
relatives, prepared for him a poisoned lamb, 
which, as he believed, destroyed his health. 
At this time the plans of Mohammed for the 
spreading of his religion assumed a wider 
scope. Hesent written demands to the Persian 
king Chosroes II., the Abyssinian king, the 
emperor Heraclius, the governor of Egypt, and 
the chiefs of several Arab tribes. Some re- 
ceived his ambassadors courteously, but Chos- 
roes tore up Mohammed’s letter, while the 
people of Muta killed his envoy. In a war 
undertaken to avenge this murder the troops 
of Mohammed fought a desperate battle at 
Muta, in which Khaled, a new convert, highly 
distinguished himself, and was consequently 
termed by Mohammed ‘‘the Sword of God.” 
He punished the Meccans, who had broken 
faith with him, and compelled them to ac- 
knowledge him as a sovereign and a prophet. 
The possession of Mecca decided the victory 
of the new religion in Arabia, and notwith- 
standing temporary reverses, the subjection 
of a majority of the inhabitants of Arabia to 
Mohammed’s rule and religion became com- 
plete. He returned to Medina, where in the 
ninth year of the Hegira he received deputa- 


MOHAMMED 


tions from various tribes who announced their 
submission. He proclaimed aholy war against 
the Byzantine empire, which proved a com- 
plete failure, and he was obliged to return to 
Medina amid the reproaches of the soldiers. In 
the following year Mohammed made his last 
pilgrimage to Mecca at the head of at least 40,- 
000 pilgrims. The rites of this pilgrimage have 
ever since been regarded as the standard rule 
for pilgrimages. Three months after his re- 
turn.to Medina he was taken seriously ill. He 
called his wives together, and requested that 
he might be allowed to remain in the house 
of Ayesha, his favorite, which adjoined the 
mosque. He himself announced in the mosque 
the approach of his death. During the last 
days of his life he liberated his slaves, caused 
seven denars to be distributed among the poor, 
and prayed: ‘‘ God support me in the agony of 
death.” He expired in the arms of Ayesha. 
After a long dispute respecting the place of his 
interment, he was buried in the house in which 
he died. This spot lies now within the en- 
larged mosque. His only surviving child was 
Fatima, the wife of Ali, and the ancestress of 
all the sherifs or nobles of the Mohammedan 
world.—Mohammed is said to have been of 
middle stature, and to have had a strong beard 
and thick hair, a noble mien, a brown and 
lively complexion, brilliant eyes, white teeth, 
and a modest bearing. He possessed natural 
eloquence, a keen intellect, an overwhelming 
fluency, and great courage. Conjugal love he 
regarded as one of the great incentives to de- 
votion. The wish to have a son to succeed 
him has been alleged as the reason why he 
took so many wives. In his infancy as well 
as in after life he was afflicted with epilep- 
tic attacks, which at first were considered by 
himself and by his enemies to be the effect 
of demoniacal possession. The same spas- 
modic convulsions accompanied him while he 
received his revelations. Mohammed was ac- 
quainted with the doctrines of both Jews and 
Christians, but charged them with having cor- 
rupted their Scriptures. He attributed to both 
of them opinions which they do not hold, but 
most of these statements may rest on the au- 
thority of the apocryphal books of the ancient 
Christian church. Before the 12th century it 
was hardly understood in the West that Ma- 
homet was a man, and not a pretended divin- 
ity, and still earlier he was known as Mapho- 
met, Baphomet, or Bafum, and believed to be 
a false god to whom human sacrifices were 
offered. Later it was common among Christian 
writers to represent him as a conscious im- 
postor. This opinion has now but few rep- 
resentatives.—Among the Mohammedan biog- 
raphies of the prophet, those of Wakidi, Ibn 
Ishak, and Tabari are the most important, 
and some of them have been translated into 
French, German, and other languages. Among 
the best European and American biographies 
of Mohammed are those of Marracci (Padua, 
1698), Gagnier (Amsterdam, 1732), Hammer- 


MOHAMMED II. 695 


Purgstall (Leipsic, 1887), Weil (Stuttgart, 1848), 
George Bush (New York, 1832), Washington 
Irving (1850), A. Sprenger (Allahabad, 1852; 
German, Berlin, 1861-’5; 2d ed., 1869 et seq.), 
Muir (London, 1858), Arnold (‘‘Ishmael, or a 
Natural History of Islamism,” 1859), and Nél- 
deke (Hanover, 1868). See also Hssai sur V'his- 
toire des Arabes avant UIslamisme pendant 
Vépoque de Mahomet, et jusqu’a la réduction de 
toutes les tribus sous la loi musulmane, by Caus- 
sin de Perceval (8 vols., Paris, 1847-8); Ma- 
homet et les origines de U’ Islamisme, by Ernest 
Renan, included in his Ltudes @histoire reli- 
gieuse (Paris, 1857; 7th revised ed., 1864); an 
English biography of Mohammed with critical 
commentaries by Moulvi Syed Ameer Ali, an 
oriental lawyer residing in London (1878); the 
essay ‘‘Islam” in ‘Literary Remainsof Emanuel 
Deutsch” (1874); and ‘‘ Mohammed and Mo- 
hammedanism,” by R. Bosworth Smith (1874). 

MOHAMMED II., a Turkish sultan, surnamed 
the Great and the Victorious, born in Adri- 
anople in 1480, died near Scutari in Asia 
Minor in May, 1481. He was the eldest son 
of Amurath II by a Christian princess of 
Servia, and succeeded him in 1451. He began 
his reign by murdering his two brothers, call- 
ing his father’s treasurers to a strict account, 
and repelling a Caramanian invasion. He next 
invested Constantinople, April 6, 1458, with a 
large fleet and an army of more than 250,000 
men. The city was taken by storm, May 29, 
and for three days given up to pillage and 
massacre. Having determined, however, to 
make Constantinople his capital, he proclaimed 
religious toleration and various privileges and 
immunities to the inhabitants. He completed 
the conquest of Servia in 1454, but in 1456 
was baffled by Hunyady in the siege of Bel- 
grade, where the Turks were repulsed with the 
loss of 25,000 men, while the sultan himself 
was severely wounded and compelled to raise 
the siege. He next turned his arms against 
the Morea, which was still held by two Greek 
princes, Demetrius and Thomas, the latter of 
whom made a gallant though unsuccessful re- 
sistance. The conquest of the Morea was 
completed in 1460, with the exception of a 
few fortified seaports held by the Venetians. 
In 1461 he conquered. Trebizond, and had its 
emperor David Comnenus put to death. He 
also seized Wallachia and most of the islands 
of the Archipelago. The prince of Mytilene 
defended his island for a month, when he sur- 
rendered on condition of receiving an indem- 
nity; but Mohammed soon put him to death. 
Several Christian powers now agreed in a con- 
ference held at Mantua to enter on a new cru- 
sade against the Turks; but owing to the in- 
ternal difficulties of the European kingdoms 
this scheme fellthrough. Scanderbeg gave the 
first serious check to Mohammed by defeat- 
ing several Turkish armies sent against him. 
The sultan at length (1465) invaded Albania 
in person with about 200,000 men, and laid 
siege to Croia, Scanderbeg’s capital; but after 


696 MOHAMMED IV. 


heavy losses he was forced to retreat. In 
the following spring he renewed the attempt, 
but was again obliged to withdraw. After 
the death of Scanderbeg, in January, 1467, 
Albania soon became a Turkish province. 
During the war with Scanderbeg the sultan 
was also engaged in hostilities with the Hun- 
garians and the Venetians. From the latter 
he conquered Negropont in 1470, after a siege 
of Chalcis, the capital, in which he lost 40,- 
000 men; and though the governor of the city 
surrendered on condition of personal safety, he 
was put to death, as were all the rest of the 
captives. The Venetians now entered into 
an alliance against the Turks with Pope Six- 
tus IV., the kings of Naples and Cyprus, the 
grand master of Rhodes, and the shah of Per- 
sia. The fleets of the European allies attacked 
the coasts of the sultan’s dominions and burned 
Smyrna and other places, while the Persians 
invaded the eastern districts of Turkey in 
great force, and defeated Mohammed’s eldest 
son Mustapha in a pitched battle near the Eu- 
phrates. Mohammed himself, with 300,000 
men, encountered the Persians in Armenia, 
and was at first defeated. In a second bat- 
tle he was victorious, and the Persians suffer- 
ed such severe loss that they withdrew from 
the alliance and concluded a peace with the 
sultan in 1474. In 1475 Mohammed wrested 
Kaffa and other Crimean ports from the Gen- 
oese, and made the khan of the Crim Tartars 
tributary. But at the siege of Rhodes (1480) 
he was repulsed by the knights of St. John 
again and again for three months, suffered im- 
mense losses, and had to abandon the under- 
taking. Meanwhile he captured the Ionian 
islands and the city of Otranto. The latter 
was recovered in 1481 by the Italian states, 
aided by Spain, Portugal, and Hungary. The 
sultan was preparing to renew the attack on 
Rhodes when he died, not without suspicion of 
poison, after an illness of three days. Moham- 
med IJ. was one of the ablest of the Turkish 
sultans, and is glorified as the conqueror of two 
empires, 12 kingdoms, and 200 cities. He is 
thus described by Richard Knolles in his “ His- 
tory of the Turks” (1610): ‘‘ He was of stat- 
ure low, square set and strong limbed. His 
complexion was sallow, his countenance stern, 
and eyes piercing, though a little sunk. His 
nose was so high and crooked that it almost 
touched his upper lip.” Collections of his 
letters translated into Latin have been pub- 
lished at Lyons (1520), Basel (1554), Mar- 
burg (1604), and Leipsic (1690). 

MOHAMMED IY., a Turkish sultan, born in 
1642, died about the close of 1692. In 1648 he 
succeeded his father Ibrahim I., who had been 
deposed and strangled by the janizaries. Mo- 
hammed Kuprili or Kuperli, an Albanian, was 
made grand vizier. To him, and to his son 
who succeeded him, the reign of Mohammed 
IV. owes all-its celebrity. The sultan had 
neither talent nor energy, and cared little for 
anything but hunting, in which he spent most 


MOHAMMEDANISM 


of his time, and lavished vast sums. The em- 
pire at his accession was in the utmost confu- 
sion, but Kuprili restored order by promptly 
putting to death the leaders of sedition. Ibra- 
him, at war with Venice, had conquered the 
greater part of Candia in 1645, and the war 
continued after Mohammed’s accession. The 
Venetians defeated the Turkish fleet in the 
Archipelago in July, 1651, and destroyed a sec- 
ond fleet, July 6, 1656, and shortly afterward 
captured the islands of Lemnos and Tenedos, 
which the Turks regained in the following year. 
The contest continued with various fortune till 
1667, when Ahmed Kuprili, one of the great- 
est of Turkish generals, who had succeeded 
his father as grand vizier in 1661, undertook 
the siege of the city of Candia, which he pros- 
ecuted with vigor for two years and four 
months, when the Venetian commander Moro- 
sini was compelled to capitulate, Sept. 16, 1669, 
while at the same time peace was concluded 
between Venice and Turkey. In 1660 war had 
broken out with Austria, and for some time 
the Turks had been highly successful in Hun- 
gary. Germany, France, and Italy combined 
to check their progress, and Montecuculi, gen- 
eral of the allies, gained a brilliant and deci- 
sive victory over them, Aug. 1, 1664, at St. 
Gothard on the Raab, which, followed by the 
treaty of Temesvar, put an end to the war. 
In 1672 the sultan invaded Poland in person, 
and took Kamenetz; but John Sobieski, then 
grand marshal of the kingdom, in 1678 gave 
the Turks a total defeat at Khotin, and in 
1676 obtained an honorable peace. An in- 
surrection of the Hungarians under Tékélyi 
tempted the sultan in 1682 to make war again 
upon the emperor ; and in July, 1683, an army 
of 300,000, commanded by Kara Mustapha, 
invested Vienna. The emperor fled with his 
family to Linz. The city was in the last ex- 
tremity when Sobieski and Charles of Lorraine 
came to its relief, and on Sept. 12 totally routed 
the Turks, who suffered immense losses. After 
this the Turks met with nothing but disaster. 
Germany, Poland, Russia, and Venice combined 
against them; and on Aug. 12, 1687, Charles 
of Lorraine gave them a terrible defeat at 
Mohacs, which was followed by the loss of 
Transylvania and other provinces. The Turk- 
ish army at length mutinied at Belgrade, 
marched to Constantinople in the latter part 
of 1687, dethroned the sultan, and raised his 
brother Solyman III. to the throne. Moham- 
med was kept in prison till his death. 
MOHAMMED ALI. See Mrnemer Att. 
MOHAMMEDANISM, the name commonly given 
in Christian countries to the religion established 
by Mohammed. The Mohammedans do not 
themselves acknowledge the name. They call 
their religion Islam, which means ‘full sub- 
mission to God,” and themselves Moslems, or 
‘the people of the Islam.” Mohammed desig- 
nated himself as the restorer of the pure reli- 
gion revealed by God to Abraham, As the 
messenger of God he required his pagan coun- 


MOHAMMEDANISM 


trymen to leave their idols and adopt the 
worship of the one true God; the Jews, to ex- 
change the law of Moses for the new and final 
revelations given to him; the Christians, to 
cease worshipping Christ as God, as inconsis- 
tent with monotheism and with the true doc- 
trine of Christ himself. The doctrines of Mo- 
hammedanism may in large measure be traced 
to the national religion of the Arabs before 
Mohammed, to those forms of Judaism and 
Christianity which existed in Arabia in his 
time, and to those traditions and usages-which 
were the common heritage of all branches of 
the Semitic race. To what extent Mohammed 
borrowed from these three sources the pro- 
found researches instituted during the last half 
century have begun to reveal.—The sayings of 
Mohammed relative to his religion were col- 
lected in the Koran, which is recognized by all 
Mohammedan sects as their rule of faith and 
morals. (See Koran.) But the great major- 
ity of the Moslems recognize, in addition to 
the Koran, the Sunna, or traditions, embody- 
ing the expressions, occasional remarks, and 
acts of Mohammed, which are traced to his 
companions, his wives, and the first caliphs. 
Not only do they regulate, conjointly with the 
Koran, the doctrines, rites, and ceremonies of 
the Mohammedans, but the interpretation of 
the Koran is in a great measure determined by 
them. There is much uncertainty among the 
Moslems regarding them; the rationalistic 
Montasals and the extremists among the Shi- 
ahs reject the Sunna altogether; the moder- 
ate Shiahs acknowledge a tradition, but differ 
with the Sunnis respecting its extent. (See 
Suraus, and Sunna.) Among the Sunnis four 
orthodox schools were distinguished, all estab- 
lished between 740 and 840. They were called, 
after their founders, Hanifites, Malekites, Shafe- 
ites, and Hanbalites. The first and fourth were 
of little influence; the second prevailed in 
northern Africa and Spain, and the third in the 
eastern countries. Their differences were only 
in discipline. The two largest and most influ- 
ential collections were made by Bokhari (died 
about 870) and Abu Moslim his pupil. An ex- 
tract from these two and some later collections 
was made by Hosein ibn Masud (died about 
1120), under the title Masabih. It was trans- 
lated into English, together with a commentar 

(Mishcat) by Wadi ed-Din Abu Abdallah Mah- 
moud, who lived about 1170, by A. N. Mathews 
(‘‘ Misheat ul-Masabih, or a Collection of the 
most Authentic Traditions,” 2 vols., Calcutta, 
180911). Most of the traditions received by 
the Shiahs are contained in the books Hayat 
ul-Kulub, Hag ul-Yaquin, and Ain ul-Hayat, 
written by Mollah Mohammed Bakir Majjlisi, a 
famous Persian divine, who lived about 1650, 
which were printed in Teheran in 4 vols. fol. 
In the 8th and 9th centuries the rationalistic 
school, called by their opponents Montasals or 
Separatists, gained great strength and influence. 
Their chief seat was at Bassorah, where they 
formed an association of rationalistic scholars. 


697 


They maintained the absolute self-determina- 
tion of man, denied the eternity of the Koran, 
and rejected the reality of the divine attri- 
butes so far as to divest God of all those char- 
acteristics which are the expression of a per- 
sonal existence. In the 10th century an ortho- 
dox school of scholasticism regained the as- 
cendancy, and from this time the doctrines and 
the ethics of the prevailing denomination un- 
derwent no other considerable change. The 
gradual development of Mohammedan doctrines 
and their relation to the Koran are still subjects 
of controversy. We give an outline of the system 
of doctrines and ethics which generally prevails. 
—The fundamental doctrine of Islamism, and 
the only one which it is absolutely necessary to 
profess in order to be considered a Moslem, is: 
‘There is but one God, and Mohammed is his 
apostle.” The idea of God held by Moham- 
medans does not differ essentially from the 
Christian, except that they reject entirely the 
doctrine of the Trinity. They believe that a 
great number of prophets have been divinely 
commissioned at various times, among whom 
six were sent to proclaim new laws and dis- 
pensations, viz., Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, 
Jesus, and Mohammed. To the prophets were 
revealed certain scriptures inspired by God. 
All of these have perished except four, the 
Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Gospel, and the 
Koran. The first three, they maintain, have 
been faisified and mutilated, and the Koran 
supersedes them all. Mohammed is the last 
prophet, and the Koran the final revelation. 
The Mohammedans regard Christ with a rev- 
erence second only to that which they pay to 
Mohammed, and blasphemy of his nameis pun- 
ishable with death. But they deny that he is 
God or the son of God, though they consider 
his birth miraculous. They also deny that he 
was crucified, believing that some other person 
suffered in his place, while he was taken up to 
God. He will come again upon the earth to 
destroy Antichrist, and his coming will be one of 
the signs of the approach of the last judgment. 
The Moslems believe in the existence of angels 
with pure and subtile bodies created of fire, who 


-have no distinction of sex, neither eat nor drink, 


and are employed in adoring and praising God, 
interceding for mankind, keeping a record of 
human actions, and performing various other 
services. Four are held by God in peculiar 
favor: Gabriel, who is employed in writing 
down the divine decrees, and by whom the 
Koran was revealed at various times to Moham- 
med; Michael, the especial guardian of the 
Jews; Azrael, the “angel of death,” who sep- 
arates the souls of men from their bodies; and 
Israfil, who will sound the trumpet at the resur- 
rection. There is also a class of beings lower 
than the angels, like them made of fire, but of 
a coarser nature, called jinns (generally ren- 
dered genii), who eat and drink and are subject 
to death. Some of these are good, some evil. 
The chief of the latter is Eblis or “despair,” 
who was once an angel named Azazel, but 


698 MOHAMMEDANISM 


who, having refused to pay homage to Adam, 
was rejected by God, and wanders over the 
earth until the resurrection. These genii have 
various names, as peri, fairies; div, giants, 
fates, &c. In regard to the state of man during 
the time between death and the resurrection, 
many different opinions prevail. There are 
also different views as to the last judgment, 
but the essential point agreed upon by all is 
that men will have awarded to them that con- 
dition of happiness or misery to which God 
shall judge them entitled by their conduct and 
belief during this life. The time of the resur- 
rection is known only to God; its approach 
will be indicated by certain signs, among which 
will be the decay of faith among men, wars, 
seditions, tumults, the advancement of the 
meanest men to the highest dignities, an eclipse, 
the rising of the sun in the west, and numerous 
other portents. After the judgment all must 
pass over the bridge Al-Sirat, which is finer 


than a hair, sharper than a sword, and beset. 


on either side with thorns. The good will 
pass over easily and speedily; the wicked will 
fall headlong into hell. The delights of heaven 
are for the most part sensual, made up of plea- 
sures especially suited to each of the senses, 
while the torments of hell consist chiefly in 
the extremes of heat and cold. For those who 
wish more of detail as to their views of the 
future state, the preliminary discourse to Sale’s 
translation of the Koran is the most accessible 
work. The Moslems hold that all who believe 
in the unity of God will finally be released from 
punishment and enter paradise. Those who 
deny the absolute unity of God, idolaters, and 
hypocrites will suffer eternally. To hypo- 
crites they assign the lowest place in hell. 
They believe in the absolute foreknowledge 
and predestination of all things by God, and 
at the same time in the responsibility of man 
for his conduct and belief.—Their practical 
religion, which they call din, chiefly insists 
upon four things: 1, purification and prayer, 
which they regard as together making one rite; 
2, almsgiving; 3, fasting; 4, the pilgrimage 
to Mecca. Prayer must be preceded by ablu- 
tion ; cleanliness is regarded as a religious duty, 
without which prayer would be ineffectual. 
The Moslems pray five times each day, soon 
after sunset (not exactly at sunset, for fear 
they should be considered sun worshippers), at 
nightfall (generally about an hour and a quar- 
ter after sunset), at daybreak, near noon, and 
in the afternoon. The times of prayer are 
announced by the muezzins (mueddzins) from 
the minarets of the mosques. In praying, the 
believer must turn his face toward Mecca, and 
the wall of the mosque nearest that city is 
marked by a niche. Twice during the night 
the muezzins also call to prayer, for those who 
wish to perform extra devotions. Prayers 
may be said in any clean place, but on Friday 
they must be said in the mosque. The regu- 
larity and devotion with which the Moslems 
perform this duty are testified to by all who 


have visited the East. Women are not forbid- 
den to enter the mosque, but they never do so 
when the men are at their devotions. Before 
prayer all costly and sumptuous apparel must 
be laid aside. Almsgiving was formerly of 
two kinds: legal, called tzekah, and voluntary, 
called sadakah. The former was in reality a 
tax paid to the sovereign, and by him distrib- 
uted as he saw fit; it has long since fallen into 
disuse. The sadakah consists of cattle, money, 
corn, fruits, and wares sold. Itis given once 
a year, and generally amounts to about 24 per 
cent. of the stock on hand; but no alms are 
due unless the stock amounts to a certain 
quantity, nor unless the articles have been in 


the owner’s possession for eleven months. At 


the end of the fast of Ramadan every Moslem 
is expected to give alms if he is able, for him- 
self and each member of his family—a mea- 
sure of wheat, rice, or other provisions. The 
Moslems also lay great stress upon fasting. 
During the whole of the month Ramadan they 
fast from the rising to the setting of the sun; 
they neither eat nor drink nor indulge in any 
other physical gratification. They observe 
this fast with great rigor, but certain classes 
of persons to whom the fast would be physi- 
cally injurious are excused from its observance. 
There are other days during which fasting is 
regarded as specially meritorious though not 
obligatory, and fasting at any time is regarded 
as peculiarly acceptable to God. The pilgrim- 
age to Mecca, called hadj, is a relic of the 
ancient idolatrous religion which Mohammed 
desired to do away with, but which was too 
deeply rooted in the habits and interests of 
the people to be abolished. Hence he sanc- 
tioned it and made it obligatory, having first 
destroyed the idols in the temple and intro- 
duced new regulations. All Moslems, men or 
women, should at least once during their lives, 
provided they are able, make the pilgrimage 
to Mecca. The duty may be performed by a 
substitute, in which case the whole merit re- 
dounds to the principal. He who has performed 
this pilgrimage is entitled to prefix to his name 
the word hadji. Of late years the number of 
pilgrims has greatly fallen off.—The Moslems 
regard the Koran not only as the rule of their 
religious but also of their civil and social life. 
Before the time of Mohammed it was not un- 
common among the Arabs to put to death their 
female children. This practice was forbidden 
by him. The following things are also forbid- 
den in the Koran: eating of blood, or the flesh 
of swine, or of any animal that dies of itself, or 
has been strangled or killed by accident or by 
another beast, or has been slain as a sacrifice 
to an idol; playing games of chance, whether 
with or without a wager; the drinking of 
wine or of any inebriating liquor, but some 
construe this prohibition as only applicable to 
their excessive use, while a few of the very 
strict construe it as applying to opium, bang, 
and even coffee and tobacco; the taking of in- 
terest upon money lent, even when the loan is 


i 


MOHAMMEDANISM 


made to a person of a different religion, divina- 
tion, and various other superstitious practices. 
Murder seems to be regarded by the Koran 
as a crime against individuals rather than 
against society; hence it was punishable with 
death or a pecuniary fine, at the option of the 
family of the murdered man. But at present 
in the Turkish empire murder is punished with 
death, and commutation by fine is not permit- 
ted. If a believer kill another accidentally, 
the slayer must pay a fine and redeem a beliey- 
er from slavery. The punishment for theft 
is cutting off the hand, but in modern times 
this has generally fallen into disuse, and the 
bastinado or imprisonment has been substitu- 
ted. Polygamy existed among all the Semitic 
nations previous to the time of Mohammed, 
and he restricted rather than extended it. 
While claiming for himself special privileges 
in regard to his domestic relations, asserting 
that they were allowed him by the direct per- 
mission of God, he limited the number of wives 
which a true believer might take to four. Di- 
vorce is very easy in theory, but very rare in 
practice. The husband has merely to say to 
his wife, ‘Thou art divorced.” He may re- 
ceive her back, and again divorce her; but if 
he divorce her a third time, he cannot take 
her back until after she has been married to 
some other man and been divorced by him, or 
has become a widow. ‘Aside from the domes- 
tic relations, the ethics of the Mohammedan 
religion are of the highest order. Pride, cal- 
umny, revengefulness, avarice, prodigality, and 
debauchery are condemned throughout the 
Koran; while trust in God and submission to 
his will, patience, modesty, forbearance, love 
of peace, sincerity, truthfulness, frugality, be- 
nevolence, liberality—indeed, aside from the 
differences of opinion in regard to theological 
subjects, all those qualities which the Anglo- 
Saxon race have idealized under the term 
“Christian gentleman,” are everywhere in- 
sisted upon. Mysticism and asceticism were 
early cultivated by the Moslems, and called 
forth Sufism, the monachism of the Islam, a 
phenomenon of the greatest importance for a 
right understanding of the true character and 
the bearing of their doctrinal system.—On their 
first promulgation the doctrines of Mohammed 
spread with amazing rapidity. In 12 years 
the whole of Arabia had embraced the Islam. 
Abubekr, the first caliph, declared war against 
all nations, especially against the emperor of 
Constantinople and ‘‘the great king of Persia,” 
at that time the two most powerful monarchs 
‘of the world. The battle of Bostra opened 
Syria to the Arabs; and one of the first feats 
of Omar, the successor of Abubekr, was the 
conquest of Damascus. Soon afterward a bat- 
tle near the lake of Gennesaret decided the 
fate of Syria. Jerusalem capitulated on easy 
terms, and with brief interruptions has re- 
mained subject to the Mohammedans, and is 
one of their three holy cities. Amru, a gene- 
ral of Omar, completed the conquest of Egypt, 


699 


and fairly commenced that of northern Africa. 
On the 8. shore of the Mediterranean the 
Arabs met with little resistance. Soon after 
the death of Omar, Persia was entered by Kha- 
led, Irak or Assyria was subdued and plun- 
dered, the Euphrates together with the gulf of 
Persia fell into the hands of the Arabs, and 
Ctesiphon and Farsistan, whither the king of 
Persia had fled, came under Moslem domination. 
On the appointment of Ali to the caliphate 
those great internal struggles commenced which 
have ever since rent the Mohammedan world, 
without however arresting its external growth. 
Moawiyah, the rival of Ali, took possession of 
most of the Persian provinces, and established 
the Islam in Europe by getting a foothold in 
Sicily. He was still more fortunate in Africa, 
and from 697 the whole of northern Africa may 
be considered as the home of Islamism. At 
the beginning of the 8th century the Moham- 
medans, under Tarik, crossed to Spain; one 
province after -another was speedily subdued, 
and for 800 years the Saracens retained: a do- 
minion in that country. <A few years later 
Abderrahman with a force of 400,000 Mos- 
lems entered Gaul, but they were defeated in 
the decisive battle between Tours and Poitiers 
by Charles Martel (A. D. 732), which put a 
final stop to their progress in western Europe. 
They advanced eastward into China and In- 
dia; in the former country their progress was 
soon stayed, but in the latter they founded 
vast empires on the shores of the Indus and 
Ganges, which for a long time were strong- 
holds of Islamism. Fresh energy was infused 
into the Moslem community by the accession 
of the Seljuk Turks. Being called to his aid by 
Mohammed ben Jubriel, they seized upon Per- 
sia, mastered a portion of the Byzantine em- 
pire, and established one of the seats of their 
government at Iconium or Konieh. Having 
withstood the repeated attacks of the Chris- 
tian world during the period of the crusades, 
they were overrun by other Tartar tribes, who 
passed over Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor, 
and laid the foundation of the empire of the 
Ottomans, or Turks properly so called. Both 
the Seljuks and their successors, the Osmanlis, 
voluntarily received Islamism from the people 
whom they conquered. The Ottoman rulers 
gradually undermined the Byzantine empire; 
Amurath I. entered Europe and made Adrian- 
ople his capital; Amurath II. left nothing to 
the Greek emperor but Constantinople; and 
Mohammed II. struck the fatal blow, taking 
Constantinople in 1453. The Ottoman em- 
pire, and with it the political power of the Is- 
lam, were now at their zenith; the Turks be- 
came for many centuries the terror of Italy, 
Hungary, and Germany, but Christendom soon 
ceased to suffer any considerable losses by their 
advance. On the other hand, the Christian na- 
tions began to conquer considerable portions 
of Moslem territory. Sicily had been lost be- 
fore this period; in Spain their last strong- 
holds were taken in 1492. Greece commenced 


700 MOHAVE 


its successful struggle for independence in 
1821; Algiers was wrested from them in 
1830; and the dependence of the Danubian 
principalities on the Ottoman Porte long since 
became merely nominal. But Mohammedan- 
ism continues to make peaceable conversions in 
the interior of Africa, where many of the most 
intelligent tribes and kingdoms have adopted 
the Arabic faith and culture. Several nations 
of the Indian archipelago have been converted 
at a recent period, and in Malabar the Moham- 
medans purchase or procure children of the 
lower classes to bring them up in the ‘true 
faith.” But while the Islam advances among 
races inferior to the original Mohammedans in 
point of civilization, its foremost representa- 
tive among the great nations, the Ottoman em- 
pire, lives avowedly at the mercy of the great 
powers of Europe; Persia and Turkistan have 
felt the superiority of Russia, and Morocco has 
been defeated by Spain.—The total number of 
Mohammedans at the present time is estimated 
at about 180,000,000. In Europe they are al- 
most confined to Turkey, and even there they 
form but a fourth of the population, about 
4,000,000 out of 16,500,000 (including Rouma- 
nia), and are constantly decreasing. In Euro- 
pean Russia they count about 2,400,000 souls; 
in Asiatic Russia, 5,000,000. They prevail 
in Asiatic Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, Beloo- 
chistan, Arabia, and Tartary, and are largely 
represented in India and the Indian archi- 
pelago, and to some extent in China. In In- 
dia the census of 1872 revealed the fact that 
the number of Mohammedans, as well as of 
the total population, had been greatly under- 
estimated. Their number had been placed at 
25,000,000, but they are now estimated at 
41,000,000. The fact that the Mohammedan 
religion ignores all distinctions of caste, and 
at once raises the new convert to full social 
equality, tends greatly to promote its spread 
among the Hindoo population. It is believed 
that in Africa about 100,000,000 may be set 
down as Mohammedans. In America and 
Australia they are not represented at all. 
More detailed accounts of the several national 
branches of Mohammedans will be found in 
the articles devoted to the Mohammedan coun- 
tries. See also the articles on the Arabic, 
Persian, and Turkish literatures.—One of the 
best treatises on Mohammedanism is that of 
Déllinger, Muhammed’s Religion nach ihrer 
innern Entwickelung und ihrem Einflusse auf 
das Leben der Volker (Ratisbon, 1838). See 
also Taylor, ‘‘ History of Mohammedanism ;” 
Mill, ‘‘Mohammedanism” (London, 1817); 
Arnold, ‘‘Ishmael, or a Natural History of 
Islamism ” (1859); ‘‘Islam, its History, Char- 
acter, and Relation to Christianity” (Boston, 
1874); and works cited under MoHAMMen. 
MOHAVE, the N. W. county of Arizona, 
bounded N. by Utah and W. by California 
and Nevada, from which it is separated for 
the greater part by the Oolorado river; area, 
about 10,500 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 179. It is 


MOHEGANS 


intersected in the north by the Colorado, 
which here enters the Grand Canon, and in 
the south by Bill Williams fork. The lower 
portion of the Colorado valley is from 2 to 10 
m. wide, possessing a rich alluvial soil, gener- 
ally covered with a dense vegetation, and well 
wooded with mezquite and cottonwood. Parts 
of the county E. of the valley are rolling and 
hilly, covered with nutritious grasses and an 
abundance of timber; but the greater portion 
is rocky and desolate, seamed with precipitous 
cafions. Gold, silver, copper, and lead are 
found in the mountains, and some mining is 
carried on. Capital, Mohave City. 

MOHAVES, an Indian tribe on the Mohave and 
Colorado rivers, Arizona, being part of the 
Yuma nation of the Pima family. They call 
themselves Amockhavé, and were known to the 
Spaniards by several names, as the Jamajabs, 
Cosninas, &c. Their territory extended from 
lat. 84° to 85°. They are warlike, tall, well 
formed, and industrious cultivators of the soil. 
They paint themselves from head to foot with 
ochre, clay, and charcoal. The men wear lit- 
tle more than a breech cloth, and the women a 
double apron of strips of bark and vegetable 
fibre; both sexes wear necklaces of sheil; the 
men exclusively wear eagle feathers, and if 
wealthy nose pendants. The houses are made 
of logs with a wide shed in front, but some 
live in mere hovels of brush. They store 
grain and mezquite beans in circular thatched 
granaries of osier twigs and very large earthen 
jars. They have several times come into col- 
lision with the United States troops, but are 
now quite peaceful to the whites, though occa- 
sionally at war with the Chemehueves. They 
are rapidly declining, being almost all infected 
with disease. A reservation of 131,200 acres 
on the Colorado has been assigned to them, 
but fewer than 1,000 reside upon it. They 
have lost severely by epidemic diseases, and 
are now roughly estimated at 840 on the res- 
ervation and 2,000 to 3,000 not yet brought 
in. They have no schools nor missionaries. 

MOHAWK, a river of New York, which rises 
in Oneida co., about 20 m. N. of Rome, from 
which place it flows 8. E. and E. through Her- 
kimer, Montgomery, Schenectady, and Sarato- 
ga counties, falling into the Hudson at Water- 
ford, 10 m. above Albany; length, 135m. At 
Little Falls, Herkimer co., and ‘The Noses,” 
Montgomery co., the river has forced its way 
through mountain barriers, and flows through 
deep, rocky ravines; and at Cohoes, 1 m. from 
its mouth, it falls over a precipice 70 ft. in 
perpendicular height. During its course it 
supplies valuable water power. The Erie canal 
and the New York Central railroad follow its 
banks as far as Rome. Rome, Utica, Little 
Falls, Schenectady, Cohoes, and Waterford are 
the principal towns on its banks. 

MOHAWKS. See AGMEGUE. 

MOHEGANS, or Mohicans, an Algonquin tribe, 
found by the Dutch holding both sides of the 
Hudson river for about 75m. They received 


MOHILEV 


the Dutch amicably, and gave them lands on 
which they erected Fort Orange (Albany). 
They were then at war with the Mohawks, 
and erected a fort opposite the Dutch. The 
commandant of Fort Orange, Krieckebeck, ac- 
companied them on an expedition against the 
Mohawks, but was defeated and killed. In 
1628 the Mohegans, attacked by the Mohawks, 
fled to the Connecticut river. A part of the 


. nation had gone eastward some years before 


and settled on the Thames, where they were 
generally known as Pequots, of whom Sassacus 
was chief; but some of them who seceded un- 
der Uncas were called Mohegans. In the war 
of the English against the Pequots, these Mo- 
hegans aided the colonists. The Mohegans of 
the Hudson, or River Indians, gradually re- 
turned to that river. They kept up an oc- 
casional intercourse with the French from an 
early period through the Algonquin tribes in 
Canada, and are known in French annals as 
Loups or Wolves, that being the meaning of 
Mohegan. When the English about 1690 be- 
gan the great struggle against the French, 
the Mohegans as a body made peace with the 
Mohawks, and joined the English with war 
parties. By 1700 they were reduced to 200 
warriors, and the Connecticut Mohegans to 
150, 100 of whom were in the service of the 
colony. In 1786 Sargeant collected some of 
the latter at Stockbridge, and from 1740 to 
1744 the Moravians maintained a Mohegan 
mission at Shekomeko, in Dutchess co., N. Y., 
which led some of the Mohegans to remove to 
the Susquehanna, where they became a distinct 
element in the Moravian towns. During the 
revolution the Mohegans joined the Americans, 
and figured at Bunker Hill, White Plains, and 
Barren Hill. After the war Samson Occum, 
an educated Mohegan clergyman, and David 
Fowler gathered several Indians, chiefly Mo- 
hegan and Long Island Indians, who emigrated 
to Oneida in 1788, and became known as the 
Brotherton Indians. Those who remained in 
Connecticut had dwindled in 1842 to 60 or 70. 
Between 1820 and 1880 the Stockbridge In- 
dians emigrated from Oneida to Green bay; 
the Brotherton Indians also removed to Wis- 
consin, where they finally abandoned their 
tribal relation, and in 1839 became citizens, as 
did many of the Stockbridges. The remainder 
of the latter band of Mohegans are with some 
Munsees on a reservation at Red Springs, num- 
bering about 100. They have almost entirely 
given up their own language for English. For 
their language see ‘‘ Observations on the Lan- 
guage of the Muhhekaneew Indians,” by Jon- 
athan Edwards (New Haven, 1788). 

MOHILEY, or Moghiley. I. A W. government 


‘of European Russia, bordering on Vitebsk, 


Smolensk, Orel, Tchernigov, and Minsk; area, 
18,545 sq. m.; pop. in 1867, 908,858. The 
surface is generally level and the soil fertile. 
The climate is mild and dry. There are sev- 
eral small lakes and marshes. The principal 
river is the Dnieper. Bog iron is found in 


MOHLER 701 
abundance. IL. A city, capital of the govern- 
ment, on the right bank of the Dnieper, 312 
m. W.S. W. of Moscow; pop. in 1867, 38,922, 
including many Jews. It is the seat of a 
Greek archbishop, and of the Roman Catholic 
archbishop and primate of Russia and Poland, 
has 4 convents, about 30 churches and 20 syna- 
gogues, a gymnasium, a Greek and a Roman 
Catholic theological seminary, and many man- 
ufactories. It is a favorite residence of the 
Russian nobility. It was taken by Charles 
XII. in 1708, and recovered by Peter the Great 
in 1709. <A portion of the Russian army was 
defeated there by the French, July 28, 1812. 
MOHL. I. Hugo von, a German botanist, born 
in Stuttgart, April 8, 1805, died in Tubingen, 
April 1, 1872. He studied medicine and the 
natural sciences at the university of Tubingen, 
and in 1835 became professor of botany and 
director of the botanic garden. The establish- 
ment in 1863 of a special faculty for natural 
sciences was entirely due to his influence. He 
published many works, and is one of the high- 
est authorities on vegetable physiology. If. 
Robert, a jurist, brother of the preceding, born 
in Stuttgart, Aug. 17, 1799, died Nov. 4, 1875. 
He was professor of jurisprudence at Tibingen 
and Heidelberg, and prominent as a legislator 
and diplomatist of Baden. His works include 
Die Polizeiwissenschaft nach den grundséitzen 
des Rechtsstaates (3 vols., 16824; 3d ed., 1866); 
Die Geschichte und Literatur der Staatswissen- 
schaft (8 vols., 1855-’8); and Staatsrecht, Vél- 
kerrecht und Politik (8 vols., 1860-69). IM. Ju- 
lius, an orientalist, brother of the preceding, 
born Oct. 28, 1800, died Jan. 4, 1876. He be- 
came extraordinary professor of oriental liter- 
ature at Tibingen in 1826, went to Paris in 
1832, and in 1845 became professor of Persian 
in the collége de France, and in 1852 director 
of the oriental department of the national 
printing office. He edited Firdusi’s Shah Na- 
meh (5 vols., 1838-66), and many Chinese and 
other oriental works, and wrote Dante et les 
origines de la littérature italienne, &e. 
MOHLER, Johann Adam, a German theologian, 
born at Igersheim, Wirtemberg, May 6, 1796, 
died in Munich, April 12, 1838. He studied 
at Mergentheim, Ellwangen, and Tubingen, 
was ordained priest of the Roman Catholic 
church in 1819, and in 1820 became tutor in 
the seminary of theology at Tubingen, and in 
1822 private lecturer on theology. Before 
entering on his new office he visited the prin- 
cipal Catholic and Protestant universities of 
Germany. On his return he began in 1823 a 
course of lectures on church history, patrology, 
and canon law, which at once established his 
reputation. He strongly sympathized with the 
reformatory movement then agitating the 
Catholic church of 8. W. Germany; he advo- 
cated the restoration of communion in both 
kinds, the abrogation of the use of Latin in 
the divine service, &c.; but in later years he 
abandoned these views, and the articles ex- 
pressing them are not included in the collec- 


702 MOHS 


tion of his minor works published by Dr. Dél- 
linger (Gesammelte Schriften und Aufsitze, 2 
vols., Ratisbon, 1839). In 1825 he published 
Die Hinheit in der Kirche, and in 1826 he was 
appointed extraordinary professor,in Tiibin- 
gen. In 1827 he published Athanasius der 
Grosse (2 vols., Mentz), and an essay on sacer- 
dotal celibacy, directed against the liberal 
Catholic theologians of Baden and Wirtem- 
berg, followed in 1829 by Hragmente aus und 
aber Pseudo-Isidor. In 1828-’380 he gave a 
course of lectures on the comparative theology 
of the Christian churches, a summary of which 
was published under the title Symbolik, oder 
Darstellung der dogmatischen Gegensitze der 
Katholiken und Protestanten nach ihren offent- 
lichen Bekenntnissschriften (2 vols., Mentz, 
1832; Vth ed., Ratisbon, 1871; English trans- 
lation by Robertson, 2. vols., London, 1843). 
This is regarded as his greatest work. The 
Protestant theologians maintained that he had 
represented ideal Catholicism, and misrepre- 
sented, at least partly, the doctrinal systems 
of the reformers. Some of the most distin- 
guished Protestant divines wrote against him; 
especially Baur (Der Gegensatz des Katholi- 
cismus und Protestantismus, Tibingen, 1833 ; 
2d ed., 1836), Marheineke, and Nitzsch. Méhler 
answered them in his Newe Untersuchungen 
der Lehrgegensitze zwischen Katholiken und 
Protestanten (Mentz, 1834). Baur replied 
again in the new edition of his work, but the 
continuation of the controversy was forbidden 
by the government, and Méhler was censured 
for reviving an obsolete contest. He conse- 
quently resigned his professorship at Tibingen, 
and when the Prussian government offered 
him one either at Bonn, Breslau, or Minster, 
he chose Bonn, but subsequently declined when 
the archbishop of Cologne demanded that he 
should expressly retract his work on ‘“ Unity 
in the Church.” In the spring of 1835 he 
began in the university of Munich a course of 
lectures on the Epistle to the Romans, follow- 
ed by others on church history and patrology; 
but his lectures were interrupted by sickness 
in 1836, and he never fully recovered. In 
1838 the king of Bavaria appointed him dean 
of Wirzburg. At the time of his death he 
was collecting materials for a history of mo- 
nachism. A large posthumous work on the 
Christian literature of the first three centuries 
was edited by Prof. Reithmayr of Munich 
(Patrologie, vol. i., Ratisbon, 1839). A Cath- 
olic biography of Mohler, by Reithmayr, is 
added to the fifth edition of his ‘‘ Symbolism.” 
The best Protestant biography is that of Prof. 
Kling of Marburg. 

MOMS, Friedrich, a German mineralogist, born 
at Gernrode, Anhalt, Jan. 29, 1773, died at 
Agordo, Venetia, Sept. 29, 1839. He was pro- 
fessor at Gratz from 1811 to 1817, when, after 
accompanying his pupil Count Brenner to Eng- 
land and Scotland, he succeeded Werner as 
professor of mineralogy at Freiberg, and in 
1826 became professor at Vienna. He origi- 


MOIGNO 


nated a new system of classification for min- 
erals, which in the grouping of species regard- 
ed only their external characteristics. His 
principal works are Grundriss der Mineralo- 
gie (2 vols., Dresden, 1822-4; English trans- 
lation with additions by Haidinger, 3 vols., 
Edinburgh, 1825), and Anfangsgriinde der Na- 
turgeschichte des Mineralreichs (Vienna, 1832 ; 
2d enlarged ed. by Zippe, 2 vols., 1836-’9). 

MOIGNO (de Villebean), Fran¢gois Napoléon Marie, 
a French scientific author, born at Guéméné, 
Morbihan, April 20, 1804. He studied suc- 
cessively at Pontivy and Ste. Anne d’Auray, 
entered the society of Jesus in 1822, and de- 
voted himself especially to the study of physi- 
cal and mathematical science. He discovered 
in 1828 a new formula for the equation of 
tangential planes, and in 1830 followed the 
exiled Jesuits to Brieg in Valais. There, while 
completing his course of theology and pursuing 
Greek and Latin literature, he learned Eng- 
lish, German, Dutch, Italian, Spanish, Portu- 
guese, Hebrew, and Arabic. ‘In 1836 he was 
appointed professor of mathematics in the 
Jesuit school in Paris, where he acquired 
reputation as a preacher, helped to found sey- 
eral charitable institutions, and contributed 
to the press papers on science and theology. 
In 1840 he published the first two volumes 
of his work on differential and integral cal- 
culus, based on the method of Cauchy. He 
became secretly involved in ruinous engineer- 
ing speculations, and his superiors, after pay- 
ing a large sum of money to extricate him 
from his difficulties, appointed him professor 
of Biblical literature in the seminary of Laval. 
He resisted this appointment, and left the order 
in 1844, In 1845 he became scientific editor 
of the Epoque, and made a tour of observation 
through England, Belgium, Holland, and Ger- 
many, the result of which appeared in a series 
of remarkable letters to that journal. He be- 
came scientific editor of the Presse in 1850, and 
soon after of the Pays. In 1852 he founded 
the weekly scientific review Cosmos, of which 
he remained chief editor till 1863, when he 
established a separate scientific weekly, Les 
Mondes. He was chaplain of the lycée Louis- 
le-Grand from 1848 to 1851; was attached to 
St. Germain-des-Prés in 1863; and in 1873 was 
appointed a canon of St. Denis. His works 
embrace Lecgons de calcul différentiel et in- 
tégral (4 vols., 1840-61); épertoire d’op- 
tique moderne (4 vols., 1847-’50); Traité de 
la télégraphie électrique (1849); Le stéréoscope 
(1852); Le saccharimétre (1853); Impossibilité 
du nombre infini et de ses conséquences, démon 
stration du dogme de la création et de la ré- 
cente apparition des mondes (1863); Résumés 
oraux du progrés scientifique et industriel 
(1865-9); Cours de sciencevulgarisée (1865-"6) ; 
Legons de mécanique analytique (1867); Les 
éclairages modernes (1868); L’ Art des projec- 
tions (1872); and translations of three essays 
severally from Grove’s, Hoffmann’s, and Tyn- 
dall’s scientific writings. 


MOIR 


MOIR, David Macbeth, a Scottish author, born 
at Musselburgh, Jan. 5, 1798, died in Dumfries, 
July 6, 1851. He was educated at the gram- 
mar school of his native town, and obtained a 
diploma as surgeon in 1816. He contributed 
both prose and verse to Constable’s ‘ Edin- 
burgh Magazine” and to “ Blackwood.” He 
was commorly known as Delta, from the sig- 
nature A to his serious poems. In 1824 he 
published ‘‘The Legend of Genevieve, with 
other Tales and Poems,” and in the same year 
began in ‘‘ Blackwood” a serial novel, ‘‘ The 
Autobiography of Mansie Wauch.” In 1831 
he published ‘‘The Ancient History of Medi- 
cine,” and in 1843 ‘‘ Domestic Verses,” which 
contains some of his best known poems. In 
1846 he met with an accident which made him 
lame for life. In 1851 he delivered in Edin- 
burgh six lectures on the ‘ Poetical Literature 
of the Past Half Century,” which were after- 
ward published. A selection of his poems, 
with a memoir by Thomas Aird, was published 
in 1852, and a new and complete edition of his 
works in 1857. He was the leading physician 
of Musselburgh till his death, which occurred 
during a tour of relaxation. 

MOIRA, Earl of. See Hastrnes, Francrs. 

MOIVRE, Abraham de, a French mathema- 
tician, born at Vitry, Champagne, May 26, 
1667, died in London, Nov. 27, 1754. Upon 
the revocation of the edict of Nantes he took 
refuge in England, and devoted himself to teach- 
ing mathematics. He soon became connected 
with Halley and Newton, was admitted into 
the royal society in 1697, was elected a member 
of the academy of sciences of Berlin in 17380, 
and of the academy of sciences of Paris in 
1754. He was one of the committee appointed 
to decide on the rival claims of Leibnitz and 
Newton to the invention of the differential 
calculus. He made many discoveries and im- 
provements in the theory of series and of prob- 
abilities, but is best known by the celebrated 
trigonometrical theorem which bears his name. 
He survived most of his ‘early associates, and 
his subsistence latterly depended upon his so- 
lutions of problems relative to games of chance, 
which he was accustomed to give in a coffee 
house. Besides memoirs in the “* Philosophical 
Transactions,” he published ‘The Doctrine 
of Chances” (1718), ‘‘ Annuities on Lives” 
(1724), and Miscellanea Analytica, de Seriebus 
et Quadraturis (1730). 

MOKANNA, or Mocanna. See ATHA BEN Hake. 

MOLA. I. Pietro Francesco, an Italian painter, 
born at Coldre, near Como, in 1612 or 1621, 
died in Rome about 1666. He was a pupil 
of Cesare d’Arpino and Albani. He was one 
of the best of the Italian landscape painters, 
and was much employed by Innocent X. and 
his successor Alexander VII., as also by Queen 
Christina of Sweden. II. Giambattista, a paint- 
er, sometimes erroneously called a brother of 
the preceding, born in France about 1618, died 


in 1661. He studied in Paris, and under Al- 
bani at Bologna. He excelled in landscapes. 
566 VOL, xI.—45 


MOLDAVIA 703 


MOLASSE, the name of a peculiar, mostly 
gray sandstone, found abundantly throughout 
a large portion of the Alpine system. It oc- 
curs in masses frequently alternating with beds 
of conglomerate, and being of a fine, granular 
texture, is highly prized as a building stone. 
Owing to the fact of its forming in certain 
localities one of the characteristic rocks of the 
tertiary formation, the term molasse, as applied 
to group, is sometimes used synonymously with 
tertiary, corresponding to the eocene, miocene, 
and pliocene of Lyell. 

MOLASSES (Fr. mélasse), the sirnp which 
remains in the manufacture of brown sugar, 
after separating from the juice all the sac- 
charine matter that can be made to crystal- 
lize to advantage; also the inspissated juice 
of sorghum and sap of the maple. ‘Sugar- 
house” molasses is the sirup which remains 
in the conversion of brown into refined sugar, 
and which contains too little cane sugar to re- 
pay its further treatment. By fermentation 
and distillation molasses mixed with the skim- 
mings of the sugar boiling is made to produce 
rum. (See Sugar.) The entire amount of 
molasses produced in the United States in 
1870, according to the census, was 6,598,328 
gallons of cane, of which 4,585,150 gallons 
were the product of Louisiana, 16,050,089 of 
sorghum, and 921,057 of maple. The produc- 
tion of cane molasses is limited to the southern 
states, while the cultivation of sorghum is gen- 
eral throughout the country. During the year 
ending June 30, 1878, 48,533,909 gallons of 
molasses, valued at $9,901,051, were imported 
into the United States, chiefly from Cuba. 

MGLDAL, a river of Bohemia, which rises in 
the Bohemian Forest, on the frontiers of Ba- 
varia, flows S. E. as far as Rosenberg, and then 
N. to Melnik, opposite which town it falls into 
the Elbe. It is about 300 m. long, and for 
nearly half its course is navigable. Its chief 
tributaries are the Luschnitz, Sazawa, Beraun, 
and Wattawa. The principal towns on its banks 
are Krummau, Budweis, Pisek, and Prague. 
Vessels of 60 tons can ply on it to Prague. 

MOLDAVIA (Ger. Moldau ; Turk. Bogdan), a 
country of Europe belonging to the Turkish 
empire, and now together with Wallachia form- 
ing the vassal state of Rowmania. It is situ- 
ated between lat. 45° and 49° N., and lon. 25° 
and 30° 15’ E., and is bounded N., N. E., and 
E. by Bessarabia, from which it is separated 
by the Pruth, S. E. by the Black sea, 8. by the 
Bulgarian district of Dobrudja and by Walla- 
chia, being separated from the former by the 
Danube, W. by Transylvania, and N. W. by 
Bukowina; area, 18,485 sq. m.; pop. about 
1,460,000. It is traversed in the north and 
west by various offshoots of the eastern Car- 
pathians, through which several passes lead 
into Bukowina and Transylvania. The prin- 
cipal rivers are the Danube, which during its 
short course on the S. boundary receives the 
waters of all the others, the Pruth, and the 
Sereth. The chief affluents of the Pruth are 


704 


the Bakhlui and Shishiya; of the Sereth, the 
Bistritza, Moldava, Milkov, and Birlat. The 
largest lakes are between the mouths of the 
Pruth and Sereth and in the S. E. corner of 
the country. Moldavia is rich in pastures, 
and produces wheat, maize, and other grains, 
excellent melons, various wines, some of which 
rival those of Hungary, fruits, honey in great 
abundance, and several minerals, especially salt. 
The forests contain bears, wolves, and lynxes, 
and yield excellent timber; the rivers abound 
in fish. Locusts often appear in destructive 
multitudes. The inhabitants consist of Mol- 
davians proper, of the Wallach race, Greeks, 
Armenians, Jews, Osangé-Magyars, Franks, 
and gypsies. 
orthodox Greek. The general language is the 
Wallachian, in which the preponderant Latin 
or Romanic element is largely mixed with Sla- 
vic, Turkish, and Tartar words. Agriculture, 
horticulture, and grazing are the principal oc- 
cupations; manufactures are scarcely devel- 
oped, and commerce is almost exclusively in 
the hands of the Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. 
Wine, honey, wax, cattle, hides, horses, and 
timber are the chief articles of export. The 
most important towns are Jassy, the capital, 
Galatz, Ismail, Fokshani, Roman, Bakeu, and 
Botoshan.—In ancient times this country, 
which at various periods extended beyond its 
present limits, was occupied by the Geta. 
Darius Hystaspis invaded it on his expedition 
against the Scyths. In the latter part of the 
Ist century it belonged to the Dacian king- 
dom of Decebalus. Parts of it were attached 
after his defeat to the Roman province of 
Dacia. During the great migration of nations 
it was successively invaded by the Goths, 
Huns, Bulgarians, and Slavic tribes. The 
Avars, who became dominant in the 6th cen- 
tury, yielded to the Bulgarians, and these, after 
a few centuries, to the Khazars, Petchenegs, 
and others. The latter tribes successfully 
warred with the Magyars, but dissensions dis- 
tracted the country, and the introduction of 
Christianity in the 11th century was almost 
without effect. Wars with the Greeks depop- 
ulated the country, which was soon after in- 
vaded by the Cumans. These in their turn 
were subdued by the Mongols. In the ear- 
lier part of the 14th century a strong Wallach 
immigration took place from Hungary under 
Bogdan, who with his son Dragosh established 
a dynasty of waywodes known in history un- 
der the name of the Dragoshites. The coun- 
try now received the name of Moldavia from 
the river Moldava. The Greek creed was made 
predominant. But internal conflicts combined 
with external to make the long reign of the 
Dragoshites one of the bloodiest in history. 
Among the warlike princes of the period was 
Stephen VI., surnamed the Great, who died in 
1504; but his son and successor Bogdan III. 
was unfortunate in his wars with the Hungari- 
ans and Poles, and having also suffered an in- 
vasion of the Tartars, he submitted himself to 


The dominant religion is the. 


MOLDAVIA 


the suzerainty of the Porte. Bogdan’s son, 
Stephen VII., leaned toward the Christian pow- 
ers; but his successor, Peter VI., allied him- 
self closely with Sultan Solyman the Mag- 
nificent during his expedition against Vienna. 
Moldavia was now a vassal province of the Ot- 
toman empire, and soon after lost its eastern 
division, between the Pruth and Dniester, now 
known as Bessarabia, which was constituted a 
separate Turkish province. This part was of- 
ten reannexed and again detached. The suze- 
rainty of the Porte little if at all ameliorated 
the condition of the distracted country. For 
some time the boyars exercised the privilege 
of electing the waywodes; later the sultans 
were called upon to appoint them. During 
the latter part of the 17th century and in the 
18th, Fanariote Greeks mostly succeeded each 
other under the title of hospodar or prince. 
The principal families from which hospodars 
were selected were those of Cantacuzene, Can- 
temir, Ducas, Rakovitza, Mavrocordato, Ghika, 
and Ypsilanti. Most of the Fanariote hos- 
podars leaned toward Russia, some of them 
secretly conspiring with Peter the Great and 
his successors. In the Turko-Russian wars 
Moldavia was a principal object of contention. 
In 1737 and 1788 it was successfully invaded 
by the Russians under Miinnich. In the first 
Turkish war of Catharine II. it was occupied 
and organized as a Russian province, but re- 
stored to Turkey by the peace of Kutchuk 
Kainarji (1774), which, however, secured to 
Russia a kind of protectorate. Soon after, 
Moldavia, which meanwhile had been robbed 
of various important places, converted into 
Turkish fortresses, also lost its northern dis- 
trict, the Bukowina, which was annexed 
by Austria (1777). The same power after- 
ward combined with Russia for a new at- 
tack on Turkey, and Moldavia again became 
a seat of war. Austria terminated the war by 
the peace of Sistova in 1791, Russia more ad- 
vantageously by that of Jassy in the follow- 
ing year. The succeeding Turkish wars were 
closed by the treaties of Slobosia (1807) and 
Bucharest (1812), by the latter of which the 
czar Alexander gained Bessarabia. The Greek 
insurrection under Ypsilanti was a source of 
terrible suffering to the province. The treaty 
of Akerman (1826) restored the right of elect- 
ing hospodars, for seven years, to a divan of 
boyars, the Porte retaining the right of con- 
firmation, and Russia its protectorate. The 
war of 1828 again brought Moldavia, as well 
as Wallachia, into the hands of the Russians, 
who occupied it, under Kisseleff, even after 
the peace of Adrianople (1829), which ex- 
cluded all Turks from a permanent abode in 
it, a new statute being elaborated by a com- 
mission of boyars. This being confirmed by 
the Porte, the Russian army left the princi- 
palities, and Michael Sturdza, a native boyar, 
was elected hospodar of Moldavia for life. To 
unite the two principalities, as an independent 
Dacian or Rouman state, became now the 


MOLE 


chief tendency of the national party. Sturdza 
often gave umbrage to the representatives of 
Russia and a revolutionary outbreak in Wal- 
lachia in 1848 was again followed by a Russian 
occupation. A new treaty was concluded by 
the Porte and the czar Nicholas at Balta Li- 
man in 1849, in consequence of which Sturdza 
resigned his office, and another boyar, Gregor 
Ghika, was elected hospodar for seven years. 
The war of 1853-6 destroyed the new basis. 
The Russians again occupied the principalities, 
but the military events on the Danube and in 
the Crimea compelled their troops to evacuate 
them, when they were occupied by the neutral 
armies of Austria. The peace of Paris in 1856 
aggrandized Moldavia with the southernmost 
portion of Bessarabia, which was detached 
from Russia, and referred the affairs of the 
principalities, which were to be united, to a 
conference at Paris of the representatives of 
the great powers, the Porte, and Sardinia, 
which, in August, 1858, finally agreed on a 
new plan of organization. Soon after Alex- 
ander Couza was elected hospodar for life in 
both principalities, which, being an unex- 
pected event, as two elections were anticipa- 
ted in accordance with the protocol of the 
conference, led to new complications. The 
influence of France prevailed in favor of the 
tendency to national union, and the election 
was confirmed by the Porte, and acknowledged 
by all other parties. In December, 1861, the 
permanent union of the two principalities, un- 
der the title of Roumania, was proclaimed at 
Bucharest and Jassy. (See RouMantA.) 

MOLE, the name of many insectivorous mam- 
mals of the family talpide, embracing several 
genera which agree in having a stout, thick, 
clumsy body, without visible neck, no exter- 
nal ears, minute auditory foramina, very small 
eyes, short limbs, the anterior much the broad- 
est and largest, with strong claws, short tail, 
and soft, velvety, and compact fur. Moles are 
generally distributed over the earth, except in 
South America and within the tropics, though 
the genera are closely restricted within certain 
regions; thus talpa is found only in Europe 
and Asia, scalops and condylura in North 
America, chrysochloris in Africa, and urotri- 
chus in Japan and N. W. America. In talpa 
(Linn.) the dentition is: incisors $, canines 


none, and molars §—%, the first of the molars: 


representing a canine (the upper in front of 
the lower), and the last three tuberculate; by 
some writers the fourth tooth on each side in 
each jaw is called a canine, which would make 
the teeth equal in number and alike in kind in 
both jaws. The nose is lengthened, truncate 
at the point; feet five-toed, the soles of the 
fore feet turned backward, with toes connect- 
ed and strong claws. The European mole (7. 
Europea, Linn.) is 5 or 6 in. long, with a tail 
of 1 in.; the fur is blackish and very fine; the 
bones of the fore limbs are very short and 
strong, supported by firm clavicles, and end- 
ing in a shovel-shaped hand, strengthened by 


705 


the elongated falciform carpal bone, armed 
with large claws, and moved by muscles of 
great power; the sternum is keeled for the 
attachment of the pectoral muscles, the prin- 


European Mole (Talpa Europea). 


a. Fore paw. 06. Hind paw. c. Nest. 


cipal ones employed in digging their burrows; 
the muscles of the head are also powerful as- 
sistants in loosening the earth as the animal 
pursues its underground passage, preparing the 
way by its pointed, movable, hog-like snout. 
The senses of smell, hearing, and touch are 
very acute. The eyes are two black glittering 
points, about the size of mustard seed, con- 
cealed and protected by the surrounding skin 
and hairs. The popular belief that the mole 
is blind is an error; the mole of Greece men- 
tioned by Aristotle as blind is either the spe- 
cies 7. ceca (Sav.), in which there is no visible 
ocular fissure, or perhaps a burrowing rodent 
or rat-mole (genus spalaz, Guld.), in which 
the very small eyes are hidden under the hairy 
skin. The openings of the ears and mouth 
may be closed by membranous folds to prevent 
the entrance of earth; the vent is considerably 
prolonged upon the tail. Four or five young 
are produced at a time, twice a year, in spring 
and autumn. The food consists of worms, in- 
sects, and tender roots, in search of which it 
burrows in the ground; these excavations also 
serve as places of residence and as highways 
of travel from one field to another; its abode 
is in some firm hillock in a secure situation, in 
which are two circular galleries connected by 
a chamber excavated in the centre of the lower 
gallery; these communicate by intricate pas- 
sages with the high road, through which the 
animal passes with considerable speed, though 
very slow-moving on the surface of the ground ; 
the road is placed at a depth of from 4 to 14 
in., according to its exposure to pressure from 
above. The mole frequently comes to the sur- 
face to get rid of the loosened earth; it is very 
voracious, and is soon killed by hunger; it is 
active all winter, though at a depth of a foot 
or more, and in summer at night frequently 
seeks its prey at the surface; it is a good 
swimmer; when irritated it bites severely, and 


706 MOLE 


the males in the love season often engage in 
deadly combats. The colors vary; individuals 
are seen of white, ash, or fawn color. The 
soft fur is manufactured into light robes and 
very fine hats, and has been employed for ar- 
tificial eyebrows. The mole is frequently very 
detrimental to cultivated lands, but the loss is 
more than counterbalanced by the destruction 
of noxious insects and weeds. — The golden 
moles of Africa (chrysochloris, Lacép.) have 
incisors §, the middle lower ones small and 
narrow, and molars 4-4; the eyes are covered 
by skin, nose naked and leathery, fore feet 
four-toed, with fourth toe very small, hind 
feet five-toed, and no tail. The best known 


species (C. Capensis, Desm.) is brownish with 


green and golden reflections; it inhabits the 
Cape of Good Hope, and has the form, size, 
and habits of the mole.—The star-nosed mole 
of North America (condylura, Iliger) has the 
end of the nose surrounded by 22 movable 
fleshy radiating filaments, which serve as deli- 
cate organs of touch; the incisors are §, the 
upper middle ones broad, the lower ones. pro- 
cumbent, canines +— , molars 4-45 eyes very 
small ; feet five- aay tail moderate, thinly 
haired. The C. cristata (Desm.) is about 4 in. 
long from tip of nose to base of tail, the latter 
being 3 in. more; it has the general form of 
the moles; the hands resemble those of ter- 
rapins, and with the hind feet (considerably 
larger) are furnished on both surfaces with a 
covering of brown scales, with a horny tubercle 
on the inner edge of the soles; the under sur- 
face of the fingers is extended into fringed 
horny processes. The fur is rather coarse, 
and sooty brown. It is found in the north- 


EN Ww 


‘Star-nosed Mole (Condylura cristata), 
a. Jaws. 0b. End of nose. 


ern parts of America from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific.—The most common American moles 
belong to the genus scalops (Cuv.), called also 
shrew moles from the resemblance of their 
dentition to thst of the shrews; the incisors 
are §, canines 4-4, molars $—$; in scapanus 
(Pomel), set apart for the Oregon and hairy- 
tailed moles, the incisors are §, canines Th 


MOLE 


and molars 4-7. In the common mole (8. 
aquaticus, Ouv.) the teeth are 36, the eyes not 
covered by integument, tail nearly naked, and 
feet fully webbed; the color is dark plumbe- 
ous, with sometimes a brownish tinge, and the 
feet and tail are white; it is between 4 and 5 


Shrew Mole (Scalops). 


in. long, with the tail about an inch; it is 
found from Canada to Florida, and as far 
west as the Mississippi.—The genus uwrotrichus 
(Temm.) has incisors %, canines 124, and mo- 
lars $-$; the muzzle is prolonged into a cylin- 
drical tube terminating in a naked bulb; tail 
short and hairy. A common species in Japan 
is the U. talpoides (Temm.), smaller than the 
common mole. <A species (U. Gibbsii, Baird), 
24+ in. long, occurs in Washington territory. 
MOLE, Lonis Mathien, count, a French states- 
man, born in Paris, Jan. 24, 1781, died Nov. 
28, 1855. His father, president of the parlia- 
ment of Paris, lost his life during the revolu- 
tion, and the son passed most of his childhood 
with his mother in Switzerland and England. 
Returning to France in 1796, he studied at 
the central school of public works (now poly- 
technic school), and in 1806 published his Zs- 
sais de morale et de politique, defending mo- 
narchical theories in politics. Napoleon ap- 
pointed him auditor and soon afterward mas- 
ter of requests in the council of state. In 1807 
he was made prefect of the department of Céte- 
d’Or, subsequently became councillor of state 
and director general of roads and bridges, and 
in 1813 received the appointment of grand- 
juge and the titles of count of the empire and 
commander of the order of réunion. While 
Napoleon was absent with the army, Molé act- 
ed as one of the council of regency, and at- 
tended the empress in her flight to Blois on 
the approach of the allied armies in 1814. By 
advice of the emperor, Molé gave in his adhe- 
sion to Louis XVIII., and was called to the 
municipal council of Paris. On Napoleon’s re- 
turn from Elba, though he refused to sign the 
declaration of the council of state against the 
Bourbons, he retained his office of director 
of roads and bridges, and was made a peer of 
France. On. the second restoration he was 
renominated to the council of state and con- 


MOLE CRICKET 


firmed in his peerage; but he had little influ- 
ence in the government. In May, 1817, he 
became minister of marine in the cabinet of 
the duke de Richelieu. Resigning in December, 
1818, he remained out of office until the acces- 
sion of Louis Philippe, who appointed him 
minister of foreign affairs, Aug. 11,1830. The 
ministry, consisting of a coalition of parties, 
held together less than three months; but in 
September, 1836, Molé became again minister 
of foreign affairs and premier. He negotiated 
the marriage of the duke of Orleans, and pro- 
cured an amnesty for political offenders; but 
after twice dissolving the chambers, he was 
forced to resign in March, 1839. In the fol- 
ing year he was chosen a member of the French 
academy. During the revolution of 1848 he 
withdrew from public affairs, but without soli- 
citation was chosen to represent the depart- 
ment of Gironde in the constituent assembly, 
where he placed himself among the leaders of 
the right. He was a member of the com- 
mittee which framed the law of 1850 against 
universal suffrage, and was one of those who 
protested at the mairie of the 10th arrondisse- 
ment against the coup d’état of Dec. 2, 1851. 
The close of his life was passed at his ances- 
tral chateau of Champlatreux. He was one of 
the stanchest supporters of the Roman Cath- 
olic church in France. 

MOLE CRICKET, a jumping orthopterous in- 
sect, of the genus gryllotalpa (Latr.), meaning 
cricket mole. The European mole cricket (@. 
vulgaris, Latr.) has a most extraordinary and 
ugly form; it is nearly 2 in. long and 4 of an 
inch wide, and of a dark brown color; the 
head, retractile within the prothorax, has two 
long and strong antennae in front of its black 
reticulated eyes; the thorax is elevated and 
crab-like, covered with a velvety down; the 
wings, which when expanded are broad and 
triangular, when folded extend like two rib- 
bons over the abdomen; the abdomen, soft and 
with nine or ten segments, has two filaments 
at the end as long as the antenne; the fore 
legs are short, broad, and strong, the shanks 
being very wide, flat, and three-sided, with four 
finger-like projections on the lower side, giving 
very much the appearance and the digging 
powers of the hands of the mole, whence the 
generic name. It lays 200 or 300 eggs in June 
in a gourd-shaped hollow in the earth, about 
2in. long, having a winding communication with 
the surface; the young are hatched in five or 
six weeks, and resemble black ants, not arriving 
at maturity till the third year; both young and 
old commit great ravages by feeding on the 
tender roots of grass, culinary vegetables, and 
flowers; they also eat insects and worms, and 
themselves furnish food for moles, lizards, 
snakes, and other insectivorous animals. The 
males emit a pleasing sound at night, at which 
time they are the most attive. Rdésel says this 
insect can push forward on a level surface a 
weight of 6 lbs. with its fore feet. They rarely 
appear on the surface, but their presence may 


MOLECULE Z07 


be known by the withered patches in the field 
and garden, and their retreats detected by the 
little hills of fresh earth, smaller than those of 
moles, which they throw up in soft and moist 
places. Late in autumn they bury themselves 
deep in the ground, coming again to the surface 
in the warm days of spring. The surest way 
to prevent their depredations is to dig up the 
nests and destroy the eggs; another way is to 


Mole Cricket (Gryllotalpa borealis). 


pour boiling water into their holes. The Amer- 
ican species (G. borealis) is about 1} in. long, 
of a bright bay or fawn color, with the wing 
covers not half the length of the abdomen, and 
the tips of the folded wings extending only one 
third of an inch beyond the covers. The G. 
didactyla (Latr.), having only two finger-like 
projections on the fore legs, has proved very 
destructive to the sugar cane in the West Indies 
and South America. 

MOLECULE (Fr. molécule, diminutive of Lat. 
moles, a mass), a small mass of matter. The 
word came into use in France in the early part 
of the last century, and was adopted by Buffon 
in describing his remarkable theory of the con- 
stitution of organized beings. Later it was 
used by Laplace in his Systéme du monde, and 
also by Lavoisier, Fourcroy, and other chemists, 
at the period of the French revolution. The 
writers of this period distinguish between mo- 
lécules intégrantes and molécules constituantes. 
By their definitions the former were simply 
small particles differing from a mass of the 
same substance only in magnitude; the latter 
were the more minute particles of the elemen- 
tary substances, of which the former may be 
regarded as composed, The molécules constitu- 
antes corresponded very closely to the atoms of 
modern chemistry, and by more recent authors 
the words molecule and atom were frequently 
used as synonymous. Into the English lan- 
guage the word molecule does not seem to have 
been readily received. Although the organic 
molecules of Buffon are referred to by Paley, 
the word is not found in Johnson’s dictionary, 
and was not generally used by English writers 
on chemistry and physics until within a few 
years. Indeed, in England the influence of 
Dalton’s theory has given such authority to the 
word atom that it is still frequently used to 
denote both the true chemical atom and the 
physical molecule, and it is therefore the more 
important for us to carefully distinguish be- 
tween them.—The term molecule, as used in 
the modern schools of physics and chemistry, 


708 


implies more than the molécules intégrantes of 
the French writers just referred to. The mole- 
cules of a substance are not merely small par- 
ticles of that substance, but they are isolated 
masses, or, to use the words of Sir William 
Thomson, ‘‘ pieces of matter of measurable di- 
mensions, with shape, motion, and laws of ac- 
tion, intelligible subjects of scientific investiga- 
tion.” The term therefore involves the con- 
ception that the molecules of a substance are as 
definite magnitudes as the stars, and that every 
mass of matter is a collection of such bodies, 
just as a stellar cluster is a collection of suns. 
The molecules of any one substance, how- 
ever, are supposed to be alike in all respects. 


There are many phenomena, both of physics. 


and chemistry, which indicate that this concep- 
tion is just and accurate. We will only refer 
to two of the most familiar. When by boiling 
under the atmospheric pressure water changes 
into steam, it expands, as compared with its 
volume at the point of maximum density, 
1,700 times; or in other words, one cubic 
inch of water yields nearly one cubic foot 
of steam. Two suppositions are possible as 
modes of explaining this change. The first is, 
that in expanding the material of the water 
becomes diffused through the cubic foot so 
as to fill the space with the substance we call 
water as completely as before, and leaving 


no space within the cubic foot which does not. 


contain its proper proportion of water. The 
second is, that the cubic inch of water consists 
of a certain number of isolated particles, the 
cubic foot of steam containing the same parti- 
cles as the cubic inch of water, and the con- 
version of the one into the other depending 
simply on the action of heat in separating these 
particles to a greater distance. Hence the 
steam is not absolutely homogeneous; for, if 
we consider spaces sufficiently minute, we can 
distinguish between such as contain a parti- 
cle of water and those which lie between the 
particles. These assumed particles, which are 
thus supposed to be separated by the heat, are 
the molecules of the water; and the molecular 
theory of the constitution of matter explains the 
change of volume in the manner last described. 
That this is probably the true explanation will 
be evident from a consideration of the familiar 
phenomena which appear when by pressure we 
condense steam back to water. Conceive of a 
cylinder filled with rarefied steam at some tem- 
perature above the boiling point of water. If 
into such a cylinder we press a piston, the 
volume of the steam will be diminished in pro- 
portion to the pressure, according to the well 
known law of Mariotte, up to a certain limit; 
but as we increase the pressure a point will be 
reached, sooner or later, at which this law of 
compression ceases abruptly, and the steam 
without any intermediate transition takes a 
volume many hundred times less than before, 
changing of course into liquid water. Now, 
if there was a perfect continuity in the steam, 
we cannot conceive why there should not be a 


MOLECULE 


similar continuity in the law of expansion; 
and on the other hand, this sudden break is 
perfectly explained if we are really crowding 
together a mass of impenetrable particles, and 
the whole order of the phenomena suggests 
this conception. Again, if the space occupied 
by a mass of steam is really packed close with 
the material we call water, if there is no break 
in the continuity of this aqueous mass, we 
should expect that the vapor would fill the 
space to the exclusion of everything else, or, 
at least, would fill it with a certain degree of 
energy which must be overcome before any 
other vapor could be forced in. But the facts 
are the very reverse of this. Conceive of two 
globes at some temperature above the boiling 
point of water, one filled with steam, the other 
completely exhausted. Let these globes be so 
arranged that we can introduce into each the 
same quantity of alcohol, and we shall find not 
only that the alcohol will evaporate in both, 
but that just as much alcohol vapor will form 
in the globe filled with steam as in the vacuous 
space, and will exert precisely the same pres- 
sure against the sides of the two vessels. The 
presence of the steam does not interfere in the 
least degree with the expansion of liquid alco- 
hol into alcohol vapor. The only difference 
which we observe is that the alcohol expands 
more slowly into the aqueous vapor than it 
does into a vacuum. The final result however 
is the same in both cases, and thus we may 
have two different vapors filling the same space 
without interfering with each other; and more 
than this, so far as we know, any number of 
vapors, which do not act chemically on each 
other, may occupy the same space at the same 
time, each preserving its individuality so com- 
pletely that its relations would not be essen- 
tially altered if the associated materials were 
removed. Evidently then no vapor complete- 
ly fills the space which it occupies, although 
equally distributed through it; and we can give 
no satisfactory explanation of the phenomena 
of evaporation except on the assumption that 
each substance is an aggregate of particles or 
units, which by the action of heat become so 
widely separated that they leave very large 
interstices in which the particles of an almost 
indefinite number of other vapors can find 
room.—A study of the phenomena of evapora- 
tion leads to a definition of molecules, which, 
although not comprehensive, is for the cases it 
covers the most precise that can be given: 
Molecules are those small particles of a sub- 
stance which are not subdivided when the 
body is expanded by heat, and which move as 
units under the influence of this agent. As 
the above statement implies, the modern mo- 
lecular theory assumes, not only that the mo- 
lecules are isolated masses, but also that they 
are in active motion, and the phenomena of 
heat are regarded ds manifestations of this 
motion. The idea that the ultimate particles 
of matter are in motion is as old as Democritus, 
but this idea was never precisely formulated 


MOLECULE 


until modern times. Now, however, it is one 
of the most pregnant theories of science; and 
it is evident that such motion, if it exists, must 
be a most important factor in nature. The 
circumstance that these molecular motions are 
limited by the boundaries of the mass of mat- 
ter to which the molecules belong, and that 
the system remains in equilibrium with rela- 
tion to external objects, because the amount 
of motion in opposite directions is usually 
equal, must not of course affect our estimate 
of the moving power, and this power is no less 
than that which would be shown in a motion 
of translation of the same mass with a velo- 
city equal to the mean velocity of the several 
molecules; and, since the facts compel us to 
assign to this velocity a value commensurable 
with the velocities obtained in artillery prac- 
tice, it is evident that the total moving power, 
even in a small mass of matter, must be enor- 
mous. There are conditions, however, under 
which the molecules may communicate their 
motion to masses and thus produce mechan- 
ical effects; and our theory refers the tension 
of aériform matter, and the mechanical work 
which it may be made to do, to the bom- 
bardment of the sides of the containing ves- 
sel by molecular projectiles. In a solid or 
a liquid it is assumed that the extent of the 
motion of the molecules is limited by internal 
forces, but in a gas this motion is supposed 
to be unrestrained, so that the molecules beat 
freely against any surface with which the aéri- 
form mass may be in contact, and thus the 
molecules of water in the cylinder of a steam 
engine produce their well known effects.—The 
molecular theory has established on a firm 
foundation the great physical doctrine of the 
conservation of energy, by explaining a class 
of phenomena which, as viewed by the old 
physicists, were apparently wholly at variance 
with this truth. When two elastic billiard 
balls strike each other, although the balls may 
change their velocities, the total moving power 
will be nearly the same after the collision 
as before it; but when two inelastic balls 
of lead strike, there is always an apparent 
destruction of motion. It was no answer to 
say that the power which had disappeared as 
motion had done its work in changing the 
shape of the balls; for since these bodies can- 
not recover their figure, and therefore have 
not the potential energy of elastic bodies under 
the same conditions, there must be an annihi- 
lation of power if the external phenomena are 
the only effects produced. But if, as our 
theory assumes, the motion is simply trans- 
ferred from molar to molecular masses, all is 
clear; and since we have been able to prove 
that the change of temperature produced in 
the masses is the exact mechanical equivalent 
of the motion lost, we think we are justified in 
concluding that the effects ascribed to what 
we call heat are simply manifestations of mo- 
lecular motion.—When we come to conceive 
of matter as consisting of elastic molecules 


709 


which are ever in motion and colliding with 
each other, we see that motion must be readily 
communicated from one part of such a system 
to another; that any excess of energy acquired 
by any part must be rapidly dissipated; and 
that the tendency must be to bring all the 
molecules to the same condition. Moreover, 
we see that the motion must spread not only 
through the molecules of the same body, but 
also from one body to another; for everywhere 
in nature the atmosphere or some other me- 
dium furnishes lines of molecules along which 
the energy can pass. Now exactly this is true 
of heat. When a heated body is brought into 
a room, the heat immediately begins to spread 
through surrounding objects, and the process 
goes on until all are reduced to what we call a 
uniform temperature, that is, to a condition in 
which there is no tendency of heat to pass 
from one to the other; and we must remember 
that our knowledge of temperature and our 
means of measuring it depend wholly on this 
motion of heat. We say that one body has a 
higher temperature or is hotter than another, 
if when brought in contact heat passes from 
the first to the second; and we measure the 
temperature of a body by bringing in contact 
with it a thermometer, a small bulb filled with 
mercury, whose narrow neck enables us to 
detect the slightest change in the volume of 
the enclosed liquid. As this volume increases 
when the mercury is heated, and diminishes 
when it is cooled, a fixed position of the mer- 
cury column indicates that the thermometer is 
in equilibrium with the body to be tested, and 
then the artificial scale enables us to compare 
its thermal condition with freezing and boiling 
water.—Consider next what must be the me- 
chanical condition of the molecules of two 
bodies at the same temperature, that is, in 
thermal equilibrium. The molecular theory 
assumes that all the molecules of the same 
substance are alike in every respect, and there- 
fore have the same weight; and hence, in con- 
sidering the mutual action between different 
portions of the same substance, we have to 
deal solely with the collision of small elastic 
masses of equal weight. Now it follows from 
the well known laws which govern the collision 
of elastic bodies, that by the exchanges of velo- 
city which follow each collision the different 
portions which we are considering would soon 
be reduced to a state in which the mean velo- 
city of the molecules in each part must be equal. 
Of course the mutual interchange of velocities 
must continue after the equilibrium is estab- 
lished, but the loss and gain on either side 
are then exactly balanced. It follows from 
this that when two portions of the same sub- 
stance are in thermal equilibrium, that is, at 
the same temperature, the molecules of each 
portion have the same mean velocity. It will 
be seen however that, although the molecules 
of a substance in a state of thermal equilibrium 
have a certain constant mean velocity, the 
velocity of the individual molecules may vary 


710 


very greatly. Indeed, this must result from 
the fortuitous collisions, which will cause velo- 
city to accumulate sometimes in one molecule 
and sometimes in another, while contiguous 
molecules suffer a corresponding loss.— When 
we come to consider next the mutual action 
between masses of different substances, con- 
sisting therefore of unlike molecules having 
different weights, the problem becomes more 
difficult, because we have now to deal with the 
collisions of unequal masses. Still the same 
laws as before give us the key to the solution; 
and it has been shown by Maxwell and Boltz- 
mann that in all cases, when the condition of 
equilibrium is reached, the mean value of the 


moving power of the molecules of any masses” 


must be equal. That is, in general, when 
any two bodies have the same temperature, 
4mV*=3m'V", m and m’ representing the 
weights of the several molecules of the two 
bodies, while V? and V” represent the mean 
of the squares of the velocities in each sys- 
tem. If the molecular weights are equal, 
then of course the mean velocities must be 
equal, as just stated; but if the weights are 
unequal, then the lighter molecules will have 
on the average a greater velocity. In any 
case V: V’=ym': ym; and since we can 
determine the relative values of the molecular 
weights, we can calculate the ratio between 
these mean values of the molecular velocities, 
assuming of course that the two substances 
compared are of the same temperature. For 
example, as the molecules of oxygen gas are 16 
times heavier than those of hydrogen gas, the 
mean value for the velocity of the hydrogen 
molecules at any given temperature will be 
four times as great as that for the oxygen 
molecules. It thus appears that temperature 
is a condition determined by molecular motion, 
and that the mean value of 4mV? is the same 
for all bodies at the same temperature, a defi- 
nite value corresponding to each temperature, 
and becoming greater or less as the temper- 
ature rises or falls. This product is the true 
measure of temperature, and, as will soon ap- 
pear, this measure corresponds to that obtained 
with an air thermometer.—We know as yet 
but little in regard to the molecular structure 
either of solids or liquids, but the three great 
laws which define the aériform condition of 
matter may be shown to be necessary conse- 
quences of the mode of motion which our 
theory assigns to the molecules of gases. Gas 
molecules, as we have seen, move with perfect 
freedom until their motion is altered by colli- 
sions either with each other or against some 
surface; and our theory refers the pressure of 
@ gas against the surfaces with which it is in 
contact to a very rapid succession of small im- 
pulses which produce the effect of a continuous 
pressure. Now if a mass of oxygen, for exam- 
ple, is confined in a vessel, each of the oxygen 
molecules must on an average strike the sides 
of the vessel the same number of times; and so 
long as the temperature is constant, it must 


MOLECULE 


strike with an impulse of the same average 
momentum. Hence each must contribute an 
equal share to the whole pressure, and this 
pressure must be proportional to the number 
of oxygen molecules in the vessel, or in other 
words to the density of the gas. Next let 
us assume that we have two similar vessels 
of equal capacity containing different gases, 
both at the same temperature and tension, 
one filled for example with hydrogen and 
the other with oxygen gas. According to our 
theory, if the temperatures are the same, the 
moving power of the hydrogen and oxygen 
molecules must be the same; that is, 4mV?= 
4m/V", as above. Hence mV : m’'V'=V': V, 
or the momentum of the two kinds of mole- 
cules, which is the measure of the pressures 
they exert, must be inversely proportional to 
their respective velocities. But, on the other 
hand, the swifter molecules will strike the 
sides of the vessels a greater number of times 
in a second, the number of impulses in a given 
time being proportional to the respective veloci- 
ties; orn: n'=V: V’. Hence, nmV=n'm'V'; 
that is, each molecule of hydrogen will pro- 
duce in a given time the same effect as each 
molecule of oxygen, the less momentum being 
compensated by the greater frequency of the 
impulses. But if the molecule of hydrogen 
thus becomes the mechanical equivalent of 
the molecule of oxygen in producing pressure, 
then the same effect can be produced in the 
two vessels only by the same number of mole- 
cules. In other words, equal volumes of two 
gases at the same temperature and tension 
must contain the same number of molecules ; 
and this is the very important law first an- 
nounced by Avogadro and afterward confirmed 
by Ampére.—Next consider what must be the 
effect on a confined mass of gas of an increase 
of temperature. Assume that we begin with 
a closed vessel filled with air at the tempera- 
ture of melting ice, and with a tension mea- 
sured by a column of mercury 273 millimetres 
high in a connecting barometer. An increase 
of temperature will augment the velocity of 
the molecule, and the effect of each molecu- 
lar impulse upon the exposed surface of mer- 
cury will be increased in proportion to the 
velocity; but besides this, each molecule will 
now strike the mercury a greater number of 
times in a second, greater again in proportion 
to its velocity, so that the part of the pressure 
due to each molecule will vary as the square of 
the velocity. As the total effect is but the ag- 
gregate of these molecular impulses, and the 
number of molecules acting is assumed to be 
constant, it is evident that the mercury col- 
umn, which is the measure of the pressure or 
tension of this confined gas, must rise in pro- 
portion as the product 4mV? increases; and 
since, as we have seen, all gas molecules are 
mechanically equivalent, the effect must be the 
same whether our vessel be filled with air or 
with any other gas. Now this product is our 
theoretical measure of temperature, and the 


MOLECULE 


assumed apparatus is a possible form of air 
thermometer, which is the most accurate mea- 
sure of temperature we employ; and thus it 
appears that our best practice is in harmony 
with our theory. Evidently, if we could re- 
duce the temperature of the confined gas in- 
definitely, we should at last bring the molecules 
to rest. They would then exert no pressure, 
and the mercury column in our barometer 
would fall to its lowest level. This condition 
would be theoretically the absolute zero, and 
our air thermometer shows what the’ relation 
of this point must be to our ordinary standard 
of temperature, the centigrade scale-—Begin- 
ning with the apparatus in the condition de- 
scribed above, the temperature of the air being 
that of melting ice or 0° C., and the tension 278 
millimetres, let us heat it to the temperature 
of boiling water, 100° C. We know by experi- 
ment that if the volume of the air is kept con- 
stant the mercury column, which measures the 


tension, would rise to 373 millimetres. Hence,’ 


under the conditions assumed and according to 
our method of graduating thermometers, each 
centigrade degree corresponds to one millime- 
tre in the height of this mercury column. If 
the instrument is now cooled through 100° C., 
that is, if the temperature is reduced again to 
0° C., the mercury column will of course fall 
100 millimetres; and therefore if cooled 878° 
C., that is, 273° below the centigrade zero, the 
tension should become nothing. Or if, accord- 
ing to our mode of estimating temperature by 
the air thermometer, we define a centrigrade 
degree as a difference of temperature, which at 
any part of the scale determines in a confined 
mass of gas a difference of tension equal to 544 
of the tension at the temperature of melting 
ice, then the absolute zero of heat is at —278° 
on the scale so defined. Such a definition, 
however, gives us no positive knowledge of 
the relations of the absolute zero to natural 
phenomena, as a simple consideration will 
show.—Starting from the self-evident proposi- 
tion that the quantity of heat liberated by 
burning fuel under constant conditions is pro- 
portional to the amount of fuel burned, we may 
use the weight of some combustible of con- 
stant nature, like hydrogen, as a measure of 
quantities of heat. Now taking the case we 
have assumed of a confined mass of air having 
a tension of 237 millimetres at the temperature 
of melting ice, we can say in general that, so 
far as accurate observations have been made, 
equal increments of heat measured by the fuel 
standard cause equal increments of tension, and 
equal decrements of heat equal decrements of 
tension. Moreover, it would be possible in a 
given case to calculate from experimental data, 
at least approximately, the amount of combus- 
tible which would be required to increase the 
tension of a confined mass of air one milli- 
metre; and the theory of the air thermometer, 
our standard of temperatures, is based on the 
conclusion that twice this amount of combus- 


tible would increase the tension two milli-— 


711 


metres, three times the amount three millime- 
tres, and so on. If this is true indefinitely, 
and if the tension actually increases or dimin- 
ishes by a constant quantity, through all parts 
of the scale, on the addition or subtraction of 
the same quantity of heat (measured by the 
fuel standard), then we have real knowledge 
of the relations of the absolute zero. We can 
say of a mass of matter that it contains as 
much heat as would be generated by burning 
a given weight of hydrogen gas, and that if 
this limited amount of heat were removed its 
temperature would be reduced to absolute 
zero. But unfortunately the accurate experi- 
ments on the expansion of gases by heat have 
been confined within such narrow limits of 
temperature, and our means of connecting the 
observed effects with the amount of fuel burned, 
the only legitimate measure of thermal differ- 
ences, are so indirect, that we must generalize 
very cautiously; and it is possible that the 
law to which our observations appear to point 
would totally fail when the differences of tem- 
perature became extreme. Still there are 
several independent phenomena which seem to 
confirm this law, and indicate that the absolute 
zero, as defined above, is a reality and not an 
assumption. But even as an assumption the 
absolute zero is on many accounts a more con- 
venient point to count from than the tem- 
perature of melting ice. By adding 278° to 
temperatures expressed in centigrade degrees, 
we obtain what we may call the absolute 
temperature; and we find by experiment, as 
our theory requires, that the tension of a con- 
fined mass of any gas is proportional to the 
absolute temperature thus expressed. This is 
a modern way of expressing the law discov- 
ered by Charles that equal changes of tempera- 
ture cause the same relative changes of volume 
or tension in all aériform bodies. Thus it is 
that the molecular theory explains, and indeed 
predicts, the mechanical condition of aériform 
bodies. We have only been able to give the 
general features of the reasoning. The mathe- 
matical demonstration of the several theorems 
is based on a beautiful application of the doc- 
trine of averages in the calculus of probabil- 
ities, and for this we must refer the mathemat- 
ical reader to the classical works of Clausius. 
—Let us next consider some of the qualities 
or relations of molecules of different kinds, 
which can be deduced by a similar course of 
reasoning. In the first place, it is evident that 
if equal volumes of two gases contain the same 
number of molecules, the relative weights of 
these molecules must be the same as the rela- 
tive weights of the equal gas volumes. Thus, 
a cubic centimetre of oxygen weighs 16 times 
as much as a cubic centimetre of hydrogen 
under the same conditions; and if there is in 
each cubic centimetre the same number of mo- 
lecules, each molecule of oxygen must weigh 
16 times as much as each molecule of hydro- 
gen. In general, the number which expresses 
the specific gravity of a gas with reference to 


712 


hydrogen, expresses also the weight of a mole- 
cule of that substance with reference to the 
hydrogen molecule. It must be remembered 
moreover that as the molecule of hydrogen is 
a definite mass, its weight must be a definite 
quantity, however small, and may therefore be 
used as a standard of weight like a grain or a 
gramme. When therefore we determine the 
specific gravity of a gas with reference to hy- 
drogen, we thereby determine the weight of a 
molecule of that aériform substance in terms 
of this molecular unit. For reasons based on 
chemical relations we have actually adopted as 
the unit of molecular weight one half of a 
hydrogen molecule, which we call a hydrogen 
atom; and hence in the system in use the mo- 
lecular weight of a substance is equal to twice 
its specific gravity in the state of gas referred 
to hydrogen. As this unit of molecular weight, 
although a magnitude of a very different order, 
is as definite a mass of matter as a grain or a 
gramme, we shall aid our conceptions by giv- 
ing to it a definite name; and since the mass 
of a cubic decimetre of hydrogen has been 
called a crith, the word microcrith will suggest 
both the nature of the molecular unit and the 
order of its magnitude. Remembering then 
that the microcrith is the weight of the hydro- 
gen atom, and that this is one half of the hy- 
drogen molecule, we shall be understood when 
for the future we estimate molecular weights 
in microcriths. In the second place, it is evi- 
dent that the known pressure which a gas 
exerts against the sides of the containing ves- 
sel gives data from which we can calculate the 
mean velocity of the molecular motion under 
determinate conditions. Consider for exam- 
ple a cubic metre of hydrogen gas at the tem- 
perature of melting ice and under a pressure 
of one atmosphere. This aériform mass weighs 
0°08954 of a kilogramme, and exerts a pressure 
of 10,332°96 kilogrammes against each face of 
the cubic enclosure. This pressure balances 
the molecular bombardment, and the momen- 
tum of the bombardment thus resisted during 
one second must be equal to that which the 
pressure would produce during the same period 
if acting on a mass of matter free to move. 
If the force of gravity at the place of observa- 
tion imparts to one kilogramme of matter a 
velocity of 9°8088 metres a second, then this 
momentum must be equal to 9°8088 x 10,332°96 
=101,354. To find the momentum of the mo- 
lecular bombardment against the cube face, we 
must conceive of the mass of hydrogen divi- 
ded by planes parallel to the face in question 
into very thin sections, which are not thicker 
than the length of the mean path of a mole- 
cule, and between which the motion may be re- 
garded as uniform. Let V represent the mean 
velocity of the molecules, moving of course 
in all directions, and w one of the components 
of this velocity resolved perpendicularly to 
the face of the cube we are considering, and 
estimated of course as sO many metres a sec- 
ond. Limiting our attention to this compo- 


MOLECULE 


nent, it is evident that we may regard the 
whole number of the hydrogen molecules with- 
in the enclosure as moving at any instant with 
the mean velocity « on lines normal to the face 
of the cube we are considering, and directed 
either toward this face or its opposite; and, 
since equilibrium is maintained, it is evident 
that the two opposite molecular volleys must 
be equal to each other. It it also further 
evident that the pressure against the face of 
the cube must be the sum of these two mo- 
lecular streams, that from the face as well as 
that toward it. If the molecules moved only 
one metre each second, it is manifest that each 
molecule would on the average move through 
the length of the cube in a second, were it not 
that the direction of its motion is continually 
being altered by collision with other molecules. 
But although the path of any one molecule may 
be very short, yet, as the molecules perfectly 
transmit their motion at each collision, and as 
the motion is always carried forward by a series 
of perfectly similar masses, the result is the 
same as if the same one had moved through the 
whole distance. There is therefore constantly 
passing between the small sections we have 
assumed, and also beating against the opposite 
faces of the cube, the same number of mole- 
cules as if the two streams were continuous. If 
the velocity were only a metre a second, there 
must pass every section in one or the other 
direction, and beat against one or the other of 
the two opposite faces of the cube during each 
second, a number of molecules, which we will 
represent by n, equal to the whole number of 
molecules in the cube; and since the velocity 
we are considering is w, the number of mole- 
cules thus passing on striking must be nw. If 
now m represents the weight of each mole- 
cule, then the total momentum resisted by the 
cube face each second must be mnu?, which 
is equal, as we have before seen, to 101,354. 
But in the expression mnu?=101,354 the value 
mn is simply the weight of the cubic metre 
of hydrogen at the temperature of melting 
ice and at a pressure of one atmosphere, or 
0:08954 of a kilogramme; so that w?=101,3854 
-0°08954=1,131,940. It must be remem- 
bered, however, that w is only one of the com- 
ponents of the molecular velocity, that per- 
pendicular to one pair of the cube faces; and 
in order to determine the actual velocity, V, 
we must take into consideration the other two 
components, which are normal to the other 
two pairs of the cube faces; for V?=w?+ 
v’?+w*, Now, although the values of these 
components for individual molecules may vary 
between the widest limits, yet their average 
values must be equal; for otherwise the pres- 
sure of the gas could not be, as it is, equal in 
the directions of these components. If then 
our letters represent these average values, V? 
=3u?=3,395,820, and V=1,843 metres a sec- 
ond. The absolute velocity of the hydrogen 
molecules being now known at the tempera- 
ture of melting ice, we can readily calculate 


MOLECULE 


the velocity for any other temperature. For 
if the temperatures are estimated on the abso- 
lute scale, we have, as has been shown, T: T’ 
= tmV*:4mV"”, and hence V: V’=/yT: yT’. 
For example, the velocity of the hydrogen 
molecules at the temperature of boiling water 
would be found by the proportion 1,848 : V’ 
= 7273 : 73738. Knowing now the velocity 
of the hydrogen molecule at any temperature, 
we can find the velocity of every other mole- 
cule whose molecular weight is known. Since 
for any given temperature $mV’=}m'V", we 
have V: V’/=ym': Ym. For the oxygen 
molecules which weigh 32 microcriths we have 
at the temperature of melting ice 1,843 : V’= 
732: 72, and V’=461 metres a second. The 
velocity of the molecules of the heavier gases 
is still less, but in all cases it is very great as 
compared with that obtained with projectiles. 
—The weight and velocity of the molecules of 
different gases are known with great precision, 
because the data from which they have been 
calculated are very well determined. But the 
molecular relations we have next to consider 
cannot be ascertained with the same accuracy, 
and must be regarded as only rough approxi- 
mations. Morever, the methods by which 
they have been calculated cannot be described 
in a few words, and we can therefore only 
state here the general results. As we have 
’ shown, the molecules of a gas are flying about 
in all directions with great velocity ; those of 
the air, for example, about 17 miles a minute. 
Could we by any means turn into one direc- 
tion the actual motion in the molecules of what 
we call still air, this air would at once become 
a wind blowing 17 miles a minute, and exerting 
a destructive power compared with which that 
of the most violent tornado is feeble. We are 
unconscious of the molecular storm which is 
constantly beating around us only because it 
beats equally in all directions at once. Ob- 
viously, however, an immense number of small 
masses of matter cannot be flying in every 
possible direction without constantly striking 
each other, and every time two molecules come 
into collision the paths of both are changed, 
and frequently reversed ; so that although they 
move with such great velocity they make very 
slow progress. When a jar of ammonia gas, 
for example, is opened in a lecture room, a 
sensible time elapses before its pungent odor 
is perceived even at a distance of a few feet, 
and a long time passes before it reaches the 
distant end of the hall. Nevertheless, the 
molecules of ammonia at the ordinary tempera- 
ture move over 20 miles a minute, and would 
flash over the hall were they not jostled about 
by the molecules of air. Still, although the 
process is a slow one, the gas does diffuse itself 
through the air, and we can easily devise ex- 
periments to test the rate of progress. The 
phenomena of which our illustration is a single 
example are among the most instructive effects 
of molecular motion, and under the name dif- 
fusion of gases they have long been studied. 


713 


It was discovered by the late Dr. Graham that 
two gases diffuse through each other at: rates 
which are inversely proportional to the square 
roots of their densities, and this empirical law 
strongly confirms the molecular theory; for, as 
we have seen, the molecular velocities, which 
must determine the relative rates of diffusion, 
are also proportional to the square roots of the 
densities. More recently the diffusion of gases 
has been studied by Loschmidt of Vienna, who 
measured the absolute as well as the relative 
rates. He placed the two gases in similar por- 
tions of the same vertical tube, the lighter over 
the heavier, and after allowing them to diffuse 
during an observed time closed a sliding valve 
which divided the two portions, and then by 
chemical analysis determined the amount of 
gas which had passed in the two directions. 
According to our theory, the molecules of still 
air must also travel from place to place in the 
same halting manner as the gases; only we 
have not the means of noting their progress. 
Nevertheless, by communicating momentum or 
heat to one portion of a mass of air, under 
such conditions as to avoid the effect of cur- 
rents, and observing the rates at which the 
momentum or heat spread by means of phe- 
nomena depending on these effects, we obtain 
data by which we can estimate approximately 
the travelling power of the molecules. Such 
phenomena depend on modes of diffusion, and 
Maxwell distinguishes between what he terms 
the diffusion of mass, the diffusion of momen- 
tum, and the diffusion of energy. Taking then 
into consideration the obvious principle that 
the greater the velocity of the molecules and 
the longer their path between successive colli- 
sions the faster they must travel, and remem- 
bering that we know the velocity of their actual 
motion, it can readily be seen that experiments 
on the three kinds of diffusion would give us 
the means of calculating what Clausius calls the 
mean path of a molecule, that is, the average 
distance travelled by a molecule between one 
collision and another; and further, that from 
the velocity and mean path we can estimate the 
number of collisions in asecond. Of course the 
mean path varies for different molecules and 
under different conditions. That these paths 
should be very short we should expect, but our 
calculations surprise us by showing that they are 
of the same order of magnitude as the waves 
of light, and that the number of collisions in a 
second is to be numbered by thousands of mil- 
lions. No wonder that although the molecules 
move so swiftly, they make so little progress. 
—d<As has already been said, the phenomena at- 
tending the condensation of a gas to a liquid 
have the appearance of the crowding togeth- 
er of hard masses, and suggest the conception 
that in the liquid state the molecules are as 
near together as when they come into col- 
lision in the state of gas. If this conception 
is accurate, the specific gravity of a liquid is 
the specific gravity of its molecules, and the 
diameter of a molecule is the distance between 


714 MOLECULE 


the centres of two adjacent masses in the liquid 
state. It is generally assumed that the per- 
fect elasticity of the molecules results from an 
elastic atmosphere, perhaps the ether, which 
surrounds them, and in a gas we distinguish 
between what we call the free path of the mo- 
lecule and that portion of its motion during 
which the path is changed by collision; and 
the principal difference between a gas and a 
liquid seems to be, that while in a gas the 
molecules are almost all the time on the 
wing, in a liquid they are always in a state 
of close encounter with each other, and have 
hardly any free path. When therefore we 
define the diameter of a molecule as the dis- 
tance between the centres of two adjacent 
molecules in the liquid state, we of course in- 
clude the molecular atmosphere, or at least so 
much of it as produces an appreciable effect in 
the collision. If then we thus define the diam- 
eter of a molecule, it is evident that we can 
determine the relative diameters of molecules 
of different substances by comparing their 
densities in the aériform and liquid states. 
For the densities of the gases give us the rela- 
tive weights of these molecules, and the den- 
sities of the liquids the weights of the unit 
volume of the liquids. Hence, by dividing the 
latter by the former, we learn the relative 
number of molecules in these equal volumes, 
and from this we at once deduce the relative 
volumes of the molecules and their relative 
diameters. Moreover, as these results agree 
very remarkably with those obtained by other 
means, we feel great confidence in the assump- 
tion on which they are based; and if our 
knowledge in regard to them is not precise, it 
is at least approximate.-—We next come to a 
class of molecular data of which our knowl- 
edge is not only not precise, but not even defi- 
nite, and whose assigned values can only be 
regarded as probable conjectures. Loschmidt 
has deduced from the principles of molecular 
mechanics the following theorem: ‘As the 
volume of a gas is to the combined volume of 
all the molecules contained in it, so is the mean 
path of a molecule to one eighth of its diam- 
eter.” Since we know at least approximately 
the other three quantities, we ought to be able 
by this proportion to calculate the absolute 
molecular diameters. Accordingly, Maxwell 
has calculated from Loschmidt’s data that ‘‘the 
size of the molecules of hydrogen is such that 
two million of them in a row would occupy a 
millimetre, and a million million million mil- 
lion of them would weigh between four and 
five grammes ;” and further, that “in a cubic 
centimetre of any gas at standard pressure and 
temperature there are about 19 million million 
million molecules.” Striking as these results 
are, they depend on so many uncertain elements 
that they must be accepted with caution. Still 
it should be added that from several wholly 
independent data, such as the lengths of lumi- 
nous waves, the thickness of soap bubbles, and 
the electric properties of metals, Sir William 


Thomson has deduced values of the molecular 
magnitudes which are consistent with the num- 
bers just given, and has proved that these mag- 
nitudes must fall within certain limits, which, 
though too wide to secure entire confidence in 
his methods, at least fix the order of the mag- 
nitudes.—In preparing this article we have 
been greatly indebted to the lecture on mole- 
cules delivered before the British association 
at Bradford in September, 1873, by Prof. Max- 
well, and to sum up what we have said of 
the physical relations of molecules we repro- 
duce from this lecture the table of molecular 
magnitudes, in which the values are classed ac- 
cording to the completeness of our knowledge 


in regard to them: | 


TABLE OF MOLECULAR DATA. 


RANK I. 
H-IF O=O0 C=O C20, 

Mass of molecule, in micro- | 2: 
righ chic, deci he cals Soe ( 2 he 4 ne 


square), in metres a sec- 465 497 896 


Velocity at 0° C. (from mean 
1859 
ONG Seg. ofa. sees os 


RANK ITI. 


Mean path, in (10)-1° of a ~ A 
MORN Mabe. Garo eA gros fay 560 454 819 


Collisions in a second, in re 
erties Rett F (17750 7646 9489 9720 


RANK Til. 


Diameter, in (10) 19 me- 3 : f k 
EYPeS pete ctinaett reee t ss Si Oe acs vi 
Mass, in(10)-25 ofagramme 46 736 644 1012 
Number of molecules in 
one cubic centimetre of; 19 million million millions, or 
any gas under normal TOL OL? 
conditions sett. leet. 


‘These considerations will show how definite 
the idea of the molecule has become in the 
mind of the physicist. It is no longer a meta- 
physical abstraction, but a reality about which 
he reasons as confidently and as successfully as 
he does about the planets. He no longer con- 
nects with this term the ideas of infinite hard- 
ness, absolute rigidity, and other incredible as- 
sumptions which have brought the idea of a 
limited divisibility into disrepute. His mole- 
cules are definite masses of matter, exceedingly 
small but still not immeasurable; and they 
are the points of application to which he traces 
the action of the forces with which he has to 
deal. These molecules are to the physicist 
real magnitudes, which are no further removed 
from our ordinary experience on the one side 
than are the magnitudes of astronomy on the 
other. The old metaphysical question in re- 
gard to the infinite divisibility of matter, which 
was such a subject of controversy in the last 
century, has nothing to do with the present: 
conception. Were we small enough to be able 
to grasp the molecules, we might be able to 
split them, and so were we large enough we 
might be able to crack the earth; but we have 
made sufficient advance since the days of the 
old controversy to know that questions of this 
sort, in the present state of knowledge, are 
both irrelevant and absurd. The geologist 


MOLECULE 


tears the earth to pieces, and so does the 
chemist deal with the molecules; but to the 
astronomer the earth is a unit, and so is the 
molecule to the physicist. ‘The word molecule, 
which means simply a small mass of matter, 
expresses our modern conception far better 
than the old word atom, which is derived from 
the Greek a privative and réuvo, and means 
therefore indivisible. In the paper just re- 
ferred to, Sir W. Thomson used the word 
atom in the sense of molecule, and this con- 
fusion of the two terms is still common. We 
shall give to the word atom an utterly differ- 
ent signification, which we must be careful not 
to confound with that of molecule. In our 
modern chemistry the two terms stand for 
wholly different ideas, and, as we shall see, the 
atom is the unit of the chemist in the same 
sense that the molecule is the unit of the phys- 
icist.” (The writer of this article, in ‘The 
New Chemistry,” page 35, New York, 1874.) 
—The chemist studies the molecular theory 
from a point of view quite different from that 
of the physicist. To the physicist the mole- 
cules are the points of application of those 
forces which determine or modify the physical 
condition of bodies, and he defines molecules 
as the small particles of matter which under 
the influence of these forces act as units. To 
the chemist, on the other hand, the molecules 
determine those differences which distinguish 
substances. Sugar, for example, has the qual- 
ities which we associate with that name, be- 
cause it is an aggregate of molecules which 
have those qualities. Divide up a lump of 
sugar as small as you please: the smallest mass 
that you can recognize still has the qualities of 
sugar; and so it must be if you continue the 
division down to the molecules; and so is it 
with every substance. It is the molecules in 
which the qualities inhere. Hence the chem- 
ist’s definition of a molecule: The smallest 
particles of a substance in which its qualities 
inhere. By no physical process, that is, by no 
process which leaves the qualities of a sub- 
stance essentially unchanged, is subdivision 
carried beyond the molecules. The molecules 
can however be divided, but by the division 
you destroy the substance; new substances 
result, and you have what is called a chemical 
process. The distinguishing feature of a chem- 
ical change is simply this: From one or more 
substances one or more new substances are 
produced, and according to the molecular the- 
ory these changes depend on the reciprocal 
action of different kinds of molecules on each 
other. The molecules become subdivided, and 
new molecules are formed by a new grouping 
of the fragments. And here chemistry comes 
in to substantiate the molecular theory with 
most important evidence. If in a chemical 
change the reaction takes place between mole- 
cules, then we should expect that the weights 
of the substances involved in the process would 
bear some simple relation to the weights of 
their molecules, as determined by physical 


715 


methods. Now this is exactly what we find to 
be true. It is the great law of chemistry that 
in every chemical process definite proportions 
are preserved between the weights both of the 
factors and of the products of the change; and 
wherever observation is possible it has been 
found that these weights bear a simple relation 
to the specific gravities of the substances in the 
state of gas, which, as will be remembered, are 
the measures of the molecular weights of these 
substances. A few examples will illustrate 
this point. When hydrochloric acid gas com- 
bines with ammonia to form ammonic chloride 
(sal ammoniac), 36:5 parts by weight of the 
former unite with 17 parts of the latter. Now 
the specific gravities of these two gases with 
reference to hydrogen are by observation 
18°32 and 8°53 respectively, and the molecular 
weights 36°5 and 17 microcriths, very nearly. 
When water is decomposed, 9 parts by weight 
of water yield 8 parts of oxygen gas and 1 
part of hydrogen. ‘The specific gravities of 
the several substances in the state of gas are 
(by observation) 8°98, 15°95, and 1, and the 
weights of the molecules therefore 18, 82, and 
2 microcriths, very nearly. Examples like 
these might be multiplied indefinitely. The 
relation is very simple. The chemical pro- 
portions are always very nearly either as 
the molecular weights, deduced from the gas 
densities, or as some simple whole multiples 
of these weights; a fact which wonderfully 
confirms the molecular theory.--But it may 
be asked, why is not the relation just de- 
scribed absolute? First, because a certain 
amount of error of observation is inherent in 
all measurement, and the determinations of gas 
densities are peculiarly exposed to errors of 
this kind; and secondly, and chiefly, because 
the vapors, on which we mostly experiment, 
are not in the condition of perfect gases. They 
do not perfectly obey the law of Mariotte, 
and, as the molecular theory shows, it is only 
when they exactly obey this law that they 
contain the same number of molecules in the 
unit volume, and that their densities are the 
measures of their molecular weights. In the 
case of a few perfect gases the agreement be- 
tween the two classes of observations is very 
close; but with most vapors, especially when 
near the point of condensation to liquids, we 
can only expect to find an approximation. It 
is evident moreover that the definite propor- 
tions of chemistry, which can be weighed with 
the greatest accuracy, are a far more exact 
measure of the molecular weights than the gas 
densities. Of course we cannot tell from these 
proportions alone whether they are the ratios 
between the weights of equal or of multiple 
numbers of molecules; but here the gas den- 
sities come to our aid, and fix approximately 
the values of the molecular weights, which we 
need only correct by the chemical evidence. 
When, as is most frequently the case, the 
substances with which we are dealing are in- 
capable of existing in the state of gas, we 


716 MOLECULE 


are obliged to depend wholly on the combi- 
ning proportions for fixing their molecular 
weights; but although in such cases we have 
various chemical means of controlling our re- 
sults, we are frequently in danger of assigning 
multiple values.—Chemistry has shown that 
all matter is composed of one or more of 64 
substances, which we call elementary sub- 
stances or chemical elements, because as yet 
they have not been decomposed; and by the 
processes of chemical analysis we are able to 
determine with great accuracy the relative pro- 
portions of each element which a compound 
may contain. Moreover, as the masses are 
aggregates of perfectly similar molecules, it is 
evident that in analyzing a substance we an- 
alyze also its molecules; and that when we 
learn, for example, that water, in every hun- 
dred parts, contains 88°89 parts of oxygen and 
11°11 parts of hydrogen, we know that every 
molecule of water must consist of the same 
elements in the same proportions. The follow- 
ing tables contain lists of volatile compounds 
of four elementary substances. Opposite to the 
name of each substance is, first, the weight of 
its molecule in microcriths, and secondly, the 
amount in each molecule of the elementary 
substance common to the list. The molecular 
weights are deduced primarily from the gas or 
vapor densities, but are corrected by the known 
combining proportions of the compounds. The 
amount of the elementary substance which 
each molecule contains is calculated from the 
results of chemical analysis. 


Atomic Weight of Carbon. 


NAMES OF COMPOUNDS 4 Weight of carbon 
OF CARBON. Pi siehh cs pohcoai: in molecule. 
Marsh Pas. sect crs 16 m.ec LZ mec 
Oletiant: gasin A. dace 280 Pest D4 aes 
Propylic alcohol......... COAmS ON) mes 
Hither 5. ies oe sce nha re ie 48% 
Amylic’aleohols; os... <. 83 ie 6o 
Triethylstibine.......... 209 aires 12) mee 
40) 0X6) Brae ay caer eo 93 S4 ss 
Oil of wintergreen....... apy Pe OG 
WumMolenMe.wceeatate on L20Re LOS: 785 
Oil of turpentine........ 13 de nea 
AMY DENZOLE eis 6 cece ee 145.45 Ape 9 
Diphenylamine.......... LOU nema. 14475. 


Atomic Weight of Hydrogen. 


NAMES OF COMPOUNDS : Weight of hydrogen 
OF HYDROGEN. Lilet a Sel cadens] LEE Gebel 
Hydrochloric acid....... 86°5 m.c. mec 
Hydrobromic acid....... 1 Lay! 
Hy driodiciacid: .2)- 2)... 128 Me 1a) fe 
Hydrocyanic acid........ 27 ie ibs gy 
Wrateriinstithmsce ne sib os 18 & 21s 
Hydric sulphide......... 3 s Bee 
Hydric selenide......... ealeiay De ae 
Formic acidyaccn enue: 46 grates 
Ammonia gas. ......... 17 . Siuee 
Hydric phosphide....... 34 b Bs 
Hydric arsenide......... 73 oe Soe 
Acetic acid ti 24). Wen. ¢ 60 we Ait’ 
QOlefiantigas:- sees ae 28 i" 24 eae 
Marsh @aS.~;27 400 seer 16 es a 
Alcohol.) oaa.tee ane ae 46 ce iG 
Hither. 2prrik. < Seinaele teres 74 t LOU ate 
Hydrogen gas,.......... 2 ot Phe oe 


Atomic Weight of Oxygen. 


NAMES OF COMPOUNDS : Weight of oxygen 
OF OXYGEN. Weight of molecule, in cae 
Watersc: Soe: nena 18 m.¢, 16 m.c 
Carbonic oxide.......... veh Des aM 2 oh 
Nitric Oxid6 2.3. eee ee SO seas 16iea% 
Alcohol, .scpvnteocee genes 46 45% nae, Os 
Either’, .:-\:\tune ste comet ic: Se 167 
Carbonic dioxide........ 44° # Sy 
INitrie. dioxideiyysce mere 46, # S2itrect 
Sulphurous dioxide..... 645 325 ake 
Acetic acid. neneeeee Ca aes CM 
Sulphuric trioxide....... SOs tt 43 ‘ 
Methylic. borate......... 104, , 484. 1 
Ethytie borates... «sre a. 146 =“ 48% 
Ethylic silicate.......... PAV 64 
Osmic tetroxide......... 268°2 * 64 
OXY Peni Pas anc eee ete og OZ 


Atomic Weight of Chlorine. 


NAMES OF COMPOUNDS 
OF CHLORINE. 


Weight of chlorine 


Weight of molecule. ; 
in molecule, 


Hydrochloric acid....... 86°5 m.c. 85°5 m.¢, 
Acetylic chloride......... (hota 9 85°5 
Ethylic chloride......... 64°) oe SOLD m pce 
Phosgene gas .......... ue He 71 oo 
Dicarbonic dichloride.... 95 ef 71 oe 
Chromic oxychloride....| 155°2 “ vel Us 
Arsenious chloride...... TSico woes 106-5 40 
Boric chloride........... ai W Stee led 106; De 
Phosphorous chloride... . STO re 106-5 
Carbonic tetrachloride... 154 eet NE 142 st 
Dicarbonic tetrachloride. 166 es 142 J 
Silicic chloride .......... 70 Be 142 st 
Tantalic chloride........ 859°4  * Wiis Gn 
Columbic chloride....... Tl aie Bingen ee: 
Aluminic chloride....... 261-3" 218 “ 
Dicarbonie hexachloride. 287 et 213 ae 
“a t3 
Chlorine leas cst cee cae 71 ce 71 we 


An inspection of these tables will reveal one of 
the most remarkable facts in the whole range 
of physical science. The molecules of the 
compounds of any element. always contain 
quantities of that element, which are simple 
whole multiples of a definite mass; and this 
mass, which is the smallest quantity of an ele- 
ment found in the molecules of any of its 
compounds, is what we call the atom of that 
element. Thus the atoms of the four elements 
oxygen, chlorine, carbon, and hydrogen weigh 
respectively 16, 85°5, 12, and 1 microcriths 
respectively. It will be noticed that this defi- 
nition does not necessarily imply that the 
atoms are isolated masses like the molecules. 
When water is decomposed, two substances, 
which we call oxygen and hydrogen, are evolved 
from the aqueous mass, and from each mole- 
cule of water there must be evolved by the 
chemical processes the quantities of these ele- 
mentary substances which we call one atom of 
oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen. Whether 
now these masses preéxisted in the molecule, 
or are formed from it by some unknown and 
unconceived transformation of its substance, 
is a question about which we can only specu- 
late. Nevertheless these atoms are definite 
and invariable quantities whether preéxisting 
as isolated masses in the molecules or not; and 
the only theory which has been advanced that 


| gives an intelligible explanation of the facts 


MOLECULE 


assumes that the atoms are not only invariable 
quantities, but definite bodies, and that the 
molecules are congeries of atoms, except, of 
course, in those cases where the molecules 
consist of a single atom. The atom is the 
unit of the chemist in the same sense that the 
molecule is the unit of the physicist; and as 
the molecules are the limits which the sub- 
division of matter reaches in any physical pro- 
cess, so what we now regard as atoms are the 
limits of the subdivision in any known chem- 
ical process. The word atom, by which we 
designate these units of chemistry and which 
we have inherited from the past, is in some 
respects an unfortunate term, because its ety- 
mology suggests conceptions which are no 
longer associated with the small masses it des- 
ignates. Although our chemical atoms have 
never as yet been divided, we do not regard 
them as necessarily indivisible. The atom of 
oxygen for example, weighing 16 microcriths, 
is simply the smallest quantity of this elemen- 
tary substance known to exist in a molecule 
of any of its compounds. It is by no means 
impossible that a compound of oxygen may 
be discovered whose molecule contains only 
8 microcriths of the element; or in other 
words, that what we now call an oxygen atom 
may be divided, just as it is possible that the 
elementary substance may be decomposed; for 
the chemical atom, like the chemical element, 
is such only provisionally.—The distinction 
between atom and molecule is preserved in 
chemistry by the system of chemical symbols. 
The Latin initials which are used as the sym- 
bols of the chemical elements represent in 
every case one atom of the elementary sub- 
stance, and the groups of these letters which 
are used as the symbols of chemical compounds 
stand in each case for one molecule of the 
compound. Thus O stands for one atom or 
16 microcriths of oxygen, C for one atom or 
12 microcriths of carbon, and H for one atom 
or one microcrith of hydrogen; H.O for one 
molecule of water, C2HeO for one molecule 
of alcohol, C2H.,O2 for one molecule of acetic 
acid. The figures below the symbol indicate 
the number of atoms of the corresponding ele- 
ment in the molecule, and the weight of the 
molecule is obviously the sum of the weights 
of the atoms which the symbols represent. 
For example, the weights of the molecules of 
water, alcohol, and acetic acid are 18, 46, and 
60 microcriths respectively. Several molecules 
of a compound may be indicated by placing 
figures before the group of symbols like an 
algebraic coefficient: thus 3H:O stands for 
three molecules of water, and 4C:H.O. for 
four molecules of acetic acid. In order to 
determine the symbol of a molecule, we must 
know in the first place the molecular weight, 
and in the second place the percentage of com- 
position. The molecular weight, as we have 
seen, is found approximately from the gas or 
vapor density, and corrected by the combining 
proportions of the substance. The percentage 


717 


composition is determined by a quantitative 
chemical analysis, As an example, suppose 
we wished to determine the symbol of butyric 
acid. The specific gravity of the vapor of this 
volatile compound was determined by Cahours 
and found to be 44°38, hydrogen gas being 
unity. Hence the molecular weight would be 
88°6 microcriths, but the combining propor- 
tions of the acid deduced from analyses of its 
salts prove that the more accurate value is 
88 m. c. An analysis of the acid published 
by Griinzweig gives the following percentage 
composition, and from this we easily calculate 
the amount of each element in 88 m. c. or 
one molecule: 


: “vf Number of 
Analysis of | Composition of 7 a Ae - 
ELEMENTS. butyric acid.| one molecule. Atomic weight. atcms in one 
molecule, 
Carbon....| 54°51 [4797 me=| 12x | 4 
Hydrogen..| 9°26 ope eae 1x 8 
Oxygen...| 86°28 |81°88 “= 16x 2 
100-00 88 ne 


Evidently in the molecule there are 4 atoms 
of carbon, 8 atoms of hydrogen, and 2 atoms 
of oxgen, and the symbol is therefore CyHsO2. 
Thus we can fix the symbols of all volatile 
bodies. If the substance is non-volatile, we 
rely primarily on the combining proportion to 
fix the molecular weight, and, as has been said, 
there is frequently danger of assigning mul- 
tiple values. But as a general rule the chem- 
ical relations of the substance enable us to de- 
termine which of the possible multiples should 
be taken; and if these leave us in doubt, we 
adopt provisionally as the symbol of the mo- 
lecule that multiple which has the smallest 
number of whole atoms, and wait for the pro- 
gress of science to correct any error. But 
even after weighing the molecules and deter- 
mining the number and kind of atoms of 
which they consist, chemistry has gone for- 
ward still further in developing the molecular 
theory, and has discovered a large and impor- 
tant class of phenomena, which it refers to dif- 
ferences of arrangement in the grouping of the 
atoms of the molecules. Thus, there is a sub- 
stance called acetic ether which has the same 
molecular weight and the same percentage of 
composition as butyric acid. Its molecules 
therefore contain the same number of the same 
kind of atoms as the other. Yet the qualities 
of the two substances are utterly different, the 
acid having the disgusting smell of rancid but- 
ter and the ether the pleasant odor of apples, 
and chemistry attempts to explain this differ- 
ence by showing that the atoms are arranged 
differently in the two classes of molecules, as 
the following diagrams indicate : 


(O) 1st Use gs re i O in 
ia pr a yy | lI 
H—O—C—C—C—C—H Sr Ear tie 
| 
Hou HoH | 
Butyric acid. Acetic ether. 


718 MOLENBEEK-ST.-JEAN 


Substances so related are said to be isomeric, 
and these structural formulas, as they are 
called, so far from being vagaries of the ima- 
gination, are sober deductions from experi- 
mental evidence. It is impossible however, 
in a brief article, to render this evidence intel- 
ligible. The investigation of molecular struc- 
ture is at present the chief aim of chemistry, 
and to works on this subject the reader is 
referred for further information. 

MOLENBEEX-ST.-JEAN, a town of Belgium, 
adjoining Brussels and forming one of its sub- 
urbs; pop. in 1871, 30,974 (in 1846, 12,065). 
- It has a celebrated geographical institution 
and a museum of natural science belonging 
to Messrs. Van der Maalen. 

MOLESCHOTT, Jacob, a German physiologist, 
born in Bois-le-Duc, Holland, Aug. 9, 1822. 
He took his degree at Heidelberg in 1845, 
practised medicine at Utrecht till 1847, and 
afterward lectured at the university of Heidel- 
berg till 1854, when, having been accused of 
pantheism and of propounding precepts dan- 
‘gerous to religion and morals, he resigned. 
He accepted in 1856 a professorship in Zitirich, 
and in 1861 the chair of physiology in Turin. 
His doctrine has been popularly described as 
based upon the German saying that Der Mensch 
ist was er isst (man is what he eats), or upon 
his own formula, Ohne Phosphorus kein Ge- 
danke (no thought without phosphorus); and 
though he does not deny the existence of a 
spiritual life, he connects the origin of all spe- 
cies of animals with physical laws alone. His 
influence has greatly promoted the study of 
physiology and anthropology, and he has given 
especial attention to food and diet, the liver, the 
blood, milk, the origin of bile, and the struc- 
ture of the muscles. His principal works are: 
Lehre der Nahrungsmittel (Erlangen, 1850; 3d 
ed., 1858; English translation, ‘‘The Chemis- 
try of Food and Diet,” by Dr. E. Bonner, Lon- 
don, 1856); Physiologie der Nahrungsmittel 
(Darmstadt, 1850; 2d ed., Giessen, 1859); Der 
Kreislauf des Lebens (Mentz, 1852; 4th ed., 
1863) ; Georg Forster (Frankfort, 1854; 2d ed., 
1862); Ursache und Wirkung in der Lehre 
vom Leben (Giessen, 1867); and Von der Selbst- 
bestimmung im Leben der Menschheit (1871). 

MOLESWORTH, William Nassan, an English 
author, born at Millbrook, near Southampton, 
Nov. 8, 1816, died in April, 1877. He gradu- 
ated at Cambridge, and in 1841 became incum- 
bent of a church at Manchester, and in 1844 
vicar at Rochdale. His works include “A 
History of the Reform Bill of 1882” (London, 
1864); ‘‘A New System of Moral Philosophy,” 
and a ‘Prize Essay on Education” (1867); 
and ‘*The History of England, from the Year 
1830” (3 vols., London, 1871-’4). 

MOLFETTA (anc. espa), a fortified seaport 
town of S. Italy, on the Adriatic, in the proy- 
ince and 16 m. W.N. W. of the city of Bari; 
pop. in 1871, 26,829. It is the see of a bishop, 
and has a cathedral, several other churches, a 
college, a museum, and a castle. Linen and 


MOLIERE 


| saltpetre are manufactured, and small coasting 


vessels are built. In the vicinity are numerous 
oval caverns arranged in tiers, one of which, 
called the Pulo di Molfetta, is upward of 1,000 
ft. in circumference and 100 ft. deep. Nitre 
abounds in all the caverns, and is largely ex- 
tracted._ 

MOLIERE, the assumed name of Jean Bap- 
TISTE PoquELin, a French dramatist, born in 
Paris, Jan. 15, 1622, died there, Feb. 17, 1678. 
He was both the son and grandson of valets de 
chambre tapissiers to the king, and was himself 
destined for this trade. His grandfather occa- 
sionally took him to the hétel de Bourgogne, 
where Bellerose then acted in genteel comedy, 


-and Gauthier-Garguille and Turlupin in farce. 


Obtaining permission to engage in study, he 
went in 1637 to the Jesuit college of Clermont 
in Paris, where he remained five years. He 
enjoyed the private lessons of Gassendi, and 
was associated with the prince of Conti, after- 
ward his patron and friend, Bernier, Hesnault, 
and Chapelle. He studied law at Orleans, and 
was admitted an advocate in 1645; but his 
taste for the stage caused his return to Paris. 
The attractions of the actress Madeleine Béjart 
were reported also to have influenced his judg- 
ment. The example of Richelieu had created 
a general interest in the drama, and Poquelin 
became the head of a troupe of amateur come- 
dians, which was soon transformed into a reg- 
ular professional travelling company, known 
as Dillustre thédtre. He then assumed the 
name of Moliére. Little is known of his life 
in the provinces from 1646 to 1658, when he 
returned to Paris. He composed numerous 
imitations of Italian farces, some of which 
were the first sketches of his future comedies. 
At Bordeaux he was welcomed by the duke 
d’Epernon ; at Lyons he obtained the accession 
of Mme. Dupare and Mme. de Brie to his 
company, which already included the brothers 
and sister Béjart; and at Pezénas he was ac- 
customed to sit every Saturday in a barber’s 
shop to study the faces and conversation of 
the visitors. His first regular comedy was 
DP Etourdi, represented at Lyons in 1653, which 
by its success induced the principal members 
of a rival company to join his troupe. After 
visiting the chief cities of the south, he en- 
tered the capital under the protection of Mon- 
sieur, duke of Orleans. His performance of 
his own Docteur amoureux before the court 
and the comedians of the hétel de Bourgogne 
was so satisfactory that his company was per- 
mitted to establish itself in Paris under the 
name of the troupe de Monsieur. It became 
the troupe du roi in 1665, and subsequently 
was united with that of the hétel de Bourgogne 
to form the Théatre Francais. During the last 
15 years of his life he produced more than 
30 plays, half of which are masterpieces. He 
opened a new path in 1659 by his Précieuses 
ridicules, abandoning the traditions of the 
Italian and Spanish stage, and assailing the 
affectations encouraged in literature and soci- 


MOLIERE 


ety by coteries that ridiculously adopted the 
tone of the hétel de Rambouillet. The play 
had arun of four months. At brief intervals 
followed Sganarelle, ou le cocu imaginaire 
(1660), a somewhat scandalous farce; Don Gar- 
cie de Navarre (1661), which failed; L’ Ecole 
des maris (1661), in which the leading idea is 
borrowed from the Adelphi of Terence, and 
the character of Sganarelle attains its fullest 
development; and Les fdcheux (1661), the 
first and one of the finest examples of a comé- 
die @ tiroirs, designed to be acted in the in- 
tervals of a ballet. In 1662 he married Ar- 
mande Béjart (a sister of the actress in his 
company), whom the slanders of the time 
charged with being a daughter of his former 
mistress. This has been completely disproved 
by legal documents brought to light in 1821. 
His three next plays, L’ Lcole des femmes (1662), 
La critique de U Ecole des femmes (1668), and 
L’Impromptu de Versailles (1663), increased 
the animosity against him. The first and sec- 
ond aroused the suspicions of the religious 
party, and the third drew upon him the un- 
scrupulous assaults of the rival troupe at the 
hétel de Bourgogne. In 1664, at the brilliant 
fétes of Versailles, Moliére and his company 
contributed to the gayeties on four of the sev- 
en days. He presented La princesse d’ Hlide, 
a romantic and gorgeous play, and the first 
three acts of Zartufe, a satire on hypocrites, 
the success of which when completed was 
greatly increased by the king’s forbidding its 
representation in Paris. He treated a kin- 
dred topic in the comedy of Le festin de 
pierre (1665), which portrays the multiple char- 
acter of Don Juan. This was preceded by Le 
mariage foreé, directed against the theologi- 
ans of the Sorbonne, and followed by L’ Amour 
médecin, which began the war with the med- 
ical faculty continued by Moliére through 
life. Within the next three years followed Le 
misanthrope, which Frenchmen pronounce his 
chef deuvre, partly from its faultlessness of 
style, and partly from its portraitures of Al- 
ceste, who runs counter to the conventional 
hypocrisies of social intercourse, and of Céli- 
méne the coquette and Arsinoé the prude; Le 
médecin malgré lui, a rollicking farce, which 
had the greatest success; Amphitryon, an imi- 
tation of Plautus; Z’Avare, exhibiting in the 
character of Harpagon the comical relations 
of avarice; ard Georges Dandin, designed to 
expose the mischief resulting from ill-assorted 
marriages. His 7artufe, the greatest effort of 
his genius, was also once acted with signal 
applause at the Palais Royal, but its second 
representation was immediately forbidden, and 
within a week the archbishop had threatened 
excommunication against all who should act, 
read, or listen to it. In the period between 
the performance of Jartufe in Paris and the 
death of Moliére, the less important pieces 
which he successively produced were the farce 
of Monsieur de Pourceavgnac; the Amants 
magnifiques, in which astrology is satirized ; 
567 VOL. x1.—46 


: MOLINA 419 


the Fourberies de Scapin; and La comtesse 
a’ Escarbagnas. To this period belong Le bour- 
geois gentilhomme (1670) and Les femmes sa- 
vantes (1672), the former displaying the absurd 
conceit of plebeians in seeking the culture, man- 
ners, and acquaintance of the nobility, the lat- 
ter aimed against pretenders to taste and science. 
Moliére’s dramatic career terminated with the 
Malade imaginaire. He acted in its fourth 
representation, and returned to his chamber 
to die within an hour. A multitude of anec- 
dotes indicate his nobility, truthfulness, unos- 
tentatious kindness, and generosity. As an 
actor he attained high success by his tact and 
finesse, by dint of study and effort, despite 
physical disadvantages. He excelled in the 
most difficult parts, in those of Arnolphe, Or- 


gon, and Harpagon, and in the original and 


typical characters of Mascarille and Sganarelle. 
Though the most inventive of comic poets, 
few writers have borrowed so freely from 
others. His imitations of Italian, Spanish, 
and Latin comedies are constant and undis- 
guised, and are to be attributed to the occa- 
sional character of many of his pieces, written 
in the exigency of the moment at the com- 
mand and for the entertainment of the court. 
More than a century after his death, the French 
academy, which would have received him if 
he had consented to abandon his profession as 
a comedian, decided to admit his bust into its 
chamber with the inscription proposed by Sau- 
rin: Rien ne manque a sa gloire ; il manquait 
a@ la notre.—Among the best editions of Mo- 
liére are those of Auger (9 vols., 1819-’25), 
Aimé-Martin (8 vols., 1833-’6), Moland (Paris, 
1871), and Despois (Paris, 1874 et seg.). The 
best biographies are by Taschereau (Paris, 
1825 ; with supplement, 1827) and Bazin (1851), 
See also Moland, Moliére et la comédie italienne 
(1867), and Lindau, Moliére (Leipsic, 1872). 
MOLINA, Luis, a Spanish theologian, born in 
Cuenca in 1535, died in Madrid, Oct. 12, 1600. 
He entered the society of Jesus in early life, 
completed his philosophical and theological 
studies at Coimbra, and was professor of the- 
ology at Evora in Portugal for 20 years. 
Among his works are De Justitia et Jure (6 
vols., Cuenca, 1592, and Mentz, 1659), and 
Commentarti in Primam Partem D. Thome 
(2 vols., Cuenca, 1593). His fame rests chiefly 
on his Concordia, in which he undertook to 
reconcile the freedom of the human will with 
God’s foreknowledge and foreordination. The 
peculiar system set forth in this work, called 
scientia media, Molina derived from his Jesuit 
master Fonseca, who avowed his responsibility 
for it when it was afterward most bitterly 
denounced. The doctrine of Molina was soon 
violently assailed by the Dominicans, and it 
was even denounced to the inquisition at Val- 
ladolid. The controversy became a quarrel 
between two great religious orders, the parti- 
sans of Molina being called Molinists and their 
antagonists Thomists, from St. Thomas Aqui- 
nas, The dispute was at length brought before 


720 MOLINE 


Pope Clement VIII., and a special committee 
of cardinals was appointed by him in 1597 to 
examine into the matter. After years of dis- 
cussion they reported, and in 1609 Paul V. 
decided that both the Thomist and the Molinist 
system could be safely taught. The Jesuit 
Suarez modified Molina’s system in a sense 
opposed to free will, and inconsistent with the 
latter’s doctrine. In our own times Molina’s 
doctrine has been openly taught in Rome, and 
is in favor with many Dominicans. His famous 
book was first published with the title Libert 
Arbitrit cum Gratie Donis, Divina Prasci- 
entia, Providentia, Predestinatione et Repro- 
batione Concordia (4to, Lisbon, 1588). An 


appendix containing a defence of his system | 


appeared in 1589; and editions of the entire 
work were printed at Lyons in 1593, at Venice 
in 1594, and at Antwerp in 1595. 

MOLINE, a city of Rock Island co., Illinois, 
on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, 3 m. 
above Rock Island, and at the intersection of 
the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific, the 
Rockford, Rock Island, and St. Louis, and the 
Western Union railroads, 179 m. W. by S. of 
Chicago; pop. in 1870, 4,166.° The river is 
here divided by an island 3 m. long, and from 
16 m. above to 3 m. below the city are the 
Upper Rapids. By means of a dam immense 
water power is obtained, and employed by 
various manufactories, constantly increasing in 
number and importance. The principal estab- 
lishments are two extensive plough factories, 
a paper mill, a woollen factory, tub and bucket 
factory, wagon factories, founderies, machine 
shops, flouring mills, &c. The surrounding 
country contains extensive coal fields. The 
city has graded schools, including a high school, 
a free public library, two national banks, a 
savings bank, a weekly newspaper, and eight 
churches. It was first settled in 1832. 

MOLINISTS. See Moriya. 

MOLINOS, Miguel de, a Spanish mystic, born 
in the diocese of Saragossa in 1627, died in 
Rome, Dec. 29,1696. He studied at Pamplona 
and Coimbra, was ordained priest, and in 1669 
settled at Rome. In 1675 he published in 
Spanish a work entitled ‘‘ The Spiritual Guide,” 
which passed in a few years through 20 edi- 
tions. Its theories of a religious life, which 
obtained the name of “ quietism,” taught that 
spiritual perfection consisted in the perfect re- 
pose of all the faculties of the soul in God, 
and indifference to all the actions of the body. 
For those who attained this “fixed” or “ con- 
tinuous” state, there was no sin, and no occa- 
sion for anxiety. The ‘Spiritual Guide” was 
condemned by Pope Innocent XI. in 1687, and 
the author, after making a public recantation, 
was committed to prison, where he passed 
the rest of his life. When his papers were 
seized, 20,000 letters were found from persons 
desiring his counsel in spiritual matters. His 
doctrines were taught, in a form very much 
modified, by Mme. Guyon, and were reéchoed 
faintly in Fénelon’s ‘‘ Maxims of the Saints.” 


MOLLUSCA 


MOLIQUE, Wilhelm Bernhard, a German vio- 
linist and composer, born in Nuremberg, Oct. 
7, 1802, died in Cannstadt, May 10,1869. His 
father, who was chapelmaster, gave him his 
first lessons and taught him the use of several 
instruments. He showed a strong preference 
for the violin, and at the age of 14 was sent 
to Munich and-placed under the instruction of 
Rovelli, whom he succeeded in 1820 as first 
violinist of the court. In 1822 he made a 
concert tour through Germany, which did 
much to increase his reputation. He was con- 
cert director at Stuttgart from 1826 to 1849, 
when he went to London, and in 1861 was 
made professor of composition at the royal 
academy of music. His works are mostly for 
the violin, and are held in high esteem. He 
has also written a symphony, a mass for voices 
and orchestra, and ‘‘ Abraham,” an oratorio. 

MOLISE. See CamMposasso. 

MOLLER, Georg, a German architect, born at 
Diepholz, Hanover, Jan. 21, 1784, died March 
18, 1852. He studied in Carlsruhe and in Italy, 
and was architect of the grand ducal court 
at Darmstadt. He published in 1818 a fac- 
simile of the original design of the cathedral 
of Cologne, which he had discovered in Darm- 
stadt, and which, with an additional design 
found subsequently, is followed in the com- 
pletion of the two towers of that edifice. His 
works include many public and private build- 
ings in Darmstadt and other places, and the 
ducal palace in Wiesbaden. His principal pub- 
lications are: Denkmdler deutscher Kunst (8 
vols., Darmstadt, 1815-45); Denkmdler deut- 
scher Baukunst (1821); and Beitrage zur Con- 
structionslehre (6 numbers, 1835-’42). 

MOLLHAUSEN, Balduin, a German traveller, 
born in Bonn, Jan. 27, 1825. He came to the 
United States, in 1851 visited the Rocky moun- 
tains with Duke Paul of Wirtemberg, returned 
to Europe in 1852, and in 1853 was photog- 
rapher and draughtsman to Lieut. Whipple’s 
expedition to the Pacific. In 1857—’8 he was 
engaged in Colorado, with Lieut. Ives. Be- 
sides several novels, he has published Tage- 
buch einer Reise vom Mississippi nach der Siid- 
see (Leipsic, 1858; English translation by Mrs. 
Sinnett, 2 vols., London, 1858; 2d ed., entitled 
Wanderungen durch die Prairien und Wiisten 
des westlichen Nordamerika, 1860); Reisen in 
die Felsengebirge Nordamerikas bis zum Hoch- 
plateau von Neumexiko (2 vols., 1861); Nord 
und Sid, Hreahlungen und Schilderungen aus 
dem westlichen Nordamerika (2 vols., Jena, 
1867). 

MOLLUSCA, a branch of the invertebrate animal 
kingdom, so named from the general softness 
of the body; some of its members were first 
defined by Aristotle under the name of mala- 
kia (soft animals), of which the Latin mollusca 
and English mollusk are rude equivalents. Ou- 
vier, between 1792 and 1817, determined the 
characters and boundaries of this branch by 
investigating its anatomical structure; before 


| his time the study of the shells with which 


MOLLUSCA 


most mollusks are provided, or conchology, 
had occupied almost the exclusive attention of 
classifiers. (See Cononotoey, and Maracot- 
ogy.) The microscopic anatomy and embry- 
ology of mollusks led to the separation of cir- 
ripeds, and to their being placed among articu- 
lates in the class of crustaceans; for the same 
reason the bryozoa were taken from polyps 
and placed among acephalous mollusks, and 
since, with the brachiopods and _ ascidians, 
among articulates. The mollusca (heterogan- 
qliata of Owen) include such animals as have 
one or more nervous ganglia below the en- 
trance to the alimentary canal, from which 
radiate cords which form a collar round the 
esophagus and supply the other organs of the 
body; in the higher forms other ganglia are 
added above the cesophagus and unsymmetrical- 
ly in different parts of the body. From the sac 
which invests the body they have been called 
saccata by Prof. Hyatt. In addition to the 
writers alluded to under Matacotoey, may be 
mentioned Poli, Rathke, Savigny, Chamisso, 
Pfeiffer, Deshayes, Forbes and Hanley, Loven, 
Quatrefages, Kiener, Chenu, Chemnitz, Rang, 
Alder and Hancock, Férussac, D’Orbigny, 
Philippi, Sowerby, Johnston, Martini, Huxley, 
Eschricht, and Delle Chiaje; and in the United 
States, Say, Conrad, Lea, Couthouy, Binney, 
Adams, Jay, Haldeman, Gould, Morse, and 
Hyatt.—In mollusca the body is covered by a 
soft moist skin, in or on which a shell is usually 
secreted; many have no head distinct from the 
rest of the body; the organs of sense are com- 
paratively slightly developed, and the move- 
ments slow. Respiration is effected usually by 
gills; a heart is generally present, receiving the 
blood from the gills, and distributing it by ar- 
terial tubes; the capillaries are wanting, and 
the veins are replaced by sinuses; the blood 
is commonly whitish or whitish blue. The de- 
velopmental energies seem to have been ex- 
pended chiefly in the perfection of those organs 
concerned in the preservation of the individual 
and the species; some moilusks are hermaph- 
rodite and require mutual impregnation, and in 
others the sexes are distinct; most are ovipa- 
rous; the eggs, often connected in bunches or 
adhering to each other by a gelatinous sub- 
stance, have a thin outer shell or chorion, 
sometimes of a horny consistence. The ter- 
restrial species are few compared with those 
of fresh, and especially of salt water.—In the 
lowest class of acephala or headless mollusks, 
in the old classifications, we had the orders of 
bryozoa, tunicata, brachiopoda, and lamelli- 
branchiata. As stated under BracnioPpopa 
and Bryozoa, Prof. E. S. Morse regards the 
first of these orders as articulates, coming near 
the tubicolous worms; and there are good rea- 
sons, as there stated, for including also the 
bryozoa or polyzoa and the ascidians or tuni- 
cates among the articulates with molluscan 
affinities, which have been separated by re- 
cent authors under the division molluscoids. 
(See Moxttuscoins.) The acephalous mollusks, 


721 


the lowest of the branch, the lamellibran- 
chiata, are characterized by a right and left 
shell, enclosing a depressed body, covered on 
both sides by a layer of the mantle; the bran- 
chie are at the sides of the body, mostly 
lamellar (whence their name) and placed un- 
der each lobe of the mantle, but sometimes 
pectinated; they are generally two on each 
side, and sometimes the triangular interval be- 
tween them on the dorsal surface is used as a 
temporary deposit for the eggs. Most have 
four lamelliform tentacles, in pairs on the sides 
of the mouth; the shells are opened by an 
elastic ligament at the back, and are closed by 
one or two internal muscles, in the former 
case being called monomyaria, and in the sec- 
ond dimyaria. The heart is arterial, consist- 
ing of a ventricle and usually of two auricles, 
the former being generally traversed by the 
end of the intestine. They inhabit both salt 
and fresh water, and usually live with the back 
uppermost, resting on the ventral edge of the 
shell; the sexes are in most cases distinct, and 
may often be recognized by the shape of the 
shell; some are hermaphrodite, and the young 
are sometimes considerably different from the 
adults; they are ovoviviparous. As a rule 
there are three central nerve masses, each con- 
sisting of two lateral ganglia, of which the first 
two are always distinct from each other. The 
valves of the shell are in most of the same 
shape and size, but in some of the fixed species 
the lower is the deeper; in the oyster, the 


lower and larger is the left valve; in some the 


valves close tightly, in others they are open at 
one or both ends for the passage of the foot 
and other organs. Along a part or the whole 
of the margin of the mantle are conical cirri or 
organs of touch, and also tactile gill-like lami- 
ne around the mouth; and this class is fre- 
quently sensible of light. Some have a firm 
and muscular prolongation from the abdomen 
called the ‘“ foot,” possessing great contractil- 
ity, by means of which they move about at the 
bottom of the water; at the base of the foot in 
others is a bundle of filaments, called the bys- 
sus, secreted by a glandular tissue, and occa- 
sionally united into a common mass; a famil- 
iar example of this is seen in the common mus- 
sel (mytilus borealis, Lamarck), which attaches 
itself by its silken threads very firmly to rocks, 
shells, and seaweeds; a few, unprovided with 
a byssus, grow fast by one of the shells to sub- 
marine objects. Many of this class are entirely 
fossil, and of some genera the extinct species 
are more numerous than those now living, the 
latter being in this case usually found in the 
Indian and South Pacific oceans. Among the 
monomyarians may be mentioned the common 
oyster and the comb or scallop shell (pecten) ; 
among the dimyarians, the pearl oyster (melea- 
grina), hammer shell (malleus), wing shell ( pin- 
na), mussel (mytilus), ark shell (arca), fresh- 
water clam and mussel (wnto and anodonta), 
cockle (cardium), the great clam or bénitier 
(used in Roman Catholic churches to contain 


722 


holy water, sometimes 2 ft. wide, genus ¢r7- 
dacna, the largest of the class), the horse-foot 
clam (hippopus), the edible quahaug (venus 
mercenaria, the shell from which the wampum 
of the American Indians was made), the small 
fresh-water cyclas, the common clam (mya are- 
naria), the razor shell (solen), the pholas (pid- 
dock or stone-borer), the ship worm (teredo), 
so destructive to timber in vessels and dock- 
yards, the waterpot shells (aspergillum), and 
the club shells (clavagella). All bivalves are 
very prolific; in those which, like the oyster, 
are fixed, the sperm cells of the male are car- 
ried by the currents of the water to the cavity 
of the mantle of the female.—The remaining 
three fourths of mollusks are called encephala, 
from having a distinct head, commonly with 
eyes and tentacles, and a mouth with a com- 
plex masticatory apparatus; they have been 
divided into the classes of cephalophora (head 
bearers) and cephalopoda (with the head sur- 
rounded by the feet). The cephalophora have 
been subdivided, according to the modifications 
of the locomotive organs, into the orders of 
pteropoda, heteropoda, and gasteropoda. The 
pteropoda are so called from two wing-like 
muscular expansions from the sides of the an- 
terior part of the body, used as swimming or- 
gans, and not, according to Owen, homologous 
with the foot of gasteropods; they are small, 
marine, floating, hermaphrodite, and oviparous; 
the form is very variable, some being globular, 
others long and slender; the heart, as in the 
whole class, is arterial; the urinary sac, within 
the mantle and near the heart, communicates 
with the respiratory cavity and with the peri- 
cardial sinus, introducing water into the blood; 
some are naked, others are provided with very 
delicate shells of various forms; the eyes are 
not well developed, but the acoustic sac exists 
in all; the naked species have four tentacles, 
the testaceous ones two. In the family the- 
cosomata, the head is indistinct, and the shell 
fragile; the best known genera of this family 
are hyalea and cleodora, found in the warmer 
temperate and tropical seas; some of them 
are beautiful objects, as they swim through 
the water like butterflies in the air; one of the 
largest and finest is the H. tridentata, three 
fourths of an inch long, commonly known as 
the “chariot of Venus.” In the family gym- 
nosomata, or naked pteropods, the head is dis- 
tinct, and the fins are attached to the sides of 
the neck; it includes the genera clio and pneu- 
modermon ; of the former, the C. borealis ex- 
ists in such immense numbers in high northern 
latitudes, that it forms a chief portion of the 
food of the Greenland whale, and is hence 
called ‘whale bait” by the fishermen; it is 
hardly an inch long.—The order heteropoda 
is characterized by a compressed fin-like foot 
having a suctorial disk; the branchie are 
fringed or pinnate; the sexes are distinct. All 
are marine, and usually are rapid swimmers 
with the back downward and the foot upward; 
the foot corresponds to the anterior portion of 


MOLLUSCA 


this organ in gasteropods. They are some- 
times called nucleobranchiates, and may be di- 
vided into the families atlantide and jirolide. 
In the first family belongs the atlanta, with a 
delicate shell large enough to protect the body, 
found in great numbers in the midst of the 
tropical and temperate oceans; in these the 
foot supports the operculum. In the second 
family is placed carinaria, sometimes called 
the ‘‘glassy sailor,” which has an elongated 
body, with a very small keeled shell at the pos- 
terior part, the apex turned backward; on 
the head are two long tentacles, and two ses- 
sile eyes behind their base; the middle part of 
the foot is reduced to a compressed fin-shaped 
lobe, with a small suctorial disk, by which they 
adhere to seaweeds, &c.; their motions are 
rapid and graceful, and they inhabit the tem- 
perate and tropical waters; a small species is 
found in the Mediterranean; the shell of the C. 
vitrea, from the Indian ocean, is highly prized. 
In the genus jirola or pterotrachea there is no 
shell, and the animal is almost transparent ; 
there are two eyes, and generally no tentacles, 
but a slight fleshy proboscis; they swim or 
float free in mid ocean in great numbers, and 
also in the Mediterranean.—In the order gas- 
teropoda there is a large muscular disk for 
creeping developed from the ventral surface 
of the body (hence the name), as in the com- 
mon slugs and snails. They are usually un- 
symmetrical, the visceral portion of the body 
coiled spirally and protected by a univalve 
shell, the organs of respiration being generally 
atrophied; the shell is almost always closed 
by a calcareous, horny, or albuminous oper- 
culum. Most of them are marine, some in- 
habit fresh water, and a few are terrestrial ; 
they have been divided according to the char- 
acters of the breathing apparatus. In some 
(monecia) the male and female organs are 
in the same individual, in others (diewcia) the 
sexes are distinct; most are oviparous, but a 
few (certain snails) are ovoviviparous. In the 
water breathers the young are excluded with 
an operculated shell, which in the naked spe- 
cies is either shed or concealed by the mantle, 
and by means of ciliated fins on the sides of 
the head they move far away from their inac- 
tive parents, undergoing several metamorpho- 
ses in the process of growth; the air breath- 
ers pass through no such changes. They have 
the power of repairing injuries and of repro- 
ducing lost parts to a considerable degree. 
Among the moncecious gasteropods are the 
following five divisions: I. Apneusta, having 
no distinct respiratory organs, but in their 
place an extensive aquiferous system, and no 
shell in the adult; the body is soft and elonga- 
ted, the integument ciliated; they are marine; 
calliopwa and actewon are well known genera. 
II. Nudibranchiata, with the branchis extend- 
ing freely from various parts of the body, as 
in glaucus, doris (sea lemons), in which the 
branchiew form a plume-like circle in the mid- 
dle of the back, and eolis (sea slugs), in which 


MOLLUSCA 


they are papillose and arranged along the sides 
of the back. ILI. Jnferobranchiata, like phyl- 
lidia, in which the branchie are at the lower 
part of the sides of the body. IV. Yecetibran- 
chiata, in which the leaf-like branchiw are 
covered by the mantle and a small shell; as in 
aplysia (sea hares), formerly dreaded on ac- 
count of their strange form, and the violet 
fluid they eject when molested, in umbrella, 
and in bulla (bubble shell). V. Pulmonata, in 
which a part of the mantle cavity forms a vas- 
cular air sac or lung; most are terrestrial, and 
such as live in the water rise to the surface to 
breathe; afew are naked, but most are shell- 
bearing, without or with an operculum; in the 
inoperculated, with a well developed shell, are 
helix (snails), swecinea (amber snail), vitrina, bu- 
limus, pupa, achatina, and other land snails, the 
slugs (Wimax), land soles (arion), pond snails 
(limnea), &c.; in the operculated are cyclostoma, 
helicina, acicula, &c. In the dicecious gastero- 
pods belong the following four divisions: I. Tu- 
bulibranchiata, iw which the branchie are two, 
symmetrical, behind the heart, and enclosed 
with the other soft parts in a long shelly tube; 
as in dentalium (tooth shells). IL. Cyclobran- 
chiata, in which the branchiz are a series of 
lamella, surrounding the body between the 
foot and mantle; as the limpets (patella) used 
as food and for bait, and the sea wood-lice 
(chiton), with multivalve shell pieces like the 
carapace of articulates. III. Dentibranchiata, 
in which the branchie are plumose or pecti- 
nate, and with the body protected by a widely 
opened inoperculate shell; as in the ear shells 
(haliotis); the delicate violet shells (janthina), 
found abundantly in mid ocean, feeding upon 
the acalephan velell@, and suspended by a raft 
of air vesicles, to the under surface of which 
the egg capsules are attached ; and the jisswrel- 
la, or key-hole limpets. IV. Pectinibranchia- 
ta, in which the two comb-like branchiw are 
contained in a dorsal cavity of the mantle 
opening widely above the head; they have two 
feelers and two eyes, and a proboscis capable 
of elongation in a tube form; the females se- 
crete an albuminous matter in which the eggs 
are enveloped, a familiar example being the yel- 
low grape-like bunches of the whelk (ducci- 
num). Here belong the bonnet limpet (calyp- 
trea) and the slipper shell (erepidula) ; the top 
shells (tudo), and the pheasant shells ( phasia- 
nella); the river snails (paludina), the peri- 
winkles (ditorina), the turret shells (turritella), 
the wentletraps (scalaria), the cerithium, and 
natica; cowries (cyprea), very handsome shells, 
and one species, (. moneta, used as money on 
the W. coast of Africa; marginella, voluta, 
mitra (mitre shells); the tuns (dolium), harps 
(harpa), whelks (buccinum) ; rock shells (mu- 
rex), fig shells (pyrula), wing shells (strombus), 
the seraphs (terebellum), and numerous others. 
—The class of cephalopoda, the highest type of 
mollusks, is characterized by the locomotive 
and prehensile organs being attached to the 
head, whence they radiate in the form of mus- 


723 


cular arms and tentacles, and by an internal 
skeleton combined in some with an external 
shell, though the integument in most is uncal- 
cified and flexible; the head is free and the 
body is covered by a muscular sac or mantle, 
with a transverse anterior aperture, from which 
projects the expiratory siphon or tube; the 
branchiz are concealed, the sexes distinct, and 
the animals oviparous, aquatic, marine, preda- 
tory and carnivorous, nocturnal, and social; 
the colors are changeable and brilliant; they 
emit an inky secretion when disturbed, which 
permits them to escape by the discoloration of 
the water; this is what the true India ink is 
made from. This class have a rudimentary 
internal skeleton; in the head of most is a car- 
tilaginous ring around the cesophagus, the up- 
per part covering the cerebral ganglion, and 
containing the organs of vision and hearing; 
there is often an additional cartilage to which 
the muscles of the arms are attached, and oth- 
ers on the back and sides. The mouth is in 
the middle between the arms, and has two jaws 
like the bill of a parrot, the lower the larger ; 
the head is separated from the body by a con- 
striction like a neck; there is a well marked 
tongue. The sexual organs are at the base of 
the visceral sac, and the spermatophores are 
very active; in some of the octopods, one of 
the arms is deciduous, and becomes a male or- 
gan, described by Ouvier as hectocotylus and a 
parasite; the eggs are laid in heaps or bunches, 
attached to each other and to foreign bodies. 
The nervous system is largely developed. For 
respiration water is drawn in and expelled by 
the muscular action of the mantle and funnel, 
as the gills have no vibratile cilia; the water 
enters the branchial cavity at the anterior open- 
ing of the mantle, and is forced out through 
the funnel, propelling the animal backward. 
In the first order, the tetrabranchiata, the 
branchiew are in two pairs, without branchial 
hearts, and the mantle is thin and not very 
muscular; the ink bag is absent; the arms are 
very numerous, hollow, and with retractile 
tentacles; eyes pedunculate; the head retrac- 
tile within a many-chambered siphunculated 
cell. Among existing mollusks this order con- 
tains only the genus nautilus (see NAUTILUS); 
in past ages lived the ammonites, baculites, 
hamites, orthoceratites, turrilites, &e. In the 
second order, the dibranchiata, the branchiz 
are two, each with a branchial heart; the fun- 
nel is an entire tube, and the mantle is muscu- 
lar; an ink bag is present; there are eight non- 
retractile arms, large and complicated, bearing 
sucking disks or acetabula, with usually two 
additional long arms; the eyes are sessile and 
in orbits; the shell is internal, except in the 
female argonauts. Jn the decapod tribe, with 
eight arms and two tentacles, belong the genus 
spirula, the extinct belemnites, the cuttle fishes 
(sepia), and the squids. (See Squip.) In the 
octopod or eight-armed tribe there are no 
tentacles, the arms have sessile suckers, and 
the branchial chamber is divided by a longitu- 


724 


dinal partition; the arms are more robust, and 
are often united by a web at the base, con- 
stituting a powerful swimming organ. Among 
the naked octopods belong the so-called sea 
spiders. (See Ooropus.) Sledone and tre- 
moctopus are allied genera. The genus argo- 
nauta or paper nautilus is well known for the 
delicate and beautiful shell of the female. (See 
Navtitus.) The shell is used only for protect- 
ing and hatching the eggs; the male has no 
shell, and impregnation is effected by a decid- 
uous hectocotylus.—The local distribution of 
faunew and the distinctness of zodlogical regions 
are well illustrated by mollusks; while some 
are very limited in their range, others, like 
the cyprea, are extensively spread even across 
ocean barriers; some are cosmopolite, wander- 
ing wherever their food is found; helia cella- 
ria, attaching itself to water casks, occurs in 
most seaports of the world, H. similaris wher- 
ever the coffee plant grows, and ZH. vitrinoides 
follows the taro or arum esculentum. As a 
general rule, according to Mr. Jeffreys, speci- 
mens are larger toward the north than toward 
the south; colors are usually the brightest in 
the tropical seas, except in specimens from 
great depths. (For details on distribution, see 
** Mollusca and Shells of the United States Ex- 
ploring Expedition,” 1838-42, by A. A. Gould, 
M. D., Boston, 1852.) The distribution of mol- 
lusks in time extends from the lower Silurian 
to the present epoch; all the classes are repre- 
sented in the earliest fossiliferous strata; some 
families, like the ammonites and belemnites, 
have passed away; others, like the nautilus, 
are verging toward extinction; some have 
continued. with slight specific modifications 
from the Silurian to the present day. Lamel- 
libranchiate have succeeded palliobranchiate 
bivalves; siphonate have succeeded asiphonate 
univalves; and the dibranchiate now vastly 
outnumber the tetrabranchiate cephalopods. 
Whole strata of the earth’s crust are made 
up principally of the shells of mollusks.—Mol- 
lusks supply an abundant, wholesome, and 
usually easily digestible article of food to na- 
tions civilized and savage, as well as to other 
animals; bivalves are considered the best, as 
having the least muscular fibre. The orna- 
mental purposes to which the pearl and cameo 
shells are put are well known; from the cuttle 
fish is obtained sepia and India ink; from the 
purpura and buccinum of the Mediterranean 
came the famous Tyrian dye of antiquity; 
from the filaments of the byssus of pinna are 
made tissues much esteemed on the shores of 
. the Mediterranean. On the other hand, mol- 
lusks are sometimes injurious to man; slugs 
and snails do mischief in gardens; the teredo 
pierces ship timber, and the pholas bores into 
and weakens stone dikes. The number of 
species of mollusks probably exceeds 25,000, 
surpassed only by the number of articulates. 
MOLLUSCOIDS, a division of the old branch of 
motlusca, first made by Milne-Edwards to in- 
clude the bryozoa and ascidians or tunicates, 


MOLLUSCOIDS 


to which have since been added the brachio- 
pods; all of which are now regarded by Prof. 
kK. S. Morse and others as articulates, having 
certain molluscan affinities, but coming nearest 
to the tubicolous worms. (See Bracuropopa, 
and Bryozoa.) In the lowest of these, the 
bryozoa, are comprised small pedunculated ani- 
mals, the margin of whose body is provided 
with vibratile cilia, for producing the water 
currents necessary to respiration and to the 
obtaining of food; these cilia are sometimes 
supported on long tentacular prolongations ; 
the digestive cavity is distinct from the walls 
of the body, and can be traced as a canal from 
mouth to vent, both opening within the ciliated 


circle, being reflected upward; they propagate 


by buds and by free swimming ciliated gem- 
mules. They seem to have both males and 
females on the same stem, the cells containing 
animals with eggs being apparently more nu- 
merous than those with spermatozoa; the mus- 
cular system is largely developed, and serves 
principally to retract the animal within its cell. 
They have been divided by Van der Hoeven 
into the families: 1, stelmatopoda, in which 
the tentacles are disposed in a zone around 
the mouth, as in the genera eschara, flustra, 
and cellularia ; and 2, lophopoda, with tenta- 
cles set pectinately on two arms, and numerous, 
such as cristatella, plumatella, and aleyonella. 
The tunicata, including the ascidians and salpa, 
have no shells, but are enclosed by an elastic, 
cellulose, uncalcified integument, having two 
apertures; the circulation is peculiar in the 
phenomenon of venous blood at one time pro- 
ceeding from the heart to the gills, and at an- 
other arterial blood from the gills to the heart, 
in the same vessels; respiration is effected 
either by a vascular ciliated pharyngeal sac, or 
by a ribbon-shaped gill stretched across the 
common visceral cavity; the nervous system 
presents a single ganglion, from which the 
nerves radiate; organs of feeling, sight, and 
even hearing, have been described in these 
animals; muscular fibres, both longitudinal and 
transverse, are well developed. In salpe 
we have free swimming animals, drawing in 
water by one aperture and expelling it by an- 
other one opposite; they are numerous in the 
Mediterranean and in the temperate parts of 
the ocean far from the shores, and are said to 
be phosphorescent at night; they sometimes 
occur singly, and sometimes in long chains or 
in rings; Chamisso concluded, from observing 
the living animals, that a generation of distinct 
salp@ alternates with one of those in a chain; 
within the single individuals connected embryos 
were found, which, with other similar phenom- 
ena, led to the interesting work of Steenstrup 
on the ‘‘ Alternations of Generation ;” the 
solitary salp@ are sexless, and are propagated 
by internal germs or buds, and are inferior to 
the associated forms, which have reproduc- 
tive organs; the latter produce each a single 
young one. The ascidians have a sac-like body, 
with two apertures generally near together ; 


MOLLY MAGUIRES 


the branchial sac is large, the opening of the 
cesophagus situated at the bottom; they are 
mostly attached, and propagate both by eggs 
and buds, the male and female organs being 
on the same individual. They are both simple 
and compound. Those young which originate 
from eggs move free in the early stage, and 
have a long tail which is lost when they fix 
themselves by the opposite extremity; in the 
compound forms, larve of this description may 
enclose a group of eight. united ascidians, by 
their division laying the foundation for’a col- 
ony while yet free, capable of greater multi- 
plication by further gemmation. Ascidians 
are found from the tropics even into the arctic 
regions, and some of the compound forms are 
brilliantly phosphorescent. The non-peduncu- 
lated single ascidians were known to Aristotle, 
and were called by him tethuon ; sometimes 
called bagpipes, these animals are often seen 
attached to rocks, shells, crabs, and other bod- 
ies; though several may be found in a group, 
they do not form a compound body with a com- 
mon external covering; they are occasionally 
found attached to a shapeless mass formed by 
the bodies of other ascidians. The food consists 
of small organic particles, which are brought 
with the water into the branchial sac and to 
the esophageal opening at the bottom.—The 
brachiopods, or palliobranchiata, have the 
body depressed, covered with a mantle, bilobed 
and open; the branchiw are not separated 
from the mantle; the heart is double and 
arterial; near the mouth are two long spirally 
convoluted arms (whence the name of the 
order) provided with cirri or cilia; the mouth 
is simple, at the base of the arms; the shell is 
bivalve, always attached either by a peduncle 
or by the shell, and adheres to the mantle by 
several oblique muscles; the hinge is opened 
by the arms and by internal muscles; all are 
aquatic and marine. They include the terebra- 
tule ; the extinct spirifers, orthis and productus, 
with articulated calcareous shells; the crania, 
and the lingula, interesting as occurring with 
slightly modified species and with few inter- 
ruptions from the Silurian to the present epoch. 
MOLLY MAGUIRES. See supplement. 
MOLOCH, or Moleeh, the national god of the 
Ammonites, who was worshipped by human 
sacrifices. The Hebrews were repeatedly ad- 
dicted to his worship. Solomon, induced by 
his foreign wives, built a high-place to him; 
Manasseh imitated his jmpiety; and the idol- 
atry continued from that time chiefly in the 
valley of Tophet and Hinnom, till the place 
was defiled by Josiah. Some explain the terms 
which are generally thought to refer to the 
burning of children as sacrifices to Moloch, to 
mean only the passage between two burning 
pyres, or the act of leaping over a fire, as a 
symbol of purification, practised by many an- 
cient nations. Milcom (1 Kings xi.; 2 Kings 
xxiii.) and Malcham (Jer. xlix.) are considered 
dialectic variations of the name Moloch, which 
probably signified king (Heb. melekh). 


MOLTKE 725 

MOLOCH, an Australian iguanian reptile, of 
the family agamide. The MW. horridus (Gray) 
is the most ferocious-looking of the lizard 
tribe, and, though harmless, is as ugly as any 
of the representations of fabled basilisks and 
dragons. The whole body is covered with 
irregular plates and strong sharp spines, and 
the head is crowned with two very large 
spines; on the back of the neck are large 
rounded protuberances, similarly armed with 
granular scales and spines. 

MOLOSSIA, or Molossis, in ancient geography, 
a division of Epirus in northern Greece, ex- 
tending across the province from N. to S., 
partly between Athamania on the east and 
Thesprotia on the west. In early times it was 
peopled by various tribes of unknown race, 
with whom the Molossi, a Grecian people who 
claimed descent from Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus), 
the son of Achilles, mingled at a later period. 
Though regarded as semi-barbarians, the Mo- 
lossians became predominant in Epirus, and 
established a royal dynasty over the whole 
country in the last quarter of the 4th century 
B. C., the capital being Ambracia (now Arta), 
near the gulf called after it. 

MOLTKE, Helmuth Karl Bernhard von, count, 
a German general, born at Parchim, Mecklen- 
burg, Oct. 26, 1800. His father was a Danish 
general, and he was educated in the cadets’ 
academy at Copenhagen, and at 18 became an 
officer. He entered the Prussian service in 
1822, and after ten years of arduous studies 
and labors was admitted to the general staff. 
In 1835 he went to Constantinople, and Mah- 
moud II. conceiving a high regard for his genius, 
the Prussian authorities permitted him to serve 
him in improving the fortifications of Turkish 
cities and in the warfare against the Kurds and 
against Egypt. He returned to Berlin after 
the sultan’s death in 1839, was employed for 
many years in staff service, and in 1856 became 
adjutant of Prince Frederick William, and in 
1858 chief of the general staff of the army, 
which post he still holds. The rank of lieu- 
tenant general was conferred upon him in 1859. 
He planned the operations in the wars with 
Denmark (1864) and Austria (1866), accom- 
panying on the former occasion Prince Fred- 
erick Charles, and on the latter King William. 
After the battle of Sadowa Moltke made every 
preparation for marching upon Olmiitz and 
Vienna, but negotiated a five days’ truce, which 
became the prelude to peace. He wasreward- 
ed with the order of the black eagle and the 
command of the Kolberg or second Pome- 
ranian grenadier regiment. Having long fore- 
seen the contingency of a war with France, he 
was ready with his plans when it suddenly 
broke out in 1870, and their execution resulted 
in the most astonishing and uninterrupted 
series of victories ever achieved by one great 
military nation over another. His system con- 
sists mainly in making the different army corps 
advance separately and operate simultaneously 
in grappling with the enemy, and he brings to 


726 


bear upon its elaboration a mind of singular 
-clearness, a wonderful logical power, and a 
capacity of patient research of the highest 
order. Besides conferring on him the title of 
count and making him large donations, the 
emperor of Germany appointed him in 1871 
general field marshal, and in 1872 life member 
of the upper house. In January, 1874, he was 
returned to the Reichstag, and in the following 
month delivered a speech showing the necessi- 
ty of being prepared for retaliation on the part 
of France, which produced a strong impres- 
sion. His most important work is Der deutsch- 
Sranzésische Krieg (Berlin, 1873 et seq.). 
MOLUCCAS, or Spice Islands, a group of the In- 
dian or Malay archipelago, between lat. 3° N. 
and 9° §., and lon. 122° and 138° E., scattered 
over the sea which extends from the E. coast 
of Celebes to the W. coast of Papua, and 
from the Philippine islands on the north to 
Timor on the south; area, 42,946 sq.m.; pop. 
in 1871, 331,879 natives and 1,803 Europeans. 
The number of the islands is estimated at sev- 
eral hundreds; many of them are small and 
uninhabited. The large islands are Ceram, Gi- 
lolo, and Booro. This part of the archipelago 
is naturally divided into three clusters, viz., the 
Moluccas proper or Gilolo group, the Ceram 
group, and the Timor Laut group. The first 
comprehends Gilolo, Morty, Mandioly, Batchi- 
an, Oby, Motir, Makian, Ternate, Tidore, and 
many other islands. The Ceram cluster, which 
lies in the centre of the group, contains, among 
others, the islands of Ceram, Booro, Amboyna, 
and Banda. The third cluster lies further S. 
between Australia and the west of Papua, 
Timor Laut being the principal island. Origi- 
nally, and in a more circumscribed sense, the 
Moluccas comprehended only the small isl- 
ands off the W. coast of Gilolo, including Bat- 
chian, Motir, Ternate, and Tidore; under the 
early Dutch dominion the appellation was ex- 
tended to Amboyna and Booro, but was still 
restricted to the smaller isles. The outline 
of the coast of the Molucca islands is very 
irregular; in many places they rise abruptly 
from the water to a considerable elevation. 
There are many excellent harbors, but sand 
banks which render navigation intricate and 
dangerous are frequently formed by earth- 
quakes. Nearly all the islands are mountain- 
ous, and some of them contain peaks 7,000 or 
8,000 ft. high. The formation of the group 
is volcanic; the surface is singularly broken 
and indented with lofty peaks and rocks piled 
up to great elevations; there are several active 
craters and hot springs, and violent earth- 
quakes are frequent. On account of the com- 
parative smallness of the islands and the reg- 
ular monsoons, the heat is never excessive. 
Cereals cannot be cultivated to any great ex- 
tent, and the people subsist almost entirely 
upon the pith of the sago palm. The most 
common tropical fruits and vegetables thrive 
well, and sugar cane, coffee, pepper, cotton, 
and small quantities of indigo are grown; but 


MOLUCOAS 


the Moluccas are especially remarkable for the 
production of cloves and nutmegs. The bread- 
fruit tree, the cacao, and many of the fruit 
trees of India are found. There are more than 
400 different kinds of wood in the forests, in- 
cluding the lingoa (pterocarpus draco), which 
is admirably adapted to cabinet work. Gold 
is found in small quantities on Gilolo, but no 
other metals on any of the islands. The group 
has comparatively few indigenous mammals, 
but birds are very numerous, and the fauna 
presents close affinities to that of Papua. Of 
the mammalia there are 35 known species, in- 
cluding 25 bats, a baboon-monkey, a civet cat, 
several species of pigs, a deer, a shrew, and 
four marsupials, one of which is a flying opos- 
sum. Of birds there are 265 species known 
to inhabit the group. ‘These comprise the cas- 
sowary, found in Ceram, the megapodii or 
mound makers, 22 species of parrots, and 27 
species of pigeons. The surrounding seas are 
exceedingly prolific, and the cachalot, which 
yields the spermaceti of commerce, is met 
with; but the whale fishery, once of some 
importance in this region, is now quite insig- 
nificant. Pearls are frequently found on the 
coasts. Oloves and nutmegs are exported in 
large quantities; sandal wood and other valu- 
able woods are obtained; edible birds’ nests, 
sea slugs, and shark fins are sent to China. 
The imports are chiefly opium and Indian and 
European goods. The Dutch monopolies con- 
fined the commerce for many years within 
very narrow limits, but a more liberal policy 
is now pursued.—The Moluccas, like nearly 
all the islands which constitute the Indian 
archipelago, are chiefly inhabited by two races, 
the Malays and Papuans. The latter people, 
supposed to be of the same family as the abo- 
rigines of Australia and Papua, have been ex- 
terminated in many of the smaller islands by 
the Malays, and in the larger ones have only 
retained possession of the interior and more 
inaccessible parts. The Moluccan Malays, ac- 
cording to Wallace, form one of the five di- 
visions of semi-civilized Malays found in the 
Indian archipelago. They are in possession 
of the lower lands and seacoasts, where they 
cultivate the soil or gain a subsistence by fish- 
ing. They are very expert in the construction 
and management of their vessels, and are great- 
ly addicted to piracy. The Malay is the com- 
mon language,-and the Arabic character is 
employed in writing it. Mohammedanism is 
the prevailing religion ; but some profess Chris- 
tianity, and distinguish themselves by wearing 
black garments. The laws are chiefly founded 
upon the precepts of the Koran.—The Moluc- 
cas had been visited by the Arabs, and the 
Mohammedan religion spread among the peo- 
ple long before the arrival of the Portuguese 
in 1511. The Portuguese had only begun to 
form settlements when the Spanish vessels un- 
der Magalhaens arrived from the east, and a pro- 
longed dispute arose between the two nations 
respecting the possession of the islands, which 


MOLYBDENUM 


terminated in favor of the Portuguese. <A sys- 
tem of violence and oppression was maintained 
for 60 years, when the Dutch with the assis- 
tance of the natives expelled the Portuguese. 
The Dutch East India company early in the 
17th century obtained supremacy over many 


of the native princes, and allowed them to re-. 


tain their authority by tribute to the company. 
To secure the exclusive trade in nutmegs and 
cloves, the Dutch nearly extirpated the spice 
trees on all the islands except Amboyna and 
Banda, which two they reduced entirely under 
their authority. To keep up prices in foreign 
markets, they frequently burned whole cargoes 
of spices. The English were allowed at one 
time to have a mercantile establishment at Am- 
boyna, when held by the Dutch; but the latter 
in 1622, after forcing some Chinese and Java- 
nese soldiers by torture to make confession of 
a plot on the part of the English, seized on the 
leaders and put them to death with horrible 
cruelty. In common with the other Dutch East 
Indian possessions, the Moluccas were held by 
the British from 1796 to 1802, and from 1810 
to 1814. In 1824 some of the more oppres- 
- sive laws were repealed, and the free cultiva- 
tion of the islands was allowed. The Dutch 
possessions are divided, in point of administra- 
tion, into the three residencies of Amboyna, 
Ternate, and Banda. The seat of the Dutch 
governor general is at Amboyna. 
MOLYBDENUM, a metal usually obtained from 
the native bisulphide (molybdenite). It is also 
found as a molybdate of lead. Its symbol is 
Mo; atomic weight, 96; specific gravity, 8°6. 
The resemblance of the bisulphide ore to graph- 
ite gave the metal its name (Gr. poAbBdaiva, a 
piece of lead). It was first distinguished from 
graphite by Scheele in 1778, but was first ob- 
tained in the metallic form by Hjelm in 1782. 
The most complete investigations of its prop- 
erties and combinations were made by Berze- 
lius. The metal may be obtained by roasting 
the native sulphide in a free current of air, by 
which impure molybdic aeid is produced in the 
form of a gray powder. This is digested in 
ammonia, the solution filtered and evaporated 
to dryness, the residue dissolved in nitric acid 
and again evaporated to dryness, pure molyb- 
dic acid being left. This being made into a 
paste with oil and charcoal and heated to white- 
ness, the oxygen is abstracted and the metal 
remains. It may also be obtained by passing 
hydrogen over molybdic acid at a red heat in a 
porcelain tube. It is a white metal, brittle, 
and difficult to melt. When heated to white- 
ness in the air or in oxygen, it forms a crystal- 
line sublimate of molybdic acid. It is easily 
oxidized by nitric acid, with evolution of ni- 
trous acid fumes, and if ignited in a stream of 
aqueous vapor hydrogen is evolved. Molyb- 
denum forms alloys with tin, lead, iron, cop- 
per, silver, gold, and platinum, rendering them 
less fusible, more brittle, and, except the sil- 
ver, whiter. It forms three oxides: protox- 
ide, MoO (or according to Rammelsberg, who 


MOMMSEN oe 
doubts the existence of MoO, sesquioxide, Moz 
Os); the dioxide, MoOz; and a third, molyb- 
dic anhydride, MoO;. The first two possess 
basic characters, while the last is an active acid. 
The protoxide (or sesquioxide) is obtained by 
dissolving molybdic acid in hydrochloric acid, 
and placing in the solution zinc or one of 
the metals capable of decomposing water, and 
afterward treating with excess of ammonia. 
The dioxide is obtained by heating a mixture 
of sal ammoniac and molybdate of soda and 
digesting the residue in caustic potassa. Mo- 
lybdenum forms with bromine dibromide, tri- 
bromide, and tetrabromide, and with chlorine 
and sulphur corresponding salts; and there 
may also be formed chloro-bromides. The 
iodine compounds are molybdous and molyb- 
dic iodides. Molybdic anhydride forms salts 
with various bases, called molybdates. The 
molybdate of ammonium is used as a delicate 
test for phosphoric acid. The solution sus- 
pected to contain the phosphate is acidulated 
with nitric acid, and the molybdate is added. 
If phosphoric acid is present, either free or 
uncombined, a yellow crystalline precipitate is 
formed, consisting of molybdic and phosphoric 
acids in combination with ammonia. Arsenic 
acid forms a similar compound with ammonic 
molybdate when the solutions are boiled. A 
mixture of sulphuric and molybdic acids yields 
a beautiful purple with pure morphia or its 
salts. The oxygen salts of molybdenum are 
not well enough known or of enough impor- 
tance to require notice here. 

MOMBAS, Mombaz, or Mombasah, a town on a 
small island of the same name, in a bay on the 
coast of Zanzibar, in lat. 4° 6’S., lon. 389° 48’ 
E.; pop. of the island, about 6,000. The isl- 
and is about 8 m. long and 2 m. wide; the 
coasts consist of steep cliffs, and the town is 
defended by an old Portuguese fort. The town 
is in a ruinous condition, and is inhabited by 
Arabs and people of mixed race. The bay in 
which the island is situated is about 5 m. long 
and 3 m. broad, and forms an excellent harbor. 
There is very little trade, and the people are 
exceedingly poor. The Portuguese destroyed 
the native town in 1505, and again in 1529; 
from which time they held the place till they 
were driven out by the sultan of Muscat in 
1720. In his turn he was expelled by the na- 
tives, and from 1824 to 1826 the town was un- 
der British protection; but they abandoning it, 
Mombas fell again under the power of Muscat. 

MOMMSEN, Christian Matthias Theeder, a German 
historian, born at Garding, Schleswig, Nov. 80, 
1817. He studied at Altona and Kiel, was aided 
by the Berlin academy in his archeological ex- 
plorations in France and Italy (1844~’7), and 
in 1848 was attached to the staff of the Schles- 
wig-Holstein’sche Zeitung. For participation 
in the movements of 1848-9 he was removed 
from the chair of jurisprudence at Leipsic, 
which he had filled for two years. From 1852 
to 1854 he was professor at Zirich, from 1854 
to 1858 at Breslau, and from that time till 


728 MOMOTOMBO 


February, 1874, professor of Roman archeol- 
ogy in the university of Berlin, when he was 
reappointed professor of jurisprudence at Leip- 
sic, and made rector of the university. He 
has published Oskische Studien (Berlin, 1845; 
supplement, 1846); Ueber das Réimische Miine- 
wesen (1850); Corpus Inseriptionum Neapoli- 
tanarum (1851); Die Stadtrechte der Lateini- 
schen Gemeinden Salpensa und Malaga (1855) ; 
and Rémisches Staatsrecht (3 vols., Leipsic, 
1871-"5 et seg.). Of his “ History of Rome” 
(3 vols., Berlin, 1854~’6) five editions have ap- 
peared, the last in 1869. It has been translated 
into French (Paris, 1863-72), and into English 
by W. P. Dickson (2 vols., London, 1862-’3 ; 
new ed., 4 vols., New York, 1871). 

MOMOTOMBO, the loftiest volcano in the re- 
public of Nicaragua, 7,200 ft. high, standing at 
the head of Lake Managua, 25 m. E. by N. of the 
city of Leon. It sends out constantly a light 
plume of smoke, and occasional showers of 
fine ashes. The upper 3,000 ft. of its elevation 
seems to be made up of ashes and scoria. A 
tradition that the early priests who undertook 
to plant the cross on its summit were never 
afterward heard of, is the subject of a poem in 
La légende des siécles, by Victor Hugo. There 
are hot springs at its base, and a number of 
orifices or vents (¢nfiernillos) on its flanks. It 
is a prominent landmark from the sea, and 
constitutes one extremity of the volcanic range 
of the Marrabios, which terminates in the high 
cone of El Viejo. 

MOMPOS, or Mompox, an inland city of the 
United States of Colombia, in the state of Santa 
Marta, on the Magdalena, about 300 m. N. by 
W. of Bogota; pop. about 11,000. The city is 
on a large island formed by the Magdalena, the 
Cafio Lova, the Cafio Sicuco, and the Cauca. 
The streets are very long, wide, and well kept. 
Some of the houses have two stories, are tile- 
roofed, and present an agreeable aspect. Be- 
sides the parish church, there are three other 
churches attached to convents, all well built. 
Several primary schools were opened in 1872 
and 1873. The climate is hot, humid, and 
generally unhealthy; the thermometer ranges 
for most of the year from 85° to 100° F. 
Alligators and mosquitoes of enormous size 
are common. It is rare to see a native free 
from goitre. The soil is remarkably fertile. 
The port is defended by forts of compara- 
tively modern construction, and there is an 
excellent mole which protects the city from 
damage during the periodical swelling of the 
river, which in December often rises 12 ft. 
above its usual level. Mompos was long 
the principal entrepot for the whole basin 
of the Magdalena; and an important trade is 
still carried on with Ocafia, Giron, Antioquia, 
and the upper Magdalena, in tobacco, sugar, 
flour, cacao, coarse cotton fabrics, and precious 
metals.—The city was founded in 1540. It 
has experienced several disastrous inundations, 
especially in 1762, when the inhabitants were 
saved by taking to canoes. 


MON ACHISM 


MOMUS, in Greek mythology, the god of 
mockery and censure, said to have been a son 
of Night. Having been chosen by Neptune, 
Minerva, and Vulcan to decide on the merits 
of their respective works, he censured them 
all, in consequence of which he was expelied 
from heaven. He is generally represented 
raising a mask from his face, and holding a 
small image in his hand. 

MONACHISM (Gr. povayéc, solitary), a term 
denoting solitary life or retirement from the 
ordinary concerns of the world, with a view 
to the occupation of the soul with religious 
objects. The first type of monachism may be 
found in the asceticism practised by the Jewish 


‘Essenes and Therapeutee at the dawn of Chris- 


tianity. Origen gives the name of ascetes to 
persons who fast rigorously. It was also ap- 
plied to all who habitually devoted several hours 
of the day and night to prayer, or who bestowed 
their wealth and time in relieving the sick and 
poor. These ascetics generally dwelt in the 
cities, and wore distinctive garments of a dark 
color, together with the pallium or cloak of 
the ancient philosophers.. During divine ser- 
vice the ascetics were assigned an intermediate’ 
place between the clergy and the laity. A 
severer form of asceticism was the life led by 
anchorets or hermits. Their numbers increased 
very much during the 3d century, filling the 
mountain wildernesses of Asia Minor, Syria, 
and Egypt. Communities of women were or- 
ganized as early as the close of the 3d century. 
According to Déllinger, the term povacrfpiov 
was first applied to the common abode of the 
Egyptian therapeute. It is also in Egypt that 
the first known Christian monasteries or mon- 
achal communities of men were formed by Paul 
of Thebes and his disciple Pachomius. The 
germ of these establishments was planted by 
Paul in the island of Tabenne, a little north of 
the first cataract of the Nile, and was developed 
by Pachomius, who first drew up a rule for 
monks in 340. Several monasteries were uni- 
ted under his government. Each monastery was 
divided into several ‘‘ families,” and each family 
pursued a distinct mechanical occupation and 
was governed by aprior. The family counted 
40 monks, who dwelt there by threes in sepa- 
rate cells. Some monasteries comprised 40 
families. When Athanasiusin 356 took refuge 
in the island of Tabennsz, Pachomius met him 
at the head of an army of monks singing 
psalms. In imitation of Pachomius, Ammon 
founded a monastery on a hill above the valley 
of Nitria, on the confines of the Libyan desert, 
where 5,000 monks soon assembled under 
him; and Macarius next established numer- 
ous monasteries in the desert between the Ni- 
trian mountains and the Nile. Near Arsinoé 
the abbot Serapion ruled 10,000 monks; and 
Rufinus says that in 856 the monasteries of 
Oxyrynchuscontained 10,000 men and 15,000 
women. ‘The life of the inmates was divided 
between private prayer, public psalmody, the 
study of the Scriptures, the copying of manu- 


MONACHISM 


scripts, agricultural and mechanical occupa- 
tions, and the various offices of charity. These 
monasteries were great industrial schools, and 
those of the Thebaid served as hostelries for 
travellers over the desert; for each had its 
xenodochium in which gratuitous hospitality 
was exercised. Pachomius had made the study 
of the Bible a special duty; all his monks were 
obliged to know how to read and write; and 
in each monastery of Tabenne there was one 
family exclusively composed of learned ‘men, 
skilled in Greek literature. These institutions 
were replenished constantly with the disciples 
of the Alexandrian schools, and reacted occa- 
sionally upon the intellectual life of the latter. 
—The monastic institutions of Egypt were 
imitated in Syria, Asia Minor, and the south- 
ern shores of the Black sea, eremitical life 
being in the 4th, 5th, and 6th centuries every- 
where superseded by the cenobitical. St. Hi- 
larion became in 328 the father of monastic 
life in Palestine; Eustathius, bishop of Sebaste, 
propagated it about the same epoch in Ar- 
menia; St. Basil about 360 spread it in the 
province of Pontus; and St. John Chrysostom, 
who found it flourishing around Antioch, ex- 
tended its influence by word and example.— 
The practices of eremitical life were never re- 
garded with much favor either by the great 
church fathers or by the councils. They rather 
aimed at forming, by the temporary exercise 
of the ascetic virtues, apostolic men fitted to 
spread the reign of gospel truth among the 
city populations. With still less favor did 
they regard the extraordinary performances of 
the Sarabaite, Stylites, Accemets, Agoniste, 
and the like. From the desert, monastic in- 
stitutions were transplanted to the towns, and 
ecclesiastical writers soon complained that 
many fled to the convent only for the pur- 
pose of finding there a life of ease; that the 
mask of piety served frequently for conceal- 
ing laziness and wickedness; that excessive 
asceticism led many to licentiousness, insanity, 
despair, and suicide; that ignorance and fanat- 
icism made the monks dangerous tools in the 
hands of ambitious men, and that their zeal 
could be turned to acts of violence against 
Chrysostom as well as to the destruction of 
pagan temples or the suppression of Arianism. 
The emperor Valens and several of his succes- 
sors vainly sought to arrest the too rapid in- 
crease of monachism. The contemplative life 
led many into gross anthropomorphism, which 
caused their exclusion from the church. But 
though many censured the abuses of mona- 
chism, few were found, like Jovinian, to assail 
the principle. Under the growing influence 
of the Byzantine emperors, the eastern church, 
and with it eastern monachism, lost all vitality. 
No attempts were made to create new organiza- 
tions. Traditionally all the eastern monks have 
followed up to the present day the so-called 
rule of St. Basil, and have called themselves 
after either St. Basil or St. Anthony. They 
are still numerous in all the eastern churches, 


729 


and some of their establishments, as the con- 
vents of Mount Athos, are still celebrated for 
their literary treasures or political influence ; 
but they have ceased altogether to be power- 
ful agencies of religious influence.—Monachism 
was destined to achieve its greatest successes 
in the West. About 340 Athanasius during his 
second exile went to Rome with some Egyptian 
monks. Later he met St. Martin of Tours, 
still a soldier, in the imperial city of Treves, 
and confirmed the latter in his resolution of 
embracing a monastic life. Martin founded, 
it is said, the first monasteries established west 
of the Alps, and may thus be called the father 
of monachism in Gaul. Cassian, his contempo- 
rary, planted another monastic colony at Mar- 
seilles, and wrote there his book ‘‘On Monas- 
tic Institutions.” The disciples of St. Jerome 
were obliged to follow him to Bethlehem. 
Ambrose founded a monastic establishment at 
Milan, and there he converted Augustine, who 
in his turn became in north Africa the origi- 
nator of a form of monastic life that was to live 
afterward in thousands of European institu- 
tions.. Augustine before he became a priest 
lived near Carthage a semi-eremitical life with 
a few friends; and the rule which they then ~ 
followed served as the basis of the rule adopted 
long afterward by the Augustinian order, or 
hermits of St. Augustine. After his ordina- 
tion, and especially during his episcopal life, 
he lived in community with his brother priests; 
and their mode of life, together with the mo- 
nastic regulations scattered through his wri- 
tings served as an examplar for the countless 
houses of canons regular throughout Chris- 
tendom, for the orders of Fontévrault and 
Prémontré, for the Gilbertine canons regular 
in England, the order of friars preachers, and 
innumerable orders of women. The Augus- 
tinian manner of living was brought over to 
England by Pelagius, and to Ireland by St. 
Patrick. Monastic establishments and schools 
in the time of St. Patrick sprang up around 
the great churches as well as institutions favor- 
able to seclusion and study. St. Columba sent 
monastic colonies into Scotland, the Hebrides, 
and the Orkneys. The first Northmen who col- 
onized Iceland found Irish monks there before 
them. St. Columbanus passed over into Gaul 
with 12 companions, who founded numerous 
similar institutions in that country, Switzer- 
land, Germany, and northern Italy. England 
had flourishing cenobitic establishments in the 
same centuries. But in the monasteries found- 
ed in continental Europe by these Irish monks, 
the rule of St. Benedict of Nursia soon super- 
seded that of Columbanus. Benedict in 529 
built at Monte Casino two oratories in honor 
of St. John the Baptist and St. Martin of 
Tours, and his rule spread rapidly over all 
western Europe, uniting independent establish- 
ments in one great monastic hierarchy. The 
good effected by the monasteries of both sexes, 
not only in the work of conversion and edu- 
cation, but even in promoting agriculture and 


730 


the other useful arts, met such general appro- 
bation that attempts were made to subject 
all the secular clergy to living in common un- 
der a rule. This movement was commenced 
by Chrodegang of Metz, who established the 
canons regular, but, though often renewed, 
could never be fully carried out. But the 
esteem in which the monastic orders were 
held, and the generous benefactions of princes, 
prelates, and peoples, facilitated the growth of 
corruption.—For many centuries the history 
of monachism presents a continued struggle of 
reformers with the laxity or immorality in the 
convents of their times. The first of these 
reformers was Benedict of Aniane (died 821), 
whose commentary on the rule of Benedict of 
Nursia obtained later an equally authoritative 
character. Benno, who became in 910 abbot 
of Cluny, founded the congregation of Cluny, 
a main pillar of the reformatory party, which 
was exempted by the pope from episcopal 
jurisdiction, and received the right of choosing 
an abbot with quasi-episcopal rank. Romuald 
founded the congregation of Camaldoli in 1012, 
Gualbert that of Vallombrosa in 1036, The 
Cistercians owed to St. Bernard of Clairvaux 
so great a celebrity, that they were soon intro- 
duced into nearly all the European countries. 
The order of Grammont sought to excel in 
ascetic rigor, and that of the Carthusians ad- 
hered more faithfully than any other order to 
its original spirit. The order of St. Anthony 
(1095) and the Hospitallers (1078) devoted 
themselves to the nursing of the sick, the order 
of Fontévrault (1094) to the correction of lewd 
women, and the Trinitarians (1198) to the 
redeeming of Christian prisoners. Even the 
warlike tendencies of those times sought a 
union with the monastic spirit by the establish- 
ment of several orders of knights. The large 
increase of the number of orders called forth 
much opposition, and the Lateran council in 
1215 decreed that no new order should be 
established. Yet the same period witnessed 
the birth of a new class of orders, the men- 
dicants (Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites, 
Augustinians, and several others). The dangers 
to which the church was exposed on the 
part of new dissenting ecclesiastical bodies re- 
quired a more zealous agency, especially among 
the lower classes. The mendicants tried to 
supply this want. The rapidity of their suc- 
cess was astonishing, and very considerable 
privileges were conferred on them by the 
popes. The Franciscans and Dominicans soon 
took the lead. Both created for themselves a 
numerous and influential party among the laity 
by the establishment of tertiarians, who bound 
themselves to the ascetic and devotional regu- 
lations of the order, without assuming its garb 
or entering the convent. Both secured also 
several chairs at the theological schools, in spite 
of the opposition of the secular clergy; and 
the most distinguished representatives of this 
and the following centuries (Thomas Aquinas, 
Bonaventura, Albertus Magnus, John Duns 


MONACHISM 


Scotus, Alexander of Hales, &c.) were either 
Dominicans or Franciscans. Several of their 
members filled the highest ecclesiastical posi- 
tions, even the papal chair. They raised mona- 
chism to the zenith of its power, influence, and 
prosperity. As Robert Grosseteste and others 
affirm, the mendicants owed their popularity 
and success to the purity of their lives in an 
epoch of general monastic degeneracy. But 
the very influence which they obtained with 
princes and peoples, and the wealth that was 
forced upon them in consequence, hastened 
their own decay. Toward the close of the 
middle ages the name monk was often used 
as synonymous with rudeness and ignorance. 
Reformatory attempts were made in every 
century; new orders, as the Jesuates, Brigit- 
tins, Servites, Hieronymites, and others, were 
founded; but their influence was weak, and 
frequently after an existence of 50 or 100 years 
they themselves departed from their primitive 
standard of rigid asceticism. The councils of 
Constance and Basel devised for a reformation 
of monasticism some highly important mea- 
sures, which however could only be carried out 
in a few places. The Beghards and Beguines 
exhibited a freer and less hierarchical spirit ; 
and their associational principle was further - 
developed by the Brethren of the Free Spirit. 
—The reformation of the 16th century consti- 
tutes another turning point in the history of 
monachism. The best and most influential 
men in the church cordially joined in the 
demand for a thorough reformation; they 
admitted that the crisis had been in part 
occasioned by the corruption of the clergy, 
and they urged in particular the necessity 
of a reformation of the religious orders. 
The internal history of nearly every order 
records, at this point of time, strong resolu- 
tions in favor of an enforcement of the prim- 
itive rules. In the most powerful orders, in 
particular the Franciscans, the more rigorous 
party achieved a complete and permanent suc- 
cess over those inclined toward laxity, and 
several new reformed congregations branched 
off from them, among which the Capuchins 
were the most prominent. The council of 
Trent defined the usefulness of monastic estab- 
lishments, and regulated their possessions, in- 
ternal administration, and the election of supe- 
riors, provided for annual assemblies, and ex- 
tended the rights of the bishops with regard 
to the inspection and superintendence of the 
convents. New orders also arose in the church 
from the very need of reform, and bore the 
impress of the times. The monastic institu- 
tions of former days had been, as religious 
communities, chiefly contemplative. Preach- 
ing, teaching, visiting the sick and poor, and 
similar objects formed the occupations of the 
new orders. The best known of these organi- 
zations are the Theatines, Barnabites, Jesuits, 
and Oratorians of St. Philip Neri. The French 
Oratorians, the Lazarists, Sulpicians, Redemp- 
torists, Passionists, and other congregations 


MONACHISM 


are of later date. In France the religious wars 
of the 16th century, the degeneracy of most of 
the monastic institutions, the quarrels between 
Jansensists and Jesuits, and other causes had 
begotten a decided aversion to monachism. 
This determined Vincent de Paul to found a 
society of regular clerks, who, under the name 
of Lazarists or Priests of the Mission, have 
wielded a great influence in France and else- 
where; and this too determined M. Olier to 
give a similar organization to the Sulpicians. 
Of all these new orders the society of Jesus 
has had the most celebrity. It was founded 
on the principle of absolute devotion to the 
church and its visible head the pope. No order 
ever carried out its fundamental principle more 
faithfully, and in all subsequent contests of the 
Roman Catholic church the Jesuits stood in 
the front rank. The culture of secular litera- 
ture, against which in the middle ages some 
founders of monastic orders had expressly 
warned their members, showed itself after the 
16th century so great a necessity, that it was 
practically observed by all, though but few 
gave it special attention. Of these few the 
Jesuits, the French Oratorians, and the Bene- 
dictine congregation of St. Maur hold by uni- 
versal consent a prominent place among the 
great literary societies of the world. A more 
general attention was given by the religious 
orders to the cause of education, especially to 
primary instruction. Many congregations, both 
male and female, were instituted for this sole 
purpose, especially in France, and a large num- 
ber of primary schools have ever since been 
under their direction. Foremost among these 
bodies, besides the Sulpicians and Lazarists, 
who are devoted to the education of the cler- 
gy, are those popular educators, the Brothers 
of the Christian Schools, the Ursulines, Visita- 
tion Nuns, and Sisters of Charity.—The great 
losses which the Roman Catholic church suf- 
fered by the reformation directed the atten- 
tion of the monastic orders to the foreign 
missionary cause. Most of'the great orders, 
especially the mendicants and the Jesuits, en- 
gaged in it with great zeal and emulation. The 
Jesuits took, in addition to the three common 
monastic vows, a fourth, binding them to go 
as missionaries to any country where it might 
please the pope to send them. The extent of 
their missionary operations in Europe, Asia, 
Africa, and America excelled anything the 
Roman Catholic church had done in this field 
before. (See Misstons.) The great majority 
of the Roman Catholic missions in all pagan 
countries have ever been conducted by the 
members of religious orders or congregations. 
—In the 18th century the productivity of the 
church, as regards monachism, greatly de- 
creased. The Redemptorists or the congrega- 
tion of the Most Holy Redeemer, founded by 
St. Alfonso di Liguori, sprang up during this 
time to fill the gap left by the suppression 
of the Jesuits. Most of the orders in the sec- 
ond half of that century made but a feeble 


731 


resistance against the all-pervading rationalism. 
Joseph II. suppressed all convents of monks 
not occupied in education, pastoral duties, or 
the nursing of the sick; and many Catholic 
writers demanded the entire extirpation of 
monachism as both an outgrowth and a pro- 
moter of fanaticism. Partly to this outcry, 
but principally to the pressure brought to bear 
on the court of Rome by the Catholic powers, 
was due the suppression of the Jesuits in 1773. 
The French revolution soon afterward endan- 
gered the existence of monachism in most of 
the European states, but with the downfall of 
the Napoleonic rule its prospects began to 
brighten. Pius VII. in 1814 restored the 
Jesuits, who rose again to considerable influ- 
ence, wherever they were not forcibly sup- 
pressed. (See Jesuits.) In the countries of 
the Latin race, both in Europe and America, 
the fate of monachism was closely allied with 
the political strife of the conservative and the 
liberal parties, the former patronizing it, the 
latter subjecting it to prohibitive rules or 
suppressing it altogether. In Portuguese and 
Spanish America the suppression of the Jesuit 
schools in the last century had left the upper 
classes and the clergy in particular with very 
inadequate means of higher education. The 
ignorance and corruption which soon crept into 
conventual establishments served as a power- 
ful argument for their gradual suppression du- 
ring the present century. In Italy the great 
wealth of the monastic bodies, and the belief 
that they had outlived their period of util- 
ity, caused their final abolition in 1878. They 
may also be said to have been extinct in Por- 
tugal since 1834, and in Spain since 1835. In 
France alone the vicissitudes of political rule 
in no way affected the growth of monastic in- 
stitutions. Since 1848 even the liberals have 
accustomed themselves to accord the right of 
association to the members of religious orders. 
Nearly every one of the old orders reéstablish- 
ed itself in France; and as a number of new 
congregations were formed, there is at present 
a greater variety of monastic institutions in 
that country than any other state has ever pos- 
sessed. Next to France, they are most numer- 
ous, wealthy, and influential in Belgium, where, 
as in France, public instruction is to a great ex- 
tent under their control. According to the offi- 
cial census of 1866, there were in Belgium 178 
communities of men with 2,051 members, and 
1,144 communities of women with 15,205 mem- 
bers. They partook, throughout the British 
possessions, the United States, and Holland, of 
the blessing of truly liberal institutions, and 
peaceably lived in accordance with their rules, 
from which public opinion demanded only one 
departure, that no member wishing to leave 
their establishments should be restrained from 
doing so. Austria protected them, but kept 
them till 1848 under a bureaucratic guardian- 
ship, which has since been abandoned. In 1873 
the number of convents and monasteries in 
that empire was about 950, with 8,500 monks 


139 MONACHISM 


and 5,700 nuns. The revolution of 1848 pro- 
cured them freedom in many other German 
states where before they had been either sup- 
pressed or tolerated under great restrictions ; 
and even those states whose codes retain laws 
against their admission in general, as Sweden, 
Denmark, and Saxony, admitted the sisters of 
charity. But in 1873 the German imperial 
diet suppressed the Jesuits, Redemptorists, 
brothers of the Christian schools, and sisters 
of charity. The Russian government has also 
practically extinguished all Roman Catholic 
establishments; but Turkey has become a prom- 
inent field for their missionary operations. 
—The number of monastic associations found- 
ed since the beginning of the 19th century. 
exceeds the nnmber founded during any other 
period of equal length. Most of them belong 
to France, and several have already attained 
a considerable extension. <A peculiar feature 
which characterizes them as the offspring of 
the present age is, that they aim at providing 
for the needs of the people. A large number 
of them are devoted to the instruction of youth. 
Such are the ‘“ Ladies of the Sacred Heart,” 
and several congregations of school brothers and 
school sisters. Many others bind themselves to 
the service of the sick and the poor, as the ‘‘ Lit- 
tle Sisters of the Poor,” the most numerous 
and popular of them. Not afew cultivate the 
mission field; either the foreign missions, as 
the Picpus society, the Oblates, the brothers 
and the daughters of Zion (both for the conver- 
sion of Jews, the latter consisting exclusively 
of converts); or the home missions, as the Pau- 
lists, established in 1858 at New York. The 
general advance of culture has deprived the 
religious orders of the monopoly of education 
and their former scientific preéminence. Still 
the Jesuits’ schools in Italy, Germany, France, 
and England are not unworthy of their former 
reputation. In respect to their moral condition, 
Roman Catholics admit the existence in some 
places of considerable degeneracy. In some 
convents also the ancient constitutions have fall- 
en more or less into disuse. The regular connec- 
tion of the general superiors with their subor- 
dinates has been in great part interrupted, and 
the holding of general assemblies has ceased. 
Pope Pius IX., at the beginning of his pontifi- 
cate, proclaimed it as one of his chief tasks to 
carry out a thorough reform of monastic or- 
ders; and in some orders, as the Dominicans, 
an extensive reformation has since taken place. 
The aggregate number of men belonging to 
the various religious orders and congregations 
in 1862 was about 120,000; the communities 
of women contained 189,000.—The reformation 
of the 16th century rejected the monachism 
of the Roman Catholic and the eastern episco- 
pal churches. In the church of England and 
the Protestant Episcopal church in the United 
States, sisterhoods and even brotherhoods have 
been formed at various times, and have of late 
increased in number under the auspices of 
what is commonly called the high church par- 


MONACO 


ty. Since the beginning of the 19th century 
both the ‘“‘ Evangelical” and the ‘High Lu- 
theran” schools of Germany have approved of 
the establishment of houses of deacons and 
deaconesses, also called brother houses and sis- 
ter houses, the inmates of which associate for 
the purpose of teaching, attending the sick, 
taking charge of public prisons, &c. Institu- 
tions of this kind are rapidly spreading in Ger- 
many and the adjacent countries. (See Dra- 
CONEss.)—The most important works on the 
history of monachism in general are: Hos- 
pinian, De Monachis libri VI. (Zurich, 1588, 
1609); Hélyot, Histoire des ordres monastiques 
(Paris, 171419; new ed., with an additional 
vol. on the modern history of monachism, by 
Migne, 4 vols., 1849); and Doring, Geschichte 
der Moénchsorden (2 vols., Dresden, 1828). The 
most comprehensive work on the subject is 
Montalembert’s Les moines d@’ Occident (8 vols., 
Paris, 1860-67; 8d ed., 1868; English ed., 
Edinburgh, 1861-7; German ed., Ratisbon, 
1868). Another extensive work has long been 
in preparation by Dom Gueranger, superior 
of the French congregation of Benedictines. 
(See Reriaious ORDERS.) 

MONACO, a small principality of Italy, bound- 
ed S. by the Mediterranean, and surrounded 
on all other sides by the French department of 
Alpes-Maritimes, between Nice and Ventimi- 
glia. At present it consists only of the town of 
Monaco and a small portion of the adjoining 
territory, including the town of Monte Carlo; 
total area about 6 sq. m.; pop. in 1867, 3,127; 
of the town, 1,887. Itformerly extended about 
5 m. along the coast and about 3 m. inland, 
and consisted of the communes of Monaco, 
Mentone, and Roccabruna. The principal pro- 
ducts are fruit and oil. The Genoese family 
Grimaldi was in possession of this territory 
under the protectorate of various governments 
from the 10th century until the early part of 
the 18th, when, by the marriage of the sole 
heiress of the name, it passed into the hands 
of Jacques de Goyon-Matignon, count of Tho- 
rigny. Under his grandson Honoratus IV. it 
was united with the French republic in 1793, 
but was restored to him and placed under the 
protection of Sardiniain1815. The latter gov- 
ernment acknowledged the independence of 
the principality, and reserved to itself only the — 
power of garrisoning it and of appointing the 
military commander of the town of Monaco. 
Florestan I. protested in vain in 1848 against the 
annexation of the communes of Mentone and 
Roccabruna by Sardinia, and opened negotia- 
tions with foreign governments for the sale of 
his rights. He died in Paris, June 20, 1856, 
and was succeeded by his son under the name 
of Charles III., who in 1861 ceded to France his 
claims upon Mentone and Roccabruna, receiv- 
ing an indemnity of 4,000,000 francs. In 1868 
the pope separated Monaco from the diocese 
of Nice; in return for which the prince agreed 
to establish a Benedictine abbey, the abbot to 
exercise episcopal functions in the principality. 


MONAD 


MONAGHAN 433 


In 1869 he abolished all taxes, and his revenue | casino where gaming is carried on. The cli- 


is now derived entirely from the rent of the 


mate is considered very favorable for persons 


Monaco. 


afflicted with pulmonary complaints, and it has 
become a rival of Nice as a watering place. 
MONAD (Gr. povdc, unity), in philosophy, a 
word used by the Neo-Platonists of the early 
ages of Christianity, and especially by Origen, to 
express an idea of Divinity, and also the union 
of the Divine Spirit with matter. According 
to them, the soul was created before all other 
beings, and, being made divine by the know]l- 
edge of the monad, became Christ; a doctrine 
which, according to some writers, is the basis of 
Arianism. Long after this the word was used 
by Leibnitz to designate the primordial ele- 
ments of allmatter. According to him, monads 
are material points, possessing different degrees 
of consciousness and intelligence. The monad 
is simple, without extent, incorruptible, and so 
constituted that its whole future is contained 
in its beginning. (See Lerpnirz.)—In the new 
chemistry the monatomic elements, such as 
hydrogen, chlorine, and potassium, whose mol- 
ecules are capable of uniting only with single 
molecules of othér elements, are called monads; 
while other elementary molecules, from their 
capacity to unite with two or three more mole- 
cules, are called diads, triads, &c. (See Atomic 
THeory).—A number of infusorial organisms 
have received the name of monads. Some of 
these manifestly belong to the animal kingdom, 
some to the vegetable, while of others it is diffi- 
cult to say to which kingdom they belong. The 
first classification was by the Danish naturalist 
O. F. Miiller, who arranged under the same ge- 
nus (monas) the mere moving specks that are 
developed in infusions, whether in vessels al- 
lowed to stand, or placed between slips of glass 
under the microscope, and also certain of the 


most elementary and smaller of the ciliated infu- 
soria, of which the monas lens is the most abun- 
dant representative. Ehrenberg in a subse- 
quent classification placed certain organisms 
containing cells in their interior among poly- 
gastric infusoria, and called them monads. 
More recent observers regard them as belong- 
ing to the vegetable kingdom, ranking them 
among the alge. The development of the mo- 
nas lens from bacteria, and their subsequent 
transformation into amebe, and finally into 
bacteria, is a subject of rare interest, which has 
been pursued by Haeckel, Pineau, Pouchet, Bas- 
tian, and others. (See ANIMALCULES, INFUSoRIA, 
ProrTopiasM, and SPONTANEOUS GENERATION.) 

MONADNOCK, Grand, 2 mountain in Cheshire 
co., New Hampshire, near the 8. W. corner of 
the state. The base covers an area of 5 m. by 
8, and the altitude is 3,186 ft. above the level 
of the sea. Several minerals are found on and 
around the mountain, and it contains tale, mica, 
and slate, distinctly stratified. From a dis- 
tance, its summit appears of a rounded form, 
free from rocks and mural precipices. Many 
streams of water issue from Grand Monad- 
nock, and from its top 30 ponds are visible, 
some of them large enough to contain islands 
of 8 or 10 acres, 

MONAGHAN, an inland county of Ireland, in 
the province of Ulster, bordering on Tyrone, 
Armagh, Louth, Meath, Cavan, and Ferma- 
nagh; area, 498 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 112,785. 
The surface is in general hilly, except in the 
S. E., which is level, and forms the northern 
limit of the great central plain of Ireland. 
The principal mountains are the Slieve Beagh 
range, whose highest summit is 1,254 ft. above 


"34 MONASTERY 


the sea. The chief rivers are the Blackwater, 
Fane, Glyde, and Finn. ‘There are several 
lakes, the largest being Muckno, or Barrac 
Lough, which is about 3 m. long and 1 m. 
broad. The soil is moory and peaty in the 
elevated districts, but fertile in the central and 
southern. The staple manufactures are linen, 
woollen, and earthenware. The minerals are 
iron, lead, coal, slate, marble, and building 
stone. The chief towns are Monaghan, the 
capital (pop. about 4,000), Clones, Castle Blay- 
' ney, and Carrickmacross. It is traversed by 
the Ulster canal and various lines of railway. 
The county was a part of the grant made by 
Henry IL. to De Courcy, was recaptured by 
the native chiefs, and in the reign of Eliza- 
beth was erected into a shire. 

MONASTERY (Gr. povacrfpiov, a house of re- 
tirement), the place in which monks or nuns 
live in seclusion. (See Monacuism.) In the 
beginning monasteries were to be found only 
in solitary places; after a time some were 
built outside the walls of cities, and after the 
5th century the cities themselves became the 
abode of cenobites. The growth of monaste- 
ries for women kept pace with those for men. 
St. Anthony built one for women in Egypt 
and placed his sister over it; St. Pachomius 
did the same in Palestine. St. Basil erected 
several similar houses in Pontus and Cappa- 
docia. At Rome St. Constantia founded one 
near the church of Santa Agnese, and Marcella 
another near that of San Lorenzo. At the 
same epoch St. Eusebius of Vercelli built a 
monastery for women near his cathedral, and 
St. Ambrose another in Milan; and St. Augus- 
tine a little later placed his sister at the head 
of a monastery in Africa. Similar establish- 
ments increased rapidly in western Europe. 
In both the East and the West the great re- 
ligious orders had numerous though separate 
houses for both sexes. The western monas- 
teries of the middle ages became, like those 
of Egypt and Palestine, so many little towns, 
containing all the industries necessary for their 
own subsistence. Not unfrequently, too, the 
neighboring peasants drew from the monks 
- the necessaries of life and built their huts in 
close proximity to them. Such were the fa- 
mous convents of St. Gall, Fulda, Cluny, Ci- 
teaux, and Clairvaux, as well as the great mo- 
nastic establishments of the British isles; and 
such are still the monasteries of the East.— 
These houses are called abbeys when governed 
by an abbot or abbess, priories when ruled by 
a prior or prioress; and when the superior has 
no such distinctive title, the house is called 
simply a monastery, convent, or nunnery. 

MONASTIR, or Bitolia, a town of European 
Turkey, in the vilayet and 80 m. W. N. W. 
of Salonica; pop. about 35,000, chiefly Greeks 
and Bulgarians. It is situated in the valley of 
a tributary of the Vardar, 1,700 ft. above the 
sea, and surrounded by lofty mountains. The 
town contains many mosques and a fine bazaar 
with thousands of shops. It has in recent 


MONBUTTOO 


times considerably increased in importance as 
a great military and commercial centre. Large 
quantities of manufactured goods are import- 
ed from Salonica, Constantinople, Belgrade, 
Trieste, Vienna, and other places, and export- 
ed to the interior. A Turkish governor and a 
Greek metropolitan bishop reside here; the 
diocese is still called Pelagonia, the ancient 
Greek name of the district. 

MONBODDO, James Burnet, lord, a Scottish 
jurist, born at the family seat of Monboddo, 
in Kincardineshire, in 1714, died in Edinburgh, 
May 26, 1799. He graduated at the university 
of Aberdeen, and was sent to Groningen to 
study law. In 1738 he returned to Scotland, 


-and practised at the bar till 1767, when he was 


made a judge. His principal works are: ‘A 
Dissertation on the Origin and Progress of 
Language” (6 vols. 8vo, 177492), and ‘‘ An- 
cient Metaphysics” (6 vols. 4to, 1778). He 
especially admired the civilization of Greece, 
but maintained that the savage state was hap- 
piest, that men originally possessed no higher 
faculty than beasts, and that the orang outang 
is of the human species. 

MONBUTTOO, a country of central Africa, bor- 
dering on Nyam-nyam, Moruvoo, and Akka, 
between lat. 8° and 4° N., and lon. 28° and 
29° E.; area, about 4,000 sq. m.; pop. estima- 
ted by Schweinfurth in 1870 at 1,000,000. It 
is generally a table land 2,500 to 2,800 ft. 
above the sea, with gentle elevations in some 
places 100 ft. above the beds of the streams. 
It is traversed in the north by the Keebaly 
river, which is joined by the Gadda flowing 
in from the southwest. They form the Welle, 
which proceeds west along the southern por- 
tion of Nyam-nyam, and is enlarged by numer- 
ous tributaries, finally forming in its upper 
course the more easterly of the two arms, 
which, uniting in Baghirmi under the name 
of Shary, are the source of Lake Tchad. The 
country is described as very beautiful, with 
vast groves of plantains, oil palms, and other 
trees, and a delightful verdure. The sponta- 
neous production of fruits and tubers in pro- 
fusion limits cultivation to the narrowest 
bounds, and almost the only products requi- 
ring attention are sesame, ground nuts, sugar 
cane, and tobacco. The breeding of cattle is 
not practised by the Monbuttoo; vast numbers 
of goats are stolen from their neighbors, but 
there is no attempt to rear them; and, ex- 
cepting dogs and poultry, they have no do- 
mestic animals. The people are of a lighter 
tint than other known nations of central Af- 
rica, and Schweinfurth compares the color of 
their skins to that of ground coffee. They 
differ from other negroes also in the greater 
length and curve of the nose. Weaving is 
unknown to them; the men clothe themselves 
with the bark of the fig tree, and the women 
go almost entirely naked. They practise cir- 
cumcision, and polygamy is unlimited. They 
are ingenious workers of copper and iron, ex- 
pert wood carvers, and display some facility 


MONCK 


in the manufacture of pottery. Their hunt- 
ing expeditions supply them with a great 
abundance of wild meat; but, according to 
Schweinfurth, their cannibalism is ‘“‘the most 
pronounced of all the known nations of Af- 
rica.”” An important article of traflic is ivory, 
which is a monopoly of the king. 

MONCK, an electoral district of Ontario, Can- 
ada, in the S. part of the province, border- 
ing on Lake Erie; area, 373 sq. m.; pop. in 
1871, 16,179, of whom 5,758 were of German, 
5,046 of English, 3,080 of Irish, and 1,570 of 
Scotch origin or descent. It comprises parts 
of the counties of Haldimand, Lincoln, and 
Welland, and is traversed by the Grand Trunk, 
Canada Southern, and Great Western railways. 

MONCREIFF (Wellwood), Sir Henry, a Scottish 
divine, born at Blackford, Perthshire, Feb. 6, 
1750, died in Edinburgh, June 14, 1827. He 
was the son of the Rey. Sir William Moncreiff, 
and assumed the name of Wellwood in the lat- 
ter part of his life. He was educated at Glas- 
gow and Edinburgh, was ordained in 1771, and 
was minister in Blackford as successor of his 
father till 1775, when he was appointed min- 
ister of St. Cuthbert’s, Edinburgh. He early 
connected himself with the evangelical party 
in the church, and became in time its leader. 
His principal works are: ‘‘ Discourses on the 
Evidence of the Jewish and Christian Revela- 
tions ” (Edinburgh, 1815); ‘‘ Account of the 
Life and Writings of Dr. John Erskine” 
(1818); and ‘‘Sermons” (8 vols. 8vo, 1829- 
31), with a memoir by his son. 

MONCTON, a town and port of entry of West- 
moreland co., New Brunswick, Canada, at the 
head of navigation on the Petitcodiac river, 
and on the Intercolonial railway, 89 m. N. E 
of St. John; pop. in 1871, 4,810. It is beauti- 
fully situated and has afine harbor. The num- 
ber of vessels cleared during the year ending 
June 30, 1873, was 17, of 1,563 tons; entered, 
16, of 1,357 tons; value of exports, $15,321; 
imports, $108,037. The town contains the 
general offices and principal workshops of the 
railway, and has manufactories of iron cast- 
ings, steam engines, machinery, tobacco, leath- 
er, wooden ware, &c., two branch banks, sev- 
eral hotels, a weekly newspaper, a telegraph 
office, and four churches. 

MONDAY (Lat. Lune Dies, Fr. lundi, Ger. 
Montag, the day of the moon), the second day 
of the week, which derives its designation 
from the Romans, who gave the names of the 
sun, moon, and five planets to the seven days 
in modern use. 

MONDONEDO, a city of Galicia, Spain, in the 
as and 80 m. N. N. E. of the city of 

ugo; pop. about 7,000. It is built in the 
form of an amphitheatre on the slope of three 
mountains, one of which is the Monte Infiesta, 
at the edge of an oval valley, watered by three 
streams, tributaries of the Masma. The streets 
are irregular, and the houses mainly of anti- 
quated appearance. The walls are in good 
preservation. The cathedral, begun in 1221, is 


568 VOL, x1,—47 


MONEY 7355 


a& massive Corinthian structure. An ancient 
castle stands on an eminence, and its batteries 
command the town. The chief occupations 
are agriculture, cattle rearing, cotton and linen 
weaving, and tanning. The French sacked 
Mondofiedo in 1809. 

MONDOVI, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the 
province of Coni, on the right bank of the EI- 
lero, 1,810 ft. above the sea, and 53 m. W. of 
Genoa; pop. about 10,000. Itis partly on a hill, 
is walled, and has a citadel. The streets are 
adorned with many handsome edifices, among 
which is the cathedral of San Donato. It is 
the seat of a bishop, and has two gymnasia, a 
technical school, an episcopal seminary, and 
other schools and charitable institutions. The 
manufactures are of woollens, silks, &e. The 
city was founded in the 12th century by the 
people of the surrounding villages, as a place 
of refuge during the civil wars. It remained 
an independent republic till 1396, when it sub- 
mitted to Amadeus of Savoy, titular prince of 
Achaia. On April 21, 1796, it was the scene 
of a battle between a portion of Bonaparte’s 
army and the Sardinians under Colli, in which 
the latter were defeated with the loss of 2,000 
men and 8 guns. In 1799 the city was fear- 
fully punished for rising against the French. 

MONE, Franz Joseph, 2 German scholar, born 
at Mingolsheim, Baden, May 12, 1796, died in 
Carlsruhe, March 12, 1871. He studied at 
Heidelberg, and was professor there till 1827, 
when he became professor of statistics at Lou- 
vain; but after the revolution of 1830 he 
returned to Heidelberg, and in 1835 became 
director of the Baden archives. His works 
include Geschichte des Heidenthums im nérd- 
lichen Huropa (2 vols., 1822-’8); an edition 
of Reinardus Vulpes (Stuttgart, 1832); Ueber- 
sicht der niederlindischen Volksliteratur dlte- 
rer Zeit (Tibingen, 1838); and Die gallische 
Sprache und thre Brauchbarkeit fir die Ge- 
schichte (Carlsruhe, 1851). 

MONEY (Lat. and Ital. moneta), the currency 
of the realm or of the country; the standard 
of payment, whether of coins, circulating notes, 
or any other commodity. Anything which 
freely circulates from hand to hand, as a com- 
mon, acceptable medium of exchange in any 
country, is in such country money, even though 
it cease to be such, or to possess any value, in 
passing into another country. In a word, an 
article is determined to be money by rea- 
son of the performance by it of certain func- 
tions, without regard to its form or substance. 
Money has been termed by Mr. Henry C. 
Carey ‘the instrument of association,” and 
the same writer has said of it that it is ‘‘a 
saving fund for labor, because it facilitates 
association and combination, giving utility to 
billions of millions of minutes that would be 
wasted did not a demand exist for them at 
the moment the power to labor had been pro- 
duced.” Baron Stcrch terms money “the 
marvellous instrument to which we are in- 
debted for our wealth and civilization.” Mr. 


736 


Thorold Rogers has said: “Just as the devel- 
opment of language is essential to the intel- 
lectual growth of a people, so is a medium of 
exchange to civilization.” Aristotle says of 
it, ‘that it exists not by nature, but by law.” 
How true is this doctrine, or at least how po- 
tent is the law under a civilized government in 
imparting the quality of acceptability for the 
payment of debts and the purchase of com- 
modities to that which it recognizes as money, 
is clearly proved by the operations of the bank 
of Venice during several centuries, throughout 
which time its deposits, which were never pay- 
able, but only transferable on the books of the 
bank, were at a premium over coins, because 
they were the standard of payment furnished 
by the state and used for all large transactions. 
Indeed, this bank money was that which estab- 
lished the money of account and in which the 
value of all coins was expressed. Further, on 
the testimony of Thomas Baring, we are as- 
sured that it was found impossible during the 
crisis of 1847 in London to raise any money 
whatever on a sum of £60,000 of silver. Du- 
ring a similar crisis in Calcutta in 1864 it was 
equally impossible to raise even a single rupee 
on £20,000 of gold. The former was not a 
legal tender above 40 shillings, while the latter 
was not so for any sum whatever. About 
1855 Holland adopted silver as the only legal 
tender at a fixed. value, but attempted to coin 
gold coins having no such value, this only 
being regulated by the market price from day 
to day. After 200,000 florins (about $80,000) 
had been coined, the demand entirely ceased. 
—Very dissimilar substances have been made 
to serve as money. The Jews, in addition to 
their ordinary money of shekels, talents, and 
drachms of silver, had'‘‘ jewel money.” Cattle 
were used as money in ancient Greece and in 
Rome; and hence the word pecuniary, from 
pecunia, and this from pecus, cattle. Before 
the introduction of coined money into Greece 
there was a currency of “spits” or ‘‘ skewers,” 
of which six were a drachm (dpaypf, originally 
dpayuh, ao handful); they were probably nails 
of iron or copper. The Lacedemonians and 
Byzantines and the people of Clazomenz used 
iron money. Among the most ancient existing 
specimens of coin are those of electrum, an al- 
loy of gold with one fifth silver. Gold, silver, 
and copper were coined by the Greeks and Ro- 
mans. Tin was coined by Dionysius I., tyrant 
of Syracuse, and Roman and British tin coins 
are known to exist. Early leaden money is 
mentioned ; a leaden stater is preserved in the 
British museum, and leaden money is now cur- 
rent in the Burman empire. Platinum was 
coined in Russia from 1828 to 1845. Numa 
Pompilius, king of Rome about 700 B. C., made 
money both of wood and of leather. Under 
the Ossars lands were made money. The 
Carthaginians had a kind of leather money. 
The emperor Frederick Barbarossa during his 
contest with Milan (1158-’62), and John the 
Good, king of France (1360), also issued leather 


MONEY 


money. Under William I. of Sicily (1154~’66), 
the Sicilians were compelled to give gold and 
silver in exchange for leather money. In 1574, 
when the city of Leyden was besieged by the 
Spaniards, leather money was issued. The 
British museum. has a specimen of a sequin in 
leather of Francesco Cornaro (1656). In the 
13th century Niceld and Matteo Polo found a 
money in use in China which was made of the 
middle bark of the mulberry tree, cut into 
round pieces and stamped with the mark of the 
sovereign; this money it was death to coun- 
terfeit or refuse to take in any part of the 
empire. In Britain, at as late a date as the 
Norman conquest, two kinds of money were in 
use, known as “living money” and ‘ dead 
money.” The former consisted of slaves and 
cattle, which were usually transferred with the 
soil, and the latter of metal. Montesquieu 
notices the existence among the inhabitants of 
the coast of Africa in the 18th century of an 
‘‘ ideal money,” ‘‘a sign of value without 
money,” the unit being the macoute, which 
was subdivided into tenths called pieces. This 
money of account had its origin, as appears 
from later testimony, in the macoute, a piece 
of stuff, a fabric; and Mungo Park says that 
in the early intercourse of the Mandingos 
with the Europeans, the article which attracted 
most attention was iron, on account of its high 
utility in making implements of war, &c. Iron 
soon became a standard of payment, and gave 
rise to a money of account; and any commod- 
ity which was supposed to be of the value of 
a bar of iron was called a bar, as a bar of to- 
bacco, &c. When the South sea islands were 
discovered the natives first exchanged their 
products with the Europeans for beads or 
anything gaudy which was offered to them; 
but they soon discovered the value of iron 
utensils, and they now freely exchanged any- 
thing they had for axes, hammers, nails, &c. 
Axes were eventually held in such estimation 
that they became a standard of payment and 
the basis of a money of account, the value of 
other articles being stated at so many axes. 
Cowry shells (cyprea moneta) are used in India, 
the Indian islands, and Africa, in the place of 
small coin. In 1851 more than 1,000 tons were 
brought from India to Liverpool to be exported 
to the coast of Africa in exchange for palm oil. 
In Bengal a century ago. 2,500 cowries were 
worth a rupee (46 cts.), and at the present time 
3,200 are worth this sum. According to Dr. 
Barth, in Bornoo, central Africa, the ancient 
standard of the country was the pound of cop- 
per; but it has long since fallen into disuse, 
although the name rot/ still remains. The 
prices of commodities are still reckoned in the 
rotl, although cotton strips and shirts, cow- 
ries, and Austrian and Spanish dollars have 
become the mediums of exchange, their value 
being expressed inrotls. In India cakes of tea, 
and in China pieces of silk, pass asmoney. Salt 
is the current money of Abyssinia, codfish of 
Iceland and Newfoundland. At the great fair 


MONEY 


annually held at Nizhni Novgorod in Russia, the 
price of tea has first to be made known before 
the prices of other commodities are fixed, it 
thus becoming a standard by which all ex- 
changes of merchandise are regulated. The 
skins of wild animals were used as money by 
the ancient Russians and by some of the In- 
dians on this continent; and even by the people 
of Illinois at an early day raccoon and deer 
skins were so used. In 1574 quantities of 
pasteboard were coined in Holland. Of the 
aboriginal money of the American continent, 
from the mounds in and adjoining the valley 
of the Mississippi, specimens have been ob- 
tained composed of lignite, coal, bone, shell, 
terra cotta, mica, pearl, carnelian, chalcedony, 
agate, jasper, native gold, silver, copper, lead, 
and iron, which were fashioned into forms evin- 
cing considerable skill in art. Cocoanuts were 
used as money in certain parts of the Ameri- 
can continent when the Europeans first visited 
it. Wampum was used by the Indians as cur- 
rency, and about 1635 was the prevailing one 
among the colonists of Massachusetts, was a 
legal tender, and was even counterfeited. 
About the same time corn and beans were 
used, and indeed a general barter currency was 
in vogue, and musket balls passed for change 
at a farthing apiece, and were a legal tender 
for sums under one shilling. Codfish was also 
used. The accounts of the New Netherlands 
were in 1662 kept in wampum and beaver 
skins; and in Virginia about the beginning of 
the 18th century the receipts issued for tobac- 
co deposited in warehouses passed current as 
money. Adam Smith mentions that in Scot- 
land about 1776 it was customary for workmen 
to carry nails as money to the bake shop and 
the ale house. Notched wood was used at one 
time in England. ‘In the British West India 
Islands,” says Mr. Madden, author of ‘Coins 
of the Jews,” “pins, a slice of bread, a pinch 
of snuff, a dram of whiskey, and in the central 
part of South America soap, chocolate, cocoa- 
nuts, eggs,” &c., serve the same purpose. As- 
sociation with his fellow man being one of the 
first and most imperative needs of man, he 
thus finds, amid a variety of things, some one 
or more which will serve as the instrument 
of association.—R. H. Patterson, an eminent 
Scotch writer, has traced the origin of metal- 
lic money in the East through the tendency 
of man in the then primitive state of soci- 
ety to accumulate the precious metals at a 
time when there was little wealth beyond 
that of flocks and herds, crops of grain, and 
other personal property; and he goes on to 
say: ‘* Next, as all men valued these metals, 
kings began to collect their revenues in that 
form. They coined the metal and made it re- 
ceivable as tribute or taxes. This fully estab- 
lished the exchangeable value of the precious 
metals. It created a new demand for them, 
it rendered them indispensable in a department 
of national life where they had not previous- 
ly been required; thenceforth all men needed 


737 
them every year to pay the king’s dues. Thus 
they became a circulating medium. A man 


who had more oxen or grain than he needed 
for his own use, sold those commodities to 
others, receiving coins in return, which coins 
he could store for ever, which were useful to 
pay taxes, and when he so needed to purchase 
the labor or productions of others.” “ But,” 
he adds, ‘‘the invention of money by no means 
put an end to payments in kind and the pro- 
cess of barter. It only supplemented them. 
Even in England until the reign of Edward I. 
the taxes were paid in kind to a large extent, 
if not entirely; and to a much later date mili- 
tary or other personal service to the state was 
accepted in lieu of taxes of any kind.” As 
monarchs originally established coinage, so 
throughout all subsequent time the monarch 
or the state has claimed as among the highest 
of his or its prerogatives all control over “ the 
current money of the realm.” With coins this 
function has almost universally been directly 
exercised by the supreme authority, while with 
circulating notes, the prerogative still being 
claimed, the exercise of the function of issue 
has generally been delegated to banks. The 
earliest recorded mention of the precious metals 
is found in Gen. xiii. 2; when Abraham re- 
turned from Egypt ‘‘ very rich in cattle, in 
silver, and in gold.” In xvii. 12 we find the 
expression, ‘‘he that is born in the house or 
bought with money of any stranger.” The 
earliest account of a purchase and sale is given 
in Gen, xxiii., when Sarah the wife of Abra- 
ham being dead, he bought from Ephron a 
field in Machpelah for a burial place for her, 
and he ‘‘ weighed to Ephron the silver which 
he had named in the audience of the sons of 
Heth, four hundred shekels of silver, current 
money with the merchant.” It will be ob- 
served that this current money was not count- 
ed, but was weighed, the money of that day 
being pieces of silver cut to certain weights, 
as shekels and talents, but not coined.—The 
invention of coinage has been attributed to the 
wife of Midas, a legendary king of Phrygia, 
although it is quite probable that this was 
merely the introduction of the art from some 
other country more advanced in civilization. 
By some of the highest authorities the balance 
of testimony at present existing, so far as it can 
be traced, is regarded as in favor of the Lyd- 
ians (about 1200 B.C.) as the inventors, and 
with this view both Herodotus and Xenophanes 
of Colophon agree. In the opinion of Mr. Mad- 
den, the earliest electrum coins have the appear- 
ance of greater antiquity than any in the whole 
Greek series; and it seems more probable that 
the invention was of Asiatic origin, as the part 
of Asia to which this electrum class belongs 
was at this early period subject to the Lydian 
kings. By some Greek writers the invention 
is attributed to Phidon, king of Argos in the 
8th century B. C., and by others to the people 
of Aigina. Phidon is now believed only to have 
introduced coinage into Greece. Weare assured 


738 


that the native bronze coin of China, the tsien 
or cash, bearing the inscription tung-pan, 1. ¢., 
current money, had its origin about 1120 B. 
C., at the beginning of the Chan dynasty. The 
original coins of Asia Minor were of gold or 
electrum (a mixture of gold and silver), and 
those of Greece of silver; while in Rome for 
nearly 500 years after its foundation no metal 
was coined but copper or brass. The @s, as, or 
libra, a pound weight of copper or brass, was 
stamped by the state in the reign of Servius Tul- 
lius (578-534 B.C.). This coin, the unit of Ro- 
man money, was originally oblong like a brick, 
but subsequently was made round, and was cast, 
not struck. Before this reign they used for 
money unstamped bars of copper. According 
to Pliny, silver was first coined at Rome in 269 
B. C., the principal coin being the denarius ; 
and gold in 207, although it is believed that the 
latter did not form a part of the ordinary and 
regular currency of the country until the time 
of Julius Oxsar, about 49. The emperors pos- 
sessed the privilege of coining gold and silver, 
but copper could only be coined ex senatus 
consulto.—At the date of the invasion of Brit- 
ain by Ceasar, 55 B. C., the ancient Britons 
had money of brass and iron, and it was paid 
by weight. During the reign of Augustus, Cu- 
nobelin, one of the native kings, had established 
his mint at Camulodunum (Colchester), where 
he caused to be coined money of gold, silver, and 
brass. Under the emperor Claudius the coin- 
age of the Romans took the place of that of 
the natives, and circulated until after the aban- 
donment of the country by the conquerors in 
the 5th century. The earliest. coins of Eng- 
land subsequently issued are supposed to be 
the pennies of Ethelbert, king of Kent (560- 
616). These were coarsely stamped with the 
king’s image on one side and either the name 
of the mint master or the city in which they 
were coined on the other. At this time all 
money accounts began to be expressed in 
pounds, shillings, pence, and mancas or man- 
cuses, although there was no coin but the pen- 
ny, all other denominations being mere mon- 
eys of account; 80 pence made a manca, 5 
pence a shilling, and 40 shillings a pound. 
The mancas were reckoned both in gold and 
silver. In King Canute’s laws the distinction 
is made that a mancusa was as much as a mark 
of silver, while a manca was a square piece of 
gold valued at 30 pence. King Athelstan (980) 
decreed that money should be uniform and 
only coined in towns, and this decree mentions 
the fact that the clergy shared with the king 
the privilege of coinage. The Norman kings 
continued the practice of coining only. pence, 
which were of silver, and with a cross so 
deeply impressed that they might easily be 
broken into halfpence and farthings. The 
date of the earliest use of the word sterling to 
denote the standard money of England has 
given rise to much learned discussion; but it 
has been well established by the testimony of 
the chronicler Ordericus Vitalis (1075-1148) 


MONEY 


that it was used as early as during the reign of 
William the Conqueror. The etymology of the 
word is by no means so certain. . Henry I. in 
1108 attached severe penalties to the counter- 
feiting of money, and during this reign half- 
pence were first regularly coined. At the 


commencement of his reign (1154) Henry II. 


found the money so much debased and reduced 
in value from various causes, that he pro- 
vided for a new coinage, and punished those 
convicted of tampering with it. In 1222 
silver farthings were coined. In 1248 it was 
found that the money of the realm had been 
so clipped and otherwise defaced that its real 
worth bore no fixed proportion to its nominal 
value. Henry III. therefore ordered that the 
old coins should be brought to the mint and 
exchanged for new ones, weight for weight; 
thus entailing the entire loss, which was very 
great, upon the then present holders of these 
coins, which justly caused great complaint. 
During this reign, in 1257, gold pennies were 
first coined, which weighed +3, of a pound 
tower, and passed for 20d. In 1279 Edward 
J. caused a new coinage of halfpence and far- 
things to be made, providing at the same time 
that the old, which were principally mere frac- 
tions cut to suit, should no longer pass current. 
Twenty years subsequently, and during the 
same reign, so much trouble and loss were 
suffered from foreign coins of inferior value, 
known as “ pollards,” ‘‘ crockards,” &c., that it 
was decreed that all importers of such money 
should be punished by death and the confiscation 
of their property. All persons arriving from 
abroad were to be searched, and those having 
such money were to be immediately impris- 
oned. All good foreign money was to be ta- 
ken forthwith on its arrival to the exchange, 
and all false English money imported was to 
be seized. No person was allowed to sell 
wool, hides, skins, lead, or tin, except for good 
sterling money, silver stamped at the king’s ex- 
change, or for a good and sufficient quantity 
of merchandise; and no money or bullion was 
to be taken out of the dominions without a li- 
cense from the king, under penalty of seizure. 
Persons going abroad, or coming to England, 
were to be furnished at Dover with a quantity 
of money of the country to which they were 
going, sufficient to pay their expenses. The 
following year (1300) Edward positively pro- 
hibited the circulation of any money not of his 
own coinage. In 1301 he diminished the 
weight of the pound sterling three pennies, 
equal to one per cent.. This was ‘‘a departure 
from the ancient strict and honorable adhe- 
rence to the integrity of the national money ; 
and a breach, once begun, was with less scru- 
ple enlarged by the succeeding kings.” Ed- 
ward II., having married a daughter of the 
king of France, gave permission to the French 
merchants to trade with England, and return 
with their goods and money, notwithstanding 
the edicts of preceding monarchs against the 
exportation of coin and bullion. In the reign 


MONEY 


of Edward III. (1335), among the extraordi- 
nary means taken to prevent the importation 
of money of foreign coinage from abroad, may 
be mentioned that of obliging innkeepers to be 
sworn to search their guests for the detection 
of such money. Exchanges were established 
at Dover, London, Yarmouth, Boston, Kings- 
ton, and Hull, for furnishing to travellers go- 
ing abroad foreign money. This monarch, 
having by 13844 exhausted his exchequer, and 
embarrassed himself with debts, in his unsuc- 
cessful attempts to conquer France, ordered 
that in future 266 pennies should be made from 
the pound sterling. Two years subsequently 
he increased the number to 270 pennies. In 
1394 it was decreed that no silver money should 
be melted for the manufacture of plate or for 
any similar purpose. Counterfeiting of Eng- 
lish money would seem to have been a very 
common practice in those days; and in 1416 
parliament passed an act declaring it treason 
to counterfeit the money of the kingdom, and 
providing for the punishment by the judges of 
importers of base coin. Five years later the 
currency was in so bad a state that a law was 
passed by parliament providing that all gold 
money should be passed only by weight, and 
that all light and vitiated coins should be taken 
to the tower to be recoined. In consideration 
of the loss sustained by the holders, the king 
remitted the usual charge for coinage. In the 
reign of Henry VII. (1504) a law was passed 
against either taking English money into Ire- 
land, or bringing Irish money into England. 
The following year a trifling number of shil- 
ling pieces were coined, being the earliest 
known to have been made. Under Henry 
VIII. enactments against the exportation of 
money, plate, and jewels were again passed; 
and in this reign (1528) silver farthings were 
coined for the last time. In the reign of Ed- 
ward VI. (1551) the currency reached its worst 
condition of depreciation, and was ‘‘in such a 
state of confusion and fluctuation, that the sell- 
ers scarcely ever knew what value they were 
to receive for their goods,” when the king ap- 
plied active and vigorous measures for correct- 
ing the evil by raising the standard. Queen 
Elizabeth signalized the beginning of her reign 
by raising the silver coin to a higher standard 
of purity than had been known since the acces- 
sion of Henry VIII. In 1601 she caused to be 
coined for Ireland shillings, sixpences, and 
threepences of a baser kind, and established 
offices for exchange between the two countries. 
For many years the tradesmen of London had 
made and issued leaden tokens, which circula- 
ted instead of copper coins. This circulation 
was to a great extent stopped about the begin- 
ning of the 17th century by the government, 
and the more general use of regular coins grad- 
ually took their place. James I. in 1613 de- 
based a portion of the coin, having coins in 
circulation of two qualities of fineness, In 
1627 Charles J. issued a proclamation, saying 
in effect that the buying, selling, and exchang- 


739 


ing of all manner of coins and bullion were 
prerogatives of the crown, which from that 
time forth he intended to exercise; he inter- 
dicted the goldsmiths from pursuing the busi- 
ness in any of its branches, and appointed 
Lord Holland and his deputies to have ‘the of- 
fice of our changes, exchanges, and outchanges 
whatsoever in England, Wales, and Ireland.” 
In 1632 he granted permission to the East In- 
dia company to export to Persia and India 
£40,000 in foreign gold bullion; and being 
desirous of cultivating friendly relations with 
Philip IV. of Spain, he authorized under cer- 
tain restrictions the export of the precious 
metals to the Spanish Netherlands. Accord- 
ing to Davenant, the entire gold and silver 
coinage of England for 100 years, from 1558 
to 1659, was: of gold £3,723,000, and of silver 
£16,109,476, making in all £19,832,476. By 
the same authority it is estimated that in the 
year 1600 the total amount of gold and sil- 
ver currency in England did not exceed £4,- 
000,000, and that in 1711 it did not exceed 
£12,000,000. In 1676, Charles II. being 
then on the throne, the money coined du- 
ring the commonwealth and protectorate was 
called in and recoined. This amounted to 
£800,000; and by estimating that coinage at 
one seventh, and giving an allowance for mon- 
ey hoarded, writers of that day put the total 
currency of the country at £6,000,000. The 
first copper coinage of England since the con- 
quest was in 1672, during this reign. James 
II. (1685-’8) issued coins of tin, and author- 
ized those of gun metal and of pewter. Tho 
first sovereigns were coined in 1489, under 
Henry VII.; half, quarter, and eighth sove- 
reigns by Henry VIII. in 1544; and the first 
guinea by Charles II. in 1675.—It may be in- 
structive here to examine into the circumstances 
under which Great Britain was led to adopt 
the gold standard, after for a century having 
the double standard of both gold and silver. 
Owing to the over-valuation of silver in France 
before the commencement of the 18th century, 
the heavy silver coins rapidly disappeared from 
circulation in Great Britain, only the light and 
worn ones remaining, often 25 per cent. below 
the standard. The evil became so great that 
it brought on a discussion during the reign of 
William and Mary, in which the philosopher 
John Locke and William Lowndes, master of 
the mint, took decided and antagonistic parts. 
The result was that the government undertook 
to recoin the entire remaining and worn silver 
currency, and to make it full weight without 
raising its value. This only facilitated its ex- 
port and rendered it more difficult to maintain 
this part of the circulation, a difficulty which 
lasted throughout the century, the real value 
of the coins being so uncertain that the guinea 
fluctuated in price, as measured by silver, from 
21s. 6d. to 80s. It was therefore in 1774 de- 
clared that silver should no longer be a tender, 
except by weight, beyond £25. In the words 
of Mr. J. R. McCulloch, ‘from 1717 to 1816, 


740 


no silver coins of legal weight and purity would 
remain in circulation, but were either melted 
down or exported to foreign countries.” In 
1816 the pound standard of silver was coined 
into 66s., the relative value with gold being as 
1 to 14:287. Silver then became a legal tender 
for only 40s. and under, and has since only been 
coined for account of the government itself, at 
an apparent profit; but as the government 
maintains the circulation up to the standard, 
this profit is more nominal than real. By the 
currency bill of 1819, providing for the re- 
sumption of cash payments in 1823, all the old 
statutes against the melting and exportation of 
coin or plate were repealed, as well as the oath 
required that it was not melted plate or coin 
or clippings of coin. In 1792 the congress of 
the United States by law fixed the relative value 
of silver and gold at 1 to 15; and as a conse- 
quence, when a foreign balance had to be liqui- 
dated, silver being over-valued as compared 
with European standards, gold was exported, 
and it was found impossible to maintain a gold 
circulation. In 1834 the standard was altered 
to 1 to 16, while with other nations it was 
generally 1 to 153. Now silver was so largely 
exported that the proportion was on March 3, 
1853, altered to 1 to 14°88, and silver was made 
a legal tender only for sums under $5. By 
the coinage act of Feb. 12, 1873, it was again 
changed to 1 to 14:95. After the discovery 
of gold in California and Australia the econo- 
mists of Europe predicted a great decline in its 
value. Prominent among these was M. Cheva- 
lier, who in 1859 published a volume entitled 
De la baisse probable de Vor, which was trans- 
lated into English by Mr. Richard Cobden. 
Under the influence of the teachings of the 
economists, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Ger- 


many all demonetized gold and adopted silver’ 


as the only legal tender at a fixed rate. In 
those countries gold only circulated as a com- 
modity, subject to daily fluctuations in value; 
and as a consequence, deprived as it was of its 
legal support as money, it was but little used. 
In 1861 Belgium, “at the urgent request of 
her commercial and industrial interests, and in 
defiance of the opinion of the theorists,” re- 
adopted gold asa legal tender. The German 
empire has now (1874) adopted gold alone as a 
legal tender, with silver only for subsidiary 
coinage. Denmark, Sweden, and the Nether- 
lands have decided upon the same course, to 
be followed, as is believed, by Belgium. In 
India prior to 1835 gold and silver were both 
a legal tender, but silver then became the ex- 
clusive one. In 1841 the Indian government 
authorized gold mohars to be received when 
offered for taxes. In December, 1852, how- 
ever, this was prohibited for fear that all pay- 
ments might be made to them in gold, which 
was the cheaper metal, while they might be 
obliged to make all payments in silver, which 
was the only legal tender.—The relative values 
of silver and gold at different periods have 
been as follows: 


MONEY 


Rome about the Christian era............-. 


1to 9 

England, mint price, ees 2 MR AE 88) Ne 4 to ae 
ts & Pe TM UU, oitz bic + 9 6 ose perenne to 11° 

« oD MOND COT iis 2.1 Ce PRR 1 to 11°100 

Fh oh gis MURS oJ. cle ae 1 to 15-209 

‘“ it hac 12s, \ RRP, 1 to 15-209 

«“ SHUR ecgpees CET Taare 1 to 15069 


The relative productions of these two metals 
have varied from about 42 oz. of silver to one 
of gold in 1800 to about 63 oz. of silver to one 
of. gold in 1863. The following table, derived 
from the “‘indentures” made with the masters 
of the mint, exhibits the number of pounds, 
shillings, and pence which have at various 
times in England been coined out of a pound 
of silver, with the standard of fineness: 


DATES. Fine silver. Alloy. Lea a: 
oz. dwt. oz. dwt. 
Before A. D.1800..... 11 2 0 18 1-007 0 
1800, 28 Edward I..... a ez, 0 18 10 8 
1844, 18 Edward III... 11 2 0 18 Ltd yD 
1346, 20 sf tt a Py 0 18 1-2 6 
1353, 2T st eg: eae 0 18 ji et ems 1) 
1412,13 Henry IV....| 11 2 0 18 | 110 0 
1464, 4 Edward IV... LL y2 0 18 1 Pie Cera} 
1527, 18 Henry vui.,| 11) ead 0 18 oD" bO 
1543, 34 “ oe 10 O 2 0 28 0 
1545, 36 She 6 0 6730 28 9 
1546,37 “ pg 4 0 5 0 aS O 
1549, 38 Edward VI... 6 0 6 0 812 0 
1551, 5. “ «| 8 0 9 0| 812 0 
1551, end ) 6 Edward | 
of 1552 A bie tae’ 11 1 0 19 S Omer 
1558 TuMary vive. 11 °0 1 O 8 0 0 
1560, 2 Elizabeth..... Ate 0 18 8 0 0 
1601, 48 ve 1 he) 0 18 35. 2 0 


’ 


The last named proportions continued down 
to 1816 (56 George III.), and the standard of 
fineness is still the same, but the weight of 
the coins has been reduced, the shilling weigh- 
ing but 87:48 grains, and a pound of silver 
thus producing 66,8, shillings.—Early in the 
latter half of the 17th century the public 
mind of England became deeply interested in 
projects for the establishment of institutions 
of credit which should economize the use and 
add to the power of the then limited metal- 
lic circulation of the realm. They had seen 
and appreciated how in Amsterdam the own- 
ership of coins, and in Venice. the ownership 
of these as well as of claims upon the state, 
were made to furnish the means for the ad- 
justment of debts even more efficiently than 
the coins themselves, which were at the same 
time protected from clipping, sweating, wear, 
and tear; and how the bank of Genoa had 
even advanced beyond this, by furnishing its 
own notes for circulation. Indeed, they had 
noticed the success of the goldsmiths and 
other private bankers in issuing their own 
promissory notes, payable to the bearer on de- 
mand, as well as bonds or sealed bills bearing 
interest and payable at a fixed day, as cur- 
rency. In 1657 Samuel Lamb, a well known 
merchant of London, published a pamphlet en- 
titled ‘‘ Trade, Shipping, Banks,” in which he 
took the ground that it was desirable to estab- 
lish banks; ‘‘forno nation,” he says, ‘‘ yet made 
use of them, but they flourished and thrived 


MONEY 


exceedingly; they will, by well ordering of 
them, bring back the gold and silver drained 
out of this land by the Hollanders’ banks,” &c. 
The result of this discussion, which was con- 
tinued for years, was the establishment of -the 
bank of England in the year 1694. This insti- 
tution, at once on commencing business, issued 
its notes payable without indorsement to the 
bearer on demand. Prior to this time bank 
notes, properly speaking, with an extended cir- 
culation without indorsement, were unknown 
in Europe, unless those issued in 1658”by the 
bank established by Palmstruck in Stockholm 
were of this character. The bank of England 
was the first in the world which agreed to is- 
sue its notes, payable on demand, in exchange 
for individual paper, payable at a future date. 
‘‘ The bank thus undertook,” in the words of 
Stephen Colwell, ‘“‘to perform an impossi- 
bility, in the hope that it would not be called 
upon to redeem the promise or make the at- 
tempt;” and he adds: ‘‘ What the bank could 
do was to give its own notes of convenient 
denominations for circulation in exchange for 
individual paper, and payable at the same time 
as it; and in doing this alone the bank could 
have rendered a great service to the public 
with small risk.” The same writer regards 
this step of the bank as ‘“‘a Pandora’s box of 
evils opened to trouble the commercial world,” 
and to be the main cause of the unpopularity 
of banks even unto the present hour, by reason 
of their irregular action and instability.—In 
America, ‘‘the several provinces in their in- 
fancy,” says Wright, the author of ‘‘ The Ame- 
rican Negotiator’? (London, 1767), ‘‘ had but 
little trade, and consequently little money. 
The tools, utensils, and necessaries for planting 
they were at first supplied with from Britain, 
involved them in debt before they were able 
to raise goods for exportation to pay their 
creditors; and the goods they first raised were 
often so ordinary in quality or so little in quan- 
tity that they were able to export to a foreign 
market, that the net proceeds of the same often 
turned out poorly; by which means the plant- 
ers remained continually in debt to the British 
merchants, and occasioned the balance of trade 
to be always against them; and having neither 
goods nor cash sufficient to remit to their cred- 
itors, the consequence has been that many bad 
debts have been made and great losses sus- 
- tained, as the merchants of Great Britain have 
but too fatally experienced.” As the northern 
colonies improved in their condition, the Brit- 
ish merchants received their claims in part; 
but this ‘prevented the cash staying with 
them” (the colonists), ‘‘and obliged them to 
ship it off with their other merchandise toward 
paying their debts.” The consequences, as 
already shown, were that the colonists were 
forced to use as money wampum, musket balls, 
beaver skins, tobacco, corn and beans, and in 
fact to resort to a general barter. About the 
middle of the 17th century the trade with the 
West Indies brought into Massachusetts a con- 


741 


siderable quantity of silver, and in 1652 that 
colony set up a mint in Boston and commenced 
the coinage of the ‘ pine tree” currency, shil- 
lings, sixpences, and threepences, and contin- 
ued to do so for a number of years. This 
being inadequate to their wants, the barter 
currency continued to be used. In 1690 the 
first paper money was issued by the colony of 
Massachusetts for the purpose of paying off 
the troops employed in an expedition against 
Canada, fitted out with the hope of booty 
which they had failed to obtain. In 1709 
another expedition was proposed by this and 
other colonies, and more notes were issued. 
In 1698 Schuyler and Dillon, who made an 
expedition to Canada, reported with apparent 
surprise that there the currency consisted only 
of paper. Subsequently banks were estab- 
lished and currency issued by the various colo- 
nies, and made a legal tender; but in 1751 legal 
tender for paper money in the colonies was 
abolished by act of parliament, and in 1763 
that body declared any issue void. Neverthe- 
less, in 1773 bills issued by any of these colo- 
nies were allowed to be legal tender at their 
several treasuries. When Louisburg was cap- 
tured by the New England colonies in 1745, 
parliament ransomed the place, and the sum 
coming to Massachusetts, £138,649 sterling, 
was shipped from England in specie. This 
enabled the colony to retire all of her currency 
at the then existing rate of 11 for one, and as 
a consequence in 1774 she was entirely out of 
debt. The rate of exchange in Massachusetts 
in the under-mentioned years was as follows: 


Sterling 


Velue of an 
YEARS. ery 3 > | oz. of silver in 
earrency ua hea 

WTODs woes ote arm a atavsiaiot@eiaters <8 ca.w 00 5 183 6s. 104d. 
WN Olieratat ct clot chaarmeie steers cave are eres 185 uh gyal] 
LTAS erat o tee teeriteaten Grae <i 150 8 0 
UG Ornate eosebaas orient oh aeieis Aas 175 ee 
TUL Uc aal sagen slate ts aie eisai gic SissSacs/easyerass 225 12 O 
WTZDE et Gee a era soa std eee 2 270 14 0 
WU2Se cides fete abvacin toate rete ss 840 18 0 
TRON ears e Natiietsa sw Gieti «cs he vate aha 880 20 0 
TOledote oe rece cre cate sts 500 26 «(0 
RTARTA e Saas Me 1h eR Ras cae 550 28 =. 0 
SCD weit Res seeds Yee resaner hc czas seoreieaais 1,100 60 0 


The currency of Rhode Island suffered such a 
depreciation between 1744 and 1759, that while 
in the former year it required £450 to obtain 
£100 sterling, in the latter it required £2,300. 
However, in or about the year 1767, measures 
were taken to place the currency of some of 
the colonies on a better footing. The follow- 
ing were then the rates of sterling exchange 
in the provinces named: Massachusetts, 1333; 
New York and East Jersey, 175 to 1717 ; Penn- 
sylvania and West Jersey, 165 to 1603; Vir- 
ginia, 125; Maryland, 145; North Carolina, 
145; South Carolina, 700; Georgia, 100; 
Jamaica, 140; Barbadoes, 135; Nevis and Mont- 
serrat, 175; Antigua and St. Christopher, 165. 
—The continental congress as originally consti- 
tuted was as feeble a government as any that 


742 


can be imagined. It had no executive head 
and no finance minister. It was expected to 
and did prosecute a war against one of the 
most powerful nations then existing, while it 
had no means whatsoever of levying taxes 
through any officials of its own. It might 
only recommend to the several colonies or 
states to levy and collect certain taxes for its 
use, but it had no means for enforcing the 
payment of them. It however fully exercised 
the power to issue and borrow money, and on 
May 10, 1775, resolved to issue $300,000 of 
bills of credit, for the redemption of which the 
faith of the colonies was pledged; a quota was 
apportioned to each colony, which was liable 
for the discharge of its proportion. The uni- 
ted colonies were however liable for any part 
not discharged by any colony. Legal-tender 
acts of the most stringent character were 
adopted by congress and the colonies, and 
subsequently by the states. No taxes were 
even recommended by congress to be levied 
until Jan. 14, 1777; but the resolution then 
passed was so indefinite, no quotas being named 
in it, that it had little or no result. By reso- 
lution of Nov. 22, 1777, the states were recom- 
mended to raise $5,000,000, with quotas an- 
nexed; but this had very little effect, small 
sums only being raised and paid by some of 
them within the year 1778, and by others sub- 
sequently. In an address to the people, May 
8, 1778, congress said: ‘*‘ What are the reasons 
of your money being depreciated? Because 
no taxes have been imposed to carry on the 
war.” In 1779 immense sums were called for, 
for that year and for 1780—$186,000,000 for 
the latter year alone; but small was the actual 
amount received. Before any depreciation of 
bills took place $9,000,000 had been issued; 
but in March, 1778, $1 in coin was worth 
$1 75 in paper; in March, 1779, $10; and in 
February, 1780, $40. At this latter date $200,- 
000,000 had been issued, and was estimated to 
be worth but $5,000,000 in coin. By the end 
of this year the final redemption of the bills 
came to be doubted, and the depreciation had 
reached 100 for one; by May, 1781, it was 
from 200 to 500 for one, and at or about this 
latter date they ceased to circulate as money 
at all. On June 2, 1781, the assembly of Penn- 
sylvania, on the recommendation of congress, 
repealed all tender acts; and the same was 
done about the same date by all the states. 
The total amount of continental money issued 
was officially stated on Jan. 30, 1828, by Joseph 
Nourse, register of the treasury, at $241,552,- 
780, and by Thomas Jefferson it has been esti- 
mated at $200,000,000. Early in 1780 it was 
stated that specie ‘‘was never more plenty or 
more easily collected than at that time,” the 
plentiful supply being occasioned by the large 
sums coming from the expenditures of the 
British army in New York and of the French 
army and navy, and from imports from Havana. 
In December, 1780, Peletiah Webster, a very 
careful writer on finance in Philadelphia, esti- 


MONEY 


mated the total amount of specie in the thirteen 
states at from $10,000,000 to $12,000,000. 
Large as this was then considered to be, it was 
not more than about the then annual expendi- 
tures of the government estimated in coin. 
This will at once and readily give an idea of 
the stupendous work which was undertaken by 


-this feeble government of a poor and scattered 


people, and go far toward explaining the total 
collapse of its finances, conducted without any 
power of taxation, and until 1781 without sys- 
tem or a head. During the war the several 
colonies and states also issued paper money of 
their own, to an estimated aggregate amount 
between 1775 and 1788 of $209,524,776. By 


-resolution of Feb. 2, 1781, congress created the 


office of superintendent of the finances, to 
which on the 20th of the same month Robert 
Morris was appointed. On May 17 he submitted 
a plan for a bank, and on the 26th congress 
passed a resolution approving the plan, and 
pledging itself for its promotion, under the 
name of ‘‘ The President, Directors, and Com- 
pany of the Bank of North America,” and on 
Dec. 81 it passed ‘an ordinance to incorporate 
the subscribers to the bank of North America.” 
The capital was $400,000, of which $254,000 
was subscribed by the government. This in- 
stitution proved to be of very material assistance 
to the national finances. The first congress 
under the constitution in 1789 passed an act 
imposing duties on imports, by which the pound 
sterling was valued at $4 44. There was at 
the time no United States coin of the denomi- 
nation of the dollar, but this was merely the 
money of account based upon the Spanish dol- 
lar, which had long been in use in the country. 
Coins from all parts of the world were taken at 
the custom house at a statutory value. On April 
2, 1792, congress passed a law organizing the 
mint, but permitting the circulation of foreign 
coins for three years, by which time it was be- 
lieved the new coinage would be ready in suffi- 
cient amount. (For the provisions of this, and 
of prior and subsequent congressional acts re- 
lating to coinage, see Coins.) In 1791, on the 
recommendation of Alexander Hamilton, then 
secretary of the treasury, the first bank of the 
United States was established, and remained 
in existence until the expiration of its charter, 
March 4, 1811. During the war of 1812-715 
with Great Britain the government experienced 
great embarrassment in its finances, and by 
August, 1814, found it impossible to negotiate 
any further loans. In 1812 treasury notes 
having one year to run and bearing 52 per 
cent. interest, were issued to the amount of 
$3,000,000; in 1813, $6,000,000; and in 1814, 
$8,000,000. These were not a legal tender, 
but were receivable in payment of duties on 
imports and other taxes due to the general 
government. In October, 1814, when Alex- 
ander J. Dallas became secretary of the trea- 
sury, these notes were in such ill repute that, 
in the words of a historian of that period, 
‘none but necessitous creditors or contractors 


MONEY 


in distress, or commissaries, quartermasters, 
navy agents, acting as it were officially, seemed 
willing to accept them.” Indeed, they were 
at a heavy discount compared with bank notes, 
which were not redeemable in coin; but by 
Jan. 10, 1815, they sold at par. The govern- 
ment has repeatedly since been obliged to issue 
treasury notes bearing interest and payable at 
a fixed period after date, but not a legal tender, 
and not generally used as currency. On April 
8, 1816, a bill for the incorporation of the 
second bank of the United States was passed, 
and this institution remained in existence until 
the expiration of its charter in 1886. From 
the inauguration of the present government 
under the constitution, March 4, 1789, until 
the civil war, 1861-5, with the exception of 
the circulation of the two banks of the United 
States, the treasury notes already mentioned, 
and the banks of the District of Columbia, the 
paper money of the country: was generally fur- 
nished by banks chartered by the several states. 
The commencement of the secession movement 
in November, 1860, soon caused a financial 
crisis and a total paralysis of business, under 
the effects of which the revenues of the gov- 
ernment rapidly declined; and by Dee. 17 it 
became necessary to pass a law for the issue of 
$10,000,000 one-year treasury notes bearing 
6 and 12 per cent. interest, and which were 
authorized to be paid to the public creditors. 
By act of March 2, 1861, $22,468,000 two- 
year and $12,896,350 sixty-day notes were 
provided for; and by acts of July 17 and Aug. 
5, 1861, $139,999,750 three-year 7°30 notes, and 
$50,000,000 treasury notes payable on demand, 
the latter being by act of Feb. 12, 1862, to meet 
a most pressing emergency, increased by $10,- 
000,000. The preparations for war from March 
4, 1861, and its subsequent prosecution, called 
for immense expenditures; and by December, 
1861, the secretary of the treasury had bor- 
rowed from the banks and capitalists of New 
York, Philadelphia, and Boston $144,000,000, 
which he had required them to pay in coin; and 
in the course of this month these banks found 
themselves under the necessity of suspending 
specie payments. The demand treasury notes, 
not being a legal tender, did not enter freely 
into circulation, and there were instances of 
soldiers having to submit to the loss of a dis- 
count on those received for pay of from 4 to 
20 per cent. in the District of Columbia. These 
notes were kept at par with the banks and re- 
ceived by them so long as they had to pay the 
government for loans; but by Feb. 5, 1862, 
the last of these loans was paid for, and the 
banks refused to receive the notes. The trea- 
sury was by this time nearly empty, and the 
secretary was unable to negotiate any further 
loans, while there were the most pressing de- 
mands upon him, The floating liabilities then 
due were $100,000,000, and not less than $150,- 
000,000 more would be wanted before July 1 
following. The committee of ways and means 
of the house of representatives had about 


743 


this time perfected a bill for the issue of $150,- 
000,000 in notes, to be a legal tender for the 
payment of all debts, public and private. The 
secretary early in February strenuously urged 
the passage of this act, to the support of 
which he had however come with great reluc- 
tance. He said: ‘ Immediate action is of great 
importance. The treasury is nearly empty. I 
have been obliged to draw for the last instal- 
ment of the November loan; so soon as it is 
paid, I fear the banks generally will refuse to 
receive United States notes. You will see the 
necessity of urging it through without more 
delay.” It passed the house of representatives 
Feb. 6, 1862, and the senate with important 
amendments on the 13th; and after being re- 
ferred to a conference committee, it was passed 
in an amended form by the house on the 24th 
and by the senate on the 25th. The same day 
it received the signature of the president and 
became a law. These notes were made re- 
ceivable in payment of ‘‘all taxes, internal du- 
ties, excises, debts, and demands of any kind 
due to the United States, except duties on im- 
ports, and of all claims and demands against 
the United States of any kind whatsoever, ex- 
cept for interest upon bonds and notes, which 
shall be paid in coin; and shall also be lawful 
money and a legal tender in payment of all 
debts, public and private, within the United 
States, except duties on imports and interest 
aforesaid.” They were also receivable ‘the 
same as coin at the par value, in payment for 
any loans that may be hereafter sold or nego- 
tiated.” By act of July 11, 1862, $150,000,- 
000 more of these notes were authorized, $50,- 
000,000 to be held as a reserve for the pay- 
ment of temporary loans. In all, by these acts 
and those of Jan. 17 and March 8, 18638, $450,- 
000,000 were authorized, and $400,619,206 
were actually issued, besides compound interest 
and 7°30 notes. In addition to these, $50,000,- 
000. of fractional currency was authorized, of 
which $48,151,000 had been issued to Noy. 1, 
1874. Subsequent to the close of the war, in 
addition to other notes, $44,000,000 of the le- 
gal-tender notes were retired, thus reducing 
their amount to $356,000,000; while by act of 
June 22, 1874, the volume of these notes was 
fixed at $882,000,000, which amount had been 
issued on Nov. 1, 1874. By act of congress 
approved Feb. 28, 1863, the national banking 
system was established. Under this system, to 
Noy. 1, 1874, circulation had been issued and 
was then outstanding to the amount of $351,- 
927,246. Under act approved July 12, 1870, 
providing for banks whose issues should be 
redeemable in gold on demand, $2,150,000 
of notes have been issued. In 1878 the direc- 
tor of the mint estimated, from the most 
trustworthy data, the gold coin in the coun- 
try at $135,000,000, and the subsidiary silver 
coin at $5,000,000, total $140,000,000; thus 
making the grand total of money of all kinds 
$924,228,246. <A careful estimate of the circu- 
lating medium of the United Kingdom of Great 


744 


Britain and Ireland at the close of 1872 placed 
the gold coin at £105,000,000, the silver coin at 
£15,000,000, and the bronze coin at £1,148,- 
000; total metallic circulation, £121,148,000. 
The circulation of the bank of England on 
Oct. 16, 1872, was £34,328,708. The notes in 
circulation in the United Kingdom, other than 
those of the bank of England, in September, 
1872, were as follows: England, £5,057,910; 
Scotland, £5,313,560; Ireland, £7,242,081 ; 
making a total paper circulation of £51,942,- 
259, and of metal and paper. combined of 
£173,090,259 = £841,218,658. According to 
Necker, the circulation of France in 1789 
was equivalent to $450,000,000, al! metallic. 


The assignats issued by the revolutionary gov-. 


ernment of France during the years 1790-96 
are estimated as high as $9,000,000,000. The 
circulation of France at the present time is 
estimated at 4,000,000,000 francs metallic, 
while the notes of the bank of France in 
circulation Oct. 9, 1874, were 2,970,881,660 
francs; total, 6,970,881,660 francs = $1,394,- 
176,332.— Money of Account. A full and clear 
understanding of money can hardly be had 
without a realization of the true position and 
office of money of account; a subject seldom 
even adverted to in any of the treatises upon 
money. When any coin or weight of gold 
or silver, or any other article of value or of 
general acceptability, has for a considerable 
time been used as an equivalent or in payment 
for things purchased, the people using it as- 
sume the value of the article in question as 
the unit of a money of account, and employ it 
to express prices. By incessant use it is im- 
pressed upon and becomes familiar to the mind, 
is ‘‘committed to the memories of a whole na- 
tion,” and ‘‘ performs the same office with re- 
gard to the value of things that degrees, min- 
utes, seconds, &c., do ,with regard to angles, or 
as scales do to geographical maps, or to plans 
of any kind.” It becomes in fact “ an arbitra- 
ry scale of equal parts, invented for measur- 
ing the respective values of things vendable.” 
The use of a money of account is in no respect 
a mechanical process by which other articles 
are compared by weight or bulk with gold or 
silver; but it is an arithmetical one, by which 
they are compared with a unit of value, which 
has had its origin in some coin or other com- 
modity which possesses the quality of accepta- 
bility for the payment of debts and the pur- 
chase of commodities. Hence it is that a 
money of account, having been long in use, and 
become a part of the modes of thought of a 
people, often long survives the existence of 
the coin or other commodity upon which it was 
based. The money of account of the bank of 
Venice, undisturbed for 500 years, had no coins 
to correspond with it, and the value of all coins 
was expressed in it. A money of account is a 
language in which all values or prices may be 
expressed, and by means of which the relative 
values of commodities may be stated.. It is 
something which each and every one carries in 


MONEY 


his mind, as he does his knowledge of words 
or of arithmetic, and in so doing he is quite 
independent of any thought of coinage or of 
circulating notes. These are facts which have 
in whole or in part been recognized by various 
writers differing in almost all other respects in 
regard to money, and they have been contro- 
verted by but few. But being facts close at 
hand, familiar, and almost self-evidently true, 
their full significance and far-reaching impor- 
tance have been overlooked and disregarded 
by almost all economists. Count Garnier and 
Stephen Colwell have of all writers probably 
most fully appreciated the importance of a 
clear understanding of money of account. Ac- 
cording to the latter, it is the central point 
from which the whole science of money must 
be studied, and without which mode of pro- 
cedure no true conception of it can be had. 
The money of account in use by a people is 
not only the standard by the aid of which the 
value of commodities may be stated, but is 
used to express the value of coins or circulating 
notes, and, if these coins or notes be of the 
same denomination as the money of account, 
unerringly indicates whether such coins or 
notes are at*par, at a discount, or at a premium. 
Had men better understood this subject in 
Great Britain during the suspension of the 
bank of England, 1797-1823, there would have 
been far less discussion than there was as to 
whether bank of England notes were then at 
a discount or gold was at a premium. The 
bullion committee had a glimmering of the 
truth when they ‘doubted whether, since the 
new system of bank of England payments has 
been fully established, gold has in truth -con- 
tinued to be our measure of value.” The mo- 
ney of account had in fact adjusted itself to 
the standard of payment furnished by the bank, 
and the committee half suspected that such was 
the case.— Theory of Money. In its theoretic 
or economic aspects, money presents a field of 
apparently hopeless discord, controversy, and 
confusion, without a single doctrine established 
as a principle of universal or even of general 
acceptance. In a word, no one of these doc- 
trines can be presented as a truth which needs 
only to be stated, not demonstrated; no one 
who writes upon them can properly lay down 
any so-called principles without at the same 
time giving the ground upon which each one 
of them claims to rest. To go no further back, 
Montesquieu and Hume about the middle of 
the 18th century laid down the dictum which, : 
stated in the words of Hume, is as follows: | 
“Tt seems a maxim almost self-evident, that 

the prices of everything depend on the pro- 
portion between commodities and money, and 
that any considerable alteration on either has 
the same effect of heightening or lowering 
the price; and from that time to the pres- 
ent hour there has been a sharp and never 
ceasing controversy upon every phase of the 
subject. A memorable era in this contro- 
versy was the period between the suspension 


MONEY 


of specie payment by the bank of England, 
Feb. 27, 1797, and the decade following re- 
sumption in 1823, which gave rise to discus- 
sions which, in the opinion of Mr. J. R. McCul- 
loch, “‘ all but perfected the theory of money.” 
A particularly striking feature in the literature 
of the discussions of that time is that which 
is known as the ‘‘ Bullion Report,” 7. e., the 
report from the select committee appointed to 
inquire into the cause of the high prices of 
gold bullion, and to take into consideration 
the state of. the circulating medium and the 
exchanges between Great Britain and foreign 
parts. This report was ordered by the house 
of commons to be printed June 8, 1810. The 
conclusions of the committee were, ‘that there 
is at present an excess in the paper circulation 
of this country, of which the most unequivocal 
symptom is the very high price of bullion, and 
next to that the low [high according to the 
American mode of expression] state of the 
continental exchanges; that this is to be as- 
cribed to the want of a sufficient check and 
control in the issues of paper from the bank 
of England, and originally to the suspension 
of cash payments, which removed the natural 
control. For upon a general view of the sub- 
ject your committee are of opinion that no 
safe, certain, and constantly adequate provision 
against an excess of paper currency, either 
occasional or permanent, can be found except 
in the convertibility of such paper into specie.” 
The committee ‘‘doubted whether, since the 
new system of bank of England payments has 
been fully established, gold has in truth con- 
tinued to be our measure of value, and wheth- 
er we have any other standard of prices than 
that circulating medium issued primarily by 
the bank of England, and in a secondary man- 
ner by the country banks, the variations of 
which in relative value may be as indefinite 
as the possible excess of. that circulating me- 
dium ;” and thought that “an increase in the 
quantity of the local currency of a particular 
country will raise prices in that country, exactly 
in the same manner as an increase in the gen- 
eral supply of precious metals raises prices all 
over the world.” Briefly, the report was, and 
probably is still, the most carefully elabora- 
ted and consistent statement of the doctrines 
of Montesquieu and Hume to be found in the 
language. It was far, however, from setting 
the subject at rest. There was then a large 
school, and there is now perhaps a larger one, 
’ which argues against all the conclusions of the 
committee, as well as against the reasoning by 
which those conclusions are reached. It has 
been contended by this latter school that money 
has a fructifying influence upon industry, and 
that an increase in its volume may increase 
production, trade, and commerce, and, so far 
from necessarily increasing prices, in some 
cases actually reduce. them ; that if the theory 
were true, no increased production in a coun- 
try, were it two, five, ten, or twenty fold, 
without a corresponding increase in the vol- 


-MONGE T45 
ume of money, could increase the aggregate 
value of these productions a single dollar. 
There are those who contend, in opposition 
to the bullion report, that ‘‘money should be 
a thing of a country, of a people, and not of 
the world ;” and that the financial and business 
affairs of a country should in no wise be based 
upon the precious metals, which are, it is con- 
tended, liable to export, beyond the control of 
the people or the authorities of a state. There 
have long been a considerable number of wri- 
ters in Great Britain holding these opinions, 
but it is in this country and within a compara- 
tively recent period that such views have ta- 
ken most decided and original shape. By no 
means all of these writers contend for an arbi- 
trary volume of such money, only limited by 
the wants of the state or of the people at a 
particular time. Several of their plans have 
contemplated the conversion of this money by 
means of funding to any extent which a cur- 
tailment in the monetary wants of the people 
may demand. Probably the earliest advocate 
of such a system as is here referred to was Ed- 
ward Kellogg, who in September, 1843, pub- 
lished in New York a pamphlet entitled ‘“ Cur- 
rency, the Evil and the Remedy.” He proposed 
as a remedy for usury, that the United States 
government should establish a national safety 
fund, which should lend money on mortgage 
of real estate at 3 per cent. per annum, in the 
form of “ circulating medium or safety fund 
notes,” which notes were to be payable or 
fundable at the pleasure of the holder in ‘‘trea- 
sury notes” or bonds, bearing interest at the 
rate of 2 per cent. per annum, and payable on 
and after one year from a given day, in cir- 
culating medium or safety fund notes. This 
idea was elaborated by him in subsequent 
works; and immediately before and after the 
passage of the act of Feb. 25, 1862, providing 
for the issue of United States legal-tender 
notes, it was strongly urged upon the govern- 
ment by prominent financiers that these notes 
should be made interconvertible at the plea- 
sure of the holder with United States bonds. 
This scheme of finance, called the ‘3°65 bond 
plan,” has attracted much attention. Its friends 
maintain that the interchangeability of national 
paper money with government bonds bearing 
a fixed rate of interest will give an automatic, 
self-adjusting volume of currency at all times, 
commensurate with the wants of the people 
and of business; and that it will preclude the 
possibility of financial crises by introducing a 
cash system of business instead of the credit 
one which at present exists. In entire consis- 
tency with the history of all financial schemes 
and theories, old as well as new, this plan is 
opposed with a vigor nearly if not quite equal 
to that with which it is advocated. 

MONGE, Gaspard, a French mathematician, 
born in Beaune in 1746, died July 28, 1818. 
He became assistant to Bossut, and also to the 
abbé Nollet at Méziéres, whom he succeeded in 
the chair of natural philosophy. He made nu- 


746 MONGHIR 


merous experiments in physics and chemistry, 
and investigations into the principles of geom- 
etry, which led to the foundation of anew and 
important department of that science, to which 
he gave the name of descriptive geometry. In 
1780 he was made a member of the academy 
of sciences, and soon after assistant professor 
of hydrodynamics in Paris. During the revo- 
lution he was for a short time minister of ma- 
rine. Through his exertions the normal and 
polytechnic schools were established, and he 
taught in both. He accompanied the army 
into Italy and Egypt, and on his return was 
made president of the Egyptian commission, 
head of the polytechnic school, and member of 
the senate with the title of count of Pelusium; 
but on the fall of Napoleon he was deprived of 
all his honors. He was the first who applied 
the differential calculus to the general theory 
of surfaces. His best known work is the Gé- 
ométrie descriptive (1799; 4th ed., 1819). 
MONGHIR, a town of British India, in Bengal, 
on the right bank of the Ganges, 80 m. E. 8. E. 
of Patna; pop. about 30,000. The numerous 
temples give it a fine appearance, and the pic- 
turesque and salubrious situation make it a fa- 
vorite residence for invalids. It contains 16 
markets, extending 14 m. from N. to 8. Infe- 
rior hardware and firearms are manufactured. 
The houses are mostly of the poorest descrip- 
tion. A rock jutting into the river is a shrine 
for pilgrims, and adjoining the bathing place 
was formerly a temple which has been con- 
verted into a mosque. The town is of great 
antiquity, and formerly contained a magnifi- 
cent palace. The fort, celebrated for its pic- 
turesqueness, is built on a prominent rock ; it 
is 4,000 ft. long and 3,500 ft. wide, and con- 
tains the official and European residences. It 
was once an important stronghold, but has de- 
clined in importance, and is falling to ruins. 
MONGOLIA, a country of Asia, part of the 
Chinese empire, lying between lat. 37° and 
54° N., and about lon. 85° and 125° E., bound- 
ed N. by Siberia, N. E. and E. by Mantchooria, 
S. by the Chinese provinces of Chihli, Shansi, 
Shensi, and Kansu, and W. by East Turkistan 
and Dzungari; area, about 1,300,000 sq. m. 
pop. about 2,500, 000, of whom 500, 000 are 
Chinese. It is chiefly a plain, about 3, 000 ft. 
above the sea, almost destitute of wood and 
water. In the central part the great sandy 
desert of Gobi stretches N. E. and 8. W., occu- 
pying about a third of the entire area. The 
chief mountain ranges are the Altai and its sub- 
ordinate chains, which extend eastward, under 
the names of Tangnu-Oola and Kenteh, as far 
as the Amoor; and the Ala- shan, In-shan, and 
Khingan ranges, which commence about. lat. 
38° and lon. 107°, and run N. E. and N. to the 
Amoor, crossing into Mantchooria. The rivers 
are chiefly i in the north. The Selenga, Orkhon, 
and Tola unite and flow into Lake Baikal. 
The Kerulen and Onon rise near each other on 
opposite sides of the Kenteh range, and flow 
N. E. to the Amoor. In the south, the coun- 


MONGOLIA 


try S. of the In-shan range is traversed by the 
Hoang-ho or Yellow river. In the N. W. part 
of the country lakes abound, the largest of 
which are the Upsa-nor, the Kossogol, and the 
Ike-aral.—Mongolia is divided into four princi- 
pal regions: 1, Inner Mongolia, between the 
great wall and the desert of Gobi; 2, Outer 
Mongolia, between the desert and the Altai 
mountains, reaching from the Inner Khingan 
to the Thian-shan; 8, the country W. of the 
Ala-shan; 4, Uliassutai and its dependencies. 
Inner Mongolia is divided into 6 corps and 
24 tribes, which are subdivided into 49 stand- 
ards, each comprising about 2,000 families 
commanded by hereditary princes. The Kor- 


tchin (about 200,000) and the Ortoos (400,- 


000) are the principal tribes. Another large 
tribe, the Tzakhars '(180,000), occupy the re- 
gion immediately north of the great wall. 
Outer Mongolia is divided into four circles, 
each of which is governed by a khan or prince 
who claims descent from Genghis Khan. The 
Khalkas (250,000) are the principal tribe, and 
their four khanates are divided into 86 stand- 
ards, each of which is restricted to a particu- 
lar territory. The country W. of the Ala-shan 
is occupied by Torgots, Khoshots (120,000), 
Khalkas, and other tribes, arranged under 29 
standards. Uliassutai is a town of 2,000 
houses in the W. part of Mongolia, and lies 
in a well cultivated valley. Its dependent ter- 
ritories comprise 11 tribes of Khalkas divi- 
ded into 31 standards.—Mongolia is supposed 
to be rich in metals and minerals. Its im- 
mense plains and forests are inhabited by mul- 
titudes of wild animals, among which are the 
elk, the stag, the wild goat, the wild ass, the 
yak, the brown and black bear, the ounce, 
and two species of tiger, besides hares, squir- 
rels, and foxes. The wolves of Mongolia are 
large and fierce; they will pass through a flock 
of sheep to attack the shepherd. Among the 
birds are pheasants and eagles. The eagle is 
very common, and makes its nest where it 
pleases, the people never molesting it. The 
double-humped or Bactrian camel exists in both 
the wild and domesticated state, supplying ex- 
cellent milk and large quantities of butter and 
cheese.—The soil of Mongolia is poor, and lit- 
tle of it is fit for cultivation on account of the 
want of moisture, neither rain nor snow fall- 
ing in sufficient quantities except on the accliv- 
ities of the mountain ranges. From the great 
elevation of the country and the dryness of 
the atmosphere, the climate is excessively cold. 
Mercury in some parts often remains frozen 
for weeks in succession. The winter lasts nine 
months, and is immediately succeeded by sum- 
mer, in which there are sometimes days of 
stifling heat. The nights are almost invariably 
cool. At all seasons the weather is subject to 
great and sudden changes. In the southern 
part of the country, where Chinese immigrants 
have introduced agriculture, the temperature 
has risen with the increase of cultivation, so 
that kinds of grain which formerly would not 


MONGOLIA 


ripen because of the cold are now raised with 
success. In this part of Mongolia villages are 
frequent, and a portion of the native race have 
adopted a settled life. The greater part of 
the Mongols, however, are gradually retiring 
toward the north, and the Chinese population 
is rapidly taking their place.-—The Mongols 
belong to the so-called Turanian, Mongolian, 
or Uralo-Altaic division of mankind. Their 
branch, best designated as that of the Mongols 
proper, is composed of three families, of which 
the East Mongols are the inhabitants of the 
present territory of Mongolia; these are sub- 
divided into Shara Mongols, occupying the 
southern portion, and the Khalka Mongols, liv- 
ing in the north. The West Mongols, com- 
prising Calmucks, Torgots, and others, were 
driven out of their land at the time of Gen- 
ghis Khan, and a portion of them now lead 
a nomadic life in the steppes between the 
Volga and the Ural, while the others dwell 
on the slopes of the Altai mountains, and are 
generally known as Black Calmucks. On the 
Chinese frontier, in the region of the Lena, 
and from the Onon as far as the Oka, is found 
the third family, called Buriats. Some Mon- 
gols proper, still speaking a Mongolian dialect, 
inhabit the northern portion of Iran, where 
they are known as Aimaks or Hezarehs. 
Though the name of Tartars is generally ap- 
plied also to Mongols proper, there can be no 
doubt that the Tartars form a distinct branch 
of the Mongolian or Turanian division. (See 
TURANIAN Races AND LaneuaGeEs.) The pres- 
ent inhabitants of Mongolia are generally stout, 
squat, swarthy, and ugly, with high and broad 
shoulders, pointed and prominent chins, long 
teeth distant from each other, eyes black, ellip- 
tical, and unsteady, thick, short necks, bony 
and nervous hands, and short muscular arms. 
Their stature is equal to that of Europeans. 
They are, with few exceptions, nomadic, living 
in tents and subsisting on animal food. The 
Mongol tent for about 3 ft. from the ground is 
cylindrical; it then becomes conical. The por- 
tion made of wood is a trelliswork of crossed 
bars which may be folded up or expanded. 
Above these, a circle of poles fixed in the trel- 
liswork meets at the top, like the ribs of an um- 
brella. Over the woodwork is stretched a thick 
covering of coarse felt. The door is low and 
narrow. At the top of the tent is an opening 
to let out smoke, which can be closed by a piece 
of felt hanging above it, to which is attached a 
long string. The interior is divided into two 
compartments, that on the left being for the 
men, while that on the right is occupied by the 
women and is also used as a kitchen, the uten- 
sils of which consist chiefly of large earthen ves- 
sels for holding water, wooden pails for milk, 
and a large bell-shaped iron kettle. A small 
sofa or couch, a small square press or chest of 
drawers, and a number of goats’ horns fixed in 
the woodwork, on which hang various utensils, 
arms, and other articles, complete the furniture. 
Household and family cares are assigned entire- 


TAT 


ly to the women. The men conduct the flocks 
and herds to pasture. They sometimes hunt 
wild animals for food or for their skins, but 
never for pleasure. When not on horseback, 
the men pass their time in absolute idleness, 
sleeping all night and squatting all day in their 
tents, drinking tea or smoking. The only per- 
sons who learn to read are the lamas or priests, 
who are also the painters, sculptors, archi- 
tects, and physicians of the nation. The Mon- 
gol is so accustomed to horseback that when 
he sets foot on the ground his step is heavy 
and awkward, his Jegs bowed, his chest bent 
forward. The Mongols marry very young, 
and their marriages are regulated entirely by 
their parents. A plurality of wives is permit- 
ted, but the first wife is always the mistress of 
the household. Divorce is veryfrequent. The 
husband who wishes to repudiate his wife sends 
her back to her parents, without any formality 
except a message that he does not require her 
any longer. This does not give offence, as the 
family of the lady retain the cattle, horses, and 
other property given to them at the time of 
the marriage, and have an opportunity of sell- 
ing her to a fresh purchaser. The women 
come and go at pleasure, ride out on horseback, 
and visit freely from tent to tent. The chiefs 
of the Mongol tribes and all their blood rela- 
tives form an aristocracy who hold the common 
people in a mild species of patriarchal servitude. 
There is no distinction of manners or of mode 
of living between these classes ; and though the 
common people are not allowed to own land, 
they frequently accumulate considerable prop- 
erty in herds and flocks. Those who become 
lamas are entirely free.—The ancient religion 
of the Mongols was a species of Shamanism, 
but in the 13th century they embraced Lama- 
ism. Their religious system at the present 
day is similar to that of Thibet, and they 
acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of the 
grand lama at Lassa. (See Lamaism.) Mon- 
golia abounds in well endowed lamaseries con- 
structed of brick and stone, with elegance and 
solidity, and ornamented with paintings, sculp- 
tures, and carvings. The most famous is that 
of Urga or the Great Kooren, on the bank of 
the river Tola, in the country of the Khalkas. 
Thousands of lamas dwell in this lamasery, 
and the plain adjoining it is always covered 
with the tents of pilgrims. In these ]amase- 
ries a strict monastic discipline is maintained, 
but each lama is at liberty to acquire prop- 
erty by any occupation not inconsistent with 
his priestly character. Nearly all younger sons 
of the free Mongols are devoted from infan- 
cy to the priesthood. Almost every lamasery 
of the first class has a living Buddha, who 
like the grand lama of Thibet is worshipped 
as an incarnation of the deity. The influ- 
ence of these personages is very great, and the 
Chinese emperors spare no pains to win over 
to their interest those who manage these dei- 
ties—The trade between China and Russia 
passes through Mongolia at Kiakhta, a town on 


748 MONGOUS 


the borders of the two countries. This trade, 
which is entirely under the supervision of 
Mantchoo officers, introduces among the Mon- 
gols European goods in moderate quantities.— 
The Mongolian language was reduced to writing 
about the 14th century. Its literature consists 
in great part of translations of Chinese books, 
but it embraces a few original histories and 
many poems, relating chiefly to Genghis Khan 
and to Tamerlane. The history of the Mon- 
gols properly commences with Genghis Khan. 
At his birth (about 1160) the Mongols were 
divided into petty and discordant tribes. He 
united them into one nation, and led them 
forth to conquer the world. Under his ban- 
ners they subjugated the whole of Tartary, and 
a great part of China, Corea, Afghanistan, Per- 
sia, and Russia. Under his sons and successors 
the conquest of China was continued, the ca- 
liphate of Bagdad was overthrown, the sultan 
of Iconium in Asia Minor made tributary, and 
Europe overrun and devastated as far as the 
Oder and the Danube. The Mongol empire 
was at this time the most extensive that the 
world has ever seen. Kublai Khan, the grand- 
son of Genghis, established the first Mongol 
dynasty in China (1279-13868), and conquered 
also Cochin-China and Tonquin. He is known 
in Chinese history as the emperor She-tsu, and 
as the founder of the 24th or Yuen dynasty. 
In 1368 the native race rose in insurrection 
and established their independence under the 
Ming dynasty. The Mongol empire was split 
into several independent sovereignties in the 
13th century, but was reunited by Tamerlane 
in the 14th. After his death (1405) the Mon- 
gol power slowly declined, and in the early 
part of the 17th century the Mongols gradually 
submitted to the sovereignty of the Mantchoo 
emperors of China. But they yield little more 
than a nominal obedience. The Chinese goy- 
ernment watches and humors them with inces- 
sant anxiety, and conciliates their chiefs by 
annual presents of considerable value. The 
Mongol empire in India, however, established 
by Tamerlane’s descendant Baber in 1526, last- 
ed nominally till 1858, (See Mocuts.)—See 
Hue’s “ Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China”? 
(2 vols., 1852), and Wolff’s Geschichte der Mon- 
golen (Breslau, 1872). 

MONGOUS. See lonneumon, and Lemur. 

MONITEAU, a central county of Missouri, 
bounded N. E. by the Missouri river, and 
drained by Saline, Moreau, and Moniteau 
creeks; area, 400 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 11,875, 
of whom 879 were colored. Iron, limestone, 
and excellent. coal are found, and the soil is 
generally fertile. The county is traversed by 
the Pacific railroad of Missouri. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 204,589 bushels of 
wheat, 502,917 of Indian corn, 204,036 of oats, 
82,274 of potatoes, 53,706 Ibs. of tobacco, 
42,688 of wool, 178,283 of butter, and 6,023 
tons of hay. There were 5,004 horses, 1,314 
mules and asses, 10,727 cattle, 17,187 sheep, 
and 23,271 swine. Capital, California. 


MONITOR 


MONITOR, the common name of many of 
the old-world slender-tongued lizards of the 
family varanide and genus varanus (Merr.). 
They have an elongated head; long, extensile, 
bifid, fleshy tongue, enclosed in a sheath at the 
base; no teeth on the palate, those of the 
jaws flattened at the roots, lodged in a com- 
mon groove or alveolus without internal bor- 
der, with the crowns generally pointed and 
curved backward; the neck long; the head 
and body covered with tuberculated non-im- 
bricated scales; the tail very long, sometimes 
containing 80 vertebra, capable of reproduc- 
tion, non-prehensile, compressed and keeled or 
rounded according as the species are aquatic or 


terrestrial; no femoral pores nor dorsal crest; 


eyes with two distinct movable lids; feet large, 
with five unequal, non-palmated toes, furnished 
with strong claws; in the fore limbs the first 
finger is the shortest, and the third and fourth 
longest; in the posterior the fourth is three 
times as long as the first. The monitors form 
a natural transition to the serpents, in the sus- 
pension of the bones of the face to the cranium 
and their mobility, in the incomplete circle of 
the orbits, in the long and narrow lower jaw 
loosely united in the middle, in the tongue, 
and in the scaly covering. The colors vary 
from black to deep green, with lighter spots 
arranged in various ways so as to resemble 
mosaic work; many of these patterns are so 
admirable that the skin has been used to cover 
jewel boxes. These reptiles are, next to the 
crocodiles, the largest of living saurians; they 
live either in the neighborhood of rivers, or in 
dry sandy regions, the former class being said 
to give notice of the presence of crocodiles by 
a whistling sound, whence their common name; 


Nilotie Monitor (Varanus Niloticus). 


they run rapidly on the ground, in a serpent- 
like manner on account of the length of the 
tail. Their food consists principally of the 
larger coleopterous and orthopterous insects; 
they also eat the eggs of aquatic birds and 


MONITOR 


reptiles, and lizards, small tortoises, fish, and 
mammals. The true monitors, of which fewer 
than 20 species are described, are confined to 
Asia, Africa, and Australasia. ~Of the genus 
varanus, erroneously called tupinambis by 
Daudin, the best known aquatic species is the 
monitor of the Nile (V. Niloticus, Fitz.), com- 
mon in the rivers of Egypt and of western and 
southern Africa, and attaining a length of 5 or 
6 ft., of which the head is about one eleventh, 
the neck one ninth, and the tail nearly one 
half; the teeth are 30 above and 22 below; 
the general color above is greenish gray with 
black dots, with four or five yellow V-shaped 
marks pointing backward upon the nape, bands 
of yellow eye-like spots on the back, a wide 
black band on the shoulder, and a narrow one 
edged with pale green on each temple; whitish 
below, with brown transverse bands, and the 
claws black. From its supposed usefulness in 
devouring the eggs of the crocodile, it was 
highly esteemed by the ancient Egyptians. 
Other aquatic species are found in the East 
Indies, and in Australia andits archipelago. Of 
the terrestrial monitors the best known is the 
V. scincus (Merr.), the skink of the ancients, 
the land crocodile of Herodotus, the waran of 
the Arabs, and the genus psammosaurus of 
Fitzinger. This is very common in the sandy 
deserts of Egypt; it is about 3 ft. long, of 
which the rounded tail is more than half. The 
color of the upper parts varies from brown to 
yellow, spotted and banded with one or the 
other; it is less carnivorous and ferocious than 
the aquatic monitors.—Cuvier, in his Ossemens 
JSossiles, has referred to the family of monitors 
several gigantic fossil reptiles, as the proto- 
rosaurus (H. de Meyer), from the coppery 
schists of Germany; the mosasaurus (Conyb.), 
over 30 ft. long, intermediate between moni- 
tors and iguanas, from the calcareous strata of 
Maestricht; the geosaurus (Cuv.), 12 or 18 ft. 
long, from an iron mine near Mannheim; and 
-the megalosaurus (Buckland), about 40 ft. long, 
from the vicinity of Oxford, placed by Pictet 
among the dinosaurians, having certain mam- 
malian characters.—The name of monitor is 
sometimes given to some American lacertian 
lizards, especially of the genus salvator (Dum. 


and Bibr.), more properly called safeguards, - 


corresponding in part to tupinambis (Daud.) 
and tejus (Merr.), and to monitor (Fitz.). 

MONITOR, in naval architecture. See IRon- 
CLAD SHIPs. 

MONK. See Monacuism. 

MONK, George, duke of Albemarle, an Eng- 
lish general, born at Potheridge, Devonshire, 
Dec. 6, 1608, died in London, Jan. 8, 1670. 
At the age of 17 he was a volunteer in an un- 
successful expedition against Cadiz under his 
relative, Sir Richard Greenville. About a year 
later he enlisted in the force sent to the isle 
of Ré, and remained in the service till 1628. 
Soon after the peace of that year he entered 
the service of the United Provinces, and re- 
turned to England about 1638 with the rank 


MONK 749 


of captain. He soon received an appointment 
in the army of Charles J., under whom he 
served with the rank of lieutenant colonel in 
the two expeditions undertaken just before the 
conference of Ripon (1640). In 1642 he was 
appointed colonel of the forces sent to suppress 
the Irish rebellion, and remained in this service 
till the breaking out of the civil war. In 1643 
he was recalled, but was arrested immediately 
on his landing in England, and deprived of his 
office, on suspicion of his favoring the parlia- 
ment (September). This was so satisfactorily 
disproved that he was speedily restored to 
command and promoted to be major general 
of the Irish brigade, then (January, 1644) en- 
gaged in the attack on Nantwich. He had 
scarcely arrived at that place when he was sur- 
prised, defeated, and captured by Sir Thomas 
Fairfax; and he was imprisoned in the tower 
for about two years. On his release both par- 
ties eagerly endeavored to secure his services ; 
and in November, 1646, he was finally induced 
by arguments and bribes to take the ‘solemn 
league and covenant” and espouse the parlia- 
mentary side. He was at once sent to Ireland, 
and commanded there against O’ Neill from 1647 
to 1649, exhibiting such military talent as to 
gain the high opinion of Cromwell, who in 1650 
made him lieutenant general of ordnance in the 
expedition against the Scotch. Here he great- 
ly distinguished himself, especially at the bat- 
tle of Dunbar. He was now appointed com- 
mander-in-chief in Scotland, completed the 
conquest of the country, and having fully sub- 
jugated it, and compelled the formal union of 
Scotland with the commonwealth, he returned 
to England in 1652, leaving a reputation for 
great power and energy, but also for occasional 
cruelty; the most noteworthy example of the 
latter quality being his butchery in cold blood 
of the governor and 800 of the garrison of Dun- 
dee (1651). In the war against the Dutch, Monk 
was sent into the channel with a fleet which 
he commended jointly with Gen. Dean till the 
death of the latter on June 2, 1652, in an action 
in which the final success of the English was 
due to Monk’s persistency in maintaining the 
fight till the arrival of reénforcements under 
Blake. He was commander of the fleet in the 
action on July 31 (new style, Aug. 10), 1653, 
in which Van Tromp was killed and the Dutch 
defeated. In 1654 he suppressed the royalist 
insurrection in Scotland, and afterward kept 
that kingdom under the full control of the 
commonwealth until the death of Cromwell. 
From that time he devoted himself to the ac- 
quisition of personal power, striving to con- 
ciliate both the royalists and their opponents. 
When Riehard Cromwell resigned the protec- 
torate, in 1659, Monk declared for the par- 
liament, and marched to London with 7,000 
men; yet he acted with such skilful duplicity 
that while he now had the whole country prac- 
tically under the control of himself and his 
troops, it was impossible to foresee in what 
way he would use the power he had acquired. 


s 


‘ 


750 MONK 


This course he continued after his arrival in 
London, and his first decisive act, compelling 
the parliament to readmit the expelled mem- 
bers, was only performed after a long study of 
the tendency of public opinion. From this 
time, however, his actions were rapid and de- 
cisive. He brought the army, with which he 
was always exceedingly popular, into a very 
perfect state of organization; and the restored 
members of parliament having brought about 
his appointment-as commander-in-chief, he be- 
gan to fill the principal offices in the army with 
royalists. This accomplished, he dissolved the 
old parliament and assembled a new one, to 
which, on May 1, 1660, he introduced Sir John 
Greenville, ambassador from the banished 
Charles II., with proposals for a restoration 
of the king. Everything having been prepared 
for this step by Monk, the proposals were at 
once accepted, and Charles landed at Dover. 
Every favor was now conferred upon Monk, 
and besides the titles of duke of Albemarle 
and earl of Torrington, with several minor 
dignities, he received large grants of money 
and lucrative offices. He resided in London, 
and continued active in public affairs. In 
1664 he presided at the admiralty. In 1665 
he displayed great bravery and ability as gov- 
ernor of London during the plague. In 1666 
he again commanded (with Prince Rupert) 
a naval force against the Dutch, and served 
with much distinction; but he returned from 
the expedition ill of dropsy, of which he died. 
He was buried in Westminster abbey.—See 
‘‘ Life of Monk,” by Skinner (London, 1751), 
and by Guizot (Paris, 1851; English transla- 
tion by Wharncliffe). 

MONK, James Henry, an English author, born 
in Huntingford, Herts, early in 1784, died at 
Stapleton, near Bristol, June 6, 1856. He 
studied at the Charterhouse, and at Trinity 
college, Cambridge, where in 1807 he became 
assistant tutor, and in 1808 professor of Greek, 
but resigned that office on becoming dean of 
Peterborough in 1822. In 1830 he became 
bishop of Gloucester. His principal work is 
the ‘Life of Bentley” (2 vols. 4to, 1831; re- 
vised ed., 1833). 

MONKEY, the common name of the family 
simiade of the order guadrumana. The teeth 
are 32 to 36, and more or less approximate; 
the canines are larger than the incisors, the 
upper ones separated by a considerable interval 
from the latter; the face denuded; the fore 
feet often larger than the hind, and the middle 
finger of both hands and feet the longest; op- 
posable thumbs on fore and hind limbs, chiefly 
formed for grasping; mamms pectoral, two or 
four; stomach simple. Their food consists of 
vegetables and insects. Their habits are gen- 
erally arboreal, and their habitat the forests of 
tropical America, Asia, and Africa. The mon- 
keys of the new world are entirely distinct from 
those of the old; the former have been called 
simie platyrrhini, or broad-nosed monkeys, 
and the latter simiew catarrhini, or narrow- 


MONKEY 


nosed monkeys.—The platyrrhini have the 
nostrils wide apart, on the sides of the nose as 
it were; they have no cheek pouches nor cal- 
losities on the rump, and their long tails are 
generally prehensile; the hands have either 
four or five fingers, the first or thumbs very 
slightly if at all opposable; the teeth are: in- 
cisors #, canines 4—4, molars $-§¢=36; they in- 
habit the warm parts of South America. The 
marmosets have been described under that title, 
and the remainder of the tribe may be divided 
into howlers and sapajous. The howling mon- 
keys belong to the genus mycetes (Illiger), and 
are characterized by a pyramidal head, bearded 
face, pentadactylous hands and feet, and tail 


naked at the end on the lower surface; the low- 


er jaw is very high, and the hyoid bone is ex-. 
panded into a kind of drum, which renders the 
voice so resonant and loud that their troops 
make a most frightful noise during the night; 
they are the largest and fiercest of the American 
monkeys, resembling the baboons in disposition 


Araguato (Mycetes ursinus). 


and facial angle, and the gibbons (Ay/obates) in 
their noisy and gregarious habits. The species 
are most abundant in Guiana and Brazil, where 
30 or 40 are often seen on a single tree. The 
brown howler or araguato (If. ursinus, Humb.) 
is reddish brown, with long hair and beard, 
and bluish black face; it is nearly 8 ft. long, 
exclusive of the tail. There are several other 
species. The sapajous are more slender, with 
flatter faces, longer tails, and milder disposi- 
tions than the howlers, resembling the guenong 
or long-tailed monkeys of the old world. In 
the genus ateles (Geoffroy), the head is rounded, 
the limbs very long and slender, the fore hands 
without thumbs, or with very rudimentary 
ones, and the tail long and prehensile and bare 
at the tip beneath. The coaita (A. paniscus, 
Geoffr.) is entirely black; it is a timid, mild 
animal, rather sluggish when not excited, but 
exceedingly agile among the trees; as it swings 
from the branches by the tail it looks not un- 


MONKEY 


tike a large black spider, and it is commonly 
called spider monkey; the tail is not only a 
fifth hand for purposes of progression, but an 
exquisite organ of touch. There are several 


Coaita (Ateles paniscus). 


species, which live in troops on the banks of 
the Amazon and Orinoco. Lagothrix (Geoffr.) 
differs from the last chiefly in the hands having 
a thumb and in the greater fineness of the hair; 
the L. Humboldtii (Geoffr.) is grayish black, 
about 2 ft. long, with the prehensile tail longer 
than the body. In the genus cebus (Geofir.) 
the head is rounded, and the long tail is hairy 
throughout and prehensile; the monkeys of this 
genus are very active, excellent climbers, with 
well formed hands; they are small, mild and 
playful, and gregarious. The horned sapajou 
(C. fatuellus, Geoftr.) is blackish brown, with 
the face surrounded with whitish andthe hair 


N 
m hye 


IW 
WARY 
Misi: 
Wy 


Capuchin Monkey (Cebus capucinus). 


of the forehead rising in two lengthened tufts 

above the eyes. The capuchin monkey (0. ca- 

nucinus, Erxl.) varies from grayish white to 

olive, with a black crown like a monk’s cap. 
569 VOL. x1.—48 


751 


There are several other species, all lively and 
mild, inhabiting Guiana. Inthe genera hitherto 
mentioned, the nails are flattened and rounded ; 
in the next three they more resemble claws, and 
the animals included in them have more car- 
nivorous propensities, eating meat, insects, and 
small birds which they seize. In callithrix 
or tee-tees (Geoffr.), of which the type is the 
saimiri or squirrel monkey (C. scéwreus, Geoftr.), 
the ears are proportionately large, the body 
slender, the tail longer than the body, en- 
tirely hairy, and not prehensile; the color is 
grayish brown, lighter beneath, with reddish 
limbs and black muzzle; the body is 7 or 8 in. 
long, and the tail 10 or 12. Other species are 
described, all active and beautiful, with carniv- 
orous propensities; they inhabit principally 
Brazil and Guiana. In qaotes (Humb.; nycti- 
pithecus, Spix) the two middle upper incisors 
are broad, and the canines moderate; the eyes 
large; hind feet longest; tail longer than the 
body, not prehensile; nocturnal in its habits, 


Cacajao (Pithecia melanocephala). 


living in pairs, resembling the lemurs of South 
Africa. (See Dovrovoovtt.) The last genus 
of the American monkeys which need be men- 
tioned is pithecta (Desm.), characterized by a 
round head, short muzzle, long canines, tail 
generally shorter than the body, entirely hairy, 
and not prehensile; they are nocturnal and 
gregarious, greatly resembling human pigmies, 
and said to be active, strong, and almost un- 
tamable. The couxio or black saki (P. satanas, 
Humb.) is dusky black, with a purplish tinge 
beneath, and with the tail is about 23 ft. long. 
The monk saki (P. chiropotes, Humb.) is brown- 
ish red, and of all the American species bears 
the closest resemblance in its features to man; 
the expression of the face is fierce and melan- 
choly, the chin is covered with a thick beard, 
and the eyes are large and sunken; it is said to 
drink from the hollow of the hand, and to be 
very careful not to wet its beard. The cacajao 
or black-headed saki (P. melanocephala, Desm.) 


152 


is about a foot long; the color of the body is 
yellowish brown, with the head black; there 
is no beard, and the tail is so short that Spix 
has placed it in a new genus brachyurus ; it is 
weak, inactive, and very timid. The yarke (P. 
leucocephala, Audebert) is black with the head 
whitish; the hair is very long. These and sev- 
eral other species inhabit the woods of Guiana 
in troops, where they are generally called night 
or fox-tailed apes.—Of the old-world monkeys, 
or catarrhini, the largest have been mentioned 
in the articles Apr, BaBoon, CHIMPANZEE, GrB- 
BON, GortLLa, and Macaque; so that it only 
remains to notice the smaller and long-tailed 
species. This division of the monkeys has the 
same number of teeth as man, viz., 32, and 
similarly arranged, except that the incisors are 
more prominent, and the canines larger and 
separated from the incisors; there is a thin 
septum between the nostrils, hard naked skin 
or callosities on the rump, pouches on the sides 
of the face between the cheeks and the jaws; 
they generally have tails, though these are ab- 
sent in the larger anthropoid apes; they are 
found in the warmer parts of Asia and Africa, 
only one species being naturalized in Europe 
(the Barbary ape on the rock of Gibraltar). 
The first of the monkeys not already noticed, 
connecting the guenons or long-tailed mon- 
keys with the gibbons or long-armed apes, is 
the presbytis or capped monkey; this has no 
cheek pouches, but has naked callosities, a long 
tail, and arms reaching to the knees. The P. 
mitrula (Eschs.) has the body 14 ft. long, and 
the tail about as long; the hair is bluish gray 
above and grayish white below, with a black 
line from the ears across the head; it is a native 
of Sumatra. In the African genus colobus (I]l.) 
there are no thumbs on the hands, and the limbs 
are long and slender as in the spider monkeys 
(ateles) of the new world. The king monkey (@. 
polycomus, Geoffr.) is remarkable for the long, 
coarse, and flowing hair on the head, like a full- 


Proboscis Monkey (Nasalis larvatus). 


bottomed periwig; the body is shining black, 
and the tail is pure white. The proboscis mon- 
key (nasalis larvatus, Geoffr.) has a short muz- 
zle, but the nose is lengthened into a kind of 


MONKEY 


proboscis 4 in. long, at the end of which are the 
nostrils; the body is thick and the limbs stout ; 
there are cheek pouches and callosities, and 
the tail is longer than the body; the color is 
reddish brown, with lighter patches on the 
lower back, and the face. black; the body is 
about 24 ft. long; they are very active and 
noisy, and inhabit in large troops the forests of 
Borneo. The Cochin-China monkey (lasiopyga 
nemea, Ill.) is a very singularly marked species ; 
the muzzle is slightly elongated, the face bare, 
the hands longer than the forearm, with short 
and slender thumbs; it has cheek pouches, but 
no callosities, and the tail is long. The colors 
are brilliant, the upper part of the head being 
brown with a chestnut frontal band, long hair 
of cheeks dirty white, forearms and tail white, 
the hands and thighs black, legs chestnut, and 
body olive gray; it stands nearly 4 ft. high. 
The first genus of the guenons is semnopithecus 


Entellus (Semnopithecus entellus). 


(F. Cuv.), with round head, flat nose, long 
limbs, short thumbs, small cheek pouches and 
callosities, slender form, very long and thin tail, 
and canines much longer than the incisors; they 
inhabit India and its archipelago. The S. entel- 
lus (F. Cuv.) has a body about 14 ft. long and a 
tail 2 ft; the hind limbs are much longer than 
the anterior; the color is yellowish white, pa- 
ler beneath, with the face, forearms and hands, 
legs and feet, black; it appears slow, sad, and 
stupid when at rest, but when roused is ex- 
tremely active; it is very sensitive to cold, and 
is therefore rarely seen in menageries. It is 
called hoonuman by the Hindoos, who consider 
it a crime to kill one, and believe that the 
person who destroys one will surely die with- 
in the year; it occupies a conspicuous place 
among their divinities. There are several other 
species in Sumatra. The genus cercopithecus 
(Erxl.) differs from the last in the larger facial 
angle, more elegant shape and coloring, longer 
posterior limbs, and milder and more affection- 
ate disposition; it has only four tubercles to 
the last lower molar, instead of five, as in sem- 
nopithecus. The varied monkey (C. mona, 
Geoffr.) is the handsomest of all; the body is 


MONKEY 


chestnut, upper part of head bright yellowish 
green, cheeks yellow, outside of limbs and tail 
blackish, with a spot of white on the nates; it 
is a native of Africa, cunning, active, intelli- 
gent, and playful. The Diana monkey (0. 
Diane, Geoffr.) is so called from the white 


Diana Monkey (Cercopithecus Diane). 


crescent on the forehead; the chin and throat 
are white; it is about 14 ft. long with a tail of 
2ft. There are many other species, most, like 
the first two, from Africa. The mangabeys 
(cercocebus, Geoffr.) begin to come near the 
baboons in the more lengthened muzzle and re- 
ceding forehead, though they have the long 
tail of the guenons; they are found in Africa 
and India. The green monkey (0. sabeus, 
Geoffr.) isa native of Africa and the Cape Verd 
islands, and is very often seen in captivity on 
account of its lively and playful manners; the 
color is olive green above, shading into white 
below, and the face is black. The malbrouck 
of Bengal (C. cynosurus, Geoffr.) is olive brown 
above, shading into white, with a white band 
over the eyes; it is an excellent climber and 
very active, and is often, seen in menageries. 
The white-eyelid mangabey (C. fuliginosus, 
Geoffr.) is sooty black with white and very 
conspicuous upper eyelids; it is a native of 
Africa. These and numerous other species of 
Asia and Africa are generally easily domestica- 
ted when young; they are good-natured, play- 
ful, and free from the disgusting habits of the 
larger baboons.—The restriction of the catar- 
rhini to the old and of the platyrrhini to the 
new world prevailed in the tertiary geological 
epochs. Fragments of a jaw and some teeth 
found in the eocene sand of Suffolk, England, 
were referred by Owen to the genus macacus 
under the name of J. eocenus ; this furnishes 
a proof of the former more elevated tempera- 
ture of Europe, monkeys having lived during 
the eocene period 15° further N. thannow. In 
the miocene of France, in lat. 43° N., were 
found portions of a jaw and teeth, very an- 
thropoid in appearance, belonging to what De 
Blainville has called pithecus antiquus, which 


MONMOUTH 153 


some have thought nearer to man than is the 
chimpanzee. Other fragments have been found 
in England, Greece, and France, which have 
been referred to the genera macacus, pithecus, 
and semnopithecus. In the Sivalik hills of In- 
dia have been discovered specimens of semno- 
pithecus nearly as large as the orangs, and 
some resembling baboons. In South America, 
Lund found in Brazil, in lat. 18° S., speci- 
mens which he referred to the genera cebus, 
callithrix primevus (twice the size of any liv- 
ing species), and protopithecus Brasiliensis, 
which must have attained a height of 4 ft.; 
he also found there ouistitis (jacchus grandis) 
twice as large as any now living. 

MONKSHOOD. See Aconire. 

MONMOUTH, a central county of New Jersey, 
bordering on the Atlantic ocean, drained by the 
Nevisink, Shrewsbury, Shark, and Toms rivers; 
area, about 800 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 46,195. 
Its surface is generally level, with elevations 
toward the northeast. It is traversed by the 
Freehold and Jamesburg, the New Jersey 
Southern and Port Monmouth branch, the 
Toms River and Waretown, and the Tuckerton 
railroads. The chief productions in 1870 were 
176,473 bushels of wheat, 46,567 of rye, 760,479 
of Indian corn, 180,461 of oats, 1,263,403 of 
Trish and 50,892 of sweet potatoes, 41,582 Ibs. 
of wool, 415,367 of butter, and 32,389 tons of 
hay. There were 6,035 horses, 1,254 mules 
and asses, 8,033 milch cows, 4,244 other cattle, 
14,099 sheep, and 10,890 swine; 13 manufac- 
tories of brick, 28 of carriages and wagons, 10 
of men’s clothing, 5 of furniture, 3 of gold leaf 
and foil, 5 of tanned and 5 of curried leather, 
7 of canned vegetables, 4 distilleries, 28 flour 
mills, and 8 saw mills. Capital, Freehold. 

MONMOUTH, a city and the capital of War- 
ren co., Illinois, situated at the intersection of 
the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy, and the 
Rockford, Rock Island, and St. Louis railroads, 
90m. N. W. of Springfield ; pop. in 1870, 4,662. 
It is the seat of Monmouth college, established 
in 1856, and of the theological seminary of 
the Northwest, established in 1839, both under 
the control of the United Presbyterians. The 
former institution admits both sexes, and in 
1878-4 had 9 instructors, 188 preparatory and 
87 collegiate students, and a library of 1,850 
volumes. The seminary in the same year had 
3 professors, 12 students, and a library of 2,442 
volumes. The city has five hotels, three pub- 
lic halls, two grain elevators, two flouring 
mills, a planing mill, three manufactories of 
ploughs, one of files, one of school and church 
furniture, three national banks, an academy, 
graded public schools, a library, three weekly 
newspapers, two monthly periodicals, and nine 
churches, 

MONMOUTH, a market town and borough of 
England, capital of Monmouthshire, in a valley 
at the confluence of the Wye and Monnow, 110 
m. W. N. W. of London; pop. in 1871, 5,874. 
Its castle, once the residence of John of Gaunt, 
is now a mere ruin. There are large iron 


754 MONMOUTH 


works, and the Wye fisheries in the vicinity are 
flourishing. The trade consists chiefly in the 
export of bark and timber. The battle of Mon- 
mouth, in which Owen Glendower was defeat- 
ed, was fought May 11, 1405. 

MONMOUTH, Battle of, an engagement between 
the American forces under Washington and 
the British under Sir Henry Clinton, at Free- 
hold, Monmouth co., N. J., June 28,1778. On 
June 18 Clinton evacuated Philadelphia and 
marched toward Brunswick, with a view of 
embarking on the Raritan. Washington broke 
camp at Valley Forge, sent forward some 
light troops to harass the enemy, and started 
in pursuit. At Allentown Clinton suddenly 
turned to the right by a road leading through 
Freehold to Sandy Hook, and Washington de- 
termined at once to give him battle. The even- 
ing of the 27th found the main body of the 
enemy encamped on high ground near Mon- 
mouth court house in the town of Freehold, 
while the American advance, about 4,000 
strong, under Lee, was posted at Englishtown, 
5 m. distant, with the main body about 3 m. 
in the rear. Early on the 28th Lee engaged 
the rear division of the enemy, his orders 
being to hold it in check until the main body 
under Washington could come up. The Ameri- 
cans were successful at first, but the whole 
body soon fell into a confusion in which their 
commander seemed to participate, and com- 
menced a disorderly retreat, closely followed 
by the British. Washington, advancing with 
the main body, received the first intimation 
of this movement in the crowds of fugitives. 
He rode up to Lee and reprimanded him ve- 
hemently; then, rallying the fugitives, he re- 
formed them, and hastened back to bring up 
the main body. Lee, resuming his command, 
held his position with spirit until compelled 
to retire, and brought off his troops in good 
order. The main body, which had taken a fa- 
vorable position on an eminence, with a mo- 
rass in front and a wood in the rear, opened 
an effective cannonade from both wings upon 
the British. The latter, after an ineffectual 
attempt to turn the American left under Lord 
Stirling, directed their chief efforts against the 
right commanded by Greene, where Wayne, 
under cover of an orchard, was harassing their 
centre by a severe fire. To dislodge him, Col. 
Monckton advanced with a column of royal 
grenadiers, but fell at the head of his troops, 
who were repulsed with considerable loss. The 
enemy at length fell back to the ground occu- 
pied by Lee in the morning, and during the 
night Clinton effected a noiseless retreat. Ex- 
cessive heat and fatigue rendered pursuit im- 
practicable. The American loss was 69 killed 
and 160 wounded; that of the British proba- 
bly nearly 300 killed and 100 prisoners, inclu- 
ding wounded. On both sides many men died 
from the heat alone. For his conduct in this 
battle Lee was court-martialled and suspended 
for one year from his command, 

MONMOUTH, Geoffrey of. See Grorrrey. 


MONMOUTH, James Scott, duke of, supposed son 
of Charles II., king of Great Britain, born in 
Rotterdam, April 9, 1649, executed in London, 
July 15, 1685. His mother was Lucy Walters, 
who was at first mistress of Algernon Sidney, 
and afterward of his brother Robert; and the 
latter was by some reputed the father of Mon- 
mouth. While Charles was in Holland, Lucy 
Walters became his mistress. He acknowledged 
her son to be his offspring, and was through- 
out life strongly attached to him. The boy was 
known as James Crofts, because he was for 
some time in the charge of Lord Crofts, and 
passed for his relative. When he was taken 
to England, in 1662, he was very accomplished 


-and very handsome. He was first made duke 


of Orkney, but the title was changed to that 
of Monmouth. He was also created baron of 
Tyndale and earl of Doncaster at the same 
time, Feb. 19, 1663. Heserved on board the 
fleet of the duke of York in 1665, and was in 
the battle of Lowestoft, June 3. He married 
while very young Anne, daughter and sole heir 
of Francis Scott, earl of Buccleuch, and assumed 
hername. They were created duke and duchess 
of Buccleuch, earl and countess of Dalkeith, and 
baron and baroness of Whitchester and Ash- 
dale in Scotland, in 1673. In 1670 he became 
captain general of all the king’s fortresses, and 
a privy councillor, and was allowed privileges 
at court which could be claimed only by per- 
sons of the blood royal. At first Monmouth 
and his uncle, the duke of York, were friends, 
but they soon became rivals in love and poli- 
tics. Those who dreaded the accession of 
York to the throne (the king having no legiti- 
mate children, nor expecting any) endeavored 
to have Monmouth recognized as heir presump- 
tive. When England joined France in the 
war against Holland, Monmouth was sent at 
the head of 6,000 troops to act under Louis 


XIV. in 1672. He served in two campaigns 


with considerable distinction, and was made a 
lieutenant general by the French king. Subse- 
quently, as lord general of the king’s forces in 
Flanders, he took part in the battle of St. 
Denis. He had been made commander-in-chief 
of the armies of England and Scotland, and 
was known as ‘‘the Protestant duke.” He 
encouraged the Rye House plot, and his designs 
on the succession to the throne were much 
favored by Shaftesbury and his associates, and 
by the extreme unpopularity of the duke of 
York, who was a Catholic, and who was com- 
pelled to leave the country. Monmouth de- 
feated the Scotch Covenanters, June 22, 1679, 
at Bothwell. As he treated the rebels mildly, 
and would willingly have spared them all, he 
was accused of favoring rebellion, and was 
compelled to resign his office of lord general 
and to go to Holland. Thence he returned 
to England without leave, and on his refusal to 
quit the kingdom his offices were taken from 
him. He now headed the opposition to the 
court, and his pretensions to the crown were 
vigorously pressed by his followers, rather on 


— 


MONMOUTHSHIRE 


a popular than on a legal basis; but when the 
duke of York returned to court, the story of 
the marriage of Charles II. and Lucy Walters 
was gravely urged, and the king deemed it 
necessary to deny it in the most public and 
formal manner. The part Monmouth had in 
the conspiracies of 1683 led to his flight to 
Holland, after considerable negotiation with 
the king for pardon. When Charles II. died, 
Feb. 6, 1685, he left the Hague, and, deluded 
by the suggestions of British exiles, headed a 
small expedition, which arrived at Lyme Regis, 
June 11. At first the duke met with some 
success; but his forces were beaten at Sedge- 
moor, July 6, and on the 8th he was captured 
and taken to London, where he had an in- 
terview with James II., of whom he vainly 
begged his life in abject terms. He was exe- 
‘cuted under an act of attainder two days after 
his arrival in the capital. His followers con- 
tinued for many years to believe that he was 
alive, and it was supposed by some that he 
was the man with the iron mask who was so 
long a prisoner in the Bastile. His wife, a 
woman of superior talents, from whom he had 
been separated, survived him nearly 47 years, 
and married Charles, third Lord Cornwallis. 
She is the duchess of Scott’s ‘‘ Lay of the Last 
Minstrel,” and Monmouth is the Absalom of 
Dryden’s ‘‘ Absalom and Achitophel.” 
MONMOUTHSHIRE, a maritime county of Eng- 
land, bounded S. by the Bristol channel and 
the estuary of the Severn; area, 575 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1871, 195,391. The coast, 22 m. in 
extent, is exposed to the high spring tides that 
rush up the Severn from the Bristol channel 
and sometimes attain an altitude of 60 ft. 
Vast sea walls and earthworks have been erect- 
ed. The surface toward the north is moun- 
tainous and rocky; adjoining the Severn and 
the sea is a spacious plain, which the river Usk 
divides into two parts, called the Wentloog and 
Caldecot levels. The principal mountains are: 
Pen-y-Val, or the Sugar Loaf, 1,856 ft. high; 
Blawrenge mountain, 1,720 ft.; and Skyrryd 
Vawr, or Holy mountain, 1,498 ft. The chief 
rivers are the Wye, Usk, and Monnow, the two 
former of which are famous for their salmon. 
The soil of the vales and plains is generally 
fertile. Iron, coal, lead, and building stone are 
produced. The iron and coal of this county 
are shipped at Newport. The area of its min- 
eral districts is estimated at 89,000 acres. 
Chief towns, Monmouth, the capital, Newport, 
Abergavenny, and Chepstow. Monmouthshire 
was originally a part of South Wales, and the 
Welsh language is still largely in use there. 
MONNARD, Charles, a Swiss author, born in 
Bern in 1790, died in Bonn, Germany, Jan. 
12, 1865. He was educated in Lausanne and 
Paris, and in 1817 became professor of French 
literature in Lausanne. He studied ecclesias- 
tical and civil law, and in May, 1824, a law 
having been passed to prevent the propagation 
of Methodism in the canton of Vaud, he de- 
clared it unconstitutional, and encouraged his 


MONO 55 


friend Vinet to stand up for liberty of con- 
science, publishing for him the treatises De 
la liberté des cultes (1826) and Obdservations 
sur les sectaires (1829). The former treatise 
created considerable disturbance. A German 
translation appeared in 1848. The second 
treatise caused the suspension of Monnard from 
his professorship, and his removal to Geneva, 
whence however he soon returned, became a 
representative, and was noted for his defence 
of Swiss independence when in 1838 Louis 
Philippe demanded the expulsion of Prince 
Louis Napoleon. After the revolution of 1846 
he retired from politics, and accepted the 
professorship of French literature which was 
founded for him by the king of Prussia at the 
university of Bonn. 

MONNIER, Henri Bonaventure, a French au- 
thor, born in Paris, June 6, 1799, died Jan. 8, 
1877. He was aclerk in the ministry of jus- 
tice when he began to study painting under 
Giredet. He acquired celebrity as a writer of 
illustrated works, with exquisite caricatures, 
and especially by his Scénes populaires (1880), 
Nouvelles scénes populaires (5 vols., 1835-"62), 
and Mémoires de Joseph Prudhomme (new ed., 
2 vols., 1857). He wrote and personated the 
principal part in Grandeur et décadence de M. 
Joseph Prudhomme (1852); and in-his equally 
entertaining vaudeville Roman chez la portiére 
(1855) he personated the portiére. 

MONNIER, Mare, a French author, born in 
Florence about 1829. He spent the early part 
of his life in Italy, and many of his writings 
relate to that country. He has published poe- 
try, plays, and novels, and during the past few 
years has been a prominent member of the 
staff of the Journal des Débats. Among his 
numerous works are: Htude historique de la 
conquéte de la Sicile par les Sarrasins (Gene- 
va, 1847); Garibaldi, histoire de la conquéte 
des Deux-Siciles (Paris, 1861); Pompéi et les 
Pompéiens (1864); Les aieux de Figaro (1868), 
which contains interesting disquisitions on 
dramatic art; and Poésies (1871). 

MONO, an E. county of California, bordering 
on Nevada, and bounded W. by the Sierra Ne- 
vada mountains; area, 4,176 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 480, of whom 42 were Chinese. It 
is watered in the south by Owen’s river, and 
in the north by the forks of Walker’s river. 
Mono lake, a considerable body of water near 
the centre, receives several streams, but has 
no outlet. The slope of the Sierra Nevada is 
heavily timbered; the rest of the county con- 
sists of hills and mountain spurs, with small 
valleys of tillable land and larger tracts suit- 
able for grazing. Gold and silver are found, 
two mines of the former and three of the lat- 
ter being in operation in 1870. The chief pro- 
ductions were 6,144 bushels of wheat, 4,173 of 
oats, 12,704 of barley, 4,982 of potatoes, 7,000 
Ibs. of wool, 35,685 of butter, and 2,714 tons 
of hay. There were 723 horses, 3,227 cattle, 
and 559 swine; 1 flour mill, 3 saw mills, and 
8 quartz mills. Capital, Bridgeport. 


756 MONOD 

MONOD. I. Jean, a French clergyman, born 
in Geneva in 1765, died in Paris, April 28, 1836. 
He officiated as pastor of the Reformed church 
in Paris until the outbreak of the first revolu- 
tion, when he removed to Copenhagen, where 
he entertained the duke of Orleans, the future 
king Louis Philippe. In 1808 he returned to 
Paris, and in 1830 became president of the 
consistory. II. Frédéric Joél Jean Gérard, eldest 
son of the preceding, born near Morges, Switz- 
erland, May 17, 1794, died in Paris in 1868. 
He received his theological education at Geneva, 
and after the death of his father became pas- 
tor of the Oratoire in Paris. His ability as a 
preacher and his high character made him a 
leader among the evangelical Protestants of 
France. After officiating in the Oratoire for 
more than 12 years, he seceded from the na- 
tional Protestant church, April 22, 1849, be- 
cause it did not insist upon ‘‘ the acknowledg- 
ment of Christ as a divine Saviour” as a 
condition of membership. He organized the 
Free church of France, resembling in some 
respects the Free church movement in Scot- 
land. In 1858 he visited the United States, to 
enlist the sympathies of Americans in the 
movement. For several years he edited the 
Archives du Christianisme, and he published 
several sermons and lectures.—His son JEAN, 
born in Paris in 1822, was pastor at Marseilles 
and at Nimes, and was chosen professor of 
theology at Montauban in 1865. Ii. Adolphe 
Frédéric Théodore, brother of the preceding, born 
in Oopenhagen, Jan. 21, 1802, died in Paris, 
April 6, 1856. He was educated at Geneva, 
and held to the same views in regard to the 
divinity of the Saviour as his brother Frédéric, 
yet remained in the national church. He be- 
came one of the pastors of the Reformed church 
in Lyons, whence he was dismissed in conse- 
quence of his rigid adherence to evangelical 
principles. He was afterward professor in the 
theological school at Montauban, and in 1849, 
on the secession of his brother, he was invited 
to fill his place at the Oratoire. He held this 
post until his death, and gained a high reputa- 
tion for pulpit eloquence. He is the author of 
Lucile, ou la lecture de la Bible (1841); Saint 
Paul (1850); La Femme (1862); and several 
volumes of discourses. Most of his works 
have been translated into English. 

MONOGRAM (Gr. jdvoc, single, and ypdupa, 
letter), a character or cipher formed by the 
combination of two or more letters of the 
alphabet. Monograms were common in anti- 
quity, and their use was almost universal at 
the beginning of the Christian era. Many are 
found on Greek and Roman coins, medals, and 
seals, the names of cities and states being rep- 
resented monogrammatically where it was an 
object to save space, and on the leaden bulle 
of Greece and Sicily. The Chrismon or mono- 
gram of Christ, with which coins, seals, rings, 
lamps, vases, tombs, paintings, and ecclesias- 
tical documents were ornamented in the mid- 
dle ages, is a combination of the Greek letters 


MONONGAHELA RIVER 


X and P, and represents the first two letters of 
XPIZTOS. The X is sometimes made to form 
a cross, and sometimes entirely detached from 
the P and used in connection with other letters, 


YP Pp : 


Monogram of Christ. 


particularly A and Q. The illustrations are all 
from tombs in the Roman catacombs, the first 
two of the 2d century. The Chrismon was 
the symbol borne on the labarum of Constan- 
tine, and it was impressed on the coins of nearly 
all the succeeding emperors of the East. It is 
now nearly superseded in eccle- 
siastical ornamentation by the 
monogram of Jesus, a combina- 
tion of the Greek letters IHX, 
the abbreviation of IHZOY. In 
the time of Charlemagne mono- 
grams were in general use on coins 
and seals, and in manuscripts. 
His own monogram occurs as a 
subscription to a document in the British mu- 
seum of the date 801; as will be seen by the 
illustration, it takes in all the letters of his 
name (Karolus). The popes and many other 
sovereigns of the middle ages used monograms 
for signatures, as did also the early painters, 
engravers, and printers. Many modern mono- . 
grams are but imitations of medieval ones, but 
the taste for their use on seals, plate, paper, &c., 
has led to the production of designs which excel 
the best middle-age examples both in beauty 
and in intricacy.—See Brulliot, Dictionnaire 
des monogrammes (2d ed., 8 vols. 4to, Munich, 
183243); Binterim, Die vorziglichsten Denk- 
wiirdigkeiten der christlichkatholischen kirche 
(7 vols., Mentz, 1825-’33); and Nagler, Dée 
Monogrammisten, &c. (4 vols. 8vo, Munich, 
1857-63). 

MONOMANIA. See Iysanrry. 

MONONA, a W. county of Iowa, separated 
from Nebraska by the Missouri river, and in- 
tersected by the Little Sioux; area, about 900 
sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 3,654. It is covered with 
prairie and has a fertile soil. The Sioux City 
and Pacific railroad passes through it. The 
chief productions in 1870 were 88,990 bushels 
of wheat, 285,457 of Indian corn, 50,846 of 
oats, 24,026 of potatoes, 18,783 lbs. of wool, 
85,611 of butter, and 16,132 tons of hay. There 
were 1,413 horses, 6,374 cattle, 4,043 sheep, 
and 2,732 swine. Capital, Onawa. 

MONONGAHELA RIVER, one of the head 
branches of the Ohio, formed by the union of 
the West fork and Tygart’s Valley river in 
Marion co., W. Va., flows N. into Pennsylvania, 
where it receives the Cheat river, its principal 
tributary, and the Youghiogheny, and unites 


Monogram of 
Charlemagne. 


MONONGALIA 


with the Alleghany to form the Ohio at Pitts- 
burgh ; length, exclusive of branches, about 
150 m., or including the Tygart’s Valley river 
or East fork (which rises in Randolph co., W. 
Va.), 800 m. At its mouth the width is nearly 
400 yards. It is navigable for large boats to 
Brownsville, Pa., 60 m. from its mouth, and for 
small boats to Fairmont, W. Va., at its head. 
MONONGALIA, a N. county of West Virginia, 
bordering on Pennsylvania, and intersected by 
Monongahela and Cheat rivers; area, about 
500 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 18,547, of whom 231 
were colored. The surface is uneven, being 
mountainous toward the east, where it is 
crossed by Laurel hill, an extreme western 
ridge of the Alleghanies; the soil is fertile. 
The Baltimore and Ohio railroad passes through 
the S. W. part. The chief productions in 1870 
were 111,805 bushels of wheat, 301,328 of 
Indian corn, 148,072 of oats, 23,772 of pota- 
toes, 55,856 Ibs. of wool, 345,573 of butter, 
and 12,030 tons of hay. There were 4,238 
horses, 8,110 cattle, 17,871 sheep, and 7,324 
swine; 7 flour, 3 lumber, and 2 woollen mills, 
and 8 tanneries. Oapital, Morgantown. 
MONOPHYSITES (Gr. povodvoitat, from pdvoc, 
single, and gtovc, nature), the followers of Eu- 
tyches, who maintained that in Christ there is 
‘‘only one nature, that of the incarnate word,” 
his human nature having been absorbed by the 
divine. Eutyches had been led to maintain the 
mixture or confounding of the divine and hu- 
man natures in Christ, against Nestorius, who 
taught that ‘‘the divine nature was not incar- 
nate in Jesus, but only attendant on him, be- 
ing superadded to his already formed human 
nature.” Eutyches was warmly supported by 
the monasteries of Constantinople, and by those 
of Egypt, headed by Dioscurus, bishop of Alex- 
andria. His opinion, condemned in 448 at 
Constantinople, was reaffirmed by the ‘‘robber 
synod’ of Ephesus in 449, through the in- 
fluence of Dioscurus and his partisans, aided 
by the abbot Barsumas and his Syrian monks, 
but especially through the active support of 
the emperor Theodosius II. This decision was 
reversed in 451 by the general council of Chal- 
cedon, which decreed that after the incarnation 
the one and same Christ subsists in both 
natures without mixture, change, division, or 
separation. This decision, which the Euty- 
chians termed sheer Nestorianism, only made 
them more tenacious of their doctrine. Hence 
they were called Monophysites by their op- 
ponents, who in turn were denominated indis- 
criminately Diophysites or Nestorians. The 
great patriarchal sees of Alexandria, Jerusalem, 
and Antioch, chiefly by means of the numerous 
monasteries of monks tainted with Eutychian- 
ism, fell into the possession of the Monophy- 
sites, and these cities, with their dependent 
churches, were for a long time scenes of the 
most scandalous and sanguinary violence. The 
perpetual interference of the Greek emperors 
in theological disputes, as it had not a little 
helped the growth of the Nestorian and Euty- 


MONOPHYSITES T57 


chian heresies, contributed also to perpetuate 
the division between the orthodox and the 
Monophysites. The usurper Basiliscus in 476 
was the first emperor to issue doctrinal edicts 
obligatory on all upholding Monophysitism. 
In 477 the emperor Zeno gave his support to 
the Catholics, and in 482 he published a doc- 
trinal compromise called Henoticon, which was 
condemned at Rome and rejected by both 
parties. Every attempt at reunion thencefor- 
ward made by the imperial authority only 
served to widen the breach. The emperors 
Justin and Justinian employed alternately, 
without success, measures of conciliation and 
severity. While Justinian tried to win the 
Catholics by proscribing the writings of Origen 
favorable to the Monophysites, he irritated 
them by condemning what is known as the 
‘three chapters,” namely, passages from three 
Antiochian church teachers, tainted with Nes- 
torianism, but justified at Chalcedon. At the 
same time Justinian’s wife Theodora was a 
most ardent propagandist of Monophysitism. 
The general council of Constantinople, con- 
vened in 553 by that emperor, created irremedi- 
able division, on the one hand by the condem- 
nation of the Monophysite tenets, and on the 
other by the violence done to Pope Vigilius, 
and the condemnation of the ‘‘ three chapters.” 
The Monophysites, in the mean while, had fall- 
en out among themselves; some (the Seve- 
rians) maintaining the corruptibility, others 
(the Julianists) the incorruptibility of the body 
of Christ. By adopting the latter doctrine 
Justinian made (in 564) a last attempt to draw 
over the Monophysites, but with no other © 
result than to cause a new split among the 
Catholic bishops. Under his successor the ef- 
forts to make the Monophysites accept the de- 
crees of Chalcedon were given up, and they 
organized as an independent body. The zeal 
of Jacobus Baradzeus, who in 541 was ordained 
bishop of Edessa, gave them in Syria and Meso- 
potamia a permanent organization, with a pa- 
triarch, claiming to be the legitimate successor 
of the Antiochian patriarchs, at their head. 
They also received from him the name Jacob- 
ites, by which they were thenceforth commonly 
called. (See Jaconirss.) As early as 527, the 
bishops of Armenia rejected at a national synod, 
under the presidency of their patriarch Nerses, 
the decrees of Chalcedon, and organized on a 
Monophysitic basis an independent church. 
(See ARMENIAN Cuurcu.) In Egypt nearly all 
the churches adopted Monophysitism ; the few 
adherents of the imperial decrees were called 
Melchites (7. ¢., royalists), while the Monophy- 
sites received the name of Coptic (2. e., Egyptian) 
Christians. (See Corrs.) With this latter branch 
of Monophysitism the Abyssinian church is in 
organic connection. Some smaller branches 
of these four Monophysitic churches spread in 
other parts of western and in central Asia, but 
without attaining to any importance.—The his- 
tory of the Monophysites is most amply treated 
of by Walch, in his Ketzerhistorie, vols. vi., 


158 MONOPOLI 


vii., and viii. An extensive extract from this 
work is given in Schréckh’s Hirchengeschichte, 
vol. xviii. Writings and fragments of the party 
leaders are contained in Mai’s Scriptorum Vete- 
rum Nova Collectio, vol. vii., and Spicilegium 
Romanum, vol. vii. (See MonorTue ites.) 
MONOPOLI, a seaport town of Italy, in the 
province and 25 m.S8. E. of the city of Bari, 
on the Adriatic; pop. about 12,000. It is the 
see of a bishop, and has a cathedral with a fine 
painting of St. Sebastian by Palma, and a chapel 
enriched with inlaid marbles of all colors. The 
town has two harbors, which accommodate large 
vessels, but one of them is exposed to the N. E. 
wind, which often blows with great violence 
in the Adriatic. There are extensive manu- 
factories of cotton and linen cloths. About 3 
m. from the town are ruins of the ancient sea- 
port Egnatia, which was early the see of a 
bishop and was destroyed in the 9th century. 
MONOTHELITES (Gr. povoGedira, from pédvoc, 
single, and 6éAevv, to will), the name of a sect 
which maintained that in Christ there was but 
one will and one voluntary operation, while 
they admitted the doctrine of two whole and 
distinct natures after the incarnation. The 
origin of Monothelitism was due to the effort 
made by the emperor Heraclius to conciliate 
the numerous Monophysite churches. (See 
Monopnysitss.) At the suggestion of Sergius, 
patriarch of Constantinople, a profession of 
faith was drawn up affirming that in Christ 
there is “‘ only one mode of willing and work- 
ing,” and this was embodied in 639 in an im- 
- perial edict called Hkthesis, Cyrus, patriarch 
of Alexandria, at the instance of Sergius, made 
this formula a part of a doctrinal compromise, 
which was adopted by an assembly of Mono- 


physite bishops held in that city, and thus led : 


to the reunion of a large number of Mono- 
physite churches. Sophronius, then a priest 
of Alexandria, strenuously but vainly opposed 
the adoption of this formula; and being soon 
afterward chosen patriarch of Jerusalem, he 
denounced the compromise in his inaugural 
letter to the bishops of Christendom. Sergius 
thereupon wrote to Pope Honorius I. request- 
ing him to use his authority with Sophronius, 
and forbid the use of formulas expressing 
the existence in Christ of two wills and two 
voluntary operations. To this request Hono- 
rius assented. (See Honorius.) But after 
his death (638), the bishops of Rome placed 
themselves at the head of the opposition, and 
a new decree of the emperor Constans IL., 
called 7ypos (648), designed to enforce peace 
by a prohibition of the controversy, had not 
the desired effect. The first council of Lateran 
(649) under Pope Martin I. condemned the 
Monothelites and the two imperial laws. The 
pope suffered imprisonment and died in exile 
for this decree, but some years later (680) the 
sixth cecumenical council, held at Constanti- 
nople, recognized in Christ two wills made one 
by the moral subordination of the human. The 
Monothelites obtained once more a transient 


MONREALE 


victory under Philippicus Bardanes (711-18), 
who had been brought up by the patriarch Ma- 
carius; but after the elevation of Anastasius II. 
to the throne, all the Monothelites were forced 
to submit, and the sect maintained itself only 
in a corner of Asia, outside of the Byzantine 
boundaries, until the 12th century, when they 
united with the Roman Catholic church. (See 
Maronires.)—A history of the Monothelite 
heresy was written by Combefis, in his Axctu- 
arium Patrum, vol. ii. (Paris, 1648). 

MONOTREMATA (Gr. pévoc, single, and tpfya, 
opening), an order of implacental mammals; 
the name is derived from the fact that the in- 
testinal, generative, and urinary organs open 
into a common cloaca, as in birds and reptiles. 
The order includes the ornithorhynchus and 
the porcupine ant-eaters (echidna), from Aus- 
tralia and Tasmania. They are the lowest 
mammals, and have many characters of birds 
and reptiles in their structure and mode of 
reproduction; they have no abdominal pouch, 
but the marsupial bones are present; at the 
top of the breast bone is an episternum with 
lateral arms forming the chief support of the 
scapular arch, on the top of which the true 
clavicles, like the furcular bone of birds, are 
situated ; the coracoid bones extend also to the 
sternum, and are surmounted by epicoracoid 
bones; in the scapular arch, therefore, they 
resemble in some respects birds, in others liz- 
ards and enaliosaurians. The eyes are very 
small, the external ears absent, and the face 
projects in the form of a naked beak, without 
teeth or soft movable lips; the teeth are re- 
placed by small horny plates; some authors, 
as Wagner, have ranked them among edentates, 
The feet are five-toed, with long nails; the 
males have a long spur on the hind legs, the 
groove of which communicates with a glan- 
dular organ, whose secretion has been erro- 
neously supposed to be poisonous; the mam- 
mary orifices are mere slits in the skin of the 
abdomen, without elevated nipples, and the 
female sexual organs resemble those of birds; 
the young are born alive, and are suckled as 
in other mammals; the cecum is small; the 
lungs are spongy and cellular, and enclosed 
in a thoracic cavity separated from the abdo- 
men by a diaphragm; in the brain there is no 
corpus callosum, and the bigeminal bodies are 
simple. (See OrnirHorHyNouus, and Porov- 
PINE ANT-EATER.) 

MONREALE, a town of Sicily, in the province 
and 4 m. S. W. of the city of Palermo, on a 
steep hill called Monte Caputo; pop. about 16,- 
000. Itis the seat of an archbishop, and has 
one of the most imposing cathedrals of Sicily, 
containing the tombs of several Norman kings 
of the 12th century. There is a brisk trade 
in corn, oil, and fruit raised in the vicinity, 
Monreale grew up around a splendid Benedic- 
tine abbey and church (now the cathedral) 
founded by the Norman king William the Good 
in 1174, and took its name (Royal Mount) from 
its royal origin. . 


MONRO 


MONRO, Alexander, an English anatomist, born 
in London, Sept. 19, 1697, died in Edinburgh, 
July 10,1767. In 1720 he began at Edinburgh 
a course of lectures on anatomy and materia 
medica, which were the first regular lectures 
on the medical sciences ever delivered in that 
city. On the foundation of the Edinburgh fac- 
ulty of medicine in 1721, Dr. Monro was ap- 
pointed professor of anatomy. The royal in- 
firmary of Edinburgh was founded under his 
direction, and he lectured there on surgical 
science till 1759, when he resigned his‘lecture- 
ship to his son Alexander, who was the author 
of several treatises on physics. The father’s 
most important work is ‘‘ Osteology, or a Trea- 
tise on the Anatomy of the Bones” (1726), 
which was translated into many foreign lan- 
guages. Some of his contributions to scien- 
tific journals were reprinted under the titles 
‘Medical Essays and Observations” and ‘‘ Es- 
says Physical and Literary.” His complete 
works, edited by his son Alexander, with a 
memoir by his son Donald, were published in 
Edinburgh in 1781. 

MONROE, the name of 17 counties in the 
United States. I. A N. W. county of New 
York, bounded N. by Lake Ontario and drained 
by the Genesee river; area, 682 sq: m.; pop. 
in 1870, 117,868. The surface is generally 
level, with a slight inclination toward the 
lake. The soil is very fertile. The county is 
intersected by the New York Central and sev- 
eral other railroads, and the Erie and Gene- 
see Valley canals. The chief productions in 
1870 were 1,051,520 bushels of wheat, 802,- 
261 of Indian corn, 1,217,955 of oats, 480,968 
of barley, 990,998 of potatoes, 134,184 of peas 
and beans, 70,095 lbs. of tobacco, 337,394 of 
hops, 385,443 of wool, 1,631,050 of butter, 
39,558 of cheese, and 74,453 tons of hay. 
There were 17,151 horses, 16,163 milch cows, 
13,172 other cattle, 70,546 sheep, and 17,871 
swine. There were 1,160 manufacturing es- 
tablishments, employing $10,951,090 capital, 
with annual products amounting to $23,745,- 
407. The chief industries, besides a large 
number of nurseries for fruit and ornamental 
trees and plants, were 17 manufactories of 
agricultural implements, 19 of boots and shoes, 
65 of carriages and wagons,82 of men’s clothing, 
1 of edge tools, 20 of furniture, 4 of hats and 
caps, 22 of iron castings, wrought iron, &c., 
17 of machinery, 3 of paper, 4 of perfumery 
and fancy goods, 39 of tin, copper, and sheet- 
iron ware, 17 tanneries, 30 flour, 17 saw, and 
4 planing mills, 3 distilleries, and 18 brewer- 
ies. Capital, Rochester. If, An E. county of 
Pennsylvania, separated from New Jersey by 
the Delaware river; area, 600 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 18,362. The surface in some parts is 
mountainous, and the soil of the valleys is 
rich. Limestone and slate are found. It is 
traversed by the Delaware, Lackawanna, and 
Western railroad. The chief productions in 
1870 were 37,062 bushels of wheat, 72,424 of 
rye, 175,040 of Indian corn, 113,470 of oats, 


MONROE "59 


79,165 of buckwheat, 103,816 of potatoes, 
12,039 Ibs. of wool, 298,168 of butter, and 
17,9783 tons of hay. There were 2,870 horses, 
4,206 milch cows, 3,713 other cattle, 8,974 
sheep, and 5,441 swine; 12 flour, 14 saw, and 
2 woollen mills, and 12 tanneries. Capital, 
Stroudsburg. IH. A S. county of West Vir-> 
ginia, bordering on Virginia, drained by Green- 
brier and New rivers; area, 450 sq. m.; pop. 
in 1870, 11,124, of whom 1,003 were colored. 
It has an elevated surface, and is bounded E. 
and 8. by the Alleghanies. It is one of the 
finest grazing counties in the state. The Chesa- 
peake and Ohio railroad passes through the N. 
part. The chief productions in 1870 were 
52,817 bushels of wheat, 11,820 of rye, 170,721 
of Indian corn, 59,062 of oats, 12,164 of pota- 
toes, 123,221 Ibs. of tobacco, 26,694 of wool, 
163,540 of butter, and 5,388 tons of hay. 
There were 2,555 horses, 3,006 milch cows, 
7,169 other cattle, 11,517 sheep, and 5,747 
swine. Capital, Union. IV. A central county 
of Georgia, bounded E. by the Ocmulgee river 
and drained by several branches; area, 870 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 17,218, of whom 10,804 
were colored. The surface is diversified, and 
much of the soil fertile. Gold, iron, granite, 
and plumbago are found. The county is in- 
tersected by the Macon and Western railroad. 
The chief productions in 1870 were 86,917 
bushels of wheat, 241,251. of Indian corn, 
21,286 of oats, 85,188 of sweet potatoes, 
68,692 of butter, and 10,484 bales of cotton. 
There were 1,041 horses, 1,789 mules and 
asses, 2,173 milch cows, 589 working oxen, 
3,485 other cattle, 1,754 sheep, and 11,018 
swine. Capital, Forsyth. V. A 8S. county of 
Florida, forming the W. half of the extremity 
of the peninsula, bounded W. by the gulf of 
Mexico, 8. W. by the bay of Ponce de Leon, 
N. by the Caloosahatchie river, and N. E. 
by Lake Okeechobee ; area, 3,060 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1870, 5,657, of whom 1,026 were 
colored. In the 8S. part of the ccunty lie the 
‘‘ Thousand Isles,” and the Florida Keys are 
mostly included in it. The surface is mainly 
flat and marshy, and is partly occupied by the 
Everglades. The orange and the cocoa palm 
are indigenous. The productions are confined 
almost entirely to afew sweet potatoes, and 
most of the population centres at Key West. 
In 1870 the county contained 14,606 cattle. 
Capital, Key West. VI. A S. W. county of 
Alabama, drained and bounded 8S. W. by the 
Alabama river; area, 980 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
14,214, of whom 17,572 were colored. The 
surface is moderately uneven and partly occu- 
pied by pine forests. The chief productions in 
1870 were 232,486 bushels of Indian corn, 
44,788 of sweet potatoes, 6,172 bales of cotton, 
4,568 lbs. of wool, 45,087 of butter, and 10,629 
gallons of cane molasses. There were 1,068 
horses, 975 mules and asses, 3,134 milch cows, 
1,184 working oxen, 6,406 other cattle, 3,237 
sheep, and 10,746 swine. Capital, Olaiborne. 
Vil. A N. E. county of Mississippi, bordering 


760 MONROE 


on Alabama and intersected by the Tombigbee 
river; area, about 700 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
22,631, of whom 14,000 were colored. The 
surface is a plain, with few trees and covered 
with rank grass. The soil is a rich calcareous 
loam. The Mobile and Ohio railroad and its 
Aberdeen branch pass through it. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 12,249 bushels of 
wheat, 415,153 of Indian corn, 55,651 of sweet 
potatoes, 47,380 lbs. of butter, and 8,562 bales 
of cotton. There were 1,934 horses, 2,084 
mules and asses, 3,458 milch cows, 4,968 other 
cattle, 4,272 sheep, and 19,599 swine. Cap- 
ital, Aberdeen. VIII. An E. county of Ar- 
kansas, bounded 8. W. by White river; area, 
1,040 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 8,336, of whom 
3,200 were colored. The surface is generally 
level, and much of it occupied by cypress 
swamps. It is intersected by the Memphis 
and Little Rock railroad. The chief produc- 
tions in 1870 were 184,358 bushels of Indian 
corn, and 7,334 bales of cotton. ‘here were 
1,256 horses, 893 mules and asses, 1,925 milch 
cows, 879 working oxen, 2,892 other cattle, 
624 sheep, and 10,210 swine. Capital, Law- 
renceville. IX. A 8. E. county of Tennessee, 
bordering on North Carolina; area, 500 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 12,589, of whom 1,235 were 
colored. It is drained by Tellico river, an 
affluent of the Little Tennessee. The Unaka 
or Smoky mountain lies on the S. E. border. 
The soil is moderately fertile. The East Ten- 
nessee, Virginia, and Georgia railroad passes 
through it. The chief productions in 1870 
were 113,753 bushels of wheat, 415,010 of In- 
dian corn, 56,367 of oats, 15,324 lbs. of wool, 
and 2,177 tons of hay. There were 2,334 
horses, 2,539 milch cows, 6,415 other cattle, 
8,346 sheep, and 13,422 swine. Capital, Madi- 
sonville. X. A S. county of Kentucky, bor- 
dering on Tennessee and drained by the head 
streams of Big Barren river and by the Cum- 
berland river; area, 600 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
9,231, of whom 789 were colored. The sur- 
face is diversified and the soil fertile. The 
chief productions in 1870 were 87,367 bush- 
els of wheat, 747,660 of Indian corn, 112,275 
of oats, 13,649 of Irish and 11,899 of sweet 
potatoes, 674,696 lbs. of tobacco, 33,358 of 
wool, and 121,854 of butter. There were 4,686 
horses, 2,148 milch cows, 5,178 other cattle, 11,- 
505 sheep, and 16,137 swine. Capital, Tomp- 
kinsville. XI A S. E. county of Ohio, sepa- 
rated from West Virginia by the Ohio river; 
area, 420 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 25,779. The 
surface is hilly and well timbered. It con- 
tains beds of coal, and some iron. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 161,042 bushels of 
wheat, 629,846 of Indian corn, 306,425 of oats, 
98,678 of potatoes, 2,845,525 lbs. of tobacco, 
158,066 of wool, 524,887 of butter, and 18,091 
tons of hay. There were 7,060 horses, 8,358 
milch cows, 10,048 other cattle, 42,198 sheep, 
and 18,661 swine; 29 manufactories of cheese, 
7 of furniture, 1 of woollen goods, 12 tanning 
and currying establishments, 7 flour mills, 7 


. 


saw mills, and 1 planing mill. Capital, Woods- 
field. XI. AS. W. county of Indiana, water- 
ed by White river and its branches; area, 420 
sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 14,168. The surface is 
hilly, and the soil fertile. The Louisville, New 
Albany, and Western railroad passes through 
it. The chief productions in 1870 were 1380,- 
043 bushels of wheat, 454,275 of Indian corn, 
105,415 of oats, 42,146 of potatoes, 15,947 lbs. 
of tobacco, 49,798 of wool, 253,078 of but- 
ter, and 7,311 tons of hay. There were 4,612 
horses, 3,451 milch cows, 6,655 other cattle, 18,- 
272 sheep, and 18,614 swine; 9 manufactories 
of carriages, 1 of wagon material, 1 of agricul- 
tural implements, 2 of woollen goods, 1 pla- 
ning mill, 12 saw mills, 6 tanneries, 3 currying 
establishments, and 5 flour mills. Capital, 
Bloomington. XII. A S. W. county of Ili- 
nois, bounded E. by the Kaskaskia river, and 
W. by the Mississippi; area, 360 sq. m.; pop. 
in 1870, 12,982. The surface is moderately un- 
even, and the soil is fertile. The chief produc- 
tions in 1870 were 651,767 bushels of wheat, 
548,718 of Indian corn, 152,451 of oats, 67,- 
119 of potatoes, 103,083 lbs. of butter, and 
5,248 tons of hay. There were 4,205 horses, 
2,715 milch cows, 1,616 other cattle, 2,020 
sheep, and 18,286 swine; 6 manufactories of 
saddlery and harness, 1 brewery, and 7 flour 
mills. Capital, Waterloo. XI¥Y. AS. E. coun- 
ty of Michigan, bordering on Lake Erie and 
Ohio; area, 540 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 27,483. 
Huron river forms the N. E. boundary, and 
it is‘intersected by Raisin river. The surface 
is level and diversified by prairies and wood- 
lands. The valley of Raisin river is celebra- 
ted for fertility and beauty. The county is 
traversed by the Flint and Pére Marquette and 
the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern rail- 
roads. The chief productions in 1870 were 
249,086 bushels of wheat, 399,583 of Indian 
corn, 260,918 of oats, 268,873 of potatoes, 
154,421 Ibs. of wool, 894,265 of butter, and 
44.896 tons of hay. There were 7,601 horses, 
7,982 milch cows, 8,776 other cattle, 88,932 
sheep, and 18,677 swine; 5 manufactories of 
agricultural implements, 10 of brick, 23 of car- 
riages and wagons, 1 of tobacco and snuff, 8 
flour mills, 10 tanneries, 33 saw mills, and 2 
distilleries. Capital, Monroe. XV. A S. W. 
county of Wisconsin, watered by the La Crosse, 
Lemonweir, and Kickapoo rivers and other 
streams; area, 900 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 16,- 
550. The surface is undulating or broken, and 
the soil fertile. It is traversed by the Chicago, 
Milwaukee, and St. Paul, and the West Wis- 
consin railroads. The chief productions in 
1870 were 478,447 bushels of wheat, 183,119 


of Indian corn, 291,469 of oats, 91,836 of pota- - 


toes, 479,209 lbs. of hops, 39,228 of wool, 391,- 
476 of butter, and 20,312 tons of hay. There 
were 3,232 horses, 4,621 milch cows, 6,583 
other cattle, 12,341 sheep, and 6,413 swine; 5 
manufactories of carriages and wagons, 2 of 
clothing, 8 of cooperage, 2 of machinery, 1 
of wrapping paper, 3 of saddlery and harness, 


MONROE 


1 of woollens, 14 saw mills, and 8 flour mills. 
Capital, Sparta. XVL A S. county of Iowa, 
drained by several creeks; area, 480 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1870, 12,724. The surface is diversified, 
occupied partly by prairies, and the soil is fer- 
tile. The Burlington and Missouri River rail- 
road and the Central railroad of Iowa pass 
through it. The chief productions in 1870 
were 159,815 bushels of wheat, 754,692 of 
Indian corn, 185,173 of oats, 64,073 of pota- 
toes, 72,052 lbs. of wool, 282,452 of butter, 
and 21,206 tons of hay. There were 5,122 
horses, 4,687 milch cows, 9,271 other cattle, 
21,168 sheep, and 21,739.swine; 1 woollen, 4 
flour, and 6 saw mills. Capital, Albia. XVII 
A N. E. county of Missouri, watered by Salt 
river and its branches; area, 744 sq. m.; pop. 
in 1870, 17,149, of whom 2,005 were colored. 
The surface consists in part of rich undulating 
prairies. The county abounds in coal, lime- 
stone, and freestone. It is traversed by the 
Hannibal and Moberly division of the Tole- 
do, Wabash, and Western railroad. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 104,066 bushels of 
wheat, 589,127 of Indian corn, 304,275 of oats, 
187,091 lbs. of tobacco, 68,772 of wool, 245,- 
975 of butter, and 12,635 tons of hay. There 
were 9,765 horses, 2,989 mules and asses, 5,813 
milch cows, 18,345 other cattle, 25,533 sheep, 
and 30,320 swine. Oapital, Paris. 

MONROE, a city and the county seat of Mon- 
roe co., Michigan, situated on both banks of 
the river Raisin, 2 m. above its entrance into 
Lake Erie, with which it is connected by a ship 
canal, and on the Michigan Southern, the Flint 
and Pére Marquette, and the Canada Southern 
railroads, 32 m. 8. 8. W. of Detroit; pop. in 
1850, 2,813; in 1860, 3,892; in 1870, 5,086; 
in 1874, 5,782. The harbor is good, and is 
protected by points of land jutting out from 
the river. The surrounding country is fertile. 
The city has many substantial brick blocks, 
handsome residences, and fine shade trees, and 
a park has been laid out in the centre of the 
business portion. The river affords excellent 
water power, and there are several founder- 
ies and machine shops, wagon and carriage 
shops, three grist mills, two saw mills, two 
plaster mills, three sash, door, and blind fac- 
tories, a cabinet and furniture factory, a paper 
mill, &c. There’are four extensive nurseries, 
and 156 acres of land in vineyards. Near the 
city is a deposit of sand from which large 
quantities are shipped to Pittsburgh, Wheeling, 
and other points, for the manufacture of glass. 
Monroe is the seat of a young ladies’ collegiate 
institute, established in 1851, and having in 
1878—4 8 instructors, 109 students, and a libra- 
ry of 1,200 volumes. There are a national 
bank, three Roman Catholic and three Luther- 
an schools, a union school, several ward schools, 
two weekly newspapers, and seven churches. 
—The first permanent settlement here was 
made by a small party of Canadians in 1784, 
who called the place Frenchtown. The first 
American settlement was probably made about 


JAMES MONROE "61 


1793. In 1818 it was the scene of the massa- 
cre of several hundred American prisoners by 
the Indian allies of the British. It began to grow 
after the close of the war of 1812, and its name 
was changed in honor of President Monroe. 
MONROE, James, fifth president of the United 
States, born in Westmoreland co., Va., April 
28, 1758, died in New York, July 4, 1881. His 
father was Spence Monroe, a planter, descend- 
ed from Capt. Monroe, an officer in the army of 
Charles I., who emigrated with other cavaliers 
to Virginia in 1652. He was educated at Wil- 
liam and Mary college, which he left in 1776 
to enter the army as a cadet. Soon afterward 
he was commissioned lieutenant, and took an 
active part in the campaign on the Hudson. 
In the attack on Trenton, at the head of a 
small detachment, he captured one of the Brit- 
ish batteries. On this occasion he received 
a ball in the shoulder, and was promoted to a 
captaincy. As aide-de-camp to Lord Stirling, 
with the rank of major, he served in the cam- 
paigns of 1777 and 1778, and distinguished 
himself in the battles of Brandywine, German- 
town, and Monmouth. By accepting the place 
of aide to Lord Stirling he lost his rank in 
the regular line. Failing in his efforts to re- 
enter the army as a commissioned officer, he re- 
turned to Virginia and began to study law under 
the direction of Thomas Jefferson, then gov- 
ernor of the state. When the British appeared 
soon afterward in Virginia, Monroe exerted 
himself in organizing the militia of the low- 
er counties; and when the enemy proceeded 
southward, Jefferson sent him as military com- 
missioner to the army in South Carolina. In 
1782 he was elected to the assembly of Vir- 
ginia from the county of King George, and was 
appointed by that body, although but 23 years 
of age, a member of the executive council. In 
1783 he was chosen a delegate to congress for 
three years, and took his seat on Dec. 18. Con- 
vinced that it was impossible to govern the 
country under the old articles of confedera- 
tion, he advocated an extension of the powers 
of congress, and in 1785 moved to invest that 
body with authority to regulate trade between 
the states. The resolution was referred to a 
committee of which he was chairman, and a 
report was made in favor of the measure. This 
led to the convention at Annapolis, and the 
subsequent adoption of the federal constitu- 
tion. Monroe also exerted himself in devising 
a system for the settlement of the public lands, 
and was appointed a member of the commission 
to decide upon the boundary between Massachu- 
setts and New York. He strongly opposed the 
relinquishment of the right to navigate the 
Mississippi river, demanded by Spain. In 1785 
he married a daughter of Lawrence Kortright 
of New York, a lady celebrated for her beauty 
and accomplishments. Having served out his 
term, and being ineligible for the next three 
years, Monroe settled in Fredericksburg, Va. 
In 1787 he was reélected to the general assem- 
bly, and in 1788 was chosen a delegate to the 


762 


Virginia convention to decide upon the adop- 
tion of the federal constitution. He was one 
of the minority who opposed the instrument 
as submitted, being apprehensive that without 
amendment it would confer too much power 
upon the general government. The course of 
the minority in convention was approved by 
the great mass of the people of Virginia, and 
Monroe was chosen United States senator in 
1790. Inthe senate he became a prominent 
representative of the anti-federal party, and 
acted with it till his term expired in 1794. In 
May of that year he received the appointment 
of minister plenipotentiary to France, and was 
received in Paris with enthusiastic demonstra- 
tions of respect. His marked exhibition of 
sympathy with the French republic displeased 
the administration. John Jay had been sent 
to negotiate a treaty with England, and the 
course pursued by Monroe was considered inju- 
dicious and reprehensible, as tending to throw 
serious obstacles in the way of the proposed 
negotiations. On the conclusion of the treaty, 
his alleged failure to present it in its true char- 
acter to the French government excited anew 
the displeasure of the cabinet; and in August, 
1796, he was recalled, under an informal cen- 
sure. On hisreturn to America he published a 
‘View of the Conduct of the Executive in the 
Foreign Affairs of the United States” (Phila- 
delphia, 1798), which widened the breach be- 
tween him and the administration; but Mon- 
roe remained upon good terms with both Wash- 
ington and Jay. He was governor of Virginia 
from 1799 to 1802, and at the close of his term 
was appointed envoy extraordinary to the 
French government to negotiate, in conjunc- 
tion with the resident minister, Mr. Livingston, 
for the purchase of Louisiana, or a right of 
depot for the United States on the Mississippi. 
Within a fortnight after his arrival in Paris 
the ministers secured for $15,000,000 the en- 
tire “territory of Orleans” and ‘district of 
Louisiana.” In the same year he was commis- 
sioned minister plenipotentiary to England, 
and endeavored to conclude a convention for 
the protection of neutral rights, and against 
the impressment of seamen. In the midst of 
these negotiations he was directed to proceed 
to Madrid, as minister extraordinary and pleni- 
potentiary, to adjust the controversy between 
the United States and Spain in relation to the 
boundaries of the new purchase of Louisiana. 
In this he failed, and in 1806 he was recalled to 
England to act with Mr. Pinkney in further 
negotiation for the protection of neutral rights. 
On the last day of that year a treaty was con- 
cluded, but because of the omission of any pro- 
vision against the impressment of seamen, and 
its ambiguity in relation to the other great 
points, the president sent it back for revisal. 
All efforts to attain this failed, and Monroe re- 
turned to America. The time was approach- 
ing for the election of president, and a con- 
siderable body of the republican party had 
brought forward Monroe as their candidate ; 


JAMES MONROE 


but the preference of the president for Madi- 
son was well known. Monroe believed that 
the rejection of the treaty, and the predilection 
expressed for his rival, indicated personal hos- 
tility on the part of Mr. Jefferson, and a cor- 
respondence on the subject ensued. Jefferson 
candidly explained his course, and showed that 
his preference for Madison was solely based 
upon solicitude for the success of the party, 
the great majority of which had declared in his 
favor. ‘The misunderstanding terminated, and 
Monroe withdrew from the canvass. In 1810 
he was again elected to the general assembly 
of Virginia, and in 1811 governor of the com- 
monwealth. In the same year he was appoint- 
ed by President Madison secretary of state, and 
after the capture of Washington in 1814 he 
was appointed to the war department, which 
he took without relinquishing the former post. 
He found the treasury exhausted and the public 
credit at the lowest ebb; but he set about the 
task of infusing order and efficiency into the 
departments under his charge, and proposed 
an increase of 40,000 men in the army, by 
levying recruits throughout the whole country. 
His attention was also directed to the defence 
of New Orleans; and finding the public credit 
completely prostrated, he pledged his private 
means as subsidiary to the credit of the goy- 
ernment, and enabled the city to successfully 
oppose the forces of the enemy. He was the 
confidential adviser of President Madison in 
the measures for the reéstablishment of public 
credit and the regulation of the foreign rela- 
tions of the United States, and continued to 
serve as secretary of state to the end of Madi- 
son’s administration, in 1817. In that year he 
succeeded to the presidency, by an electoral 
vote of 183 out of 217, as the candidate of the 
party then generally known as democratic re- 
publicans. His cabinet was as follows: John 
Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, secretary of 
state; William H. Crawford of Georgia, secre- 
tary of the treasury; John C. Calhoun of 
South Carolina, secretary of war; Benjamin 
W. Crowinshield of Massachusetts, secretary 
of the navy; William Wirt of Virginia, attor- 
ney general. Calhoun and Wirt were not ap- 
pointed until December, 1817. On Novy. 380, 
1818, Secretary Crowinshield was succeeded 
by Smith Thompson of New York, who on 
Dec. 9, 1823, was succeeded by Samuel L. 
Southard of New Jersey. Soon after his in- 
auguration, President Monroe made a tour 
through the middle and eastern states, during 
which he thoroughly inspected arsenals, naval 
depots, fortifications, and garrisons; reviewed 
military companies, corrected public abuses, 
and studied the capabilities of the country with 
reference to future hostilities. On this tour 
he wore the undress uniform of a continental 
officer. In every point of view the journey 
was auspicious. Party lines seemed about to 
disappear, and the country to return to its 
long past state of union. The president was 
not backward in his assurances of a strong de- 


JAMES MONROE 


sire on his part that such should be the case. 
The course of the administration was in.con- 
formity with these assurances, and secured the 
support of an overwhelming majority of the 
people. The great body of recommendations 
in the president’s message were approved by 
large majorities. The tone of debate was far 
more moderate; few of the bitter criminations 
which had been the fashion in the past were 
uttered; and the period became known as 
“the era of good feeling.” Among the im- 
portant events of the first term of President 
Monroe were the admission into the Union of 
the states of Mississippi, Illinois, and Maine. 
In 1818 a convention was concluded between 
Great Britain and the United States in relation 
to the Newfoundland fisheries, the restoration 
of slaves, and other subjects; and in 1819 
Spain ceded to the United States her posses- 
sions in East and West Florida, with the ad- 
jacent islands.. In 1820 Monroe was reélected 
president almost unanimously, receiving 2381 
out of 282 electoral votes. On Aug. 10, 1821, 
Missouri became one of the states of the Union, 
after prolonged and exciting debates, resulting 
in the celebrated ‘‘ Missouri compromise,” by 
which slavery was permitted in Missouri, but 
for ever prohibited elsewhere N. of the parallel 
of 36° 30’. Other events of public importance 
during the second term of President Monroe 
were the recognition in 1822 of the indepen- 
dence of Mexico, and the provinces in South 
America formerly under the dominion of Spain; 
and the promulgation, in his message of Dec. 2, 
1823, of the policy of neither entangling our- 
selves in the broils of Europe, nor suffering the 
powers of the old world to interfere with the 
affairs of the new, now generaily known as 
the ‘“‘ Monroe doctrine.” On this occasion the 
president declared that any attempt on the 
part of the European powers to “extend their 
system to any portion of this hemisphere” 
would be regarded by the United States as 
‘““dangerous to. our peace and safety,” and 
would accordingly be opposed. On March 4, 
1825, Monroe retired from office, and returned 
to his residence of Oak Hill, in Loudon co., 
Va. He was chosen a justice of the peace, 
and as such sat in the county court. In 1829 
he became a member of the Virginia conven- 
tion to revise the old constitution, and was 
chosen to preside over the deliberations of 
that body; but he was compelled by ill health 
to resign his post in the convention, and to re- 
turn to Oak Hill. Pecuniary embarrassment 
was added to bodily infirmity, and although he 
had received $350,000 for his public services, 
he was in his old age harassed by debt. His 
wife died in 1830, and in the summer of that 
year he removed to the residence of his son- 
in-law, Samuel L. Gouverneur, in the city of 
New York, where he died. In 1858 his re- 
mains were removed with great pomp to Rich- 
mond, Va., and reinterred on July 5 in the 
Hollywood cemetery.—Monroe held the reins 
ef government at an important period, and 


MONSERRAT 763 


administered it with prudence, discretion, and 
a single eye to the general welfare. He went 
further than any of his predecessors in devel- 
oping the resources of the country. He en- 
couraged the army, increased the navy, aug- 
mented the national defences, protected com- 
merce, approved of the United States bank, and 
infused vigor and efficiency into every depart- 
ment of the public service. His honesty, good 
faith, and simplicity were generally acknowl- 
edged, and disarmed the political rancor of his 
strongest opponents. Madison thought the 
country had never fully appreciated the robust 
understanding of Monroe. This may be par- 
tially accounted for by the fact that he never 
acquired distinction in oratory. In person, 
Monroe was tall and well formed, with a light 
complexion and blue eyes. The expression 
of his countenance was an accurate index of 
his simplicity, benevolence, and integrity. 

MONS (Flem. Gergen), a fortified city of Bel- 
gium, capital of the province of Hainaut, on 
the river Trouille, 32 m. 8. 8. W. of Brussels; 
pop. in 1871, 27,764. It communicates with 
the Scheldt by the canal of Mons, and is con- 
nected by railways with Brussels, Namur, and 
Valenciennes. The E. side is protected by 
two large ponds, and the surrounding country 
may be flooded by admitting the river Trouille. 
The walls are in the form of a polygon, and 
have five gates and 14 bastions. The princi- 
pal church is that of St. Wandru (Waltrudes), 
a fine Gothic edifice begun in 1460. Among 
other principal public buildings are the castle, 
the Gothic town hall, court house, theatre, 
arsenal, and military hospital. The town con- 
tains also a college, which in 1873 had 252 stu- 
dents, a school of art, a public library, and a 
society of art and science. There are several 
salt and sugar refineries. In the vicinity are 
coal mines which give employment to more 
than 25,000 persons. The coal basin in which 
the city is situated is called the Borinage, and 
the miners Borains. In coal, flax, hemp, grain, 
timber, horses, cattle, and manufactures an 
active trade is carried on. 

MONSEIGNEUR (Fr. mon, my, and seigneur, 
lord), a French title once applied to saints, and 
subsequently to princes, nobles, certain high 
dignitaries of the church, and other titled per- 
sonages. Under the monarchy the dauphin’s 
eldest son was styled Monseigneur, without 
any addition. The title is now given only to 
prelates. The Italian monsignore has a similar 
signification. 

MONSERRAT, or Montserrat, a mountain in 
Catalonia, Spain, on the right bank of the riv- 
er Llobregat, in the province and about 25 m. 
N. W. of the city of Barcelona. It is about 24 
m. in circumference, and its summit consists 
of several jagged serrated peaks, the highest of 
which is 4,057 ft. above the sea. Far up the 
E. side stands the monastery of the same name, 
which owes its origin to an image of the 
Virgin, said to have been made by the apostle 
Luke and brought to Barcelona in A. D. 50 by 


764 MONSIEUR 


the apostle Peter. At the time of the Moorish 
invasion it was hidden in the hill, but was dis- 
covered in 880, and on a spot indicated, as 
was asserted, by the image, a chapel was built 
over it. A convent was founded, which was 
converted into a Benedictine monastery in 976. 
The chapel which now contains the image was 
founded in 1592. The monastery was sup- 
pressed in 1835, but some of the monks were 
allowed to remain. Several fortifications were 
made on this mountain during the peninsular 
war, as the high road from Manresa across the 
Llobregat traverses it. There is a multitude 
of shrines and hermitages. About 60,000 pil- 
grims and tourists annually visit the convent, 
and during the féte of the Virgin in September 
railway trains and omnibuses run continually 
from Barcelona. 
MONSIEUR (Fr. mon, my, and siewr, sir), a 
French title of gentlemen, parallel in its ori- 
ginal signification and use to the female title 
madame. Under the monarchy it was applied 
without the addition of the name to the king’s 
eldest brother. It is now given to Frenchmen 
of every rank and condition. During the first 
revolution, and for brief periods in 1830 and 
1848, monsiewr was replaced by citoyen, citizen. 
MONSOON (Arab. mausim, season, corrupted 
by the Portuguese into mongdo), an intertropical 
wind which blows part of the year from one 
point of the compass, and the remainder of the 
year in a contrary direction. These winds are 
more particularly known in the seas adjoining 
the great Asiatic continent and archipelago, in- 
cluding Papua and the N. part of Australia, 
whence they extend to about lon. 160° E. The 
causes which produce them are, in theory, the 
same as those generally supposed to cause the 
trade winds. When the sun is in N. latitude 
and comes over a large portion of Arabia, Hin- 
dostan, Burmah, and Cochin China, and these 
lands become heated to a much higher tempera- 
ture than the surrounding equatorial sea and 
atmosphere, the cooler air flows toward these 
regions; and as they have less rotary velocity 
than the latitudes bordering upon the equator 
whence the current comes, it acquires a rela- 
tive N. E. direction in passing to the north, and 
is called the S. W. monsoon. In the northern 
hemisphere, when the land is cooled by the 
sun being in S. latitude, the regular N. E. trade 
wind prevails throughout these seas, and what 
is called the N. E. monsoon is in reality the N. E. 
trade wind. South of the equator the S. E. 
trade wind continues to blow over all that part 
of the ocean which has not large tracts of land 
to the south; but where this is the case, as in 
the Java seas, and as far E. as New Ireland, 
we find the same causes operating again, and 
a N. W. monsoon taking the place of the regu- 
lar S. E. trade wind when the sun has south- 
ern declination. These general laws, with tri- 
fling exceptions, apply to all monsoons; that 
is to say, when the S. W. monsoon blows N. 
of the equator, the wind blows from 8. E. in 
the regions S. of the equator; and when the 


MONSTER 


N. W. monsoon prevails in 8. latitude, the 
wind blows from N. E. in N. latitude. 
MONSTER, a term limited by Isidore Geof- 
froy Saint-Hilaire to the complex and grave 
congenital anomalies of conformation, disagree- 
able to the sight, rendering difficult or impos- 
sible the accomplishment of certain functions, 
and producing a disposition of organs very dif- 
ferent from that ordinarily presented by the 
species, whether animal or vegetable, involving 
change in the form, structure, volume, posi- 
tion, and number of parts. This definition ex- 
cludes simple vices of conformation, such as 
hare lip, club foot, fissured palate, gigantic and 
dwarfed stature, albinism, and hermaphrodi- 
tism. The phenomena of monstrosity were 


not examined in a philosophical spirit until 


the early part of the present century, when 
the sciences of comparative anatomy and em- 
bryology could be brought to their explana- 
tion; the principal workers in the field at 
this period were the elder Geoffroy Saint- 
Hilaire, Serres, and Meckel. The history of 
monsters, or teratology, is a science in itself. 
In the fabulous period of this science, ending 
about the beginning of the 18th century, mon- 
sters were regarded as exhibitions of the crea- 
tive power of God, as proofs of his anger and 
the signs of some approaching public calamity, 
or as the work of demons; and as such, by the 
old Greek and Roman laws, they were at once 
put to death; even as late as the 17th century 
they were either destroyed or shut up from hu- 
man sight. In the first half of the 18th century 
the causes of monstrosity were zealously sought 
for, and from the time of Haller the science 
made rapid progress.—Many forms of mon- 
strosity are embryonic conditions rendered 
permanent beyond the normal period, thus 
forming a series comparable to the ages of 
the foetus and to zodlogical divisions of ani- 
mals; others seem to be formed by excess of 
growth, according to the theories of original 
excess of productive power or eccentric de- 
velopment of the vascular system; double mon- 
sters, whether partial or complete, are united 
by homologous surfaces, side to side, back to 
back, or face to face, each internal organ of one 
having a corresponding organ in the other; and 
the laws regulating monstrosities, whether by 
excess or defect, are intimately connected with 
those presiding over normal organizations. It 
is true, as Goethe says, that ‘‘it is in her mon- 
strosities that nature reveals to us her secrets.” 
Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (Histoire des 
anomalies, &c., 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1832-6) 
makes the two classes of single and compound 
monsters, which he divides into orders, tribes, 
families, and genera on the Linnean zodélogical 
plan; in the first class he places all such as 
have the elements of only a single individual, 
and in the second those which have the parts, 
complete or incomplete, of two or more indi- 
viduals. In the first class he makes three 
orders: A. Awfosites, or such as are capable 
of sustaining life, sometimes extra-uterine, by 


———- 


i 


MONSTER 


their own organs, having a heart, lungs, almost 
all the digestive organs, and a portion at least 
of the head, most of the body remaining sym- 
metrical and nearly normal. This order con- 
tains four subdivisions or tribes: I., in which 
the limbs are modified by deficient development 
or by fusion, or are absent; II., in which the 
viscera of the trunk are more or less seriously 
displaced and external, the limbs normal, in- 
capable of extra-uterine life; III., in which 
the principal anomalies are in the cranium and 
brain, the modifications of the face and limbs 
being of secondary importance; the brain is 
deformed, incomplete, partially or wholly out- 
side the cranial cavity, or even entirely absent, 
with corresponding deficiency in the arch of 
the skull; this includes an extensive series both 
in man and animals, among others the so- 
called anencephalous fcetuses, all incapable of 
life beyond a few hours or perhaps days; in 
some the spinal canal is largely open, and the 
spinal cord as well as the brain absent; IV., in 
which the face is more deformed than the cra- 
nium, the nasal apparatus being atrophied or 
displaced, bringing the eyes near together, or 
the central region of the face so deficient 
that the ears are joined on the median line; 
this includes the one-eyed monsters, like the 
fabulous Polyphemus, and rhinencephalous 
foetuses; all these die speedily from the imper- 
fection of the brain. B. Omphalosites, living 
a merely vegetative life ceasing with the sepa- 
ration from the parent, many of the organs 
being absent and the existing ones very imper- 
fect with abnormal and unsymmetrical forms; 
these include the parencephalous and acepha- 
lous foetuses, the former having some traces of 
cranium, but no heart sufficient to circulate 
blood, and the latter destitute of head except 
the merest rudiments, often having neither 
neck nor chest, and but few of the abdominal 
organs; they never reach the full term of ges- 
tation. ©. Parasites, including the imperfect 
products of conception commonly called moles ; 
they are irregular in form, composed princi- 
pally of bones, teeth, hairs, and fat, having no 
umbilical cord, and implanted directly on the 
parent organs, where they live a vegetative and 
parasitic life; in most cases these appear to be 
a deformed and abnormally developed placenta, 
with a few remains of the prematurely dead 
embryo; they have been found attached to the 
uterus and the ovaries, and the gestation has 
usually been much prolonged, even to years, 
some of the second teeth having been seen in 
their substance.—In the second class, or that of 
compound monsters, the double ones he divides 
into autositaires, in which the two individuals 
present the same degree of development, each 
having an equal share in the life common to 
both, a union of two autosites; and parasi- 
taires, composed of two very unequal or dis- 
similar individuals, one complete and the oth- 
er imperfect, and the latter capable of living 
only at the expense of the former. The tribes 
of the autositaires are: I. That in which the 


765 


individuals are united only in a single region, 
the duplicity being complete in every other 
part. This tribe is naturally subdivided into 
two families, according as the umbilicus is 
double or single; in the former belong the 
double monsters united by any portion of the 
trunk or head, like the famous Hungarian sis- 
ters, Helen and Judith, joined back to back by 
the thighs and loins; these were born in 1701, 
and lived to their 22d year; they had neither 
the same temperament nor character, and 
Helen was larger, better looking, more active, 
intelligent, and gentle than her sister; they 
were very fond of each other, performed some 
physiological acts in common and others sepa- 
rately, and were sick and died together. Two 
black children, called the Carolina sisters, 
Christina and Millie, united by the lower part 
of the backs, have been exhibited in various 
parts of this country and Europe; in 1869, 
when they were 18 years old, they were appa- 
rently in perfect health. A full description of 
them is given in the ‘ Boston Medical and Sur- 
gical Journal” for July 8, 1869, from which it 
appears that the hips are so far separated that 
on one side two fingers can be passed in be- 
tween them, there being only a crease on the 
other side. The call to evacuate the bowels 
and bladder is simultaneous, and the intestines 
must therefore unite not far above their ter- 
mination; there is a single anus and rectum 
between the anterior limbs, and the two ure- 
thral orifices and vagine open into a common 
vulva. The mammary development is good, 
though the chests are considerably deformed 
from spinal curvature; menstruation is regu- 
lar. If hunger and thirst be felt in both at 
the same time, it must be through nervous 
connections. They are two individuals, psy- 
chologically, morally, and legally; one may be 
awake and the other asleep; their general 
health is good, the weight being 170 lbs., 
about equally divided between them; their 
expression is cheerful, manners agreeable, and 
intelligence above the average; they sing to- 
gether with good effect. They are inclined to 
rest on the back legs, and walk upon these, 
or upon all four, moving sidewise; the front 
legs are a little the shortest, from the elevation 
of the front hips from spinal curvature; they 
can walk rapidly, and even waltz. They are 
united by the sacrum, and probably by the low- 
er lumbar vertebre; both feel a touch upon 
the lower limbs, indicating that the sensory 
nerves, from the posterior columns, mingle 
at the lower part of the spine; but the motor 
nerves, from the anterior columns, are so dis- 
tinct that one cannot move the limbs of the 
other. (See Annales @hygiéne publique, Paris, 
April, 1874.) To the family with a single um- 
bilicus belong such as are joined in the hypo- 
gastric and sternal regions, front and sides of 
thorax, and sometimes even by the neck and 
jaws. Among those united by the xiphoid re- 
gion of the sternum were the Siamese twin 
brothers, Chang and Eng, having a single um- 


766 


bilicus in the centre of the moderate-sized con- 
necting process. They were born in 1811, 
were exhibited in most parts of Europe and 
the United States, and died, within a few hours 
of each other, in North Carolina, Jan. 17, 
1874; each was married, and had several chil- 
dren, none of whom were monsters. They 
were physiologically distinct, having different 
forms, strength, tastes, and dispositions; their 
physical functions were performed separately ; 
the sickness of one did not affect the other; 
hence there could not have been any free in- 
terchange of circulations. In the connecting 
ensiform cartilage, the post-mortem examina- 
tion showed that the band contained four 
peritoneal pouches, two of which met and 
overlapped on the median line, and that their 


ENG. 


== 


CHANG. 


MONSTER 


are distinct at the pelvic extremity, but con- 
nected in the head and sometimes in the whole 
supra-umbilical region. In one family the 
bodies are united from the umbilicus upward, 
with the head more or less completely double, 
in some with the two faces directly opposite; 
as far as known, this deformity is incompatible 
with life. In another family the trunks are 
joined above the umbilicus, with a single head 
bearing but few marks of duplicity, and with 
two or four thoracic limbs; both these families 
occur in man, but the latter very rarely. Tribe 
III. includes such as have the head double, but 
the trunks more or less united into a single 
body and two lower extremities; sometimes 
the bodies are distinct from the umbilicus up- 


ward, with generally a rudimentary third lower 


limb; in others the heads are united 
behind, but show two faces in front. 
In the parasitaires the smaller and 
less perfect individual may be at- 
tached near the umbilicus, or very 
far from it, and may be reduced to 
a mere head without body; in some 
cases the monster seems a single 
body, with supernumerary jaws, por- 
tions of the head, or extremities; 
and in the least perfect of all the 
accessory growth is included within 


the principal body. The parasitic 
growth, from its small size, does not 
interfere with the birth, and such 
monsters have not only lived to be 
adults, but have become parents of 


Vii 


it 


The Siamese Twins. 


V. Vena cava. 
probably continuous during foetal life. 
pouch of Eng. 


discovered till the organ was removed. 


livers and hepatic vessels communicated, Jhough 
not freely, indicating that any attempt during 
life to separate them would probably have 
proved fatal; whether, had there been time 
and opportunity, the separation of the living 
from the dead would have been fatal, may ad- 
mit of doubt. Chang died first, probably of 
cerebral clot, during the night; when Eng 
awoke and found his brother dead, his fright 
and the consequent nervous shock, acting on 
an enfeebled heart, produced a fatal syncope. 
There was a region of common sensibility in 
the median line of the band. Though these 
lived to the age of 68 years, in the last named 
members of the group the anomaly is generally 
incompatible with extra-uterine life. Tribe IT. 
comprises monsters in which the individuals 


V. P. Vena ports. a@. Upper hepatic pouch of Chang, 
6. Peritoneal or umbilical 
g. ¢, Lower peritoneal or umbilical pouch of Chang. 
d, @. Connecting liver band, or tract of portal continuity. 
border of band. Upper border of band.—There was also an upper 
hepatic pouch from the liver of Eng, not represented, as it was not 


well formed offspring. Most authors | 
deny the existence of triple monsters, 
but Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire admits it, 
regarding the quadruple and quintu- 
ple cases as fabulous.—Considering - 
the whole number of births, mon- 
strosities are rare; after man they 
are most common in the hog, ox, cat, 
sheep, dog, and chick. Many, if not 
most, monsters give no indication of 
anomalous formation in the course 
of gestation, and they are most fre- 
quently born of mothers in good 
health and who have previously 
had normal children; females which 
bring forth twins have been found most liable 
to produce monsters, the separate amnions of 
each from contiguity favoring the confusion or 
blending of parts; the birth is usually prema- 
ture, though sometimes long after the natural 
time. The hereditary transmission of mon- 
strosity is very rare, even when the repro- 
ductive functions are unimpaired. The female 
sex seems to predominate, taking the whole 
range of monsters. Monstrosity is more com- 
mon and extraordinary in the vegetable than 
in the animal kingdom, from the easier derange- 
ment and displacement of parts; yet even here 
it is subject to and explicable by the laws of 
normal vegetable growth; some botanists con- 
sider double flowers and other similar products 
arising from peculiar culture as monsters, and 


é. Lower 


MONSTRELET 


such as these are perpetuated by seed. Mon- 
strosity may be due to an absence of formation; 
to an arrest of development, an embryonic 
structure remaining permanent; to an excess 
of development; and to a union of parts, more 
or less normal, belonging to different individ- 
uals. Prof. J. Wyman (‘‘ Proceedings of the 
Boston Society of Natural History,” 1867), in 
a paper on symmetry and homology in limbs, 
draws attention to the analogy between sym- 
inetry and polarity, illustrating his remarks by 
figures; he thus explains both normal and ab- 
normal development, and the various kinds of 
double monsters. Though it. is impossible to 
admit the action of slight causes, of momentary 
continuance, popularly believed to be connected 
with monstrous or imitative growths, still the 
artificial production of variously deformed and 
imperfect chicks by the shaking, or malposition, 
or unnatural treatment of eggs, shows that ap- 
preciable external causes may occasionally be 
satisfactorily traced; it is now generally con- 
ceded that prolonged unfavorable circumstan- 
ces during pregnancy may lead to monstrous 
growths.—See the works quoted by Geoffroy 
Saint-Hilaire, and the papers of G. J. Fisher, 
M. D., in the “‘ Transactions of the New York 
Medical Society’ (1865-’8). (See TERA TOLOGY.) 
MONSTRELET, Enguerrand de, a French chron- 
icler, born in Cambrai about 1390, died July 
20, 1453. He filled several offices in Cambrai, 
being bailiff of the chapter, provost of the city, 
and bailiff of Wallaincourt. His chronicle is 
in two books, extends from 1400 to 1444, and 
comprises an account of the capture of Paris 
and the conquest of the French monarchy by 
Henry V., and of the wars which resulted in 
the expulsion of the English from most parts 
of France. His style has none of the anima- 
tion and picturesqueness of Froissart, but it is 
marked by dignity, simplicity, and accuracy. 
The latest edition is that of L. Douét-d’Arcq 
(6 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1857-’62). The best Eng- 
lish version is by the Rev. Thomas Johnes (13 
vols, 8vo, London, 1810)., Appended to the 
earlier editions of Monstrelet are two spurious 
books continuing the history to 1467. 
MONTAGU, Basil, an English lawyer, born in 
London, April 24, 1770, died in Boulogne, 
Nov. 27, 1851. He was a natural son of John 
Montagu, fourth,earl of Sandwich, and Miss 
Ray, who was shor in 1779 at Covent Garden 
by the Rev. James Hackman, a frantic admirer. 
Basil graduated at Cambridge, was called to 
the bar in 1798, and acquired a large practice 
in cases of bankruptcy. He formed an inti- 
macy with that literary circle of which Cole- 
ridge was a leader, and became a convert to 
the political theories of Godwin. In 1806 
Lord Chancellor Erskine made him a com- 
missioner of bankrupts. Impressed with the 
evils of the law administered in his court, he 
published a yearly detail of its pernicious re- 
sults, and ultimately induced its amelioration. 
Under the new law Mr. Montagu was appointed 
accountant general, in which capacity he com- 
570 VOL. xI.—49 


MONTAGU 167 


pelled the bank of England to pay interest 
(never previously demanded) on the moneys 
that had been deposited there by his court. 
He published 40 volumes, including several 
against capital punishment, and left, it is said, 
100 volumes in manuscript. His principal pro- 
fessional work is ‘“‘A Digest of the Bankrupt 
Laws” (4 vols. 8vo, London, 1805), of which 
several editions have been published. Of his 
editorial works the most important is his 
edition of ‘“‘ The Works of Francis Bacon” (16 
vols. 8vo, 1825-34), the last volume of which 
contains a ‘‘ Life of Bacon” by the editor. 

MONTAGU, Edward Wortley, an English author, 
born at Wharncliffe, Yorkshire, in October, 
1718, died in Padua, May 2, 1776. He was the 
only son of Edward Wortley and Lady Mary 
Wortley Montagu. He ran away from school, 
and went as a cabin boy to Spain, whence he 
was sent back to England by a British consul. 
He was next committed to the charge of a 
private tutor, and sent to travel on the con- 
tinent. On returning to England he married a 
woman in very humble life, almost old enough 
to be his mother, lived with her but a few 
weeks, and then abandoned her. In 1747 he 
was returned to parliament for Huntingdon- 
shire, but soon became so involved in debt that 
he had to resyn. He went to France, and 
thence to Italy, where he became a convert to 
the Roman Catholic church ; and from Italy to 
Egypt, where he turned Mohammedan. He 
was returning to England when he died. He 
published ‘Reflections on the Rise and Fall 
of the Ancient Republics,” the authorship of 
which was claimed by his tutor, Mr. Foster. 
His ‘‘ Autobiography” was published in 1869 
(8 vols. 8vo, London). 

MONTAGU, Elizabeth, an English authoress, born 
in York, Oct. 2, 1720, died in London, Aug. 
25, 1800. She was the daughter of a Mr. 
Robinson of Horton in Kent. In 1742 she 
married Edward Montagu, a grandson of the 
first earl of Sandwich, who died in 1775, leav- 
ing her a large fortune. She made her house 
a favorite resort for literary characters, and 
one of the principal places of meeting of the 
blue stocking club. For many years she gave 
annual dinners on May day to the chimney 
sweeps of London. She was the author of 
three. “ Dialogues of the Dead,” published with 
Lord Lyttelton’s (1760), and wrote an “ Essay 
on the.Genius and Writings of Shakespeare” 
(1769), in refutation of the criticisms of Vol- 
taire. Her epistolary correspondence was pub- 
lished by her nephew, Matthew Montagu (2 
vols., 1809). See also her life as illustrated by 
her correspondence in “‘A Lady of the Last 
Century,” by Dr. John Doran (London, 1872). 

MONTAGU, Lady Mary Wortley, an English au- 
thoress, eldest daughter of Evelyn Pierrepont, 
duke of Kingston, born at Thoresby, Not- 
tinghamshire, about 1690, died Aug. 21, 1762. 
She was related through her father to Beau- 
mont the dramatist, and through her mother 
to Fielding the novelist, who was her second 


768 MONTAGU 


cousin. Her beauty and wit made her the pet 
of her father, and she acquired the elements of 
Greek, Latin, and French under the tuition of 
her brother’s preceptors. At the age of 12 she 
wrote a poetical epistle from Julia to Ovid; at 
15 she was meditating the establishment of an 
English nunnery, and was correcting her edu- 
cation by extensive reading; at 20 she made a 
translation of the Hnchiridion of Epictetus. 
Meantime she lived principally at Thoresby 
and at Acton, near London, and as the eldest 
daughter of a widower presided at the dinner 
table and exerted her social powers in the 
entertainment of guests. In 1712 she was 
privately married to Edward Wortley Mon- 
tagu. A disagreement concerning the settle- 
ments had caused the duke of Kingston to with- 
hold his consent, and the union did not prove 
happy. They lived in the country till after the 
accession of George I. in 1714, when Mr. Mon- 
tagu joined the ministry as one of the lords of 
the treasury. Lady Mary, on her first appear- 
ance at St. James’s, was hailed with univer- 
sal admiration, as much for her conversation 
as for her beauty. In 1716 she accompanied 
her husband to Constantinople, whither he was 
sent as ambassador to the Porte and as consul 
general in the Levant. Her letters descriptive 
of the court and society of Vienna, and the 
scenery and customs of the East, which rank 
among the choicest publications of their class, 
were published surreptitiously after her death 
(8 vols., 1763), under circumstances which af- 
forded no guarantee for their authenticity; 
this, however, is in general proved by the co- 
incidences of style with her other writings, 
though the text has been tampered with and 
spurious letters introduced; a fourth volume 
was published in 1767. At Belgrade she first 
observed the practice of inoculation for the 
smallpox, by which malady she had lost an 
only brother and her own fine eyelashes. In 
1718 she applied the process after earnest ex- 
amination to her son and daughter; and on 
her return to England the experiment was 
tried at her suggestion on five persons under 
sentence of death. The success of the trial 
did not prevent the most violent clamors 
against the innovation. On returning to Eng- 
land she had taken up her residence at Twick- 
enham, at the solicitation of Pope, who had 
been one of her most intimate correspon- 
dents. A rupture soon took place between 
them, according to her statement, because she 
could not refrain from laughter when at an ill- 
chosen moment he was solemnly and passion- 
ately making love to her; and from that time 
he treated her with constant malice. She 
wrote many witty verses. In 17839 her health 
was detlining in consequence of a cancer which 
ultimately proved fatal, and she went abroad. 
She took up her abode in a deserted palace on 
the shores of Lake Iseo, in Lombardy, and af- 
terward in the city of Venice, where she was 
residing when her husband died in 1761. She 
then returned to England, and died within a 


MONTAGUE 


year. The best edition of her “Letters and 
Works” (8 vols., London, 1837), by her great- 
grandson Lord Wharncliffe, containing full 
biographical notices, was critically revised for 
Bohn’s ‘Historical Library” by Moy Thomas 
(1861). Her letters were edited by Mrs. 8. 
J. Hale (New York, 1856). 

MONTAGUE, a N. county of Texas, separated 
from Indian territory by Red river; area, 900 
sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 890, of whom 24 were 
colored. There are some good bottom lands 
on Red river. The chief productions in 1870 
were 2,478 bushels of wheat, 41,715 of Indian 
corn, 4,933 of oats, and 21,200 lbs. of but- 
ter. There were 383 horses, 687 milch cows, 
10,182 other cattle, and 5,093 swine. 

MONTAGUE, Charles, ear] of Halifax, a British 
statesman, born at Horton, Northamptonshire, 
April 16, 1661, died May 19, 1715. His father 
was a younger son of the earl of Manchester. 
Charles was destined for the church, and was 
sent to Trinity college, Cambridge. He wrote 
there in 1685 some verses on the death of King 
Charles II., and in 1687 joined Prior in the 
composition of a parody in prose and verse on 
Dryden’s ‘‘ Hind and Panther” under the title 
of ‘* The Hind and the Panther Transversed to 
the Story of the Country Mouse and the City 
Mouse.” He signed in 1688 the invitation to 
the prince of Orange, was a member of the 
convention parliament, and soon afterward, 
having married the countess dowager of Man- 
chester, gave up the church, and purchased the - 
place of one of the clerks of the council. In 
1690 he was again returned to the house of 
commons, where for some years his life was a 
series of triumphs. He was soon called to the 
treasury board and the privy council, and in 
1694 was appointed chancellor of the ex- 
chequer, in reward for having devised the es- 
tablishment of the bank of England, the plan 
of which had been proposed by William Pat- 
erson, three years before, but not acted upon. 
Montague was the originator of the great re- 
coinage act (1695), of exchequer bills (1696), 
and of the tax on windows. On May 1, 1697, 
he was made first lord of the treasury, and ap- 
pointed one of the regency during the king’s 
absence on the continent; but on the reorgan- 
ization of the ministry in 1699 he was removed 
to the auditorship of the exchequer. In 1700 
he was created Baron Halifax. In April, 1701, 
he was impeached by the commons, togeth- 
er with Portland, Oxford, and Somers, for ad- 
vising the king to sign the partition treaties 
and for other alleged offences; but the prose- 
cution was dropped. After the accession of 
Queen Anne he was accused by the lower 
house of breach of trust in his management 
of the public accounts while chancellor of the 
exchequer; but he again escaped by the pro- 
tection of the house of lords. He proposed 
and negotiated the union with Scotland in 
1707, and was one of the judges in Sachever- 
ell’s trial, when he voted for a mild sentence. 
On the death of the queen he acted as one of 


MONTAIGNE 


the regents, and after the accession of George 
I, (1714) was made earl of Halifax and first 
commissioner of the treasury. 

MONTAIGNE, Michel, seigneur de, a French 
author, born at the chateau of Montaigne, 
in Périgord, Feb. 28, 1533, died there, Sept. 
13, 1592. His father was an eccentric feudal 
baron. The young Montaigne was in his in- 
fancy placed under a German tutor, who could 
not speak French and was directed to confer 
with -his pupil only in the classical tongues. 
The entire household and even the artisans 
and peasants of the village learned Latin 
phrases in order to address the youthful lord. 
At the age of six he was able to converse in 
Latin with ease, and his study of Greek had 
been transformed into a game, which however 
he never mastered. He was sent to the college 
of Guienne at Bordeaux, and at 13 completed 
the academical course. Love of liberty and 
laziness were, he says, his predominating qual- 
ities through life. He never looked over his 
accounts nor revised his manuscripts; wrote 
so badly that often he could not read his own 
hand; never touched a book except when he 
was weary of doing nothing; had an amazing 
ignorance of common things, which seemed 
the greater in consequence of his defective 
memory; could not remember the names of 
his servants nor of the current coins; would 
read a book as new which he had scribbled 
over with notes a year before; would forget 
his idea while on the way to the library to 
record it; knew nothing about the agricultu- 
ral implements, processes, and products amid 
which he grew up; and could not swim, fence, 
carve, guess a riddle, saddle a horse, nor make 
a pen. He confesses that the only books of 
solid learning he could ever seriously devote 
himself to were Plutarch and Seneca. After 
quitting the college of Guienne he began the 
study of law, and at the age of 21 became a 
counsellor in the parliament of Bordeaux, an 
office from which he retired in 1570. There 
began his friendship with Etienne de la Boétie, 
whom he had loved before meeting him, whose 
early death he laments in one of the finest of 
his essays, and whose works he edited.- He 
was inclined to an easy neutrality amid the re- 
ligious and political conflicts of the time; made 
frequent visits to court, where he was intimate 
under successive monarchs; married at the age 
of 33; and at the age of 38 retired to his cha- 
teau. He soon after began the composition 
of his Essais; the first edition appeared in 
1580, and the work was several times enlarged 
during his life. At his death he left two cop- 
ies of the edition of 1588 full of corrections 
and additions, which were incorporated in the 
work by Mile. de Gournay and subsequent ed- 
itors. Suffering from the stone and nephritic 
colic, he sought relief by travel, and in 1580- 
°81 visited Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. 
The journal of his tour was discovered and 
published at Paris in 1774, after being en- 
tombed for nearly two centuries in the family 


769 


chest in the chéteau of Montaigne. The hu- 
mors of a valetudinarian seem to have chiefly 
engrossed his attention. He gauges civiliza- 
tion by the resources and the art of the kitch- 
en. He passes through the scenes of classical 
antiquity with scarcely a reference to any Ro- 
man author. His vanity appears in his de- 
tailed accounts of attentions received from the 
great, and in his delusion of the burgomaster 
of Augsburg into the belief that he and his 
suite were a company of knights and barons. 
Some of his descriptions, especially of what he 
saw in Rome, are made with curious felicity. 
On his return he was elected mayor of Bor- 
deaux, which office he held for four years, 
maintaining peace in a time of disorder; and 
after retiring to his domain in the very focus 
of civil war, he refused to fortify his house, 
leaving it “‘to the stars to guard,” and after- 
ward boasted that his bold frankness had con- 
jured away all dangers from it. In 1588, while 
in Paris superintending the publication of. his 
Fssais, he was employed to mediate between 
Henry of Navarre, afterward Henry IV., and the 
duke of Guise. He left no sons, and by his will 
authorized Charron to assume his family arms. 
His Essais, to which alone he owes his reputa- 
tion, profess to have been purely a work of 
amusement. Informal and irregular, they offer 
the first modern examples of essays or at- 
tempts in distinction from finished works. In 
an age of pedants, Montaigne appeared as the 
antagonist of literary conventionalism, and de- 
fied the pretensions of erudition. His saga- 
cious treatment of every-day life, rich and vig- 
orous language, easy and indulgent gayety, 
genial egotism, and minute confessions, are 
among the charms of his work. He employed 
the language of Christianity, and both Catho- 
lics and Protestants have claimed his sympa- 
thies; yet a practical heathenism pervades his 
philosophy. He was a kind of imperfect Soc- 
rates, the cross-examiner of his generation, 
taking nothing on trust, and hating pretence, 
yet too. careless and selfish, and not pure and 
thorough enough, to give his ideas effect. A 
monument to him was inaugurated in Bor- 
deaux, Sept. 6, 1858.—The latest editions of 
the Hssais are one containing notes of all the 
commentators, collected by J. V. Le Clerc, 
with a preface by Prévost-Paradol (2 vols. 
8vo, Paris, 1865); one by Courbet and Royer 
in Lemerre’s new collection of great writers 
(1872 et seg.) ; and one reprinted from the edi- 
tion of 1588 with annotations by H. Motheau 
and D. Jouaust (4 vols., 1874-5). See also 
Documents inédits sur Montaigne, by Payen 
(4 vols., 1847-56), and Htudes sur les Essais de 
Montaigne, by Alphonse Leveaux (1873).. They 
were several times translated into English, and 
very frequently reprinted, in the 17th and 18th 
centuries. A copy of Florio’s translation (1603), 
the only book known to have been owned by 
Shakespeare, is in the British museum with 
his autograph. One of the best biographies of 
Montaigne is by Bayle St. John (London, 1857). 


770 MONTALANT 


MONTALANT, Mile. See DamorzEav. 

MONTALEMBERT. I, Mare René de, marquis, a 
French military engineer, born in Angouléme, 
July 15, 1714, died March 29, 1800. He was 
descended from an ancient family of Poitou, 
early entered the army, and took an active 
part in the campaigns of Italy and Flanders, 
and in 1741 in the war of the Austrian succes- 
sion. He devoted himself to military science, 
in 1747 became a member of the academy of 
sciences, and established founderies for casting 
cannon. His innovations in the art of fortifi- 
cation were opposed by the French engineers, 
but all doubts were dispelled by his successful 
construction of the fort of Ré. He was also 
employed in the fortifications of Anklam, Stral- 
sund, and the islands of Aix and Oléron. He 
became a partisan of the revolution, and relin- 
quished his pension in favor of the national 
convention. During the reign of terror he 
obtained a divorce from his first wife, an ac- 
tress and novelist, and married the daughter 
of an apothecary. He had given up to the 
government his founderies, without receiving 
any equivalent, and was involved in further 
difficulties by the publication of his works, his 
various experiments for the improvement of 
the military art, and the depreciation of paper 
money. He had also executed at his own ex- 
pense and presented to the government various 
models relating to fortifications and artillery. 
His services as a military reformer were pub- 
licly acknowledged by the convention and by 
the council of 500, and some inadequate pecu- 
niary relief was afforded him. He wrote on 
the campaign of 1757, on the siege of St. Jean 
d’Acre, and a historical essay on the founding 
of cannon, and contributed valuable memoirs 
to the academy. His great work, La fortifica- 
tion perpendiculaire, ou V Art défensif supé- 
rieur a@ Voffensif (11 vols. 4to, Paris, 1776-96), 
with illustrations, absorbed a large portion of 
his fortune. His system of detached forts in- 
augurated a new era not only in fortification, 
but in the attack and defence of fortresses and 
in strategical science generally. His principles 
were adopted in the fortifications of Ehren- 
breitstein, Cologne, Sebastopol, Cronstadt, and 
Cherbourg, in the batteries at the entrance of 
Portsmouth harbor, and in most modern forts 
for harbor defence. (See Fortirication.) IL 
Charles Forbes René de, count, a French states- 
man, grandson of the preceding, born in London, 
May 29, 1810, died in Paris, March 138, 1870. 
He received his university education in Paris, 
and in his 19th year published a small work 
on Sweden. In 1830 he became the associate 
of Lamennais and Lacordaire in founding and 
editing L’ Avenir, went with them to Rome to 
plead their own cause in 1831, and on his re- 
turn opened, with Lacordaire and De Coux, a 
free Catholic school in Paris, which was closed 
by the police. The directors were arraigned 
before an inferior court for infringing the or- 
dinances on public instruction; but Montalem- 
bert, having meanwhile become a member of 


MONTALEMBERT 


the chamber of peers, transferred his case to 
that court, and delivered there in his own de- 
fence his first public speech. The papal cen- 
sure which fell upon Lamennais a few years 
later strengthened Montalembert’s attachment 
to the church, without shaking his liberal con- 
victions. He devoted himself to the study of 
the middle ages, and published Sstoire de 
Saint Elizabeth de Hongrie (Paris, 1886; Eng- 
lish translation by Mary Hackett and Mrs. 
J. Sadlier, New York, 1854), and an essay 
Du Vandalisme et du Catholicisme dans Vart 
(1839). He spoke frequently in the chamber 
of peers. In 1842 he opposed M. Villemain’s 
bill for the organization of secondary schools, 
protesting against the ‘ university monop- 
oly”? which placed all the schools under the 
control of the faculty of laymen. In 1843 he 
published bis Manifeste catholique. He was 
now the recognized leader of the Catholic 
party. He delivered three elaborate addresses 
on the freedom of the church, of education, 
and of religious orders, in the last of which he 
eulogized the Jesuits; and in 1847 he found- 
ed a religious society to uphold the cause of 
the Swiss Sonderbund. He spoke in favor of 
Poland in 1831, 1844, and 1846. Early in 1848, 
in a speech on radicalism, he predicted a revo- 
lution in the course of three months. When 
it broke out he joined the democratic party, 
published an address avowing republican sen- 
timents, and was elected by the department of 
Doubs as a deputy in the constituent assembly. 
Here, however, he acted rather with the con- 
servative party than with the thorough demo- 
crats. He opposed the admission of Louis Na- 
poleon, and voted against the new constitu- 
tion; and toward the close of the session he 
supported Dufaure’s bill for the restriction of 
the press, and approved the expedition sent to 
Rome to restore the papal authority. Returned 
to the legislative assembly by the departments 
of Doubs and Cétes-du-Nord, he became still 
more conservative, and was one of the com- 
mittee which drafted the law of May 31, abol- 
ishing universal suffrage. In June, 1851, he 
had a memorable debate with Victor Hugo on 
the proposed revision of the constitution. After 
the coup d’état of Dec. 2 he protested against 
the imprisonment of the deputies, and became 
more determined in his hostility to Napoleon ; 
but he obtained a place on the second consul- 
tative committee, and a seat in the legislative 
body, where he was almost the only represen- 
tative of the opposition. Having failed to be 
reélected in 1857, he lived in retirement, em- 
ployed in literary labors. An article which he 
published Oct. 25, 1858, entitled Un débat sur 
VInde au parlement anglais, led to his prose- 
cution on account of invidious comparisons 
between the institutions of France and Great 
Britain. He was sentenced to a fine of 3,000 
francs and six months’ imprisonment; but 
both penalties were remitted by the emperor. 
In 1852 he was elected to the French academy. 
After his withdrawal from political life, Mon- 


MONTALVAN 


talembert busied himself chiefly with the prep- 
aration of Les moines d Occident depuis Saint 
Benoit jusqwa Saint Bernard (5 vols., Paris, 
1860-67; 8d ed., 1868; English ed., Edin- 
burgh, 1861). He took a lively interest in the 
progress of the civil war in the United States, 
his last pamphlet, La victoire du Nord aua 
Ktats-Unis (Paris, 1865; English translation, 
Boston, 1866), being a hymn of triumph over 
the success of the Union arms. In 1863 he 
warmly espoused the cause of Poland in the 
volume entitled De Pinsurrection polonaise ; 
and in August, at the Catholic congress held 
in Mechlin, he read a discourse on “A free 
Church in a free State,” which excited angry 
discussions between the liberal Catholics and 
ultramontanes. At the approach of the Vati- 
can council he openly declared against defi- 
ning the doctrine of pontifical infallibility. Be- 
sides the works already mentioned, he wrote 
Du devoir des Catholiques dans la question de 
la liberté denseignement (1844); Saint An- 
selme, fragment de Vintroduction & Vhistoire 
de Saint Bernard (1844); Quelques conseils aux 
Catholiques (1849); Des intéréts catholiques 
aux XIX* siécle (1852; English translation, 
1853); L’ Avenir politique de VU Angleterre 
(1855 ; English translation, 1856); Une nation 
en deuil, la Pologne en 1861 (1861); Le pére 
Lacordaire (1862); and Le Pape et la Pologne 
(1864). He was one of the editors of the Cor- 
respondant. An edition of his complete works 
has been published by Lecoffre (9 vols., Paris, 
1861-’8).—See Mrs. Oliphant’s ‘Memoirs of 
Count de Montalembert” (2 vols., Edinburgh 
and London, 1872). 

MONTALVAN, Juan Perez de, a Spanish drama- 
tist, born in Madrid in 1602, died in June, 1688. 
His father was bookseller to the king, and the 
son became a licentiate in theology at the age 
of 17. He enjoyed the instruction of Lope de 
Vega, and very early wrote for the stage. At 
the age of 30 he had written 36 dramas and 
12 autos sacramentales ; and he became crazy 
from overwork. He left about 60 plays (Alca- 
14, 1638; Madrid, 1639). He wrote Orfeo, a 
poem (1624); ‘Life and Purgatory of St. 
Patrick ” (1627); a collection of stories Para 
todos (‘‘ For Everybody,” 1632); and a pane- 
gyric on Lope de Vega (1636). 

MONTANA, a territory of the United States, 
situated between lat. 44° 15’ and 49° N., and 
lon. 104° and 116° W.; length E. and W. on 
the N. border, 540 m., and along the 45th par- 
allel 460 m.; average breadth, 275 m.; area, 
145,776 sq. m. It is bounded N. by British 
America, and E. by Dakota, and for a short 
distance along the 111th meridian by Wyo- 
ming. On the south, E. of the 111th meridi- 
an, it is bounded by Wyoming (along the 45th 
parallel) ; W. of the 111th meridian, it borders 
S. and S. W. (along the crest of the Rocky 
and Bitter Root mountains) and then W. on 
Idaho. The territory is divided into 11 coun- 
ties, viz.: Beaver Head, Big Horn, Choteau, 
Dawson, Deer Lodge, Gallatin, Jefferson, Lew- 


MONTANA T71 


is and Clarke, Madison, Meagher, and Missoula. 
The principal cities and towns are Helena (pop. 
in 1870, 3,106), the capital; Virginia City (867), 
the former capital; Deer Lodge City (788); 
and Argenta, Bannack, Bozeman, Diamond 
City, Fort Benton, Gallatin, Missoula City, 
and Radersburg. The population in 1870, ex- 
clusive of tribal Indians, according to the Uni- 
ted States census, was 20,595, of whom 18,306 
were whites, 183 colored, 1,949 Chinese, and 
157 Indians; 12,616 were native and 7,979 
foreign born, 16,771 males and 38,824 females. 
There were 11,523 citizens of the United States 
21 years old and upward; 7,058 families, with 
an average of 2°92 persons to a family; 9,450 
dwellings, with an average of 2°18 persons to 
a dwelling; 667 persons 10 years old and over 
unable to read; 918, including 129 Chinese and 
78 Indians, unable to write, of whom 394 were 
natives and 524 foreigners. Of the 14,048 per- 
sons 10 years old and over returned as engaged 
in all occupations, 2,111 were employed in agri- 
culture, 2,674 in professional and personal ser- 
vices, 1,233 in trade and transportation, and 
8,030 in manufactures and mining, including 
6,720 miners. The tribal Indians of Montana, 
according to the report of the United States 
commissioner of Indian affairs for 1874, num- 
ber 22,486, as follows: 


TRIBES. No. TRIBES. No. 

Hlatheads ¥en «casi 471 || Santee and Sisseton 

Pend d’Oreilles ....| 1,026 1OUR, Seen cities 1,163 
Kootenays......... 832 || Yanktonais Sioux. 2,266 
Mountain Crows...} 8,000 || Uncpapa Sioux.... 1,420 
River Crows....... 1,200 || Unecpatina Sioux.. 460 
IBlackteets ome sear 1,500 |} Assiniboins........ 4,698 
Bloodsy. fete ssees 1,500 || Gros Ventres...... 1,000 
IPIGPANSe yes caress 2,450 


The Flatheads, Pend d’Oreilles, and Kootenays 
have a reservation of 1,433,600 acres in the 
valley of Jocko river, a tributary of the Flat- 
head, near Flathead lake, but most of the Flat- 
heads have hitherto resided in the valley of 
the Bitter Root river and refused to remove 
to the reservation. The Crows have a reser- 
vation bounded W. and N. by the Yellowstone 
river, EK. by the 107th meridian, and 8S. by 
Wyoming. The other tribes have had assigned 
to them the region N. of the Marias and Mis- 
souri rivers. The Blackfeet never and the 
Bloods seldom visit their agency, roaming most 
of the time N. of the British line. Besides 
those enumerated in the table, there are some 
roving Sioux not belonging to any agency.—The 
E. portion of the territory, about three fifths of 
the whole, consists chiefly of rolling table lands 
or plains; the W. part is mountainous. The 
main chain of the Rocky mountains, after form- 
ing for a considerable distance the S. W. boun- 
dary, suddenly (in lat. 45° 40’) bends E. for 
some distance, and then runs N. about 20° W. 
to the N. border of the territory. The Bitter 
Root range, leaving the main chain at the 
bend, continues in a N. W. direction along the 
boundary to its intersection with the 116th 


172 


meridian. Enclosed by the Bitter Root moun- 
tains on the west and the main chain on the 
- east and south is a basin occupying the N. W. 
portion of the territory and embracing about 
one fifth of its area, which is divided by moun- 
tain spurs and streams into numerous valleys 
and terraces. S. of this is another basin, about 
half its area and of similar character, occupy- 
ing the S. W. extremity of the territory, and 
walled in by the main chain on the north, 
west, and south. E. of the Rocky mountains 
are several minor ranges. The Snow moun- 
tains enter the territory from Wyoming for a 
short distance, causing the Yellowstone river 
to make a detour in sweeping round their N. 


flank. N. of the Yellowstone the Belt, Judith, 


and Highwood mountains form an irregular 
group of short and broken ranges, around 
which the Missouri river flows N. before as- 
suming its E. course. N. of the Missouri the 
plain is interrupted only by the Bear’s Paw 
and Little Rocky mountains. The mountains 
are generally less rugged and elevated than 
further §., and some of the valleys are de- 
pressed much below the lowest point in the 
Great Basin. The plains vary in height from 
2,010 ft. at the mouth of the Yellowstone to 
4,091 ft. at the foot of the mountains. ‘The 
mountain valleys vary in elevation from less 
than 3,000 to about 5,000 ft., while the peaks 
rise above the line of perpetual snow. The 
N. W. basin is drained by tributaries of the 
Columbia river; the rest of the territory by 
the Missouri and its tributaries. Clarke’s fork 
of the Columbia, formed near the centre of 
the basin by the junction of the Flathead and 
Bitter Root rivers, flows N. W. into Idaho, 
and is navigable for some distance in Montana 
by small steamers. The Flathead rises in Brit- 
ish America and has a general S. course near 
the foot of the Rocky mountains, expanding 
near the 48th parallel into a lake of the same 
name (the only one in the territory), about 30 
m. long and 10 or 12 m. wide. The Bitter 
Root rises in the 8. W. corner of the basin, and 
has a N. course, receiving the Hell Gate river, 
which rises in the S. E. extremity of the basin. 
The latter is formed by the junction of the 
Deer Lodge and Little Blackfoot rivers, and 
a short distance before entering the Bitter 
Root receives the Big Blackfoot from the east. 
The Bitter Root above the mouth of the Hell 
Gate is sometimes called the Missoula. The 
N. W. corner of the territory is intersected by 
the Kootenay river. The Missouri river is 
formed near Gallatin in the S. W. part of Mon- 
tana by the junction of the Jefferson, Madison, 
and Gallatin rivers, which have a general N. 
course, and flows N. and N. E., E. of Helena, to 
Fort Benton, whence it pursues a general E. 
course to the Dakota line, which it crosses 
near the 48th parallel. It is navigable to Fort 
Benton, more than 300 m. from the boundary. 
Its principal tributaries are Green river and 
Smith’s or Deep river from the east; the Ar- 
row, Judith, and Musselshell, from the south ; 


MONTANA 


and from the west and north, Medicine or Sun 
river, Teton, Marias, and Milk rivers. Jeffer- 
son river is formed by the junction of the Big 
Hole or Wisdom, Beaver Head, and Stinking 
Water rivers, which rise in the Rocky moun- 
tains in the 8. W. extremity of the territory ; 
Madison river, the middle fork, rises in the 
N. W. corner of Wyoming; E. of this is the 
Gallatin, rising between the Madison and Yel- 
lowstone rivers. The Yellowstone rises in 
Yellowstone lake in N. W. Wyoming, near the 
source of Madison river, and flows N. and N. 
E., draining the §. and E. sections of Mon- 
tana, and joining the Missouri on the Dakota 
border. It is navigable in spring and early 
summer by large steamers 300 or 400 m. above 
its mouth. Its chief tributaries are the Big 
Rosebud river, Clarke’s fork, Pryor’s river, the 
Big Horn, Rosebud, Tongue, and Powder riv- 
ers from the south, and Porcupine river from 
the north. The Little Missouri river crosses 
the S. E. corner of the territory from Wyoming, 
and joins the Missouri in Dakota.—The pre- 
vailing geological formation in the east, as far 
as the 107th meridian on the southern bounda- 
ry and the 109th on the north, is the lignite 
tertiary. W. of this is a cretaceous region, 
having its widest expanse at the north. W. 
and §. W. of the cretaceous are narrow belts 
stretching across the territory along the foot 
of the Rocky mountains, composed of red beds, 
Jurassic and carboniferous rocks, and Potsdam 
sandstone. The Rocky mountain range and 
the two basins are largely of igneous origin, 
consisting of basalt, granite, and various meta- 
morphic rocks. Limestone, slate, and granite 
suitable for building purposes, and sands and 
clays adapted to brickmaking, are abundant. 
Bituminous coal has been found near Bannack, 
Helena, Virginia City, and Deer Lodge City, 
on the head waters of the Big Blackfoot, and 
in several places on the Musselshell, Yellow- 
stone, and Missouri rivers. Lignite exists in 
great quantities on the Missouri and Yellow- 
stone in the E. part of the territory, and on 
the head waters of the Teton and Marias riv- 
ers. Hot springs and geysers are numerous 
about the head waters of the Missouri and 
Yellowstone. (See GrysEr.) The precious 
metals, found in the metamorphic rocks, are 
abundant, Montana having been second only 
to California in the production of gold. The 
placer diggings are chiefly on the tributaries of 
the Hell Gate, Big Blackfoot, Madison, and 
Jefferson rivers, on the Missouri and its tribu- 
taries from the junction of the three forks to 
the mouth of Smith’s river, and on the bars of 
the upper Yellowstone. The principal quartz 
mines are near Argenta, Bannack, Helena, 
Highland in Deer Lodge co., and Virginia City. 
Much attention is now given to silver and 
copper. These metals exist in conjunction 
with each other and with gold, and some- 
times separately. Silver is chiefly found on 
Flint and Silver Bow creeks, affluents of Hell 
Gate river; Alder and Ram’s Horn gulches 


MONTANA 


of Stinking Water river ; Ten Mile creek, near 
Helena; and on Rattlesnake creek, a tribu- 
tary of Beaver Head river. Copper predom- 
inates on Beaver creek, near Jetferson City, 
Jefferson co. ; on a branch of Silver Bow creek, 
near Butte City, Deer Lodge co.; and at the 
source of Musselshell river. Gold was first 
discovered, on Gold creek, a branch of the 
Hell Gate, in 1852, but no mining took place 
until the autumn of 1861. The first quartz 
mill was erected in the beginning of 1868. 
According to the returns of the United States 
census of 1870, which are admitted to be im- 
perfect, the number of gold mines was 688; 
hands employed, 3,534; capital invested, $2,- 
518,613; wages paid, $1,381,699; value of ma- 
terials used, $735,901; of product, $4,030,485 ; 
67, product $737,458, were hydraulic mines; 
607, product $3,058,378, placer; and 12, pro- 
duct $234,604, quartz. The bullion product of 
Montana, following J. Ross Browne’s “ Re- 
sources of the Pacific Slope,” for the period 
prior to and including 1867, and the estimate 
of Rk. W. Raymond, United States commis- 
sioner of mining statistics, for the subsequent 
years, has been as follows: 


YEAR.| Product. YEAR, Product. YEAR, Product. 

1862..; $500,000 || 1867..| $12,000,000 || 1872..| $6,078,889 
1863..| 8,000,000 || 1868..| 15,000,000 || 1878..| 5,178,047 
1864. .| 18,000,000 || 1869.. 9,000,000 |) 1874... 4,000,000 
1865. .| 14,500,000 || 1870.. 9,100,000 rs 
1866..}| 16,500,000 || 1871.. 8,050,000 || Total. | $120,901,386 


Of the product in 1872, $351,944, and in 1878 
$176,500, was silver. The deposits of gold 
from the territory at the United States mints 
and assay offices, to June 80, 1874, amounted 
to $36,640,618 66; of silver, to $304,361 51. 
—The climate is healthy. Little rain falls, and 
in most parts of the territory irrigation is ne- 
cessary. .Much snow falls on the mountains, 
particularly in the N. W. basin. The average 
temperature is higher than in the same latitude 
further east. In the valleys, especially in the 
south, little snow falls, and cattle winter with- 
out shelter, while from the dryness of the at- 
mosphere the cold of greater altitudes is less 
severely felt. The average temperature at 
Fort Benton (lat. 47° 52’, lon. 110° 40’, eleva- 
tion 2,674 ft.) of the year ending Sept. 380, 
1873, was 41:97°; total rainfall, 12°17 inches. 
The average temperature of the warmest month 
(July) was 69°8°; of the coldest (December), 
11°3°. The average temperature during 1872 
at Virginia City in the §S. basin (lat.° 45 19’, 
elevation 5,826 ft.) was 39°25°; warmest 
month (August), 61°3°; coldest month (De- 
cember), 18°8°; total rainfall, 9°72 inches. 
At Deer Lodge City in the N. W. basin (lat. 
46° 26’, elevation 4,768 ft.) the average tem- 
perature for two years was found to be 42°; 
warmest month, 69°7°; coldest month, —1°5°. 
The total precipitation of rain and melted 
snow in 1870 was 16°5 inches. Fort Owen 
(elevation 3,284 ft.), 65 m. W. by N. of Deer 


173 


Lodge City, has an average annual tempera- 
ture of 47°. The variations are great, the 
thermometer in winter, except in the lower 
and more sheltered valleys, sometimes fall- 
ing to 80° below zero, and rising in summer 
above 90°. The plains E. of the mountains 
are generally treeless, and (particularly in the 
eastern part) possess indifferent facilities for 
irrigation. Along the streams there is gen- 
erally a growth of cottonwood, willow, alder, 
aspen, and similar trees, while the moun- 
tain slopes are wooded with pine, fir, spruce, 
cedar, and hemlock. Timber is more abun- 
dant in the N. W. basin than elsewhere, and 
particularly about the Kootenay river and the 
upper course of the Flathead. The valleys 
and terraces afford excellent grazing. The soil 
of the valleys is fertile, and they are for the 
most part easily irrigated. Some of the prin- 
cipal agricultural localities are the Deer Lodge, 
Bitter Root, Blackfoot, Flathead, and Hell 
Gate valleys, the upper valleys of the Jeffer- 
son, Madison, and Gallatin rivers, the valley of 
the Missouri from the junction of the three 
forks to the mouth of Sun river, and a tract 
about 380 m. wide along the E. base of the 
Rocky mountains, stretching from Sun river 
to the international boundary, which is watered 
by numerous small tributaries of the Marias, 
Teton, and Sun. Ourrants, strawberries, rasp- 
berries, and gooseberries grow wild. The 
principal cultivated crops are wheat, rye, bar- 
ley, oats, and potatoes. Some varieties of In- 
dian corn may be grown in portions of the ter- 
ritory, but the climate is generally too cold. 
Beans, peas, turnips, beets, carrots, onions, 
cabbage, squashes, melons, tomatoes, cucum- 
bers, and the hardier fruits thrive. Grain 
yields abundantly. Among wild animals are 
the buffalo, on the plains in the east, the gris- 
ly bear, and the antelope.—According to the 
census of 1870, the number of farms was 851, 
containing 84,674 acres of improved land; 
cash value of farms, $729,193; of farming 
implements and machinery, $145,488; wages 
paid during the year, including the value of 
board, $325,213; estimated value of all farm 
productions, including betterments and addi- 
tions to stock, $1,676,660; value of produce 
of market gardens, $35,180; of forest prod- 
ucts, $918; of home manufactures, $155,357 ; 
of animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter, 
$169,092; of live stock, $1,818,698. The pro- 
ductions were 177,535 bushels of spring wheat, - 
8,649 of winter wheat, 1,141 of rye, 320 of 
Indian corn, 149,867 of oats, 85,756 of barley, 
988 of buckwheat, 2,414 of peas and beans, 
91,477 of Irish potatoes, 31 of grass seed, 600 
Ibs. of tobacco, 100 of wool, 408,080 of but- 
ter, 25,608 of cheese, 105,186 gallons of milk 
sold, and 18,727 tons of hay. The live stock 
consisted of 5,289 horses, 475 mules and asses, 
12,482 milch cows, 1,761 working oxen, 22,- 
545 other cattle, 2,024 sheep, and 2,599 swine. 
There were besides 1,444 horses and 45,642 
cattle not on farms, The number of horses 


T74 MONTANA 


assessed in 1873 was 19,905; cattle, 104,777; 
mules, 1,606; sheep, 10,597. The whole num- 
ber of manufacturing establishments in 1870, 
according to the census, was 201, having 33 
steam engines of 822 horse power, and 46 
water wheels of 795 horse power; hands 
employed, 701; capital invested, $1,794,300; 
wages paid, $370,848; value of materials used, 
$1,316,331; of products, $2,494,511. The 
most important establishments were 34 quartz 
mills, capital $1,184,900, value of products 
$801,878; 8 flour and grist mills, 31 saw mills, 
13 breweries, and 6 manufactories of jewelry. 
The number of quartz mills, including those 
not in operation, according to the report of 
the United States commissioner of mining sta- 
tistics for 1870, was 48, having 591 stamps and 
62 arrastras, and mostly run by steam. One, in 
Deer Lodge co., was for the production of sil- 
ver; the rest, of gold.—There are no railroads 
in Montana, but the Northern Pacific is to 
cross the territory from E. to W. The prin- 
cipal towns have telegraphic communication 
with the east and the Pacific coast. There are 
five national banks, with an aggregate capital 
of $350,000.—The government is similar to 
that of the other territories. The executive 
officers are a governor and secretary, appoint- 
ed by the president with the consent of the 
senate for four years, and a treasurer, auditor, 
and superintendent of public instruction, crea- 
ted by local law. The legislative power is 
vested in a council of 18 and an assembly of 
26 members, elected by the people for two 
years. Judicial authority is exercised by a 
supreme court, district courts, probate courts, 
and justices of the peace. The supreme court 
consists of three justices, appointed by the 
president with the consent of:the senate for 
four years, and has appellate jurisdiction. A 
district court with general original jurisdic- 
tion is held by a justice of the supreme court 
in each of the three judicial districts. There 
is a probate court for each county, with the 
usual powers of such courts. Justices of the 
peace have cognizance of inferior cases, <Ac- 
cording to the United States census of 1870, 
the assessed value of real estate was $2,728,- 
128; of personal property, $7,215,283; true 
value of both, $15,184,522. The total taxa- 
tion not national was $198,527, of which $38,- 
131 was territorial, $157,396 county, and $3,000 
town, city, &c.; county debt, $276,219; town, 
city, &c., $2,500. The valuation for purposes 
of taxation in 1878 was $9,808,745; taxation 
for territorial purposes, $39,214 98. The re- 
ceipts into the territorial treasury for the year 
ending Dee. 1, 1878, including $648 64 on hand 
at the beginning of the period, were $66,517 
73; disbursements, $65,792 15; balance, $725 
58. The net territorial debt on Dec. 31, 1878, 
amounted to $128,762 47, a decrease during 
the year of $13,786 52; $92,283 44 of this 
amount was in bonds bearing 12 per cent. 
interest. The aggregate debt of the several 
counties on March 1, 1873 (Lewis and Clarke 


MONTANELLI 


to Sept. 1), was reported as $482,987 74. The 
territorial penitentiary is at Deer Lodge City. 
According to the report of the superintendent 
of public instruction for 18738, the number of 
children of school age (4 to 21 years) was 
3,517; number attending public schools, 1,881 ; 
average attendance, 940; number of organized 
school districts, 91; of schools taught during 
the year, 90; teachers employed, 99 (50 males 
and 49 females); average pay per month, $68 
41; average length of schools, 824 days; num- 
ber of school houses, 51; amount raised for 
schools by county tax, $31,350 42; by district 
tax (in Madison co.), $984 55; amount appor- 
tioned during the year from all sources, $33,- 
161 50; private schools taught during the 
year, 11, attended by 149 pupils. There are 
graded schools in Deer Lodge City, Helena, 
and Virginia City. The number of schools of 
all classes reported by the census of 1870 was 
54 (45 ungraded common, 1 classical academy, 
7 day and boarding, and 1 parochial and char- 
ity), having 34 male and 31 female teachers, 
1,027 male and 718 female pupils, and an in- 
come from all sources of $41,170. There were 
141 libraries, containing 19,700 volumes, of 
which 128 with 14,690 volumes were private ; 
and 10 newspapers (3 daily, 1 tri-weekly, and 
6 weekly), issuing 2,860,600 copies annually, 
and having a circulation of 19,580. The num- 
ber of church organizations was 15 (1 Chris- 
tian, 2 Episcopal, 7 Methodist, and 5 Roman 
Catholic), having 11 edifices, with 3,850 sit- 
tings, and property valued at $99,300.—Mon- 
tana was set off from Idaho and given a terri- 
torial government by the act of May 26, 1864. 
Its settlement dates from the opening of the 
gold mines. By the act of Feb. 17, 1873, a 
tract of about 2,000 sq. m., between lat. 44° 
30’ on the north, Wyoming on the east, and the 
Rocky mountains, previously belonging to Da- 
kota, was annexed to Montana. Helena became 
the capital in 1875. (See supplement.) 
MONTANELLI, Giuseppe, an Italian revolution- 
ist, born at Fucecchio, Tuscany, in 18138, died 
June 17, 1862. He graduated in law at the 
university of Pisa in 1831, and became pro- 
fessor of commercial jurisprudence there in 
1840. In 1844 he founded a secret political 
association, and in 1847 a liberal journal, 
DI’ Italia. He was severely wounded and cap- 
tured by the Austrians in the battle of Curta- 
tone, May 29, 1848. He afterward became 
prime minister of Tuscany, and after the flight 
of the grand duke in February, 1849, was one 
of the triumvirs. Guerrazzi soon after be- 
coming dictator, he sent Montanelli as ambas- 
sador to Paris, where he remained ten years, 
being meantime sentenced to imprisonment for 
life by the restored grand ducal government. 
In 1859 he founded a journal at Florence, and 
subsequently became a member of the Italian 
parliament. He wrote ‘“ Memoirs” of the 
movements in Italy (Turin, 1853-5; trans- 
lated into French, 2 vols., Paris, 1857), some 
lyric poems, and for Mme. Ristori, while she — 


MONTANISTS 


was acting in Paris, the tragedy Camma and a 
translation of Legouvé’s Médée. 


MONTANISTS, a sect of the 2d century, so 


called after Montanus of Phrygia. He is said 
to have been a priest of Cybele, and to have 
announced himself about 160 as a prophet, 
who was to carry Christianity forward to per- 
fection. He taught a permanent extraordinary 
influence of the Paraclete, manifesting itself 
by prophetic ecstasies and visions, assigned to 
doctrines and rites a subordinate significance, 
and demanded the most rigid ascetieism as 
a manifestation of internal purity. Besides 
the ordinary fasts, he prescribed annual and 
weekly ones, and declared second marriages 
and flight from persecution to be sins. He rep- 
resented the beginning of the millennium as 
very near at hand, and Pepuza in Phrygia as 
the placé which would be its centre. His fol- 
lowers, who were also called Cataphryges and 
Pepuziani, found a zealous and gifted advocate 
in Tertullian, and included many prophetesses, 
among whom Maximilla and Priscilla are espe- 
cially celebrated. The members of the ruling 
church were designated by them as psychit, 
while they assumed themselves the name pnew- 
mati. They were opposed especially by the 
Alexandrian school, and condemned by several 
provincial councils. They were numerous in 
Mysia, Lydia, and Phrygia, where some towns, 
as Pepuza and Thyatira, were exclusively in- 
habited by them. Thence they spread into 
other parts of Asia Minor, especially into Cap- 
padocia, Galatia, and Cilicia. In Constantinople 
and Carthage also they were very numerous. 
The literature of the modern Tibingen school 
represents Montanism as a reaction of Jewish 
Christianity against Paulinism.—See Werns- 
dorf, De Montanistis (Dantzic, 1751; strongly 
favorable); Minter, Hffata et Oracula Monta- 
nistarum (Copenhagen, 1829); Kirchner, De 
Montanistis (Jena, 1832); Schwegler, Der Mon- 
tanismus und die christliche Kirche des zweiten 
Jahrhunderts (Tiibingen, 1841); and Baur, 
Das Christenthum und die christliche Kirche 
der drei ersten Jahrhunderte (2d ed., 1860). 

MONTANUS. See Monranists. 

MONTANUS, Arias. See Artas Monranvs. 

MONTARGIS, a town of France, in the de- 
partment of Loiret, on the left bank of the 
‘Loing, and at the junction of the canals of 
Briare, Orleans, and the Loing, connecting the 
navigation of the Seine and the Loire, 62 m. 8. 
by E. of Paris, and 40 m. E. by N. of Orleans; 
pop. in 1866, 7,757. The town is well built on 
a plain which extends from the river to the 
neighboring forest of Montargis; and it has an 
active trade, ¢hiefly in grain, wax, honey, and 
agricultural products. It has also considerable 
manufactories of cotton goods, cutlery, paper, 
&c. The most interesting building is the ruin 
of the once extensive castle of Montargis, on a 
hill near the town. This was built by Charles 
V. (186480), and was very strongly fortified, 
with accommodations for an unusually large 
garrison. The great hall of the castle (55 by 


MONT BLANO UID 


184 ft.) was elaborately decorated. Among its 
ornaments was a carving of the combat of a 
dog and an accused murderer, which tradition 
represents as having taken place at Paris in 
1371, in accordance with the custom of the 
ordeal of battle then in vogue. The dog hay- 
ing Overcome in the combat the alleged mur- 
derer of his master, the criminal confessed his 
crime and was executed. From the carving, 
this story became universally known as that of 
the ‘dog of Montargis.” 

MONTAUBAN (Lat. Mons Albanus), a town of 
Guienne, France, capital of the department of 
Tarn-et-Garonne, on the river Tarn, 843 m. 
8.5. W. of Paris; pop. in 1872, 25,624. It 
stands on a high plateau, and has wide clean 
streets and a thrifty appearance. It contains 
a fine cathedral of the 18th century, and there 
is a stone bridge over the Garonne which dates 
from the 14th. There is a lyceum, a normal 
school, a Protestant faculty of theology, a pub- 
lic library, and a gallery of paintings which 
includes many by Ingres, a native of the place. 
The manufactures are extensive, embracing 
silks, woollens, porcelain, starch, candles, pens, 
and pharmaceutical products; and there is 
a large trade in leather, grain, and wine, the 
surrounding country being very productive. 
Montauban was founded by Alphonse, count of 
Toulouse, in 1144, and was made the seat of a 
bishopin 13817. It became a Protestant strong- 
hold in the 16th century, and its inhabitants 
were subjected to severe persecution. In 1621 
it was besieged by the royal army under De 
Luynes, which at the end of three months, 
after numerous assaults, was obliged to with- 
draw. In 1629 it submitted to the royal au- 
thority, and its defences were razed. Subse- 
quently it suffered from the dragonnades. 

MONTBELIARD, or Monbéliard (Ger. J/6mpel- 
gard), a town of Franche-Comté, France, in 
the department of Doubs, at the confluence 
of the Allan and the Lusine, on the Rhéne 
and Rhine canal, 43 m. N. E. of Besancon; 
pop. in 1866, 6,479, most of whom are Lu~ 
therans. It has a chamber of industry and 
agriculture, a Protestant normal school, a com- 
munal college, a library .of 9,000 volumes, 
and other educational and benevolent institu- 
tions. The principal manufactures are wool- 
Jen and linen fabrics and muslins. It was 
formerly the capital of a county in Burgundy, 
which after the extinction of the male line 
of counts in 1895 passed by marriage to the 
house of Wirtemberg, though at the same time 
it was under the suzerainty of France; and it 
was wholly ceded to France in 1801. 

MONT BLANC (Fr., ‘White mountain,” so 
called from the snow which covers it), the 
highest of the Alps, and with the exception 
of Mt. Elburz in the Caucasus the highest 
mountain in Europe, on the confines of Savoy, 
France, and Piedmont, Italy, in lat. 45° 50’ N., 
lon. 6° 52’ E. It extends about 13 m. from N. 
E. to S. W., with a breadth of 5 to6m. Its 
highest elevation, a narrow pinnacle, is 15,732 


7716 MONT BLANC 


MONTCALM 


ft. above the sea (according to Bruguiére, 15,- | and its outlying flanks consist of calcareous 


781 ft. according to Corabceuf), and its sum- 
mit for a distance of 7,000 ft. down is clothed 
with perpetual snow. The higher parts of 
Mont Blanc are composed of primitive rock, 


strata turned up against the great central mass. 
The sides, to the height of 3,000 to 4,000 ft. 
above Chamouni, are skirted with forests. The 
surface of its higher parts is diversified and very 


Mont Blane from above Morges. 


irregular; there are numerous jutting rocks, 
called aiguilles or needles; large fields of ice, 
often broken into fissures of unknown depth; 
and grottoes excavated beneath the masses of 
ice by the warmer temperature below, and 
hanging with splendid stalactitic formations. 
Glaciers frequently sweep down its sides. At 
night the summit shines with a faint light, 
which is thus accounted for: there is high in 
the atmosphere a zone of thin vapor which is 
still lighted by the sun after Mont Blanc has 
ceased to be within range of its rays, and this 
vapor reflects a part of the light which it re- 
ceives upon the summit of the mountain. The 
first ascent of Mont Blanc was made with 
great danger and difficulty by Dr. Paccard and 
Jacques Balmat in August, 1786; but during 
the preceding ten years several unsuccessful 
attempts had been made. They found the 
cold so excessive that they remained on the 
summit only half an hour. The next year De 
Saussure accomplished the ascent, and made 
a variety of scientific observations. Albert 
Smith’s ascent in 1851 and subsequent pictorial 
and dramatic descriptive entertainment, and 
his “Story of Mont Blanc” (London, 1854), 
gave unusual popularity to the subject in Eng- 
land for several years. A record of two ascents 
(1858-9) by Prof. Tyndall is in ‘‘ The Giaciers 
of the Alps” (London, 1860). In 1855 Prof, J. 
D. Forbes published a “ Tour of Mont Blane 
and Monte Rosa,” and subsequently a series of 
papers on the theory, measurement, and move- 


ment of the glaciers. There are also numer- 


ous recent accounts of ascensions by members 


of the English Alpine club. The achievement 
is no longer considered either dangerous or 
difficult. The guides and all matters relating 
to them are regulated by the French govern- 
ment, and ascents are frequent. 

MONTBRISON, a town of France, in the de- 
partment of Loire, on the Vizezy, an affluent 
of the Loire, 37 m. S. W. of Lyons; pop. in 
1866, 6,475. The most notable building is the 
principal church, Notre Dame de l’Espérance, 
built from 1223 to 1466. Its industry and 
trade are of no great importance. It was 
formerly the capital of the department. 

MONTCALM, a S. central county of the S. 
peninsula of Michigan, watered by tributaries 


of the Muskegon, Chippewa, and Grand rivers; : 


area, 720 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 13,629. It has 
an undulating surface and a fertile soil. The 
Detroit, Lansing, and Lake Michigan railroad 
and the Stanton branch traverse it. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 136,778 bushels of 
wheat, 117,163 of Indian corn, 63,925 of oats, 
178,010 of potatoes, 49,541 lbs.eof wool, 50,- 
755 of maple sugar, 43,346 of butter, and 
13,141 tons of hay. There were 1,827 horses, 
2,256 milch cows, 2,996 other cattle, 13,485 
sheep, and 8,846 swine; 3 manufactories of 
boots and shoes, 4 of carriages and wagons, 3 


of saddlery and harness, 4 of sash, doors, and ~ 


blinds, 2 flour mills, and 49 saw mills. Capi- 
tal, Stanton. 


MONTCALM 


MONTCALM, a S.W. county of Quebec, Canada, | 


N. of the St. Lawrence river; area, 4,027 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1871, 12,742, of whom 10,794 were 
of French and 1,557 of Irish origin and descent. 
It is watered by the Gatineau, Du Liévre, 
Rouge, North, and Lac Ouareau rivers, and 
other streams. Capital, Ste. Julienne. 
MONTCALM DE CANDIAC. See Canpiac. 
MONTCALM DE SAINT-VERAN, Louis Joseph, mar- 
quis de, a French soldier, born at the chateau 
of Candiac, near Nimes, Feb. 28, 1712, died in 
Quebec, Sept. 14, 1759. He entered the army 
when 14 years old, served in Italy in 1784, 
distinguished himself in Germany under Belle- 
Isle during the war for the Austrian succession, 
and fought in Italy again, where he gained the 
rank of colonel in the disastrous battle of Pia- 
cenza (1746). In 1756 he was appointed to 
command the French troops in Canada, where 
he arrived about the middle of May. He cap- 
tured Fort Ontario at Oswego on Aug. 14 and 
the next year forced Fort William Henry, at 
the head of Lake George, with a garrison of 
2,500 men, to surrender at discretion, and thus 
became possessed of 42 guns and large stores 
of ammunition and provisions. Montcalm had 
suffered from scarcity of provisions, and was 
opposed to an enemy far superior in numbers 
and discipline to his own troops, which con- 
sisted mostly of Canadian volunteers; yet he 
held his ground firmly, when, in the campaign 
of 1758, the English under Abercrombie 
marched from the south toward the French 
dominions. Montcalm occupied the strong 
position of Fort Carillon (Ticonderoga), made 
it still stronger by intrenchments, and at the 
head of about 3,600 men awaited the attack of 
15,000. After a fierce battle which lasted four 
hours (July 8, 1758), the British retreated in 
disorder. The personal bravery of Montcalm 
increased his popularity among his soldiers; 
and if he had received timely reénforcements, 
he could have maintained the supremacy of the 
French in North America, But the want of 
energy on the part of the home government, 
the scarcity of food all over New France, and 
personal dissensions between the governor and 
the military commander, forbade him to look 
for much assistance; and in the midst of vic- 
tory he expressed his conviction that in a few 
months the English would be masters of the 
French colonies in America. Resolved, as he 
said, ‘‘to find his grave under the ruins of the 
colony,” he actively prepared for the campaign 
of 1759: The English spared no exertions to 
make their conquest sure; troops were sent 
from Europe; the colonial regiments were thor- 
oughly reorganized; and a strong fleet codp- 
erated with the land forces. While Amherst 
and Prideaux were maneeuvring to dislodge the 
French from the vicinity of Lake George and 
Lake Ontario, Gen. Wolfe, at the head of 8,000 
chosen troops, supported by the fleet in the St. 
Lawrence, appeared before Quebec. The con- 
quest of Canada depended upon the taking of 
that city; and to protect it Montcalm had con- 


MONT DE PIETE frye 


centrated his principal forces on the banks of 
the Montmorency. Being attacked in front by 
Wolfe, July 81, he repelled him with consider- 
able loss. Wolfe then changed his plans; he 
secretly landed his troops by night on the left 
bank of the St. Lawrence, above Quebee, 
climbed the table land that overhangs the city, 
and on the morning of Sept. 13 appeared with 
his whole force on the heights of Abraham, in 
the rear of the French army. By 10 o’clock 
the two armies, about equal in numbers, each 
having fewer than 5,000 men, were drawn up 
before each other. Montcalm led the attack 
in person, but his troops soon broke before the 
deadly fire of the British; and when Wolfe, at 
the head of the 28th and the Louisburg grena- 
diers, gave the order to charge with bayonets, 
they fled in every direction. Wolfe fell in the 
moment of triumph; Montcalm had received a 
musket ball earlier in the action, and was mor- 
tally wounded while attempting to rally a body 
of fugitive Canadians a few moments after 
Wolfe was borne from the field. On being 
told that his death was near: ‘‘So much the 
better,” he said; “‘I shall not live to see the 
surrender of Quebec.’? He died the next morn- 
ing, and the French lost all Canada. 

MONT DE MARSAN, a town of Gascony, France, 
capital of the department of Landes, 62 m. 8. 
of Bordeaux, at the junction of the Douze and 
Midou, which here form the navigable Mi- 
douze; pop. in 1866, 8,455. It has a commu- 
nal college, warm mineral springs, and manu- 
factories of coarse woollen cloths, blankets, 
and sail cloth. 

MONT DE PIETE, a public institution in con- 
tinental Europe, the original object of which 
was to deliver the needy from the charges 
of Jewish and Lombard money lenders. One 
is said to have been founded at Freising in 
Bavaria about the year 1200 by a charitable 
association and with the sanction of Pope In- 
nocent III.; but it is more generally believed 
that the first mont de piété was established in 
Perugia in the latter half of the 15th century, 
and derived its name (monte di pietd) from the 
hill upon which it was situated. The earliest 
one in France was probably that of Rheims. 
Marseilles, Montpellier, and other French cities 
possessed monts de piété in the 17th century; 
as in Italy, they were supported by charitable 
endowments, but they charged interest at the 
rate of 15 per cent. upon all loans exceeding 
five francs, whereas the Italian institutions 
only charged a small rate, rarely exceeding 5 
per cent., to cover the indispensable expenses. 
The mont de piété of Paris was opened Jan. 1, 
1778, and was‘ authorized in 1779 to make a 
loan guaranteed by the income of the hépital 
général. During the revolution it was closed ; 
and the usurious rates of interest charged by 
the money lenders during the reign of terror 
caused its reopening in 1803 to be hailed with 
delight by the poor. In 1831 it was placed 
under the charge of an administrative council ; 
and in 1851 the monts de piété were placed 


478 MONTEBELLO 


under the superintendence of a select commit- 
tee. The Paris mont de piété is situated in 
the rue des Blancs Manteaux, with two large 
branches in the rue Bonaparte and the rue de 
la Roquette. There are also about 20 agents 
scattered over Paris, appointed by the adminis- 
tration. The mont de piété makes advances 
from three francs upward at a rate fixed in 
1854 at 44 per cent. per annum, which has 
since been as high as 9 per cent. In 18738 the 
rate was 5 per cent. No money is advanced 
except upon securities, the value of which is 
assessed by a committee of appraisers, four 
fifths of the value being advanced upon articles 
of gold and silver, and two thirds upon all other 
articles. A receipt for the article pledged is 
given to the owner, who must prove his identity 
in order to reclaim it. The articles pledged, if 
not redeemed, are sold at public sales at the 
expiration of 14 months, and the surplus money, 
if any, is paid to the owner of the article if ap- 
plied for within three years. The annual re- 
ceipts and expenditures of the mont de piété 
are respectively about 50,000,000 francs, with 
a balance of about 230,000 francs in favor of 
the institution. The most profitable customers 
of the mont de piété are not the poor, but the 
needy of the higher classes. During the rule 
of the commune in Paris in 1871, the official 
organ published a decree, May 12, that all arti- 
cles of wearing apparel, linen, books, bedding, 
and working tools, pledged at the mont de 
piété for a sum not exceeding 20 francs, could 
be taken out without any payment, the re- 
ceiver of money on such articles proving his 
identity; and it was estimated that the sum to 
repay such advances would be about 8,000,000 
francs. The largest number of applications for 
redemption is on Saturdays, and just before 
New Year’s and Easter. In 1878 there were 
46 monts de piété in France, with a capital of 
about 50,000,000 francs, making yearly loans 
of about 60,000,000. In five of the establish- 
ments the loans are gratuitous; in the rest the 
rate of interest varies. There are numerous 
similar establishments in Holland, Belgium, 
and Germany. In the latter country the rate 
of interest varies from 8 to 12 per cent.; loans 
rarely exceed the amount of $150, and the 
smallest pledge must be worth at least $2, one 
month being the shortest and a year the long- 
est term of the loan. The rate of interest in 
the Russian monts de piété is 6 per cent. Chi- 
na is said to possess very ancient institutions 
of the kind, under the direction of great public 
dignitaries, which seem to be conducted upon 
more charitable principles than those of Eu- 
rope, the rate of interest there being only from 
2 to 3 per cent.—These institutions are repre- 
sented in Great Britain and America by pawn 
shops, which differ from them in being pri- 
vate establishments regulated by special laws. 
MONTEBELLO, a small village of Italy, on 
the road from Alessandria and Voghera to Pia- 
cenza, about 4m. E. of Voghera. It was the 
scene of a victory of the French under Lannes 


MONTECUCULI 


over the imperialists, June 9, 1800, five days 
before the battle of Marengo, and of an en- 
gagement between the French and Sardinian 
allies and the Austrians, May 20, 1859, in 
which, with a loss of about 650, the allies de- 
feated the Austrians, who lost about 1,000 
killed and wounded and 200 prisoners. 

MONTE CASINO. See Casino. 

MONTECUCULI, or Montecuccoli, Raimondo, count, 
an Austrian general, born near Modena in 1608, 
died in Linz, Oct. 16, 1681. He entered the 
Austrian army in 1627, and distinguished him- 
self in the thirty years’ war. On Sept. 7, 1631, 
he was wounded and taken prisoner in the 
battle of Breitenfeld, and liberated in 1682. 
For his gallantry in the assault on Kaiserslau- 
tern, in July, 1685, he was promoted to a 
coloneley. In 1639, while attempting to pre- 
vent the Swedes from crossing the Elbe at 
Melnik, in Bohemia, he was worsted and taken 
prisoner. On his release two years afterward 
he joined the imperial army in Silesia, defeated 
the enemy at Troppau, and took the town of 
Brieg. On the outbreak of war in Italy he 
went thither, and received from the duke of 
Modena the title of brigadier general and the 
command of his cavalry; but he soon returned 
to Austria, was appointed in 1644 lieutenant 
field marshal and a member of the aulic coun- 
cil of war, supported in 1645 the archduke 
Leopold in his expedition against Rakéczy of 
Transylvania, and was sent to oppose Turenne 
on the Rhine. The next year, in conjunction 
with Johann von Werth, he completely routed 
the Swedes in Silesia, and received the rank of 
general of cavalry. Being in 1657 placed in 
command of the army sent by the emperor to 
protect John Casimir of Poland against the 
Transylvanians and the Swedes, he forced Ra- 
kéczy to make peace. Promoted to the rank 
of field marshal, he was sent the next year to 
relieve Denmark, rescued Copenhagen from the 
attacks of the Swedes, and expelled them from 
Jutland and the island of Fiinen. After the 
establishment of peace in the north by the 
treaty of Oliva (1660), he commanded the army 
sent against the Turks, whom he drove from 
Transylvania, and on Aug. 1, 1664, gained on 
the banks of the Raab the victory of St. Gott- 
hard, which for the time delivered Christian 
Europe from Turkish invasion. When in 1672 
Louis XIV. threatened Holland, Montecuculi 
commanded the imperial army which took the 
field in behalf of the Dutch, and baffled the 
plans of Turenne, whom he worsted on several 
occasions. Fora while superseded in the com- 
mand by the elector of Brandenburg, he was 
soon recalled (1675), as the only general who 
could hold his ground in presence of the great 
French marshal. On the death of Turenne he 
drove the French army across the Rhine, and 
invaded Alsace; but his progress was stopped 
by the prince of Condé, who obliged him to 
raise the siege of Hagenau and recross the 
Rhine. After this campaign Montecuculi re- 
turned to Vienna and devoted his time to sci- 


MONTEFIORE 


ence, art, and literature. The dignity of a 
prince of the German empire was conferred 
on him by the emperor Leopold in 1679, and 
soon afterward the king of Naples gave him 
the duchy of Melfi. He lost his life by the 
fall of a beam. He left a personal memoir 
(translated into Latin under the title of Qom- 
mentarti Bellici, fol., Vienna, 1718), contain- 
ing disqtiisitions on the military art and an ac- 
count of his campaigns against the Turks. His 
writings were published in the original Italian 
by Ugo Foscolo (2 vols. fol., Milan, 1807+’8), and 
by J. Grassi (2 vols. 4to and 8vo, Turin, 1821). 

MONTEFIORE, Sir Moses, a Jewish philanthro- 
pist, born in London, Oct. 24, 1784. His an- 
cestors had been wealthy bankers in London 
for several generations. He married, June 10, 
1812, Miss Judith Cohen, a sister-in-law of 
Nathan Meyer Rothschild, the founder of the 
London branch of that house. While visiting 
Palestine in 1829 with his wife, he became in- 
terested in his coreligionists there. In 1887 
he became sheriff of London and was knighted 
on the queen’s visit to the city, and in 1846 he 
was made a baronet. He made a second jour- 
ney with his wife to the East in 1840, in com- 
pany with Crémieux, on occasion of the per- 
secution of the Jews in Damascus, and visited 
Palestine on several other occasions, always in 
the interest and for the relief of the Jews. In 
1846 he prevailed upon the emperor Nicholas 
to suspend a ukase against the Jews, and was 
invited to visit Poland to suggest measures for 
the amelioration of the condition of its Jewish 
inhabitants. In 1854 he collected funds for 
the relief of the sufferers by the famine in the 
East, obtained from the sultan the privilege of 
holding real estate, and established poorhouses 
- in Jerusalem, and also promoted industry and 
agriculture. In 1863, having secured at Ma- 
drid the coéperation of Queen Isabella, he ob- 
tained a:firman from the sultan of Morocco 
in favor of the persecuted Jews, guaranteeing 
their equal protection with Christians. In 1866, 
in his 82d year, he made his last visit to his 
protégés in Palestine, who had been afflicted 
by the cholera, and whose crops had been de- 
stroyed by locusts. In the following year he 
went to Bucharest to use his influence against 
the ill treatment of the Jews in Roumania. In 
1867 he endowed a Jewish college at Ramsgate 
in honor of his wife, who had died childless, 
Sept. 24, 1862. The freedom of the city of 
London was tendered to him in 1873, with a 
valuable present, in token of his benevolence. 
Lady Montefiore published ‘‘ Notes of a Pri- 
vate Journal of a Visit to Egypt and Pales- 
tine”? (London, 1844). 

MONTEGUT, Emile, a French author, born in 
Limoges, June 24, 1826. He studied in Paris, 
and became known as a contributor to the 
Revue des Deux Mondes, with which he was 
connected for many years. He was the first 
to familiarize the French with the writings of 
Emerson, some of whose essays he translated 
(1850). He also translated Macaulay’s ‘‘ History 


MONTENEGRO 779 


of England” (2 vols., 1853 et seq.), and Shake- 
speare’s complete works (1868-70), Among 
his most recent writings are Les Pays-Das, 
souvenirs de Klandre et de Hollande (1869), 
and Impressions de voyage et d'art, souvenirs 
en Bourgogne (1878). 

MONTELIMART, a town of France, in the de- 
partment of Dréme, 83 m. 8. of Lyons; pop. 
in 1866, 11,100. It has a citadel, six churches, 
a communal college, manufactories of figured 
silk, and an extensive trade in wine and fruits. 
Here the doctrines of Calvin found the first 
adherents in France. In 1569 the place was 
unsuccessfully besieged by Coligni. 

MONTEMOLIN, Count of. See Cartos, III. 

MONTEMORELOS. See Moretos. 

MONTEN, Dietrich, a German artist, born in 
Disseldorf in 1799, died in Munich, Dec. 18, 
1843. He studied at the academy of his native 
city, and under Peter Hess at Munich, became 
eminent as a painter of battles, and was em- 
ployed by Cornelius in preparing the battle 
scenes of one of his most celebrated frescoes. 
Among his most esteemed works are ‘The 
Departure of the Poles from their Fatherland 
in 1831,” “The Death of Max Piccolomini,” 
‘‘ The Death of Gustavus Adolphus,” and ‘‘ The 
Death of Duke Frederick William of Bruns- 
wick in the Battle of Quatre-Bras.”’ 

MONTENEGRO (Slav. Zzernagora or Tcherna- 
gora, Turk. Karadagh, Alb. Mal Zézé or Mal 
Esyé, Black Mountains), a semi-independent 
principality in European Turkey, near the Adri- 
atic, bordering on the Turkish provinces of 
Herzegovina, Bosnia, Albania, and the Dalma- 
tian circle of Cattaro; area, 1,700 sq. m.; pop. 
about 130,000, chiefly Slavic. Capital, Cet- 
tigne. The limestone ridges of the Dinaric 
Alps traverse the territory, and it has hardly 
any plains. The principal mountains are from 
5,000 to 8,000 ft. high. Most of the streams, 
among them the Moratcha, flow into the lake 
of Scutari on the §. E. border. The mul- 
berry, olive, almond, fig, peach, pomegranate, 
and other fruit trees, and the vine, are cul- 
tivated. The chief productions are maize, po- 
tatoes, and tobacco. Agriculture is backward, 
but every piece of land capable of tillage is 
planted. Fishing is largely carried on. The 
winters are very cold, but the climate is health- 
ful. The number of villages is between 200 
and 800, mostly in hollows and on the slopes 
of mountains. The men till the land, and the 
inferior drudgery is performed by the women. 
The men wear a white or yellow cloth frock, 
reaching nearly to the knees, secured by a 
sash, and a red Fez cap and white or red tur- 
ban. The women wear a frock or pelisse of 
white cloth, much longer than that of the men, 
and both sexes wear sandals of untanned ox 
hide, and carry the struka (somewhat like the 
Scotch plaid) over their shoulders. The im: 
ports are cattle and some horses, tobacco, salt, 
copper, iron, oil, wax candles, wine, brandy, 
coffee, sugar, arms, glass, sandals, and Fez caps. 
The exports are smoked mutton, sumach wood 


780 MONTENEGRO 


and leaves, salted and dried fish, wax, honey, 
vegetables, fruits, and some silk. The prin- 
cipal market is Cattaro. The produce is car- 
ried thither chiefly by women, and it is only in 
the eastern regions of the country that they 
are assisted in their labor by the use of mules 
and asses. There is no port and no outlet to 
the shore, and the Montenegrins are dependent 
on the Austrian government for permission to 
pass goods to and from the sea. Manufactures 
are limited to articles of immediate necessity. 
Taxes levied on each household, together with 
duties on salt, fish, and dry meat, the monopoly 
of tobacco, and the land rent of several con- 
vents, amounted in 1872 to about $23,000, to 
which Russia annually adds about $20,000 to 
cover the tribute due to the Porte. The Mon- 
tenegrins are all of the non-united Greek 
church, excepting a few Roman Catholics who 
belong to the Turkish diocese of Scutari, and 
every village has its church. The head of the 
church is the oladika, or prince-bishop, who 
till 1852 was also the secular ruler; he is elected 
from among the monks or unmarried clergy by 
the national assembly, and may be deposed by 
it; he has an annual revenue of $16,000. The 
number of priests is about 200; they join in 
war and the other occupations of the people. 
Priests must be married before they can be 
consecrated. The convents are those of Cet- 
tigne, Ostrog, and St. Stefano. Education is 
neglected, and many of the priests are unable 
to read and write; but several schools were 
established in 1841, and a printing press in 
Cettigne, which has issued several books. The 
first political newspaper was established in 1871. 
Since the separation of the secular from the 
ecclesiastical power on the accession of Danilo 
I. in 1852, the government has been a limited 
monarchy, hereditary in the male line of the 
family of Petrovitch of Niegosh. The prince 
is assisted by a senate of 16 members, which 
also acts as a supreme court. The legislative 
functions are exercised by the skupshtina, or 
national assembly. There is no standing army 
except the body guard of the prince and a 
corps of gendarmes, together numbering 1,000 
men. The language of Montenegro is a very 
pure dialect of the Llyrico-Servian branch of 
the Slavic, not corrupted by admixture with 
foreign words.—In ancient times Montenegro 
formed part of Illyricum. The present prin- 
cipality afterward constituted the S. W. corner 
of the old kingdom of Servia, which in the 14th 
century extended from the Adriatic to the 
Black sea. Toward the end of that century 
Servia became tributary to the Porte. Monte- 
negro, or Zeta as it was then called, secured its 
independence under the rule of George Balsha, 
the son-in-law of the last Servian king, and his 
descendants. The last of the line (eventually 
known by the name of Tchernoyevitch) mar- 
ried a Venetian lady, and in 1516 abdicated and 
with his wife retired to Venice, leaving the 
government in the hands of the bishop, whose 
successors (since about 1700 all of the house of 


MONTEREY 


Petrovitch) ruled the country as prince-bishops 
till one of them proclaimed himself secular 
prince as Danilo I. (1852). Turkey regarded 
Montenegro as a portion of her empire, and in 
1623 the pasha of Scutari invaded the country 
with a powerful army, but was repulsed with 
severe losses. At the beginning of the 18th 
century the Montenegrins sought the protec- 
tion of Russia against Turkey. The Turks sent 
several expeditions thither, one of which in 
1714, consisting of 120,000 men, defeated the 
Montenegrins, and carried more than 20,000 of 
them into captivity. A war with Venice com- . 
pelled the Turks to withdraw their forces, and 
successive invasions were repelled, in one of 
which, in 1796, 30,000 Turks were slain. In 


1820 another invasion by the Turks was re- 


pulsed with heavy loss, as was still another in 
1832. After a border warfare had continued 
for many years, at the close of 1852 Omer Pasha 
with a formidable force was sent to subdue 
the mountaineers. The position of Montenegro 
was most critical, when peace was restored by 
the intervention of Austria and the mediation 
of other powers. Danilo I. displayed much 
energy in improving the laws and the condi- 
tion of the country. Fresh collisions with 
Turkey took place in 1858; and one of Danilo’s 
uncles was detected in treasonable proceedings. 
On Aug. 12, 1860, Danilo was assassinated, and 
was succeeded on the throne by his nephew 
Nikolo Petrovitch-Niegosh. The insurrection 
which broke out in Herzegovina in 1861, being 
favored by the Montenegrins, was followed in 
1862 by the ‘invasion of Montenegro by Omer 
Pasha with an army of 30,000. In August the 
Turks appeared before Cettigne, and Nikolo 
soon submitted by treaty to the sovereignty of 
the Porte. New complications arose with Tur- 
key in 1874 on account of murders committed 
on the Albanian border, and Montenegro de- 
clared war in January, 1875, but a compromise 
was effected toward the end of that month. 
MONTEPIN, Xavier Aymon de, a French author, 
born at Apremont, Haute-Sadne, March 18, 
1824. He began life as a journalist, and wrote 
in conjunction with the marquis de Foudras 
the novels Les chevaliers du lansquenet (10 
vols., 1847) and Les viveurs d@autrefois (4 vols., 
1848), to which he added many others equally 
descriptive of the elegant, demi-monde, and 
Bohemian life of Paris. He gained great noto- 
riety by the suppression of his licentious /7%les 
de plitre (7 vols., 1855), but continued to pro- 
duce other voluminous works of a similar char- 
acter. Among the most recent are Le bigame, 
Le mari de Marguerite, Confessions de Tulla, 
Les drames de Vadultére, La comtesse de Nancey 
(all in 1878), and La voyante (1873-’4). He 
also assisted the elder Dumas as a playwright. 
MONTEREY, a W. county of California, bor- 
dering on the Pacific, bounded E. by the Coast 
range of mountains, intersected by the Salinas 
or Buenaventura river, and drained also by the 
San Benito and other streams; area, 4,536 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 9,876, of whom 2380 were 


MONTEREY 


Chinese. The surface is traversed by several 
ranges. The best land lies in the valleys ofs 
the Salinas and San Benito, and the varieties 
of elevation permit the production of a great 
diversity of fruits, of which those that reach 
the greatest perfection are the fig, peach, apri- 
cot, grape, apple, pear, and olive. The county 
is thinly wooded except on the coast. Silver, 
copper, lead, quicksilver, and granite are among 
the mineral resources. Stock raising is the 
principal occupation. The Southern Pacific 
railroad traverses the county. The chief pro- 
ductions in 1870 were 744,093 bushels of wheat, 
21,411 of oats, 681,115 of barley, 131,213 of 
peas and beans, 69,850 of potatoes, 59,120 lbs. 
of tobacco, 1,054,310 of wool, 423,385 of but- 
ter, 713,550 of cheese, and 18,927 tons of hay. 
There were 8,017 horses, 9,370 milch cows, 
32,266 other cattle, 298,877 sheep, and 13,952 
swine; and a number of manufactories. San 
Benito co. was formed from the E. part in 
1874, reducing the area given above. Capital, 
Monterey, on a bay of the same name, 85 m. 
S. S. E. of San Francisco; pop. in 1870, 1,112. 
It was formerly the seat of an important Ro- 
man Catholic mission, and was the capital of 
California till 1847. 

MONTEREY, a city of Mexico, capital of the 
state of Nuevo Leon, on a river of its own 
name, 450m. N. N. W. of Mexico; pop. in 1869, 
13,534. Itis on a rapidly sloping plain about 
6 m. from the Sierra Madre, 1,500 ft. above the 
sea. The streets are regular, well kept, and 
well lighted; and the houses, chiefly of lime- 
stone, are well built and tasteful. The princi- 
pal square is embellished with a marble foun- 
tain by native artisans. Among the more note- 
worthy edifices are the cathedral, two churches, 
one of which is among the handsomest in the 
republic, and the municipal and government 
palaces. Monterey has also a fine hospital, a 
prison, barracks, and abattoir, a seminary, two 
colleges, and 15 public and 20 private schools. 
The climate is comparatively mild, but subject to 
sudden changes. Monterey is one of the most 
prosperous manufacturing towns in Mexico. 
There are cotton, paper, flour, and saw mills, 
and manufactories of nails, bricks, carriages, 
morocco, candles, soap, sugar, beer, and brandy. 
Modern machines and implements are being 
rapidly introduced from the United States, 
whence are also imported large quantities of 
books and other merchandise.—The city was 
founded in 1596, on the site of the former 
Ciudad de Leon, and received the name of 
Nuestra Sefiora de Monterey. In 1777 it was 
made a bishopric. It has frequently been 
visited by cholera and other epidemics. In 
the early part of the war between the United 
States and Mexico, Monterey was a strong mili- 
tary position amply fortified, and held by the 
Mexican Gen. Ampudia with 10,000 regular 
troops. On Sept. 19, 1846, Gen. Taylor with 
6,600 men attacked it. The city was bom- 
barded in the morning, from batteries erected 
during the night; then a brigade under Gen. 


MONTESQUIEU "81 


Quitman carried the lower part of the town 
by assault, while Gen. W. O. Butler with the 
first Ohio regiment entered at another point. 
Gen. Worth carried the heights south of the 
river and the Saltillo road, and turned the 
guns upon the bishop’s palace ; next morning he 
stormed the height overlooking the palace, and 
turned its guns upon the flying Mexicans. The 
main body of the Mexicans retired step by step, 
taking advantage of the solidly built houses, 
and the Americans fought their way through 
the city, reaching the principal plaza on the 
23d. Ampudia capitulated on the 24th. The 
American loss was 120 killed and 868 wound- 
ed; the Mexican loss was not ascertained. 

MONTESPAN, Frangoise Athénais de Rochechouart 
de Mortemart, marquise de, a mistress of Louis 
XIV. of France, born at the chateau of Ton- 
nay-Charente in 1641, died at Bourbon-l’Ar- 
chambault in 1707. She was the younger 
daughter of Rochechouart, first duke of Mor- 
temart, and was educated in the convent of Ste. 
Marie at Saintes. She was first known as Mlle. 
Tonnay-Charente, and was maid of honor to 
the duchess of Orleans. At the age of 22 she 
married Pardaillan de Gondrin, marquis de 
Montespan, and became lady in attendance to 
the queen. Her beauty, wit, and conversa- 
tional powers at once made a sensation; but 
for several years the king seemed scarcely to 
notice her. She secretly became his mistress 
however about 1668, and was openly declared 
such two years later. Her husband, who at- 
tempted to break off the connection, was ban- 
ished to his estate, and was legally separated 
from her in 1676. For 14 years her influence 
over the king was unbounded; she prevailed 
upon him to legitimate their children, who were 
confided to the care of the widow Scarron, 
afterward Mme. de Maintenon, who in time 
supplanted Mme. de Fontanges, the immediate 
successor of their mother in the royal affec- 
tions. She was finally separated from him in 
1686, and in 1691 she was obliged to leave Ver- 
sailles. She retired to a convent, and tried in 
vain to be reconciled with her husband. She 
now devoted herself to penance and mortifica- 
tion, distributing most of her income to the 
poor. Her children by the king were: the 
duke de Maine, the count de Vexin, Mesde- 
moiselles de Nantes, de Blois, and de Tours, 
and the count de Toulouse, besides three others 
who died in childhood. The marquis d’Antin 
was her son by her husband. 

MONTESQUIEU, Charles de Secondat, baron de, 
a French philosopher, born at the chateau of 
La Bréde, near Bordeaux, Jan. 18, 1689, died 
in Paris, Feb. 10, 1755. He was remarkable 
during his youth for diligent studies not only 
of jurisprudence but of literature and philoso- 
phy. At theage of 20 he composed a work 
designed to prove that the paganism of the 
ancient philosophers and authors did not merit 
eternal damnation. At the age of 25 he was 
admitted to the parliament of Bordeaux, of 
which he became président d mortier two years 


782, MONTESQUIEU 


later, succeeding his uncle in that office. He 
applied himself scrupulously to its duties, 
though chiefly devoted to the pursuits of lit- 
erature. A literary and musical society formed 
at Bordeaux in 1716 was through his influence 
transformed into an academy of sciences, to 
which he contributed memoirs chiefly on natu- 
ral history until almost entire blindness for- 
bade this study. Among his early writings 
were dissertations on the physical history of the 
earth (1719) and on the policy of the Romans 
in their religion. His first work that attract- 
ed general attention was the Lettres persanes 
(1721). It consists of letters purporting to 
have been written by a Persian travelling in 
France, assailing beneath a transparent veil the 
whole system of principles prevalent in church 
and state. It abounds in paradoxes, jests, and 
sprightly satire, and also in profound views of 
law, commerce, and social problems. In 1726 
he retired from the duties of the magistracy 
to devote himself solely to literature; was re- 
ceived into the French academy in 1728, hav- 
ing overcome the opposition of Cardinal Fleury 
by modifying obnoxious passages in his Let- 
tres persanes ; and soon after began to travel 
through Europe to collect materials for an 
elaborate work on politics and jurisprudence, 
spending about two years in England, where he 
became a member of the royal society. He 
returned to La Bréde after an absence of four 
years, and after two years of retirement pub- 
lished his Considérations sur les causes de la 
grandeur et de la décadence des Romains (Paris, 
1734). His great work, De Vesprit des lois (2 
vols., 1748), was the result of 20 years of la- 
bor; 22 editions were issued in 18 months, 


MONTEVIDEO 


and it was translated into most of the Euro- 
«pean tongues. It ultimately became the ora- 
cle of the friends of moderate freedom, as 
distinguished from the followers of Rousseau. 
Montesquieu passed the latter part of his life 
alternately at La Bréde and Paris. Among his 
minor writings are academical discourses; the 
Dialogue de Sylla et d@ Hucrate, an explana- 
tion of the political conduct of Sulla; the Zem- 
ple de Gnide, a romance of classical antiquity ; 
and an Hssai sur le gout, written for the Hncy- 
clopédie. The most complete editions of his 
works are those of Lefévre (6 vols., Paris, 
1816) and Lequieu (8 vols., 1819, and with the 
éloges by D’Alembert and Villemain, 1827). 
A new edition of Nugent’s translation of the 
“Spirit of the Laws,” with D’Alembert’s me- 
moir of Montesquieu, was published in Cin- 
cinnati in 1873. 

MONTEVERDE, Claudio, an Italian composer, 
born in Cremona about 1565, died in Venice in 
1649. He composed both secular and ecclesi- 
astical music, but was particularly celebrated 
for his motets and madrigals, of the latter of 
which he produced five books, 

MONTEVIDEO, a city, capital of Uruguay, 
South America, and of the department of its 
own name, on the N. shore of the estuary of 
the Rio de la Plata, 180 m. E. S. E. of Buenos 
Ayres, in lat. 34° 53’ S., lon. 56° 15’ W.; pop. 
in 1872, 105,296. It is built on a gentle eleva- 
tion, at the extremity of a tongue of land jut- 
ting into the bay, and is defended by a citadel 
mounting 20 guns. It comprises two divi- 
sions, the old and the new town, between 
which traces of the old wall are still visible. 
A mountain in the rear, to which it owes its 


— 


SSS 


Montevideo. 


name, is surmounted by an antique Spanish 
castle. The streets are very regular, well 
paved, and lighted with gas. The houses are 
substantial; many of them have two and even 
three stories. Excellent water is brought from 
a distance of 834m. The principal square, with 


an area of two acres, is tastefully planted with 
trees and flowers, and has a superb fountain. 
On the §. side is the parish church, with turrets 
225 ft. above the level of the bay; and on the 
N. side is the cabildo, containing the law courts, 
senate house, and prison. The government 


MONTEVIDEO 


house is a miserable edifice. The old market, 
once the citadel of Montevideo, and a com- 
plete fortress in itself, is the most interesting 
relic of the colonial period; it was erected by 
2,000 Guarani Indians, who worked seven 
years without pay. It is now a sort of bazaar, 
and serves as a barrack for troops in revolu- 
tionary times. The custom house is a fine 
building of modern style, 900 by 800 ft. The 
post oftice is one of the best appointed in South 
America; and the average number of letters 
and papers passing through it annually is 
2,000,000. Facing the post office are the mu- 
seum and the library, containing 3,653 vol- 
umes. The exchange, of modern construction, 
ranks among the finest public buildings on the 
southern continent; it cost $160,000. There 
are, besides the cathedral, six churches and 
chapels, several convents, and an Episcopal 
and a Methodist church. The educational es- 
tablishments comprise a university, schools for 
medicine, law, and other sciences, 58 public 
and 54 private schools, with an aggregate at- 
tendance of 10,048. The institute of public 
instruction is a sort of volunteer committee for 
the diffusion of useful knowledge. There are 
four large markets, six banks, savings banks, 
numerous clubs, mercantile associations, three 
theatres, a bull ring, and several ball and con- 
cert rooms. An immigrants’ asylum affords 
adequate protection to thousands every year. 
The total number of immigrants landed at 
Montevideo in 1836 was 5,000; in 1858, 8,359; 
in 1868, 17,881; and in 1872, 20,000, probably 
including many who afterward proceeded to 
Buenos Ayres. The city has several prisons 
and a house of correction for females called 
los ejercicios. Besides the public hospitals, 
there are charitable institutions under the di- 
rection of the sisters of mercy, an .orphan 
asylum, a home for the poor, and a lunatic 
asylum. There are three cemeteries, one of 
which is British. The city is the cleanest and 
healthiest in South America; and the suburbs, 
watering places, and surrounding country are 
extremely picturesque. The bay of Montevideo 
resembles a horse’shoe in shape; it is about 4 
m. long and 2 m. broad, but has only from 14 to 
19 ft. of water, having diminished 5 ft. since the 
beginning of this century; but the bottom is 
soft, and vessels receive no damage by ground- 
ing. It can conveniently anchor 500 ships 
drawing 15 ft.; but it is open to the 8. S. 
W. winds. All vessels receive and discharge 
their cargoes by means of launches. There are 
two dry docks with every facility for repair- 
ing ships. The trade of Montevideo is very 
considerable. The exports consist chiefly of 
salt beef, hides, hair, tallow, wool, bones, bone 
ashes, &c.; copper is brought overland from 
Chili and sometimes shipped here, as well as 
maté or Paraguay tea. The principal imports 
are cottons, woollens, hardware, flour, wine, 
spirits, sugar, tobacco, salt, boots, &c. The 
imports from the United States are flour, 
chairs, refined sugar, whiskey, cordage, agri- 
571 vou, x1.—50 


MONTEZUMA 783 


cultural implements, &c., and chiefly lumber 
from New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. 
Sugar, coffee, maté, and spices are brought 
from Brazil; and three fourths of the manu- 
factured goods, hardware, and machinery come 
from Europe. A large trade in wool, hair, 
&c., also exists between Montevideo and the 
United States. The value of the exports and 
imports for three years was as follows: 


YEARS Exports. Imports. 
PENN 8S OER $12,779,051 $15,008,342 
ia gn eee ee en ee ”13'334'394 14,364'247 
RINE Wits ae. 15,489,532 18,850,794 


The value of the imports for 1873 was esti- 
mated at $22,500,000. The custom-house re- 
ceipts in 1872 amounted to $6,417,812, and in 
1873 to $6,478,209. The port movements for 
the same year were: entered, 1,817 vessels, 
tonnage 877,058; cleared, 1,839, tonnage 898,- 
907. About 60 of the vessels were under the 
United States flag, and 2538 were British steam- 
ers. Six British mail steamers visit the port 
monthly, besides four French packets, three 
Italian, two Brazilian, and one Anglo-Belgian. 
The coasting trade averages 2,000 entries an- 
nually. The city is connected by railway with 
Florida, 72 m. distant; a branch line to Colo- 
nia was to be commenced in 1874; and a line 
eastward was in course of preparation. Four 
lines of street horse cars are in operation. 
Montevideo is in telegraphic communication 
with Buenos Ayres, the chief towns of the in- 
terior, and the Brazilian system. The com- 
mercial and industrial establishments number 
5,663, comprising 3 steam saw mills, 8 found- 
eries, 93 factories, 13 tanneries, 52 brick kilns, 
7 steam flour mills, and 9 abattoirs, in which 
last upward of 300,000 head of cattle are 
slaughtered yearly.—Montevideo (or with its 
full name, San Felipe de Montevideo) was 
founded in 1717 by the viceroy Lavala; but it 
remained a mere military outpost till 1726, 
when Francisco Alzeibar introduced the first 
settlers from the Canaries. In 1778 it was by 
royal decree declared a port, and its population 
and commerce rapidly increased. The city 
was fortified by the Spaniards in 1777. In 
February, 1807, it was besieged and taken by 
the British, who were expelled in July. After 
the independence of the Plate Provinces in 
1811, the Brazilians seized it, but were forced 
to surrender it after a long siege in 1814. They 
retook it in 1817; and in 1828 it regained its 
independence by treaty, and was made the 
capital of Uruguay. (See Uruauay.) 
MONTEZ, Lola. See Lora Montez. 
MONTEZUMA (Mex. Monctegumatin, the sad 
or severe man), the name of two emperors 
of ancient Mexico.—Montezuma I., born about 
1390, died in 1464. He served as general un- 
der his uncle, who preceded him on the throne. 
After his accession in 1436 or 1438 he made 
war upon the kingdom of Chalco in defence of 


784 MONTEZUMA 


his allies the Tezcucans. The Chalcos were 
routed in a great battle, and their chief city 
was entirely destroyed. A war followed with 
the king of Tlatelolco, who was defeated and 
killed. Montezuma next conquered the prov- 
ince of Cuihixcas, and subsequently that of 
Tzompahuacan.* In a war with Atonaltzin, a 
chief of the Mixtecas, he suffered reverses 
which led to a confederacy between Atonaltzin 
and the Huexotzincas and Tlascalans against 
the Mexicans; but Montezuma in his first en- 
counter with them gained a signal victory, 
which greatly enlarged his empire. In 1457 
he conquered Cuetlachtan, a province on the 
Mexican gulf, and carried 6,200 of the people 
to Mexico, where they were sacrificed to the 


god of war.—Montezama IL, the last of the 


Aztec emperors, born about 1480, succeeded 
his uncle Ahuitzotl in 1502, and was killed 
June 80, 1520. He was both a soldier and a 
priest, and had taken an active part in the 
wars of his predecessor. When his election to 
the imperial dignity was announced to him, he 
was sweeping the stairs of the great temple of 
Mexico. At the commencement of his reign 
he led a successful expedition against a rebel- 
Hous province, and brought back a multitude 
of captives to be sacrificed at his coronation. 
For several years he was constantly at war, 
and his campaigns, which extended as far as 
Honduras and Nicaragua, were generally suc- 
cessful. He made important changes in the 
internal administration of the empire, espe- 
cially in the courts of justice, and became noted 
for strictness and severity in the execution of 
the laws, as well as for munificence to those 
who served him and in his expenditures for 
public works. He became equally noted also 
for arrogance, pomp, and luxury, and his heavy 
taxes led to many revolts. At the time of the 
arrival of Cortes in Mexico in 1519, Montezuma 
was alarmed not only by the internal troubles 
of his empire, but by the appearance of comets 
and other strange lights in the sky, and of 
mysterious fires in the great temple, which the 
seers interpreted as omens of the approaching 
downfall of the empire. Thus disheartened, 
he did not meet the invasion of the Spaniards 
with his usual energy. He at first forbade the 
white men to approach his capital, and then 
sent an embassy to welcome them. When 
Cortes entered Mexico (Noy. 8) he was re- 


ceived by Montezuma with courtesy and ap-. 


parent good will, and at first treated the em- 
peror with the greatest deference; but a colli- 
sion between the Mexicans and a Spanish gar- 
rison at Vera Cruz soon afforded a pretext for 
a change of measures. At the end of a week 
after his arrival he waited upon Montezuma 
with a few of his officers under pretence of a 
friendly visit, and, after upbraiding him with 
the transactions at Vera Cruz, took him cap- 
tive, and carried him to the Spanish head- 
quarters. The emperor, fearing instant death 
if he made any opposition, assured his subjects, 
vho -were about to attempt a rescue as he 


MONTFORT 


passed through the streets, that he accompa- 
nied the Spaniards of his own free will. Mon- 
tezuma was for a while put in irons, and was 
so completely humbled that when Cortes of- 
fered to liberate him, he declined to return to 
his palace, apparently asharhed to be seen by 
his nobles. He was subsequently induced to 
swear allegiance to the king of Spain, and 
was kept a prisoner for seven months, till in 
June, 1520, the people of the capital rose in 
insurrection and besieged the Spaniards in 
their quarters. He was induced by Cortes to 
address his subjects from the battlements of 
his prison in hopes of appeasing the tumult; 
but though at first listened to with respect, his 
appeals in behalf of the white men at length 
exasperated the Mexicans; a shower of missiles 
was discharged at him, a stone struck him on 
the temple, and he fell senseless. He refused 
all remedies and nourishment, tore off the 
bandages, and died in a few days. Some of 
the children of Montezuma became Christians, 
and were carried to Spain. From them de- 
scended the counts of Montezuma, one of whom 
was viceroy of Mexico from 1697 to 1701. 

MONTFAUCON, Bernard de, a French scholar, 
born at Soulage, Languedoc, Jan. 13, 1655, died 
in Paris, Dec. 21, 1741. He belonged to a 
noble family, and after completing his educa- 
tion at the college of Limoux, he served in two 
campaigns in Germany under Turenne, and in 
1675 entered a Benedictine convent at Tou- 
louse. Afterward he went to Paris, where he 
became a member of the congregation of St. 
Maur, and acquired a high reputation for his 
scholarly attainments. In 1719 he was made 
a member of the academy of inscriptions. His 
most important works are: Paleographia 
Graca, sive de Ortu et Progressu Literarum 
Grecarum (fol., Paris, 1708); L’antiquité ea- 
pliquée et représentée en figures (in French and 
Latin, 10 vols. fol., 1719; supplement, 5 vols. 
fol., 1724); and Les monuments de la monarchie 
Frangaise (in French and Latin, 5 vols. fol., 
172933). He also published valuable editions 
of the works of several of the Greek fathers. 

MONTFERRAT (Ital. Monferrato), aterritory of 
Italy, formerly an independent duchy, bounded 
N. and W. by Piedmont, 8. by Genoa, and E. by 
Milan. It was separated by a strip of Milanese 
territory into the divisions of Oasale on the 
north and Acqui on the south, Casale being the 
capital. It often changed masters, and for 
more than a century was in the hands of the 
dukes of Mantua; but in 1703 it was bestowed 
by the emperor Leopold I. upon the duke of 
Savoy, a possession of whose house it has since 
remained. The territory is now divided among 
the provinces of Alessandria, Genoa, Coni, 
Turin, and Novara. The family of Montferrat 
was of remote origin, and very conspicuous in 
the middle ages. 

MONTFORT, Jean (IV.) de, duke of Brittany, 
born in 1293, died in Hennebon, Sept. 26, 13845. 
He was the son of Duke Arthur II., and suc- 
ceeded his brother Jean III. in 1341. The 


MONTFORT 


latter had bequeathed the duchy to Charles of 
Blois, husband of his niece; but Montfort 
found little difficulty in getting possession, and 
Charles complained to the king, Philip of Va- 
lois, who sent an army to besiege the usurper 
in Nantes. In order to save the city from 
assault, Montfort surrendered and was carried 
prisoner to Paris; but in the mean time his 
wife, Jeanne of Flanders, put herself at the 
head of his partisans and withdrew to Henne- 
bon, where she defended herself against the 
forces of Charles, on one occasion repelling an 
assault at the head of 800 cavaliers. The ar- 
rival of auxiliaries sent by Edward III. of Eng- 
land, to whom Montfort had done homage for 
Brittany, obliged Charles to raise the siege. A 
second attempt upon the same city in 13842 was 
equally unsuccessful, and Charles soon lost 
successively Guérande, Vannes, Carhaix, and 
Quimperlé. In the same year Edward III. ar- 
rived in France with fresh troops and advanced 
to Rennes, where Philip marched out to meet 
him. By the mediation of the pope a truce 
was concluded between the monarchs. Mont- 
fort’s party, which before was barely a match 
for his rival’s, had grown during his imprison- 
ment. He escaped in disguise in 1345, and 
went to England, whence he returned with 
troops and made an unsuccessful attempt upon 
Quimper. Hethen retired to Hennebon, where 
he died a few weeks afterward, leaving a son 
who continued the war with Charles, and be- 
came duke as Jean V. 

MONTFORT. I. Simon de, a French soldier, 
born about the middle of the 12th century, 
slain before Toulouse, June 25, 1218. He en- 
gaged in the fourth crusade, but when he saw 
the enterprise diverted from its legitimate ob- 
ject he declined to follow its chiefs to Con- 
stantinople, and to fulfil his vows went by him- 
self to Palestine. On his return he took up 
arms again at the summons of Pope Innocent 
IIL, and in 1208 was elected leader of the cru- 
sade waged against the Albigenses of southern 
France, whom he mercilessly pursued and 
slaughtered. On the taking of Béziers (1209) 
more than 20,000 of its inhabitants were put 
to death by his permission, if not by his orders, 
Carcassonne was scarcely better treated; the 
viscount of Béziers, who commanded there, 
was made prisoner in an interview for nego- 
tiation ; the town was forced to surrender, and 
many of its citizens were sentenced to death as 
heretics. At Lavaur, Aimery of Montreal was 
hanged, 80 knights were put to the sword, 
hundreds of poor people burned at the stake, 
and the lady of the castle, Aimery’s sister, was 
thrown alive down a well, and stones were 
heaped over her. Montfort ruled despotically 
over the territories which he had wrested from 
Count Raymond of Toulouse in this war; and 
when Pedro II., king of Aragon, came to pro- 
tect the latter, as his lord paramount, the cru- 
sader met him, Sept. 12, 1213, and defeated 
and killed him under the walls of Muret. 
Montfort was then proclaimed count of Tou- 


MONTGOMERY 785 


louse. Raymond’s son finally managed to re- 
enter Toulouse, where he had many adherents. 
Montfort besieged that city for eight months, 
and when attempting to storm it was killed by 
a stone thrown from the wall. His elder son, 
Amaury, succeeded him as count of Toulouse, 
afterward became grand constable of France, 
and died in 1241 on his return from Palestine. 
II. Simon de, earl of Leicester, younger son of 
the preceding, the leader of the English barons 
in the reign of Henry III., born about 1200, 
killed Aug. 4, 1265. He went to England in 
1231 to escape the enmity of Blanche of Cas- 
tile, queen regent of France, and gained the 
favor of the king, who bestowed upon him 
the earldom of Leicester, the governorship of 
Gascony, and the hand of his own sister Elea- 
nor, countess dowager of Pembroke. He gov- 
erned Gascony with an iron hand, and made 
his power particularly felt by the native lords, 
but was popular with the English. In Eng- 
land he became the head of the barons who 
conspired to curtail the king’s prerogative. 
Henry III. having convoked a parliament in 
1258, Montfort appeared in arms with his con- 
federates, and constrained the king to sign the 
provisions of Oxford, by which the whole legis- 
lative and executive power was thrown into 
the hands of 24 barons, who were controlled 
by Montfort. An agreement was proposed 
between the nobles and the king through the 
arbitration of Louis IX. of France; but his 
award not being acceptable to the former, both 
parties took arms, In May, 1264, Montfort de- 
feated the royal army at Lewes in Sussex, and 
captured the king. In January, 1265, he sum- 
moned a parliament, in which, for the first time 
on record, representatives of boroughs were 
admitted. His power was now at its height, 
but his overbearing conduct excited discon- 
tent even among the adherents of the national 
cause ; and the king’s son, Prince Edward, who 
was kept as a hostage, having made his escape, 
many of his former opponents joined his stand- 
ard. Montfort was hemmed in at Evesham by 
superior numbers, and was slain with one of 
his sons and many barons, while his army was 
completely routed. The family of Montfort 
was expelled from England. 

MONTGOLFIER. See AéRonavtics. 

MONTGOMERY, the name of counties in 18 of 
the United States. I, An E, county of New 
York, intersected by the Mohawk river, which 
is here joined by the Schoharie and other 
smaller streams; area, 356 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
84,457. It has a fertile soil, especially in the 
valley of the Mohawk. The Erie canal and the 
New York Central railroad pass through it. 
The chief productions in 1870 were 61,659 
bushels of wheat, 175,654 of Indian corn, 662,- 
516 of oats, 86,605 of barley, 100,769 of buck- 
wheat, 194,041 of potatoes, 717,277 lbs. of 
hops, 58,847 of wool, 1,174,822 of butter, 
1,514,482 of cheese, 21,770 bushels of peas and 
beans, and 104,839 tons of hay. There were 
7,606 horses, 26,317 milch cows, 8,557 other 


786 


cattle, 12,884 sheep, and 6,773 swine; 2 man- 
ufactories of agricultural implements, 10 of 
brooms and brushes, 1 of carpets, 21 of cheese, 
9 of hosiery, 1 of forged and rolled iron, 6 of 
iron castings, 3 of malt, 1 of linseed oil, 1 of 
washing machines, 1 of woollen goods, 10 tan- 
neries, 16 saw mills, and 13 flour mills. Capital, 
Fonda. If A S. E. county of Pennsylvania, 
bounded 8. W. by the Schuylkill river; area, 
450 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 81,612. The surface 
is undulating and the soil is rich, especially 
along the Schuylkill. It is intersected by the 
Philadelphia, Germantown, and Norristown, 
the Philadelphia and Reading, the Northern 
Pennsylvania, and other railroads. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 340,911 bushels of 
wheat, 150,158 of rye, 1,026,865 of Indian corn, 
791,272 of oats, 456,345 of potatoes, 3,104,748 
Ibs. of butter, 195,057 of cheese, and 112,287 
tons of hay. There were 13,281 horses, 31,179 
milch cows, 6,687 other cattle, 3,623 sheep, and 
18,931 swine; 11 manufactories of agricultural 
implements, 20 of brick, 54 of carriages and 
wagons, 1 of coal oil, 8 of cotton goods, 12 of 
furniture, 10 of forged and rolled iron, 3 of 
nails and spikes, 6 of pig iron and 6 of cast- 
ings, 19 of lime, 6 of machinery, 2 of linseed 
oil, 8 of stone and earthen ware, 46 of turned 
and carved wood, 22 of woollen goods, 15 
tanning and currying establishments, 44 flour 
mills, and 13 saw mills. Capital, Norristown. 
Iii, A central county of Maryland, bounded N. 
E. by the Patuxent, and 8. W. by the Potomac 
river; area, 440 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 20,563, 
of whom 7,434 were colored. The surface is 
moderately uneven; the soil is fertile along 
the banks of the rivers. It is traversed by 
the Metropolitan branch of the Baltimore and 
Ohio railroad, and the Chesapeake and Ohio 
canal passes along the 8S. W. border. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 309,418 bushels of 
wheat, 25,234 of rye, 638,047 of Indian corn, 
171,242 of oats, 179,562 of potatoes, 630,000 
lbs. of tobacco, 17,880 of wool, 188,334 of 
butter, and 12,735 tons of hay. There were 
5,211 horses, 4,691 milch cows, 5,448 other 
cattle, 6,812 sheep, and 13,267 swine. Capital, 
Rockville. IV. A S. W. county of Virginia, 
bounded W. by New river and drained by the 
head waters of Staunton river; area, 490 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 12,556, of whom 2,882 were 
colored. The surface is mountainous and the 
soil generally rocky, but productive near the 
rivers. The Atlantic, Mississippi, and Ohio 
railroad passes through it. The chief pro- 
ductions in 1870 were 100,761 bushels of wheat, 
16,252 of rye, 146,723 of Indian corn, 78,168 
of oats, 12,273 of potatoes, 204,747 lbs. of 
tobacco, 18,787 of wool, 159,212 of butter, 
and 4,106 tons of hay. There were 1,867 
horses, 2,240 milch cows, 4,633 other cattle, 
4,966 sheep, and 8,089 swine. Capital, Chris- 
tiansburg. YV. AS. county of North Carolina, 
bounded W. by Yadkin river, and drained by 
its branches; area, 500 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
7,487, of whom 2,128 were colored. The sur- 


MONTGOMERY 


face in the west is hilly, and much of the soil 

is fertile. The chief productions in 1870 Were 
50,478 bushels of wheat, 118,589 of Indian 
corn, 39,177 of oats, 22,155 of sweet potatoes, 
13,992 lbs. of tobacco, 23,782 of wool, 76,034 
of butter, and 632 bales of cotton. There 
were 1,144 horses, 2,278 milch cows, 3,495 
other cattle, 8,320 sheep, and 9,893 swine. 
Capital, Lawrenceville. VI. AS. E. county of 
Georgia, bounded N. E. by Pendleton’s river, 
S. by the Altamaha, and S. W. by the Little 
Ocmulgee, and intersected by the Oconee; 
area, 624 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 8,586, of whom ° 
1,108 were colored. The surface is level and 
the soil sandy. The chief productions in 1870 
were 70,405 bushels of Indian corn, 15,852 of 
oats, 11,437 of sweet potatoes, 21,3853 lbs. of 
wool, 10,261 of butter, 391 bales of cotton, 
and 5,309 gallons of cane molasses. There 
were 589 horses, 3,339 milch cows, 9,222 other 
cattle, 9,853 sheep, and 9,246 swine. Capital, 
Mount Vernon. VI. AS. E. county of Alabama, 
bounded N. W. by the Alabama and Coosa 
rivers, and N. by the Tallapoosa; area, about 
800 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 43,704, of whom 
31,285 were colored. The surface is uneven 
and the soil generally fertile. Several rail- 
roads centre at Montgomery, and the Mobile 
and Girard crosses the 8. E. corner. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 602,549 bushels of 
Indian corn, 25,648 of sweet potatoes, 25,517 
bales of cotton, 3,735 Ibs. of rice, and 1,599 
gallons of cane molasses. There were 1,823 
horses, 4,250 mules and asses, 3,027 milch 
cows, 5,569 other cattle, 980 sheep, and 13,909 
swine; 2 flour mills, 4 saw mills, 2 founderies, 
and 2 railroad repair shops. Capital, Mont- 
gomery, which is also the capital of the state. 
Vili. A N. central county of Mississippi, drain- 
ed by Big Black river, formed since the cen- 
sus of 1870 from Carroll and Choctaw coun- 
ties; area, about 525 sq. m. The surface is 
gently undulating, and the soil productive. It 
is traversed by the Mississippi Central railroad. 
Capital, Winona. IX. An E. county of Texas, 
drained by San Jacinto river and its tributa- 
ries; area, 852 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 6,483, of 
whom 38,351 were colored. It has a rolling 
surface, with an abundance of good timber, and 
the soil, with the exception of some sandy pine 
barrens, is fertile. The Houston and Great 
Northern railroad passes through it. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 163,290 bushels of 
Indian corn, 41,945 of sweet potatoes, and 3,485 
bales of cotton. There were 1,929 horses, 4,184 
milch cows, 10,857 other cattle, 1,406 sheep, 
and 13,994 swine. Capital, Montgomery. X. 
A W. county of Arkansas, drained by Washita 
river and its branches; area, 1,050 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1870, 2,984, of whom 120 were colored. 
The surface is mostly mountainous. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 38,072 bushels of 
wheat, 93,739 of Indian corn, 2,596 of oats, 
273 bales of cotton, 3,044 lbs. of tobacco, 2,051 
of wool, 19,252 of butter, 2,007 of honey, and 
2,065 gallons of sorghum molasses. There 


* of butter. 


MONTGOMERY 


were 570 horses, 945 milch cows, 1,756 other 
cattle, 1,318 sheep, and 5,762 swine. Capital, 
Mount Ida. XE A N. W. county of Tennessee, 
bordering on Kentucky, and drained by Cum- 
berland river and its branches; area, 500 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 24,747, of whom 11,670 were 
colored. The Louisville, Nashville, and Great 
Southern railroad traverses it. The chief pro- 
ductions in 1870 were 174,523 bushels of wheat, 
810,194 of Indian corn, 62,378 of oats, 25,403 
of Irish and 33,490 of sweet potatoes, 4,856,- 
378 lbs. of tobacco, 14,009 of wool, and 217,981 
There were 8,023 horses, 2,569 
mules and asses, 3,272 milch cows, 4,288 other 
cattle, 8,015 sheep, and 28,205 swine; 13 flour 
mills, 10 saw mills, 4 tanneries, 6 distilleries, 
and 1 woollen mill. Capital, Clarksville. XML 
A N. E. county of Kentucky; area, 275 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1870, 7,557, of whom 2,699 were col- 
ored. The surface is hilly and mountainous, 
and most of the soil fertile. The Mount Ster- 
ling division of the Louisville, Cincinnati, and 
Lexington railroad terminates at the county 
seat. The chief productions in 1870 were 31,- 
651 bushels of wheat, 16,259 of rye, 542,710 
of Indian corn, 48,945 of oats, 16,285 of pota- 
toes, 17,902 lbs. of wool, 87,244 of butter, and 
2,087 tons of hay. There were 2,660 horses, 
1,402 mules and asses, 1,977 milch cows, 8,606 
other cattle, 5,215 sheep, and 12,641 swine. 
Capital, Mount Sterling. XML A 8S. W. county 
of Ohio, drained by Miami river and its 
branches; area, 480 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 64,006. 
The surface is undulating, and the soil gener- 
ally fertile. Trenton limestone is abundant. 
The Miami canal passes through it, and several 
railroads terminate at Dayton. The chief pro- 
ductions in 1870 were 824,003 bushels of wheat, 
1,088,781 of Indian corn, 409,804 of oats, 83,002 
of barley, 142,425 of potatoes, 45,197 of flax 
seed, 636,300 lbs. of flax, 3,963,183 of tobacco, 
23,047 of wool, 650,826 of butter, and 19,301 
tons of hay. There were 9,183 horses, 8,775 
milch cows, 7,925 other cattle, 7,095 sheep, and 
25,761 swine; 14 manufactories of agricultural 
implements, 17 of brick, 84 of carriages and 
wagons, 2 of cotton goods, 2 of dressed flax, 14 
ef machinery, 8 of stone work, 7 of linseed oil, 
13 of saddlery and harness, 4 of sash, doors, and 
blinds, 2 of woollen goods, 16 iron founderies, 
13 tanneries, 8 distilleries, 11 breweries, 22 saw 
mills, 4 planing mills, and 25 flour mills. Capi- 
tal, Dayton. XIV. A W. county of Indiana; area, 
504 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 23,765. The surface 
is level or undulating, and the soil is generally 
good. The Louisville, New Albany, and Chi- 
cago, and the Indianapolis, Bloomington, and 
Western railroads pass through it. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 706,172 bushels of 
wheat, 1,004,706 of Indian corn, 89,509 of oats, 
69,409 of potatoes, 149,826 lbs. of wool, 891,403 
of butter, and 18,104 tons of hay. There were 
9,466 horses, 6,590 milch cows, 15,721 other 
cattle, 37,533 sheep, and 34,879 swine; 7 man- 
ufactories of furniture, 7 of brick, 10 of car- 
riages, 6 of cooperage, 1 of iron castings, 2 of 


187 


machinery, 7 of saddlery and harness, 4 of 
woollen goods, 1 pork-packing establishment, 
23 saw mills, 1 planing mill, and 21 flour mills. 
Capital, Crawfordsville. XV. A S. W. county 
of Illinois; area, 544 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
25,314, It has a diversified surface, partly cov- 
ered with forests, and arich soil. The Indian- 
apolis and St. Louis and the Toledo, Wabash, 
and Western railroads pass through it. The 
chief productions in 1870 were 744,950 bushels 
of wheat, 1,527,898 of Indian corn, 668,424 of 
oats, 66,515 of potatoes, 54,608 lbs. of wool, 
276,734 of butter, and 29,871 tons of hay. 
There were 12,447 horses, 6,400 milch cows, 
7,510 other cattle, 12,881 sheep, and 34,7738 
swine; 7 manufactories of carriages, 1 of cars, 
3 of cooperage, 5 of furniture, 1 of iron cast- 
ings, 2 of machinery, 10 of saddlery and har- 
ness, 2 of woollen goods, 9 saw mills, 2 brew- 
eries, and 12 flour mills. Capital, Hillsborough. 
XVI. A 8S. W. county of Iowa, drained by Nish- 
nabatona and West Nodaway rivers, tributaries 
of the Missouri; area, 4382 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 
5,934. The surface is undulating and the soil 
fertile. The Burlington and Missouri river 
railroad and its Red Oak branch pass through 
it. The chief productions in 1870 were 59,712 
bushels of wheat, 823,168 of Indian corn, 
37,393 of oats, 23,991 of potatoes, 18,492 Ibs. 
of wool, 87,220 of butter, and 9,079 tons of 
hay. There were 1,461 horses, 1,256 milch 
cows, 2,475 other cattle, 4,503 sheep, and 10,- 
287 swine; 7 flour mills, and 3 lumber mills. 
Capital, Frankfort. XVI. An E. county of 
Missouri, bounded §. by the Missouri river; 
area, 576 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 10,405, of whom 
939 were colored. The surface is hilly in the 
region of the river, and in other parts undula- 
ting. Limestone, iron ore, and coal are found. 
The St. Louis, Kansas City, and Northern rail- 
road passes through it. The chief productions 
in 1870 were 74,150 bushels of wheat, 548,112 
of Indian corn, 297,035 of oats, 203,170 lbs, of 
tobacco, 38,083 of wool, 16,973 of butter, and 
6,740 tons of hay. There were 3,375 horses, 
2,948 milch cows, 5,214 other cattle, 10,850 
sheep, and 14,041 swine. Capital, Danville. 
Xvi. AS. E. county of Kansas, bordering on 
Indian territory, and intersected by Verdigris 
river; area, 624 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 7,564. 
It is traversed by the Leavenworth, Lawrence, 
and Galveston railroad. The surface consists 
of rolling prairies, and the soil is fertile. The 
chief productions in 1870 were 12,665 bushels 
of Indian corn, 1,448 of potatoes, and 1,555 
tons of hay. There were 1,629 horses, 1,595 
milch cows, 4,090 other cattle, 674 sheep, 1,065 
swine, and 9saw mills. Capital, Independence. 

MONTGOMERY, a city of Montgomery co., 
Alabama, capital of the county and state, and 
the second city of the state in population and 
importance, situated on a high bluff on the left 
bank of the Alabama river, about 300 m. above 
Mobile, in lat. 832° 22’ N. and lon. 86° 23’ W.; 
pop. in 1860, 8,848; in 1870, 10,588, of whom 
5,183 were colored. The river is navigable to 


788 


this point by steamers at all seasons, and four 
lines of railroad furnish means of communica- 
tion with all sections of the state, viz.: the 
Mobile and Montgomery; Montgomery and 
Eufaula; South and North Alabama; and 
Western of Alabama. The city is the point of 
supply and shipment of a large and fertile cot- 
ton region. Its trade in groceries is impor- 
tant, and its receipts of cotton are large. The 
entire trade amounts to nearly $10,000,000 a 
year. The chief manufacturing establishments 
are an iron foundery and a flouring mill. 
There are two national banks, with a joint 
capital of $425,000, and three private banking 
houses. The state house, which occupies an 
elevated situation on Capitol hill, was erected. 
in 1851 at a cost of $75,000, the original capi- 
tol having been destroyed by fire in 1849. 
The dome commands a fine view of the city 
and adjacent country. Among other public 


MONTGOMERY 


Richmond. The city was evacuated by the 
confederates April 11, 1865, after burning 80,- 
000 bales of cotton, and on the following day 
it was occupied by the federal forces under 
Gen. Wilson, when the arsenal, railroad depots, 
and foundery were destroyed. 

MONTGOMERY, James, a British poet, born in 
Irvine, Ayrshire, Nov. 4, 1771, died near Shef- 
field, April 30, 1854. His father was a Mora- 
vian preacher, and James, being intended for 
the same office, was sent in his seventh year to 
a Moravian settlement at Fulneck, near Leeds, 
to complete his education. Here he remained © 
ten years, distinguished only for indolence and 
melancholy. The brethren at Fulneck then 
apprenticed him to a grocer in Mirfield. Be- 
fore the age of 14 he had written a mock he- 
roic poem of 1,000 lines, and had commenced 
an epic to be called ‘‘The World.” He ran 
away in June, 1789, but after many wanderings 
engaged again as shop 
boy in Wath, a village 


of Yorkshire. A year 


later he sent a volume 


of manuscript poetry 
to Mr. Harrison, a Lon- 


don publisher, and soon 


after went to London 


himself. Harrison re- 


fused his poems, but en- 
gaged him as his shop- 
man. Toward the end 
of 1792 he became 
clerk to Joseph Gales, 
editor and publisher of 
the ‘Sheffield Regis- 
ter,” a newspaper of 
revolutionary tenden- 
cies. Gales fled to 


State Capitol, Montgomery. 


buildings are the court house, a fine city hall | and reform principles. 


containing a market and rooms for the fire de- 
partment, and the theatre. The city is lighted 
with gas, and supplied with water by artesian 
wells and water works (from the river) of 
sufficient capacity to keep in reservoir three 
months’ supply for 25,000 people. The public 
schools are attended by about 300 white and 
500 colored children, and there are several pri- 
vate schools, with a large attendance. Three 
daily newspapers (issuing also weekly editions) 
and a weekly agricultural journal are published. 
There are 14 churches, viz.: 4 Baptist (2 
colored), 1 Episcopal, 1 Jewish, 5 Methodist 
(2 colored and 1 Northern), 1 Presbyterian, 
1 Protestant Methodist, and 1 Roman Catho- 
lic.—Montgomery was laid out in 1817, and 
the seat of government was removed to it 
from Tuscaloosa in 1847. It was the seat of 
the confederate government from Feb. 4, 1861, 
to the following May, when it was removed to 


America to avoid ar- 
rest for treason, and 
Montgomery started a 
new weekly journal 
called the ‘ Sheffield 
Tris,” advocating peace 
The first number ap- 
peared July 4, 1794, and he edited it till Sept. 
27, 1825. Almost immediately after the first 
appearance of the ‘‘Iris,” he was fined £20, 
and sentenced to three months’ imprisonment, 
for printing a doggerel ballad on ‘‘ The Fall of 
the Bastile” for a poor hawker. Again in 
1796 he was found guilty of sedition, fined £30, 
and sentenced to six months’ imprisonment, 
for publishing in his newspaper an account of 
a riot in Sheffield. He was confined in York 
castle, where he wrote a small volume of poems 
entitled ‘‘ Prison Amusements,” published in 
1797. His gentle yet earnest character, and 
his literary ability, gradually won him the re- 
gard of his political opponents, and he began 
to take a high rank as a sacred poet. In 1806 
he published ‘‘ The Wanderer of Switzerland,” 
in 1810 “ The West Indies” and ‘‘ Greenland,” 
and in 1812 ‘‘The World before the Flood,” 
which attained great popularity. In 1885 a 


MONTGOMERY 


pension of £150 was bestowed on him by the 
queen. He was a liberal whig, and an ardent 
slavery abolitionist, and in his manhood reuni- 
ted himself with the Moravians. Besides the 
works mentioned, he published “ The Pelican 
Island, and other Poems” (1827), and “ Origi- 
nal Hymns” (1853); and in prose, ‘‘ Lectures 
on Poetry and General Literature, delivered 
at the Royal Institution in 1830 and 1831” 
(1883). Collected editions of his poetical 
works were published in 6 vols. in 1886, 4 
vols. in 1841 and 1855, and 1 vol. in 1850 and 
1855. Memoirs, with correspondence and jour- 
nals (7 vols. 8vo, 1855-’6), were published by 
John Holland and James Everett. 
MONTGOMERY, Richard, an American general, 
born near Raphoe, Ireland, Dec. 2, 1786, killed 
in the attack on Quebec, Dec. 31,1775. At 
the age of 18 he obtained a commission in the 
British army. He was at the siege of Louis- 
burg in 1758, distinguished himself in the ex- 
peditions against Martinique and Havana, and 
in 1763 revisited Europe. In 1772 he emi- 
grated to New York, married a daughter of 
Judge Robert R. Livingston, and in 1778 set- 
tled in Rhinebeck. In 1775 he represented 
Dutchess county in the provincial congress, 
and in the same year was appointed brigadier 
general in the army of the united colonies, and 
was attached as senior brigadier to the larger 
of the two divisions sent to Canada in the 
summer.: The illness of Gen. Schuyler threw 
the command of the division upon Montgom- 
ery, who successively acquired possession of 
Chambly, St. John’s, and Montreal, thereby 
becoming in the middle of November master 
of a great part of Canada. Effecting a junc- 
tion on Dec. 4 with Arnold’s troops, he im- 
mediately took a position before Quebec. On 
Dec. 9 he was made a major general. It was 
determined to attempt to capture the place by 
a coup de main, and on Dee. 81, at 2 A. M., 
Montgomery headed the attack on the upper 
town. He reached the first barrier, which 
was quickly carried, pressed eagerly on to the 
second, and with his two aides fell dead at the 
first and only discharge by the British artil- 
lerymen, his troops retreating in disorder. 
Congress erected a monument to him in the 
front of St. Paul’s church, New York. In 1818 
the state of New York caused his remains to 
be removed and placed beneath the monument. 
MONTGOMERY, Robert, an English poet, born 
in Bath in 1807, died in Brighton, Dec. 8, 1855. 
He was the son of a theatrical clown named 
Gomery, and assumed the name of Montgomery. 
He early conducted ‘‘ The Inspector,” a weekly 
journal in Bath, and published “The Stage 
Coach,” a poetical collection, ‘‘ The Age Re- 
viewed, a Satire” (1827), ‘‘ The Omnipresence 
of the Deity,” his most popular poem, and a 
volume of miscellaneous verses (1828), and 
“Satan ” (1829). In 1830 he entered Lincoln 
college, Oxford, and in 1835 became curate of 
Whittington, Shropshire. Subsequently he 
was minister of Percy street chapel, London, 


MONTHOLON 789 


and for a time of St. Jude’s chapel, Glasgow. 
He published numerous works in addition to 
those mentioned, prominent among which were 
a series of ‘‘ Meditations” upon Scripture sub- 
jects. His poems, for a time immensely pop- 
ular, were subjected to a crushing criticism 
by Macaulay in the ‘ Edinburgh Review ” for 
April, 18380. 

MONTGOMERYSHIRE, a county of Wales, bor- 
dering on the counties of Denbigh, Salop (Eng- 
land), Radnor, Cardigan, and Merioneth; area, 
755 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 67,789. It consists 
mostly of wild, rugged, and sterile mountains, 
the highest of which is Plinlimmon, on the S§. 
W. border of the county, its culminating peak, 
2,481 ft. high, being just within the border of 
Cardiganshire. There are some fertile valleys, 
the best being that of the Severn, whose head 
waters traverse the county. The chief rivers, 
besides the Severn, are the Vyrnwy, Wye, and 
Dovey. In the districts bordering on England 
agriculture has made considerable progress. 
Copper, zinc, coal, and limestone are mined. 
The staple manufactures are flannels, and a 
species of cotton called ‘‘ Welsh plains.” Cap- 
ital, Montgomery. 

MONTH (Sax. mona, the moon), a period of 
time defined by one revolution of the moon 
around the earth, and hence equal to 29 days, 
12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 seconds. This 
division of time, the lunar month, was used by 
the Chaldeans and Egyptians, and is still by 
the Jews, Turks, and many uncivilized nations, 
as the most distinctly marked period of the 
year. But if the year be made to comprise 12 
of these months, the seasons will soon be found 
to fall back from those months to which they 
originally belonged, so that in 84 years each 
month would fall in each of the seasons. The 
civil year is divided into 12 months of an aver- 
age length of 30 days, 10 hours, and 30 min- 
utes. But these (called calendar months) are 
not equal, some (April, June, September, and 
November) consisting of 30, and the remain- 
der of 31 days, except February, to which only 
28 days are assigned, with the addition in leap 
years (every fourth year) of one more day. In 
popular language a month is often understood 
to be four weeks. This is even laid down by 
Blackstone as the legal definition of the term, 
so that a lease for 12 months is only for 48 
weeks; but the expression ‘‘a twelvemonth” 
has been legally held to mean a solar year. 
In ecclesiastical and commercial matters, how- 
ever, month always means a calendar month; 
and this is generally the legal meaning of the 
word in all relations in the United States. 

MONTHOLON, or Montholon-Sémenville, Charles 
Tristan, count and afterward marquis de, a 
French soldier, born in Paris, July 21, 1783, 
died Aug. 21, 1853. The son of a marquis, he 
became in 1798 a non-commissioned officer in 
a regiment of cavalry, and in less than two 
years reached the rank of chef d’escadron. He 
evinced great zeal in behalf of Bonaparte on 
the 18th Brumaire, and was afterward promo- 


790 MONTHYON 


ted for his services in Italy, Germany, and Po- 
land, especially distinguishing himself, as aide- 
de-camp to Berthier, in the battle of Wagram 
(1809), after which he was made a count and 
attached to the personal staff of Napoleon. 
He was soon after appointed chamberlain to 
the emperor, and intrusted with several diplo- 
matic missions. In 1814 he was made general 
of brigade, and became commandant of the 
department of the Loire. He joined the em- 
peror on his return in 1815, acted as his aide- 
de-camp during the hundred days, fought for 
him to the last, and followed him to St. He- 
lena. He witnessed his death, was appointed 
one of his executors, and returning to Europe 
published, in conjunction with Gen. Gour- 
gaud, Mémoires pour servir ad Uhistoire de 
France sous Napoléon, écrits @ Ste. Héléne sous 
sa dictée (8 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1823). His for- 
tune having been ruined by his protracted ab- 
sence, he tried to retrieve it by commercial 
enterprise, but became involved in debt and 
fled to Belgium. He was restored to the army 
in 1830. He accompanied Prince Louis Napo- 
leon in his attempt at Boulogne in 1840, and 
was imprisoned at Ham, but after a few years 
was pardoned. While in prison he wrote Récits 
de lacaptivité de V Empereur Napoléona Ste. He- 
léne (Paris, 1847). After the revolution of 1848 
- he became a member of the legislative assembly. 

MONTHYON. See Montyon. 

MONTI, Raffaelle. See supplement. 

MONTI, Vincenzo, an Italian poet, born at 
Fusignano, near Ferrara, Feb. 19, 1754, died 
in Milan, Oct. 13, 1828. He was educated at 
Faenza and the university of Ferrara, where 
he read with enthusiasm the Latin and Italian 
poets, and before his 16th year published Latin 
elegies and an Italian poem on the prophecy 
of Jacob. The influence of Dante appears in 
his “Vision of Ezekiel,” written two years 
later. His verses attracted the attention of 
Oardinal Borghese, who conducted him to 
Rome. In 1778 he was appointed secretary to 
Braschi, nephew of Pope Pius VI. Assuming 
the clerical habit, he was called the abbate 
Monti, though he never took orders. He be- 
came a member of the academy of Arcadians, 
with the principal members of which he was 
soon at war on account of his satires and impa- 
tience of criticism. In his drama Aristodemo 
he aimed to combine the vigor of Alfieri with 
greater smoothness and elegance. A second, 
Galeotto Manfredi, in which he violates his 
own principles of classicality, proved a failure. 
In 1793 he was selected by the pontifical gov- 
ernment to celebrate the assassination of the 
French ambassador Bassville in a poem con- 
formed to their political views, and published 
in 15 days his Bassvilliana, which was the first 
effective expression of the horror of monarchi- 
cal and Oatholic Europe at the French reyo- 
Jution. The first edition of his mythological 
poem Musogonia (1796) was agreeable to the 
papal government; but he made Bonaparte 
the hero of the second edition (1798), and also 


MONTMEDY 


of a still finer poem entitled Prometeo. He 
was successively secretary of the directory of 
the Cisalpine republic and commissary in the 
Romagna. He fled to France on the Austro- 
Russian invasion in 1799, but returned to Mi- 
lan after the battle of Marengo, and published 
the tragedy of Caio Gracco, Appointed profes- 
sor of belles-lettres in the college of Milan in 
1803, he was immediately promoted to the 
chair of rhetoric in the university of Pavia. 
He celebrated in poems the leading events of 
Napoleon’s career, and also made a translation 
of the Iliad, though he had studied Homer 
only through translators. His most important 
prose production was a philological work, in 
which he assailed the principles of the Della 
Cruscans. A complete edition of his works 
was published in 8 vols. (Bologna, 1825-8), a 
select edition in 5 vols. (Milan, 1832-’4), and 
an edition in 6 vols. (Milan, 1839 e¢ seq.). 

MONTIGNY, Rose Marie Cizos Lemoine. See 
Curt. 

MONTLUCON, a town of France, in the depart- 
ment of Allier, on the Cher, and on the canal 
du Berry, 111 m. W. N. W. of Lyons; pop. in 
1866, 18,675. It has ruins of an ancient castle 
and of old walls and towers, an industrial 
school, iron works, and extensive manufactories 
of mirrors, glass, linen, coarse woollens, and 
chemicals. It is connected by railway with 
Moulins, Bourges, and Limoges. 

MONTMAGNY, aS. county of Quebec, Canada, 
bounded N. W. by the St. Lawrence river be- 
low Quebec, and 8. E. by Maine; area, 623 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1871, 13,555, of whom 18,449 
were of French origin or descent. It is wa- 
tered by the Riviére du Sud and by the head 
streams of the St. John, and is traversed by 
the Grand Trunk railway. Capital, St. Thomas. 

MONTMARTRE. See Parts. 

MONTMEDY (anc. Mons Medius ; medieval, 
Mons Maledictus), a town and fortress of the 
fourth class of France, in the department of 
Meuse, on the river Chiers and on the railway 
between Sedan and Thionville, 150 m. E. N. E. 
of Paris, 26 m. N. of Verdun, and 4 m. W. of 
the frontier of Luxemburg; pop. in 1866, 2,- 
135, It is divided into an upper and a lower 
town. The former, constituting the citadel of 
the place, is situated upon the summit and a 
steep rock, and is fortified with an enceinte 
having eight bastions, with outer works and a 
moat, protected by six demilunes. The lower 
town, called Bas-Médy, is surrounded by a 
strong wall with eight bastions and three gates. 
The fortifications were in part planned by Vau- 
ban, but have been greatly improved. The 
town is of little importance except in a mili- 
tary point of view. Montmédy, after having 
been several times attacked by detachments of 
the German army during September, 1870, and 
asortie having been made from the lower town 
on Oct. 11, it was finally invested by a Prussian 
force, Nov. 16-28, and a bombardment was be- 
gun on Dec. 12. On Dec. 14, its commander, 
Maj. Tessier, surrendered the fortress, with 


MONTMORENCY 


8,000 men and 65 cannon, to Gen. von Ka- 
meke, the Prussian commander. 
MONTMORENCY, a N. E. county of the S&S. 
peninsula of Michigan, watered by Black and 
Thunder Bay rivers; area, 576 sq. m.; return- 
ed as having no population in 1870. The sur- 
face consists of rolling table lands; the climate 
is severe, and the soil not fertile. 
MONTMORENCY, an E. county of Quebec, 
Canada, bounded 8. E. by the St. Lawrence, 
and drained by the Montmorency and St. Anne 
rivers; area, 2,183 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 12,- 
085, of whom 11,602 were of French origin 
or descent.. It has an uneven surface and fer- 
tile soil. The isle of Orleans in the St. Law- 
rence river is included in the county. Capital, 
Chateau Richer. 
MONTMORENCY, or Montmorenci, a river of the 
etad i of Quebec, Canada, which rises in 
now lake, Montmorency co., and flowing S. 
empties into the St. Lawrence, about 8 m. be- 
low Quebec. Just above its mouth it falls over 
a nearly perpendicular precipice a distance of 
250 ft., with a width of 50 ft. About 14m. 
above the falls the river has worn a series of 
natural steps in the limestone rock. At the 
foot of the falls a cone of ice is formed every 
winter, sometimes 200 ft. high. The falls of 
Montmorency are much resorted to by tourists 
and visitors from Quebec, and the drive to 
them from the city is very beautiful. 
MONTMORENCY, a town of France, in the de- 
partment of Seine-et-Oise, 7 m. N. of the en- 
ceinte of Paris; pop. about 8,500. It is ona 
hill commanding a fine view. There is a hand- 
some Gothic church of the 14th or 15th cen- 
tury. The place is celebrated from the house 
near it called l’Ermitage, in which Jean Jacques 
Rousseau resided in 1756-’8, and wrote his 
Nouvelle Héloise. It was a peasant’s house 
belonging to Mme. d’Epinay. It was after- 
ward occupied by Grétry the composer, who 
died there in 1813. It now forms part of a 
large mansion; only the garden is as it was in 
Rousseau’s time. Rousseau’s Contrat social 
and Mmile were also written in Montmorency, 
though not in the Hermitage. The town grew 
up around the chateau of Montmorency, built 
in 1108, no trace of which remains. 
MONTMORENCY, a French feudal family, de- 
riving its title from the chateau of the same 
name, and tracing its origin to the middle of 
the 10th century. Its members were styled 
“the first barons of France,” or “the first 
Christian barons.”’” Among them were six 
grand constables, twelve marshals, and four 
grand admirals of France, besides cardinals, 
grand masters, and knights of all European or- 
ders, and they intermarried several times with 
royal families. Two branches of the fami- 
ly established themselves in the Netherlands. 
Among their descendants were the count of 
Horn (Philip II. de Montmorency-Nivelle), 
executed with Egmont in Brussels, June 5, 
1568; Floris de Montmorency, baron de Mon- 
tigny, executed by order of Philip II., Oct. 14, 


791 


1570; and Marshal Luxembourg. The follow- 
ing are the chief historical characters of the 
French branch. I. Anne, first duke de Mont- 
morency, born at Chantilly, March 15, 1492, 
died in Paris, Nov. 12,1567. He distinguished 
himself first in the battle of Ravenna, in 1512. 
In 1515 he followed Francis I. to Italy, and 
fought bravely at Marignano. He exhibited 
great activity and firmness during the siege 
of Méziéres in 1521, and for his gallantry in 
the disastrous battle of Bicoca, near Milan, in 
1522, was created marshal. In 1524 he forced 
the constable de Bourbon to raise the siege of 
Marseilles. In 1525 he was made prisoner at 
the battle of Pavia, but was ransomed. He 
became governor of Languedoc and grand mas- 
ter of France in 1526, and was intrusted with 
the management of the finances. His avarice 
displeased the Genoese admiral Doria, who 
broke off his alliance with the king of France, 
and became one of the stanchest supporters 
of Charles V. In 15386 Montmorency laid waste 
Provence, which the imperial army had enter- 
ed, and by prolonging the campaign nearly de- 
stroyed the enemy. Two years later he was 
made constable. In 1541 court intrigues caused 
his disgrace, and he retired to Chantilly; but 
after the death of Francis I. his influence at 
court became paramount. In 1548 he put down 
an insurrection in Guienne with cruel rigor. 
In 1551 his baronial estate was erected into 
a duchy by Henry II. He was defeated and 
taken prisoner at the battle of St. Quentin, 
Aug. 10, 1557, by Duke Philibert Emanuel of 
Savoy, and, anxious to secure his release, was 
instrumental in bringing about in 1559 the dis- 
advantageous peace of Cateau-Cambrésis. Du- 
ring the reign of Francis II. he lived in retire- 
ment; but he played a conspicuous part under 
Charles IX., and with the duke of Guise and 
Marshal Saint-André, with whom he formed a 
kind of triumvirate, was an uncompromising 
enemy of the Huguenots. At the battle of 
Dreux, Dec. 19, 1562, where he shared the com- 
mand with his two colleagues, he was wounded 
and taken by the Protestants, although Guise 
won the day. Released by the peace of Am- 
boise in 1563, he retook Havre from the Eng- 
lish. In 1567, at the head of the Catholic army, 
he fought a drawn battle with the prince de 
Condé, near St. Denis, in which he was mor- 
tally wounded. II. Henri If., fourth and last 
duke de Montmorency, grandson of the pre- 
ceding, born in Chantilly, April 30, 1595, exe- 
cuted in Toulouse, Oct. 80, 1682. Louis XIII. 
appointed him admiral of France before he was 
17 years old. He succeeded his father as gov- 
ernor of Languedoe, fought against the Protes- 
tants, distinguished himself at the sieges of 
Montauban and Montpellier, and in 1625 con- 
quered the islands of Ré and Oléron. He now 
sold his office of admiral to Richelieu. Mont- 
morency continued to oppose the duke de Ro- 
han, who remained in arms for eight months 
after the taking of La Rochelle, and thus con- 
tributed to bring about the peace of Alais 


792 MONTMORENOY 

(1629), which terminated the last of the re- 
ligious civil wars in France. In the same 
year he distinguished himself in Italy, and was 
finally made a marshal. After his return he 
joined Gaston of Orleans in his rebellion, and 
’ assembled his troops while Gaston was enter- 
ing the kingdom from Lorraine at the head of 
a few thousand adventurers; but in the battle 
of Castelnaudary, Sept. 1, 1632, he was desert- 
ed by his ally and taken prisoner. He was sen- 
tenced to death by the parliament of Toulouse, 
and by order of Richelieu publicly beheaded in 
the great square. His life was written by Du- 
cros, one of his officers (4to, 1633). IIf. Matthieu 
Jean Félicité, viscount and afterward duke de 
Montmorency-Laval, born in Paris, July 10, 
1767, died there, March 24, 1826. He served in 
the American war, and was a deputy in 1789 to 
the constitutional assembly, where, during the 
famous night of Aug. 4, he was among the fore- 
most to move for the spontaneous renuncia- 
tion of feudal privileges 
and titles of nobility. 


is compactly built. 


MONTPELIER 


2,840 milch cows, 1,786 other cattle, 2,809 
sheep, and 5,697 swine; 2 manufactories of 
forged and rolled iron, 3 of pig iron, 5 of cast- 
ings, 2 breweries, 5 flour mills, 4 saw mills, 
and 8 tanneries. Capital, Danville. 
MONTPELIER, a town of Washington co., 
Vermont, capital of the county and state, situ- 
ated on the Onion river, here spanned by a 
substantial bridge, and on the Central Ver- 
mont and the Montpelier and Wells River rail- 
roads, 150 m. N. N. W. of Boston, in lat. 
44° 17’ N., lon. 72° 36’ W.; pop. in 1870, 
3,023. It is built on a plain near the centre 
of the state, and is surrounded by a highly 
cultivated hilly country. The principal village 
The state house is a fine 
edifice of light-colored granite, erected at a 
cost of $150,000 on the site of the former cap- 
itol, which was burned in 1857. It stands on 
a slight eminence, approached from a common 
by granite steps in terraces. It is built in 


Alarmed by the progress 


of the revolution, he emi- 


grated in 1792, and re- 


turned in 1795, but kept 


aloof from politics, and 


lived on terms of in- 


timate friendship with 
Mmes. de Staél and Ré- 
camier. He received no 
favors from Napoleon, 
but on the return of the 
Bourbons was appointed 
aide-de-camp to the count 
of Artois and peer of 


France, and on Dec. 24, 


1821, minister of foreign 
affairs. He and Chateau- 


briand were the French 
plenipotentiaries at the 
congress of Verona, and 
on his return he was 
made governor to the in- 
fant duke of Bordeaux. Although he had no 
literary merit, he was elected in 1825 a mem- 
ber of the French academy. He died while at 
prayer in church. 

MONTMORENCY, Francois de. See BoutEvitte. 

MONTOUR, an E. central county of Penn- 
sylvania, intersected in the south by the N. 
branch of the Susquehanna river, and drained 
by Chillisquaque, Mahanouring, and Big Roar- 
ing creeks; area, 210 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
15,344, Its surface is traversed E. and W. by 
barren ridges, including Montour’s and Lime- 
stone ridges and Muncy hills. There are sey- 
eral mines producing large quantities of iron. 
The valleys are fertile. It is traversed by the 
North Branch canal, and by the Catawissa 
railroad, passing through Danville. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 111,384 bushels of 
wheat, 176,941 of Indian corn, 179,518 of oats, 
54,241 of potatoes, 192,048 Ibs. of butter, and 
10,142 tons of hay. There were 1,692 horses, 


State Capitol, Montpelier. 


the form of a cross, the main building being 
72 ft. long and each of the wings 52 ft. The 
main building is 113 ft. deep, and 124 ft. high 
to the top of the dome, which is surmounted 
by a graceful statue of Ceres. The court house 
is also a fine structure. Montpelier has an 
active trade with the surrounding country, and 
contains several flour mills, saw mills, tanne- 
ries, an iron foundery, an extensive machine 
shop, and manufactories of sash and blinds, car- 
riages, cabs and sleds, hats and caps, furniture, 
&c. There are two banks, three insurance com- 
panies, nine public and three private schools, 
four weekly newspapers (two of which pub- 
lish a daily edition during the session of the 
legislature), and seven churches. The state 
library contains 14,690 volumes. The town is 
the seat of the Vermont Methodist seminary 
and female college, organized in 1869. <A 
history of Montpelier by D. P. Thompson was 
published in 1860 (8vo, Montpelier). » 


MONTPELLIER 


MONTPELLIER, a city of Languedoc, France, 
capital of the department of Hérault, near the 
Lez, 27 m. 8. W. of Nimes, 17 m. N. E. of 
. Cette, its port, and 76 m. W. N. W. of Mar- 
seilles; pop. in 1872, 57,727. It was once a 
place of military strength, but of its fortifica- 
tions only the citadel remains. The town rises 
in the form of an amphitheatre along a slope, 
the summit of which, 168 ft. above the sea, is 
occupied by the place du Peyrou, a celebrated 
promenade. At the end of the promenade 
rises the chdteau d’eau, which receives and 
distributes through the town the water con- 
veyed from the opposite hill by an aqueduct 
of 53 large arches surmounted by 183 smaller 
ones, and 2,893 ft. long. The modernized 
cathedral contains an altarpiece, the ‘ Fall of 
Simon Magus,” by Sébastien Bourdon, a na- 
tive of Montpellier. The medical school, for- 
merly the bishop’s palace, contains a library 
of 50,000 volumes, and portraits of the pro- 
fessors since 1289. The Musée Fabre, named 
after its founder, a Montpellier artist, contains 
a collection of paintings, the library of Alfieri, 
of 15,000 volumes, and some important manu- 
scripts connected with the Stuarts, which be- 
longed to Prince Charles Edward. The bo- 
tanic garden, the first established in France, 
dates from the reign of Henry IV. In place 
of the former university, founded in 1176, and 
the medical school of which was celebrated, 
there are now three faculties, of medicine, 
sciences, and literature. There is also a high 
school of pharmacy, a lyceum, an episcopal 
seminary, a normal school, and several other 
special schools. Montpellier has manufactures 
of woollens, printed cottons, linens, silks, 
leather, straw goods, wax, and brandy; and 
it is particularly celebrated for its verdigris, 
made by oxidizing copper plates between lay- 
ers of grape husks. There are also extensive 
manufactories of alum, Prussian blue, and sul- 
phuric and nitric acid. It is the seat of a 
Catholic bishop, and of a Reformed consistory. 
The place is celebrated for the brightness of 
its atmosphere, and has been much frequented 
by invalids, but its salubrity is questioned.— 
In the 10th century Montpellier was a village 
N. of Maguelonne. Increasing as Maguelonne 
declined, it became a seigniory, which passed 
in 1204 to the kings of Aragon, and in 1276 
became part of the kingdom of Majorca. In 
1349 it was ceded to France. Charles V. ceded 
it in 1865 to Charles the Bad of Navarre, but 
it returned to the crown under Charles VI. 
The episcopal see was transferred to Montpel- 
lier from Maguelonne about 1538. It suffered 
much during the religious wars, and was be- 
sieged and taken by Louis XIII. in 1622. The 
edict of Montpellier of Oct. 20, 1622, granted 
to the Calvinists freedom of worship, but for- 
bade assemblies except of their synods and con- 
sistories, and granted them freedom from mo- 
lestation only in La Rochelle and Montauban. 

MONTPENSIER, Anne Marie Louise d’Orléans, 
duchess of, known as Mademoiselle, a French 


MONTPENSIER 793 
princess, born in Paris, May 29, 1627, died 
there, March 5, 1693. She was the daughter 
of Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of Louis 
XIII.; and being one of the richest heiresses 
in the world, her whole youth was passed in 
negotiations of marriage, which were defeated, 
as she declared, by the intrigues of Cardinal 
Mazarin. During the wars of the Fronde 
(1649-’52) she sided with the Frondeurs, and 
compensated by her boldness and capacity for 
the weakness and indecision of her father. In 
1652 she volunteered to command the expe- 
dition sent to Orleans, forced her way into the 
city by one gate while the royalists were vain- 
ly seeking admission at another, and secured 
the adhesion of the authorities to the cause 
which she favored. Returning to Paris in 
time to assist Condé at the battle of the Porte 
St. Antoine, July 2, she caused the guns of 
the Bastile to be fired upon the royal troops, 
though she still did not despair of becoming 
the wife of the young Louis XIV. Banished 
after the reéstablishment of Louis’s authority 
in Paris, she employed her exile in the compo- 
sition of her Mémoires, which were resumed 
in 1677, and continued till 1688. She finally 
returned to Paris in 1660, and lived in com- 
parative retirement till 1669, when she fell in 
love with Lauzun, a poor Gascon noble six 
years younger than herself. The king gave 
his consent to the marriage, but was induced 
to revoke it and to commit Lauzun to the 
Bastile, where he was confined for ten years. 
It is said that a secret marriage had already 
taken place. Mademoiselle finally obtained 
his release by giving up two of her largest 
estates to the duke of Maine, the king’s nat- 
ural son by Mme. de Montespan, but Lauzun 
proved ungrateful and brutal. She forbade 
him her presence, and passed the rest of her 
life in devotional exercises. In the library of 
Paris are two manuscripts of her Mémoires, 
of which one is probably an autograph. The 
work was published at Amsterdam in 1746, 
in 8 vols. The edition by Chéruel (Paris, 
1858) contains a collection of letters and vari- 
ous writings from her pen, including the fe- 
lation de Vile imaginaire, and the Histoire de 
la princesse de Paphlagonie. 

MONTPENSIER, Antoine Marie Philippe Lonis 
@Orléans, duke de, a French prince, youngest 
son of Louis Philippe, born at Neuilly, July 
31, 1824. He was educated at the collége 
Henri IV., became a lieutenant in the army 
in 1842, and fought in Algeria, where he was 
slightly wounded, in 1844. On Oct. 10, 1846, 
he married the sister of Isabella II. of Spain, 
an alliance which gave rise to serious compli- 
cations, owing to the belief that it was intended 
by Louis Philippe to raise his son to the Span- 
ish throne in view of the anticipated childless- 
ness of Isabella, whose marriage with her cousin 
Francisco d’ Assis was at the same time planned 
by the French king. He shared his father’s 
exile in England in 1848, and subsequently 
resided at Seville. The titles of infante and 


794 


of captain general of the Spanish army were 
conferred upon him in 1859. In 1868 he left 
Spain for a time, and in 1870 was a candidate 
for the throne, The rival candidate, Don En- 
rique de Borbon, brother of Isabella’s husband, 
having alluded to him in offensive terms, was 
challenged by Montpensier. They fought March 
12, and at the third shot Enrique fell dead. 
The duke was sentenced by a court martial to 
one month’s banishment and a fine of $6,000. 
In 1871 he was exiled to Port Mahon for re- 
fusing to take the oath of allegiance to King 
Amadeus, but as a candidate to the cortes he 
was allowed to return to Madrid. He soon 
left for Paris, where he still resides. His elder 
daughter Isabella was married in 1864 to her 
cousin the count de Paris. 
his celebrated collection of Spanish paintings 
for exhibition in Boston. 


In 1874 he lent: 


MONTREAL 


MONTREAL, a city of the Dominion of Canada, 
in the province of Quebec, the largest in Brit- 
ish North America, and the commercial capi- 
tal of the country, in lat. 45° 31’ N., lon. 78° 
35’ W., on the S. E. side of a triangular island 
of the same name at the confluence of the riv- 
ers Ottawa and St. Lawrence. This island, 
which is about 80 m. long by 10 m. in greatest 
breadth, is 600 m. from the mouth of the river, 
140 m. in direct line S. W. of Quebec, 310 m. 
N. E. of Toronto, and 335 m. N. of New York. 
It stands at the head of ship navigation, and at 
the foot of that great chain of improved inland 
waters extending from the Lachine canal to the 
western shores of Lake Superior. In 1861 the 
population of Montreal was 90,823; in 1871, 
107,225. (including 77,980 Roman Catholics and 
29,245 Protestants), two thirds being of French 
origin.’ It derives its name from Mont Réal, 


Montreal, from Mount Royal. 


or Mount Royal, rising 750 ft. above the har- 
bor, and covering at the base an area of about 8 
sq.m. Itis built mostly of a grayish limestone 
from adjacent quarries, and with its handsome 
spires and glittering tin roofs, and the pictu- 
resque villas that stud its lofty background, is 
seen to great advantage from the river. The 
Roman Catholic parish church, Notre Dame, in 
Place d’Armes, commenced in 1824 and opened 
in 1829, is built in Gothic style and in the form 
of a parallelogram. It is 241 ft. long, 185 ft. 
wide, and seats between 10,000 and 12,000. It 
has six towers, one at each corner and one in 
the middle of each flank. The two on the 
main front rise 218 ft., nearly twice the height 
of the others. In one of these is a peal of 
bells, the largest of which weighs upward of 
20,000 Ibs. The building comprises several 
aisles and chapel; it is 61 ft. from the founda- 


tion to the eaves, and its principal window 
is 64 by 32 ft. It is at present (1875) the 
largest religious structure in the Dominion, but 
it will be surpassed by the Roman Catholic 
cathedral now in course of erection on the 
corner of Dorchester and Cemetery streets, 
after the plan of St. Peter’s at Rome. The 
English cathedral, in St. Catharine street, is a 
most perfect specimen of Gothic architecture ; 
it is cruciform, built of rough Montreal stone, 
with Caen stone facings. Its aisles are 112 ft. 
long with an aggregate width of 70 ft., and its 
transept is 100 by 25 ft. Its spire is 224 ft. 
high. In 1858 the number of churches in the 
city was 30; it is now 64, viz.: 9 church of 
England, 21 Roman Catholic, 5 Presbyterian, 
5 church of Scotland, 5 Methodist, 4 Wesleyan, 
4 Baptist, 2 Jewish, 2 Congregational, 1 French 
Evangelical, 1 German Protestant, 1 society 


MONTREAL 


of Friends, 1 New Jerusalem, 1 Christian Ad- 
vent, 1 Unitarian, and the St. George’s Hall 
congregation. The principal benevolent in- 
stitutions are the Hétel-Dieu and St. Patrick's 
hospitals, attended by the sisters of St. Joseph, 
the Protestant house of industry and institu- 
tion for deaf mutes, the infant school, Provi- 
dence Sacré Ceur, the lying-in and Providence 
asylums, the dispensary, the eye and ear in- 
firmary, the Protestant and the Catholic Mag- 
dalen and orphan asylums, the Catholic benefit 
society, and the charities under the immediate 
charge of the sisters of charity. First among 
the educational establishments is the university 
of McGill college, which embraces the largest 
school of medicine in British North America, 
a faculty of law, normal and model schools, a 
high school, and a chair of English literature. 
The collége de Ste. Marie is directed by the 
Jesuits, and the Montreal college by the Sulpi- 
cians, who have charge also of the grand sémi- 
naire and the ecclesiastical seminary at St. Sul- 
pice. Besides these are the colleges of Ste. 
Thérése and the Assomption. In 1873 there 
were 9 daily, 2 tri-weekly, 2 semi-weekly, and 
17 weekly newspapers published in the city, 
with 9 monthlies and 3 semi-monthlies. The 
most important monetary establishments are 
the Montreal bank, founded in 1818, capital 
$12,000,000; the Merchants’ bank of Canada, 
$6,000,000; bank of British North America, 
$4,867,000; City bank, $1,200,000; Banque 
du Peuple, $1,600,000; and Molson’s bank, 
$1,000,000. Most of these have handsome edi- 
fices.—The principal business streets are St. 
James, McGill, Notre Dame, Commissioner, St. 
Paul, and the main thoroughfares of St. Law- 
rence, Quebec, St. Ann, St. Joseph, and St. 
Antoine suburbs. Most of the leading whole- 
sale dry-goods and hardware houses are in St. 
Paul street. Of late years some of the narrow 
and tortuous streets have been widened, but 
many more remain in their original condition. 
The Bonsecours market, a fine Doric edifice, 
contains the city council chamber, corporation 
offices, and a concert room which seats 4,000 
people. A more commodious market is pro- 
jected, to cost $2,000,000. The court house, 
built at an expense of $300,000, is a lofty and 
spacious Ionic building about 120 ft. long. It 
contains a law library of 6,000 volumes. . Back 
of it is the Champ de Mars, a fine military pa- 
rade ground. In 1870, on the withdrawal of 
the British troops from Canada, this and all 
other imperial property in the city was pre- 
sented to the Dominion government. In 1860 
a crystal palace was opened for the exhibition 
of the products of the provinces. The mer- 
chants’ exchange, in St. Sacrament street, is 
a handsome structure in the modern Italian 
style, with numerous offices and a reading 
room. The old government house, in Jacques 
Cartier square, and Nelson’s monument, are 
objects of interest. The geological museum, 
the university of McGill college with its mu- 
seum, and the museum of the natural history 


795 


society, are among the most complete institu- 
tions of the kind on the continent. The city 
is well lighted with gas, which was first used 
here in November, 1887. Water is obtained 
from the St. Lawrence, about 14 m. above the 
Lachine rapids, where the elevation of the riv- 
er is about 37 ft. above the harbor. It is con- 
ducted to the outskirts of the city through an 
open canal 5 m. long. At the end of this is 
a wheel house, from which the water is dis- 
charged through submerged archways under 
covered frost-proof passages extending above 
and below the building. There are two iron 
wheels, which force the water 206 ft. above the 
harbor, through a pumping main 23 m. long, 
into a reservoir with a capacity of 15,000,C00 
gallons. The works, which cost about $1,800,- 
000, were begun in June, 1853, and water was 
admitted in September, 1856. The climate of 
Montreal is subject to great extremes, the sum- 
mers being hot and the winters severe. The 
thermometer ranges from 90° above to 30° be- 
low zero.—In the beginning of the present cen- 
tury vessels of more than 300 tons could not 
approach the city. In 1809 the first steam- 
er, the Accommodation, was launched on the 
river. About 1854 the Montreal ocean steam- 
ship company was formed. Its first vessels 
were employed in the transport service to the 
Crimea, and it was not till 1856 that they com- 
menced the regular mail service, which was 
fortnightly till 1859, when it was made week- 
ly. The harbor has been much improved of 
late years. Ocean steamships of 3,500 tons can 
now enter it, and a fine basin has been con- 
structed, capable of accommodating three first 
class steamships. The river frontage is nearly 
3 m. long, extending from the Victoria bridge 
to the village of Hochelaga. The wharves are 
more than a mile long, and of solid masonry, 
surmounted by a massive stone wall extending 
from the entrance of the Lachine canal to 
below the Bonsecours market. The Victoria 
bridge crosses the St. Lawrence from Point 
St. Charles at the head of the harbor to St. 
Lambert on the opposite shore, a distance of 
about 2 m. It was begun July 20, 1854, and 
completed in the autumn of 1859. (See Brings, 
vol. iii., p. 275.) This bridge belongs to the 
Grand Trunk railway of Canada, and affords 
an unbroken line of communication with the 
United States. The custom house is massive 
and capacious, and has a fine tower. In 1855 
the arrivals from sea were 188 vessels, of 47,- 
394 tons, and the clearances 135, of 27,4938 
tons. The following tables show the business 
of the port for four years: 


Shipping. 
ENTERED. CLEARED, 
YEARS. 
Vessels. Tonnage, Vessels, Tonnage. 
SEO eraime etarsieye ele 840 228,121 410 243,167 
LISTON Kear QobeOe 846 247,813 441 274,134 
ESTA Ty devisees 435 811,56T 49T 828,583 
1878. 422 807,453 527 854,911 


796 MONTREUX 
Commerce. 
YEARS Imports. | Exports, 
1810. $25,680,814 $19,100,413 
SOTL copii et es eee 35,305,497 16,720,888 
AevO es ete, “Wejked 40,088,665 18171'384 
Tye tenet peat Rita 44°320,646 191679118 


In the exports for 1873 are included 2,764,- 
643 bushels of wheat and 360,108 barrels of 
flour. The import duties collected in 1870 were 
$4,128,052. The Lachine canal, 84 m. long, 
cuts across the 8. point of the island, avoiding 
Lachine rapids. Since 1846 the waters of this 
canal and those skirting the river bank inside 
the upper basin have been turned to good ac- 
count for manufacturing purposes. The prin- 
cipal manufactures are axes, saws, cordage, 
printing types, India-rubber shoes, chairs, pa- 
per, woollens, cotton bags, steam engines, nails, 
spikes, joiners’ finishings, and flour. The 
Grand Trunk railway connects the city with 
Portland, Me., and the principal places in the 
Dominion; and the Vermont Central and Mon- 
treal and Province Line railways, with their 
connections, give it direct communication with 
New York and Boston. Its trade with St. 
John and Halifax is opened up through the 
Intercolonial railway.—Montreal is the met- 
ropolitan see of the church of England in Can- 
ada, and the seat of a Roman Catholic bish- 
op. It is governed municipally by a mayor, 
9 aldermen, and 18 councillors. The aggre- 
gate value of its real estate in 1856 was $25,- 
565,333, and its total revenue from all sources 
$285,032; in 1873 the value of real estate 
was $63,561,150, and the total revenue $907,- 
381.—The settlement of Montreal dates from 
1535, when it was visited by Jacques Cartier, 
who named its mountain. The city was found- 
ed in 1642, on the site of the Indian village 
of Hochelaga. It was officially named Ville 
Marie, and for many years it was indifferently 
called by that and its present name. In 1758 it 
was well fortified. In 1760 it surrendered to 
the British; and it was captured by the Amer- 
icans, under Gen. Montgomery, in November, 
1775, and held until the next summer. In 
1779 it contained 1,200 houses, 500 of which 
were of stone and within the walls, the remain- 
der outside and mostly of wood. Several 
times it has suffered severely from fire. In 
1765 108 houses were burned, and 215 families 
left destitute. The population was then about 
7,000, and one fourth of the city, worth $464,- 
000, was destroyed.. In 1768 90 houses, two 
churches, and a large charity school were con- 
sumed. In 1849 the parliament buildings and 
library were burned by a mob, when the govy- 
ernment was removed to Toronto. Montreal 
was the headquarters of the British army in 
Canada until the final withdrawal of the troops 
after the consolidation of the provinces into 
the Dominion. . 

MONTREUX, a commune of Switzerland, in 
the canton of Vaud and district of Vevay, cele- 


MONTROSE 


brated for its salubrity and the beauty of its 
situation. It extends between ridges of the Col 
de Jaman and the E. extremity of the lake of 
Geneva, and consists of about 20 villages, with 
an aggregate population in 1870 of 4,731. The 
best known village is Clarens. The village of 
Montreux, near the castle of Chillon, on the 
lake and 40 m. N. E. of the city of Geneva, is 
the most frequented in winter, especially by suf- — 
ferers from diseases of the heart. The moun- 
tains on the north protect it against cold and 
snow, and heavy frosts are unusual. Roses and 
violets bloom during almost the whole year. 
The grape cure begins early in September. The 
rate of mortality is said to be lighter in this 
locality than in any other part of the world. 

MONTROSE, a seaport town of Forfarshire, 
Scotland, 23 m. N. E. of Dundee; pop. of the 
borough in 1871, 14,548; of the parish, 15,783. 
It is on the W. side of a sandy peninsula, hay- 
ing the sea on the east, the mouth of the South 
Esk river on the south, and on the west a 
shallow basin 8 m. Jong and 2 m. wide, which 
becomes dry at low tide. The harbor is one of 
the best on the E. coast of Scotland. Its 
mouth is narrow, but is marked by a lofty 
beacon on the S. and two lighthouses on the 
N. E. side, and admits vessels drawing 18 ft. 
There are quays and dry and wet docks. A 
chain suspension bridge 432 ft. long, built in 
1829, connects the town with the suburb of 
the Inch across the South Esk. In the High 
street. are statues of Sir Robert Peel and Joseph 
Hume, who wasa native of the place. There 
are 14 churches, schools for which the town is 
celebrated, and two lunatic asylums. Between 
the town and the sea are the Links or downs, 
celebrated for races and golf matches. Near 
Montrose are the Montrose pits, a singular 
hollow in the sea, 30 fathoms deeper than the 
tract around, where cod are caught in great 
numbers. There are linen manufactories, em- 
ploying about 4,000 persons, besides ship yards, 
iron founderies, and starch manufactories. In 
1871 the imports were valued at £277,203, the 
exports at £21,216; the number of entrances 
was 133, tonnage 31,614; clearances 73, ton- 
nage 16,834. The borough of Montrose re- 
ceived its first charter from David I., early in 
the 12th century. It was the seat of the first 
school of Greek in Scotland. 

MONTROSE, James Graham, marquis of, a Scotch 
soldier, born at the family estate of Auld 
Montrose in the autumn of 1612, hanged at 
Edinburgh, May 21, 1650. At the age of 14, 
on the death of his father, he became fifth earl 
of Montrose. He was educated at the uni- 
versity of St. Andrews, and travelled abroad 
for some years. Being ill received by Charles 


-I. when he visited the court after his return, 


he joined the Covenanters, His name was put 
upon the tables of committees for the pop- 
ular cause, Nov. 15, 1637, and he was prom- 
inent in preparing the covenant. On the re- 
newal of the contest in 1640, the earl led the 
vanguard of the Scotch infantry, but he soon 


MONTSERRAT 


changed to the royalist side, and was impris- 
oned in Edinburgh castle by the Covenant- 
ers. After his release he remained for some 
time on his estates. In the spring of 1643 
he joined Queen Henrietta Maria in England, 
but could not induce her to authorize en- 
ergetic measures in Scotland, and returned 
home. The Covenanters vainly endeavored 
to win him back, and in the summer he again 
served with the king’s army. Early in 1644 
he was created marquis of Montrose, and ap- 
pointed the king’s lieutenant general in Scot- 
land. Working on the hatred of many of the 
highland clans for the Campbells, he raised a 
force there, and was joined by some Irish in- 
fantry. He then commenced a series of bril- 
liant operations, but circumstances prevent- 
ed them from becoming useful to the king. 
On Sept. 1 he defeated the covenanting army 
under Lord Elcho at Tippermuir, and took 
Perth. On the 12th he destroyed another 
army in the battle of Aberdeen, and took that 
town. He ravaged Argyle’s country, and de- 
feated the Campbells at Inverlochy, Feb. 2, 
1645. Receiving large accessions of force, he 
stormed Dundee, but abandoned it on the ap- 
proach of the enemy. On May 8 he encoun- 
tered Sir John Urrie at Auldearn, and won the 
most brilliant of his victories. The victory 
of Alford was won July 2, over Gen. Baillie ; 
whom he again met and conquered at Kil- 
syth, Aug. 15. But the highlanders formed an 
unstable force, and Montrose found himself 
almost without men when he marched to the 
border. On the morning of Sept. 13 he was 
surprised at Philiphaugh by David Lesley, and 
his armyrouted. In July, 1646, he capitulated 
to Middleton, and on Sept. 3 he sailed for 
the continent. He was made an Austrian 
marshal, and authorized to raise regiments for 
Charles J. After the death of that monarch, 
Charles II. renewed his commission. Having 
received some arms and subsidies from Den- 
mark, Sweden, Holstein, and Hamburg, he 
landed in the Orkneys early in 1650, and pro- 
ceeded thence to Scotland at the head of an ill- 
organized force of 1,500 men, but was speed- 
ily defeated and made prisoner. Sentences 
of excommunication and forfeiture had been 
passed upon him by the general assembly in 
1644. He was executed with every species 
of indignity. His head was placed on the 
Tolbooth, and his limbs were sent to various 
parts of Scotland. After the restoration 
Charles II. reversed the sentence of forfeiture, 
and his remains were buried in state in St. 
Giles’s cathedral—See ‘‘ Montrose and the 
Covenanters,” by Mark Napier (2 vols. 8vo, 
London, 1838), and Grant’s ‘‘Memoirs of the 
Marquis of Montrose” (Edinburgh, 1857). 
MONTSERRAT, or Monserrat, one of the small- 
est of the British West India islands, belong- 
ing to the Leeward group, nearly equidistant, 
or about 80 m., from the islands of Nevis, An- 
tigua, and Guadeloupe; lat. of the N. point, 
16° 50’ N., lon. 62° 20/ W.; area, 47 sq. m.; pop. 


MONTYON 797 


in 1871, 8,693, of whom scarcely more than 150 
were white. About two thirds of the island 
is mountainous and barren, but the remainder, 
at the base of the mountain slopes, is fruitful 
and well watered. The soil is of a light vol- 
canic description. The principal crop is sugar, 
the export of which in 1870 was 8,382,200 lbs. ; 
in 1871, 8,403,800 Ibs.; and in 1872, 2,773,800 
Ibs. The E. side of the island is mostly un- 
cultivated, covered with high mountains pro- 
ducing cedar and other useful and valuable 
trees; on the W. side the land slopes toward 
the sea. The climate is healthy. In 1872 the 
value of the imports from the United King- 
dom was £27,677, and of the exports to it 
£29,736. The trade is mainly with other 
British West Indiaislands. The chief town is 
Plymouth, on the 8. W. coast; it is small, but 
neat, and the houses are well built of fine gray 
stone. The government is administered by a 
president, under the governor-in-chief of the 
Leeward group, assisted by an executive coun- 
cil and a representative assembly.—This island 
was discovered by Columbus in 1498. In 1682 
a party of Irish Roman Catholics from a neigh- 
boring island settled on it; and after a French 
invasion in 1664 it was restored to Britain by 
the treaty of Breda on July 20, 1667. It was 
again seized by the French in 1782, and finally 
made over to England by the treaty of Ver- 
sailles, Sept. 8, 1783. On March 30, 1872, 
Montserrat, Antigua, St. Christopher, Nevis, 
the Virgin Islands, and Dominica were consti- 
tuted a single colony under one governor-in- 
chief. Previously the island had a separate 
government, consisting of a lieutenant gover- 
nor or president, and a single chamber styled 
the legislative council. 

MONTSERRAT, a mountain of Spain. 
MoNSERRAT. 2 

MONTUCLA, Jean Etienne, a French mathema- 
tician, born in Lyons, Sept. 5, 1725, died in 
Versailles, Dec. 18, 1799. After studying at 
the Jesuits’ college of Lyons and the law school 
of Toulouse, he went to Paris, where he be- 
came connected with the Gazette de France. 
In 1761 he was appointed intendant-secretary 
at Grenoble, and in 1764 he accompanied the 
chevalier Turgot as first secretary and astron- 
omer of his colonizing expedition to Cayenne. 
On returning to France, he became com- 
missioner of the royal buildings, and after- 
ward royal censor. The former office he held 
for 25 years, till the revolution deprived him 
of it. He received a pension of 2,400 francs 
only a few months before his death. He was 
a member of the institute from its foundation, 
and in 1755 became a member of the academy 
of Berlin. He published anonymously Histoire 
des recherches sur la quadrature du _ cercle 
(1754; new ed., 1831), and was the author of 
numerous other works, the principal of which 
was Histoire des mathématiques (2 vols., Paris, 
1758; completed by Lalande, 1802). 

MONTYON, or Monthyon, Antoine Jean Baptiste 
Robert Anget, baron de, a French philanthropist, 


See 


798 MONZA 


born in Paris, Dec. 23 or 26, 1733, died there, 
Dec. 29, 1820. He was successively intendant 
of the provinces of Provence, Auvergne, and 
Aunis. As member of the royal council he pro- 
tested against the dissolution of ancient par- 
liaments decreed by Chancellor Maupeou, and 
was deprived of his office. Soon after the ac- 
cession of Louis XVI. he was appointed coun- 
cillor of state, became in 1780 chancellor of 
the count d’Artois (afterward Charles X.), em- 
igrated to England on the breaking out of the 
revolution, and did not return until the second 
restoration. He possessed a princely fortune, 
and devoted the larger portion to philanthro- 
pic purposes, founding prizes, assisting his 
exiled countrymen, and bequeathing to French 
hospitals over 38,000,000 francs. 
the French academy distributes two Mon- 
tyon prizes on a foundation of 10,000 francs 
each: one to the poor person who has per- 


formed the most meritorious deed of virtue; 


the other to the author of the work most 
useful for the improvement of public morals. 
Two others of equal amount are awarded by 
the academy of sciences: one to him who 
shall have found during the year some im- 
provement of the medical and surgical art; 
the other to him who shall have discovered the 
means of rendering some mechanical art less 
unhealthy. Montyon published an Hloge du 
chancelier de V Hopital (Paris, 1777); Recher- 
ches et considérations sur la population de la 
France (1778); an essay on the influence of 
the discovery of America upon Europe, which 
won a prize at the French academy; Quelle 
influence ont les diverses espéces @impots sur la 
moralité, Pactivité et Vindustrie des peuples? 
(1808); and some other writings. 

MONZA, a city of Italy, in Lombardy, on the 
river Lambro, which divides it into almost equal 
parts, 9m. N. N. E. of Milan; pop. about 16,000. 
Monza was once walled and defended by a 
castle; the walls are now levelled. The most 
important building is the cathedral, founded by 
Queen Theodelinda in 595, and reconstructed 
in the 18th and 14th centuries. It contains 
many relics of the Lombard kingdom, of which 
Monza was the capital. The most celebrated 
relic is the iron crown which was used for the 
coronation of the kings of Lombardy and the 
emperors who subsequently claimed that title. 
It is mainly of gold, and takes its name from 
a thin band of iron, said to have been ham- 
mered from a nail of the true cross. Napoleon 
I. was the first who wore it after the emperor 
Charles V. It was carried off by the Austrians 
in 1859, but was returned in 1866. The palace 
of Monza is surrounded by a celebrated park. 

MOODY, aS. E. county of Dakota, bordering 
on Minnesota, recently formed, and not inclu- 
ded in the census of 1870; area, 528sq.m. It 
is intersected by the Big Sioux river, and lies 
partly on the Plateau du Ooteau des Prairies. 

MOOLTAN, or Multan, a city of British India, 
in the Punjaub, 193 m. 8. W. of Lahore, with 
which it is connected by railway, and 3 m. from 


Every year | 


MOON 


the left bank of the river Chenaub; pop. about 
60,000. It is 8m. in circumference, and has 
lofty houses but narrow streets, and the nu- 
merous bazaars and shops are also narrow. 
It is overlooked on the north by a fortress, 
whose walls, which are 40 ft. high on the out- 


Tomb of Rookum Alum, Mooltan. 


side, have 80 towers. In one of the angles of 
its interior is a large pagoda, supposed to be 
1,000 years old, containing the graves of Roo- 
kum Alum and many of his descendants. The 
local and foreign trade is extensive. The sta- 
ple manufactures are silks, cottons, shawls, 
longees, brocades, and tissues. In the vicinity 
are extensive fruit gardens, and many ruins 
of tombs and of religious edifices. It is one 
of the most ancient cities of Hindostan. The 
English gained possession of it in 1849, after 
expelling the Sikhs. 

MOON, the satellite of the earth, the nearest 
of the heavenly bodies to us, It is an opaque 
spheroid 2,159°8 m. in diameter, shining by re- 
flecting the light of the sun. Situated at an aver- 
age distance of 238,818 m., the moon revolves 
about the earth in 27°32166 days, this being 
her mean sidereal revolution. To this motion 
are due her monthly phases. The course of 
these, however, is only completed in a lunar 
month, or synodical revolution, the mean 
length of which amounts to 293059 days. 
For the phases depend on the moon’s position 
with respect to the sun, which is constantly 
advancing in the direction of her motion; so 
that, after completing 360° of her orbit, she has 
the whole amount of the sun’s monthly progress, 
which is an are of about 29°, to pass over be- 
fore she can complete her course of phases. 


MOON 


The former period is sometimes called the side- 
real month, the latter the synodic month. When 
not eclipsed, she always presents to the sun an 
illuminated hemisphere; her phases depend on 
the amount of that hemisphere turned toward 
the earth. If the earth is directly between 
her and the sun, we see all of it; if she is be- 
tween us and the sun, we see none of it; if 
she is midway between these positions, we 
see half of it. In the first position, she is said 
to be in opposition; in the second, in conjunc- 
tion; in the third, in quadrature, or quarter; 
and her phases, in order, are known familiar- 
ly as new, crescent, half-moon, gibbous, and 
full—From the constancy of the physical fea- 
tures of the moon’s disk, it is evident that she 
always presents to us the same hemisphere. 
To do this she must turn upon her axis pre- 
cisely once while making one revolution in her 
orbit. This appears to be the general law of 
the motions of the satellites. But it is not 
quite accurate to say that the moon constantly 
presents the same hemisphere to every ob- 
server upon the earth. Her axis of rotation 
being inclined one degree and a half to her 
orbit, and maintaining the same general direc- 
tion in space as she moves roupd the earth, she 
appears to nod backward and forward in an 
arc of about 13° in the course of every revo- 
lution, exposing to view the regions just be- 
yond her N. and S. poles alternately. Nor is 


taken by Prof. H. Draper, 
ew York, 


Full Moon, from eng en 


this all, As the moon’s orbit, like that of 
every other planetary body, is an ellipse, her 
orbital velocity is not uniform, being most 
rapid when she is nearest the earth. Thus she 
sometimes gets ahead of her mean place, and 
sometimes lags behind it; and as her axial ro- 
tation is absolutely uniform, we are enabled to 
look over her edge, so to speak, now on the 
eastern and now on the western side. The 
arc through which she oscillates in this way 
amounts to more than 15°. And agaio, the 


572 VOL. x1.—51 


799 


constancy of the direction of her hither hemi- 
sphere is to be referred to the earth’s centre, 
so that the observer, situated upon the extrem- 
ity of the earth’s radius, views her from an 
elevation of nearly 4,000 m.; and when she is 
in the horizon it is plain he can look over her 
elevated edge, as it were. The oscillation thus 
occasioned is much smaller than either of the 
others, amounting only to about 2°. These 
several exposures are called the moon’s libra- 
tions: the first her libration in latitude; the 
second her libration in longitude; the third 
her diurnal libration. The absolute maximum 
librations from the moon’s mean position are 
as follows: libration in latitude, 6° 44’; in lon- 
gitude, 7° 45’; diurnal, 1° 14’. If the whole 
surface of the moon be regarded as equal to 
10,000, then instead of seeing only 5,000 parts, 
as we should do if there were no libration, our 
range of view extends over 5,802 parts with- 
out taking the diurnal libration into account, 
and over 5,889 parts if diurnal libration be 
considered. So that only 4,111 parts of the 
moon out of 10,000 remain absolutely con- 
cealed from human ken.—To the casual ob- 
server the motions of the moon in different sea- 
sons of the year seem exceedingly irregular. 
She is sometimes seen, at the full, coursing 
along a circle which passes near the zenith in 
these latitudes, and sometimes, in the same 
phase, along an arc low down in the southern 
sky. It is plain that this is mainly owing to 
the inclination of the earth’s equator to the 
ecliptic; but there is a large residual effect 
which is due to the inclination of the moon’s 
orbit to the plane of the ecliptic, amounting to 
5° 8’, so that during one half of her orbit she 
is south of the sun’s annual path, and during 
the remaining half north of it. The points 
where she crosses the ecliptic are known as 
her nodes; that at which she passes from the 
southern to the northern side of the line is 
called her ascending node, the other her de- 
scending node. If the ecliptic were a line of 
light ever conspicuous in the sky, and the 
moon’s path intersecting it also a conspicuous 
line of light, the place of crossing would be 
seen to be different every month, being re- 
moved further and further to the westward 
at intervals of about three diameters of the 
moon. This at least is the average rate of the 
motion; for the motion is not only not uni- 
form, but is at times reversed. It is known 
as the retrograde motion of the nodes; the 
period of completing the whole circuit of the 
ecliptic is 18°5997 years. The orbit of the 
moon being an ellipse, having the earth at one 
of its foci, her distance varies in different 
parts of her monthly course. The nearest 
point of her orbit is called perigee, the furthest 
apogee; the two are knownas apsides. These 
points are not fixed, but move forward (on the 
whole) from west to east, occupying succes- 
sively every position in the circumference of 
the ellipse in the course of 8°8505 years. These 
two remarkable motions, viz., of the nodes and 


800 


of the apsides, are due to the disturbing action 
of the sun.—The moon’s surface has no obvious 
indications of water, nor of an atmosphere. 
Mr. C. B. Boyle of New York, however, who has 
long made a special study of the moon, main- 
tains that she has a slight atmosphere, and that 
she has also water in the shape of numerous 
small ponds, which for optical reasons are not 
always visible through the telescope, but have 
occasionally been noticed by astronomers as 
bright sparkling points. Schroter (about 1800) 
claimed to have discovered indications of vege- 
tation on the surface of the moon. These con- 
sist of certain traces of a greenish tint which 
appear and reappear periodically ; much as the 
white spots covering the polar regions of Mars, 
supposed to be snow and ice, are observed to 
increase in the winter and waste in the sum- 
mer of those regions of the planet. As we are 
able, under the most favorable conditions, to use 
upon the moon telescopic powers which have 
the effect of bringing the satellite to within 150 
to 120 m. of us, we should doubtless notice any 
such marked changes on her surface as the pas- 
-sage of the seasons produces, for example, on 
our own globe. In the most powerful instru- 
ments yet constructed the surface of the moon 
presents a scene of wildest desolation. In every 
direction are circular caverns or pits, many of 
enormous size; the floor of one is seen to be 
strewn with huge blocks. The inner walls are 
commonly steep, and their depth often fright- 
ful, being many thousand feet. They are sur- 
rounded by annular ridges, the masses of which 
would exactly fill the enclosed cavities. In the 
centre commonly rises a conical mountain. All 


Moon at the First Quarter, from Photographs taken by 
Prof. H. Draper, New York. 


this plainly points to a volcanic origin. There 
ie large regions perfectly level, which Sir John 
Herschel considered to be of a decided alluvial 
character. There are great rings of mountains 
enclosing areas of 40 to 120 m, in diameter. 
From these ranges shoot up stupendous peaks, 


MOON 


one to the height of 16,000 ft. Isolated peaks 
here and there rise abruptly from extended 
plains to the height of 6,000 to 7,000 ft. These 
elevations are determined by calculations based 
on the height of the sun above the horizon of 
the lunar place under inspection, and the length 
of the shadows cast. The most favorable 
time for observing these remarkable features 
is when the moon is about half full. Beyond 
the illuminated hemisphere mountain peaks, 
rising miles above the average level of the 
surface, are then bathed in sunlight, while 
the intermediate space is veiled in darkness, 
Thus the peaks are at such a time seen as sil- 
ver points detached from the bright crescent; 
or, if they form a chain stretching toward the 


‘rising sun, they may appear as ragged promon- 


tories of light jutting far out into the darkness. 
An admirable chart of the moon has been con- 
structed by the eminent Prussian observers, 
Beer and Madler, whose work, Der Mond, must 
be consulted for a full account of the physical 
condition of our satellite. They place the 
height of one mountain at 23,823 ft. This, 
considering the relative magnitudes of the 
moon and the earth, is far more stupendous 
than any known elevation of terrestrial sur- 
face. More recefttly Schmidt of Athens, Greece, 
has made an elaborate series of observations, 
extending over the years 1839-’72. The diame- 
ter of the chart constructed from these obser- 
vations is to be six Paris feet, and it is to be 
published in 25 sections. The application of 
photography to the moon, though it has not 
yet resulted in giving maps comparable in ac- 
curacy of detail with those by Beer and Miad- 
ler, and by Schmidt, has yet given pictures of 
extreme value and interest. In 1840 Dr. J. W. 
Draper of New York first succeeded in photo- 
graphing the moon. With a telescope 5 in. in 
aperture he obtained pictures on silver plates, 
and presented them to the lyceum of natural 
history of New York. Bond of Cambridge, 
Mass., made photographic pictures 2 in. in 
diameter with the refractor of the Harvard 
observatory in 1850. Since then, Secchi in 
Rome, Bertch and Arnauld in France, and 
Phillips, Hartnup, Crookes, De la Rue, and 
others in England, have made lunar photo- 
graphs, some of those by De la Rue being ad- 
mirable. Dr. H. Draper and Mr. Rutherfurd of 
New York have taken some of the finest pho- 
tographic views yet produced. To one of the 
photographs by Rutherfurd (taken Feb. 27, 
1871) De la Rue ascribes the palm of absolute 
superiority among all the lunar photographs 
yet taken.—The mass of the moon is not accu- 
rately known, though the most trustworthy 
determinations agree in placing it at about .4, 
part of the mass of the earth. The mass of 
the moon is intimately associated with her dis- 
tance and motions. It is best determined from 
the nutation of the earth’s axis (see Nura- 
TION), and when determined must be added 
to the earth’s mass in calculating the deflecting 
action of the mutual gravitation of the earth 


MOORCROFT 


and moon, a reduction being made for the 
sun’s perturbing influence. As the actual de- 
flection is known, and can therefore be com- 
pared with the result thus theoretically deter- 
mined, we have a means of testing the various 
determinations of the moon’s distance. Prof. 
Colbert of Chicago considers that the lunar 
elements deduced balance each other most sat- 
isfactorily if we take the following values: 
mean equatorial horizontal parallax, 57! 0°67"; 
mean distance in miles, 238,973; mass of moon 
to earth’s as 1 to 81:38; and thence he deduces: 
diameter of moon, 2,160°35 m.; volume of moon 
to earth’s as 1 to 49°2; density, earth’s as 1, 
0°6044; distance of centre of orbit from the 
earth’s centre, 13,121°5 m.; mean distance of 
centre of gravity of earth and moon from the 
earth’s centre, 2,900°86 m. It may be remarked, 
however, that the various elements dealt with 
are not as yet determined so exactly that very 
much reliance can be placed on the method of 
testing here indicated. It is to be noted, in 
passing, that the term lunar parallax as com- 
monly used is applied (not quite correctly, 
however) in such a way that the earth’s radius, 
instead of being to the distance as cosecant of 
the parallax, bears to it the ratio, arc : radius, 
(See Chauvenet’s ‘ Astronomy.”) The faint 
apparition of the entire lunar disk at the time 
of new moon is considered to be due to the 
reflection of the light received from the earth, 
whose illuminated hemisphere is then turned 
toward her. (See supplement.) 

MOORCROFT, William, an English traveller, 
born in Lancashire about 1780, died at And- 
khui, between Bokhara and Cabool, Aug. 27, 
1825. He was a veterinary surgeon, and went 
to India in 1808 as superintendent of the East 
India company’s stud in Bengal. With the 
view of introducing stallions from the neigh- 
borhood of Balkh and Bokhara, and at the 
same time of establishing commercial inter- 
course with the trans-Himalayan districts, he 
travelled beyond the Himalaya in 1812 and 
1819, pursuing a route in which no European 
had preceded him, determining the sources of 
some of the rivers of Punjaub, and visiting 
Ladakh, Serinagur, Cabool, and Bokhara. He 
purchased several valuable horses, with which 
he set out on his return in the summer of 1825, 
but died of fever, under suspicious circum- 
stances. An account of his explorations up to 
his arrival at Bokhara was published by Prof. 
H. H. Wilson, ‘‘ Travels in the Himalayan Prov- 
inces of Hindustan and the Punjab, in Ladakh 
and Kashmir,” &c. (London, 1841). 

MOORE. I. A central county of North Caro- 
lina, drained by Deep, Little, and Lumber riv- 
ers; area, about 700 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 12,- 
040, of whom 8,019 were colored. It has a di- 
versified surface, and the soil is fertile near the 
streams. The Western railroad of North Caro- 
lina passes through it. The chief productions 
in 1870 were 56,828 bushels of wheat, 170,450 
of Indian corn, 45,545 of oats, 52,906 of sweet 
potatoes, 21,751 lbs. of tobacco, 14,209 of wool, 


MOORE 801 


68,072 of butter, and 930 bales of cotton. There 
were 1,435 horses, 644 mules and asses, 3,616 
milch cows, 5,508 other cattle, 10,072 sheep, 
and 15,125 swine. Capital, Carthage. IL A 
S. county of middle Tennessee, bounded 8. by 
Elk river; area, about 160 sq.m. It was formed 
in 1872 from portions of Franklin and Lincoln 
counties. The surface is diversified and the 
soil generally fertile. Capital, Lynchburg. 

MOORE, Alfred, an American jurist, great- 
grandson of Sir Nathaniel Moore, governor 
of Carolina in 1705, born in Brunswick co., 
N. C., May 21, 1755, died at Belfont, N. C., 
Oct. 15, 1810. At the age of 20 he became 
captain in a regiment of North Carolina troops, 
commanded by his uncle Col. James Moore. 
He subsequently resigned, but when the British 
seized Wilmington, he raised a troop of volun- 
teers, with whom he rendered great service to 
the American cause. The war left him penni- 
less, and the general assembly in 1790 made 
him attorney general; and though he had not 
yet mastered the first rudiments of law, he 
soon attained by hard study a foremost rank 
in his profession, was raised to the bench in 
1798, and became associate justice of the su- 
preme court of the United States in 1799. He 
resigned in 1805. 

MOORE. I. Benjamin, an American bishop, 
born in Newtown, L. I., Oct. 5, 1748, died at 
Greenwich, Conn., Feb. 27, 1816. He gradu- 
ated at King’s (now Columbia) college in 1768, 
was ordained in England as a minister of the 
Episcopal church in 1774, became an assistant 
minister of Trinity church in New York, and 
succeeded to the rectorship in 1800. On Sept. 
11, 1801, he was consecrated bishop of the state 
of New York, as successor of Bishop Provoost. 
He was also president of Columbia college. In 
February, 1811, he was attacked by paralysis, 
which rendered him incapable of further active 
duty. A collection of Bishop Moore’s sermons 
(2 vols. 8vo, New York) was published after his 
death by hisson Clement C. Moore. I. Clement 
Clarke, an American scholar, son of the prece- 
ding, born in New York, July 15, 1779, died in 
Newport, R. I., July 10, 1868. He graduated 
at Columbia college in 1798, and in December, 
1821, was appointed professor of Hebrew and 
Greek literature, and afterward of oriental and 
Greek literature, in the Protestant Episcopal 
seminary in New York. To this institution 
he gave from his family inheritance the large 
plot of ground on which it stands. He retired 
in June, 1850. Dr. Moore published a Hebrew 
and English lexicon (New York, 1809); a col- 
lection of ‘‘ Poems,” the best known of which 
is the “ Visit from St. Nicholas” (1844); and 


“¢ George Castriot, surnamed Scanderbeg, King 


of Albania” (1850). 

MOORE, Edward, an English poet, born in 
Abingdon, Berkshire, Aug. 22, 1712, died in 
London, Feb. 28, 1757. His first poetical work, 
entitled ‘‘ Fables for the Female Sex,” appeared 
in 1744. In 1750 he married Miss Hamilton, 
who secured a place in the royal household. 


802 


In 1751 he became editor of “‘The World,” in 
which his own articles appeared under the 
pseudonyme of Adam Fitz Adam. He was the 
author of two comedies, both of which failed. 
His tragedy of ‘‘ The Gamester ” (1753) achieved 
popularity, and is still performed. 

MOORE, Henry, an Irish clergyman, born in 
Dublin in 1751, died in 1843. Under the 
preaching of the Wesleys he united with the 
Methodists, was admitted to probation in 1779, 
labored several years in Ireland, and then be- 
came John Wesley’s confidential counsellor. 
He was successful as a revivalist, and founded 
numerous chapels. After the death of Wesley 
he was prominent in the discussion as to a 
church government, advocating the episcopal 
form. He also defended the itinerant system 
and the right of Wesleyan ministers to adminis- 
ter the sacraments. He was the last survivor of 
those whom Wesley had ordained. His princi- 
pal works are: ‘‘ Life of the Rev. John Wesley; 
A. M., including the Life of his Brother the Rev. 
Charles Wesley, and Memoirs of their Family” 
(1824), and ‘“‘ Memoir of Mary Fletcher.” 

MOORE. I. Jacob Bailey, an American author, 
born in Andover, N. H., Oct. 31, 1797, died at 
Bellows -Falls, Vt., Sept. 1, 1853. In early 
life he was a printer at Concord, N. H., in 
partnership with his brother-in-law Isaac Hill, 
and in 1823 he became a bookseller and pub- 
lisher. With the assistance of John Farmer he 
edited and published ‘‘ Collections, Topograph- 
ical, Historical, and Biographical, relating 
principally to New Hampshire ” (8 vols., 1822— 
4). From 1826 to 1829 he edited the ‘‘ New 
Hampshire Journal ;” he was sheriff of Merri- 
mack county from 1829 to 1834; and in 1839 
he edited the New York ‘Daily Whig.” For 
four years he was a government clerk at 
Washington; then he became librarian of the 
New York historical society, and from 1849 to 
1853 he was postmaster of San Francisco. His 
other principal works are: ‘‘ Annals of the 
Town of Concord,” with a memoir of the 
Penacook Indians (1824); ‘“ Laws of Trade in 
the United States ” (1840); and “Memoirs of 
American Governors” (1846). The last named 
work, left incomplete, was designed to embrace 
all the colonial and provincial governors to the 
revolution. I. George Henry, an American au- 
thor, son of the preceding, born in Concord, 
N. H., April 20, 1823. He went to New York 
in 1839, and became assistant librarian of the 
historical society in 1841 and librarian in 1849, 
which office he still holds (1875). He has pub- 
lished ‘‘ The Treason of Charles Lee” (1860), 
‘““Employment of Negroes in the Revolution- 
ary Army” (1862), ‘‘ Notes on the History of 
Slavery in Massachusetts” (1866), and ‘“ His- 
tory of the Jurisprudence of New York.” The 
university of New York has conferred upon 
him the degree of LL. D. TH. Frank, an Amer- 
ican editor, brother of the preceding, born in 
Concord, N. H., Dec. 17, 1828. He was sec- 
retary of legation at Paris in 1869-72. His 
principal work is ‘The Rebellion Record” 


MOORE 


(12 vols. 8vo, 1861-’71). He has also edited 
“Songs and Ballads of the American Revolu- 
tion’ (1856), ‘* Diary of the American Revo- 
lution” (2 vols. 8vo, 1860), ‘‘ Lyrics of Loy- 
alty”’? and ‘Rebel Rhymes and Rhapsodies ”’ 
(1864), and other works. 

MOORE, John, a Scottish author, born in Stir- 
ling in 1729, died at Richmond, near London, 
Feb. 28, 1802. He graduated at Glasgow, trav- 
elled extensively on the continent, chiefly as a 
private tutor, and afterward practised medicine 
in London. He wrote ‘A View of Society 
and Manners in France, Switzerland, and Ger- 
many” (London, 1779), of which several edi- 
tions and numerous translations were pub- 


lished within ten years; ‘‘ A View of Society 


and Manners in Italy” (1781); and “ Zeluco,” 
a novel (1789). A uniform edition of his 
writings, with a memoir, was prepared by Dr. 
Robert Anderson (7 vols. 8vo, Edinburgh, 1820). 

MOORE, Sir John, a British general, eldest 
son of the preceding, born in Glasgow, Nov. 
13, 1761, fell in battle at Corunna, Spain, Jan. 
16, 1809. He was educated chiefly on the 
continent while his father was travelling with 
the duke of Hamilton. He received a com- 
mission in the army in 1776, and served in 
Minorca and afterward in America till 1788, 
when his regiment was disbanded. He held a 
seat in parliament for a short time. In 1787 
he was made a major, and in 1790 he became 
lieutenant colonel of his regiment, which he 
accompanied in 1793 to Gibraltar. _In 1794 he 
was sent to Corsica, where he distinguished 
himself and was wounded. He was made brig- 
adier general in 1795, and in 1796 took part in 
the capture of the island of St. Lucia, West 
Indies, of which he was made governor. He 
completely subdued the bands of insurgent 
negroes, but ill health obliged him to return 
home in 1797. During the Irish rebellion of 
1798 he served on the staff of Sir Ralph Aber- 
cromby, and was promoted to the rank of major 
general. In June, 1799, he accompanied the 
duke of York on his disastrous expedition to 
Holland, and was severely wounded. In the 
Egyptian expedition in 1801 he received a 
sabre wound in the chest and a bullet in the 
thigh. On the surrender of Alexandria he re- 
turned to England and was knighted. He 
afterward went to Sicily, and thence, in May, 
1808, at the head of about 10,000 men, to 
Sweden to assist in the defence of that country 
against Napoleon. He had difficulty with Gus- 
tavus Adolphus IV., returned with his troops 
to England, and was sent to Portugal, where, 
after the expulsion of the French, he was ap- 
pointed to the command of the army intended 
to codperate with the Spanish forces in the pen- 
insula. He advanced from Lisbon in October, 
1808, but discovered that the patriotic zeal 
which had been expected did not exist, and the 
Spanish forces were defeated at all points. He 
lingered awhile at Salamanca; but Napoleon 
at the head of a large force, supported by the 
whole of the French armies in the peninsula, 


MOORE 


was advancing to surround him. His retreat, 
which began Dec. 11, was through a moun- 
tainous and dreary region. The British rear 
guard quitted Astorga Dec. 81, and, having 
three times checked their pursuers, joined the 
main army at Lugo, where for two days battle 
was offered to Soult by Moore, but not accept- 
ed. The retreat commenced afresh, and they 
reached Corunna Jan. 11, 1809, and five days 
afterward repulsed the enemy in the battle in 
which their commander fell by a cannon shot. 
(See Corunna.) Soult caused a monument to 
be erected to his memory, which is also pre- 
served in the well known lines written upon 
his burial by Charles Wolfe. The British par- 
liament had a monument erected to him in St. 
Paul’s cathedral; and his native city raised a 
bronze statue to his memory at a cost of £3,000. 

MOORE, Nathaniel F.. an American scholar, 
born in Newtown, L. I., Dec. 25, 1782, died near 
New York, April 27, 1872. He was a nephew 
of Bishop Benjamin Moore, graduated at Co- 
lumbia college, New York, in 1802, and was 
admitted to the bar in 1805. He was appointed 
in 1817 adjunct professor and in 1820 professor 
of the Greek and Latin languages in Columbia 
college, retaining his chair till 1835, when he 
visited Europe. In 1837 he was appointed 
librarian of the college, and in 1842 he suc- 
ceeded Judge Duer in the presidency, from 
which he retired in 1849. He published ** An- 
cient Mineralogy’ (New York, 1834; new ed., 
1859); ‘‘ Remarks on the Pronunciation of the 
Greek Language,” in reply to a pamphlet by 
Mr. Pickering; ‘‘ Lectures on the Greek Lan- 
guage and Literature;” and a ‘‘ Historical 
Sketch of Columbia College.” 

MOORE, Richard Channing, an American bishop, 
born in New York, Aug. 21, 1762, died in 
Lynchburg, Va., Nov..11, 1841. He was edu- 
cated in Columbia college, and studied medi- 
cine, but in July, 1787, was ordained a deacon 
of the Protestant Episcopal church by Bishop 
Provoost of New York, being the first Episco- 
pal minister who received orders in that state. 
He was rector of a parish ‘embracing the whole 
of Staten Island from 1789 to 1809, and after- 
ward of St. Stephen’s church, New York. In 
1814 he was elected to succeed Bishop Madison 
as bishop of Virginia, and was till his death 
also rector of the Monumental church in Rich- 
mond. The prosperity of the church in the 
diocese was greatly increased by his unremit- 
ting efforts. He was a prominent leader of the 
evangelical branch of the church. In 1829 
Bishop Meade was appointed his assistant. 

MOORE, Thomas, an Irish poet, born in Dub- 
lin, May 28, 1779, died at Sloperton cottage, 
Devizes, Wiltshire, Feb. 25, 1852. By his 
father, John Moore, a grocer, he was brought 
up in the Roman Catholic faith ; and at school 
he acquired a taste for music, recitation, and 
dramatic performances. As early as 1793 he 
became a contributor of short poems to the 
** Anthologia Hibernica,” a Dublin magazine. 
He graduated at Trinity college, Dublin, in 


803 


1798, and in 1799 went to London to study law 
in the Middle Temple, carrying with him a 
translation of the odes of Anacreon commenced 
in his school days, which he published by sub- 
scription (1800). It proved successful; and 
gaining the acquaintance of the earl of Moira, 
he was introduced to some of the fashionable 
circles of the metropolis. In 1801 he published 
‘The Poetical Works of the late Thomas Lit- 
tle, Esq.,” a pseudonyme suggested by - his 
diminutive stature. With much that was pol- 
ished, tender, and natural, the volume contained 
many pieces of questionable morality, which 
were afterward excluded from the collected 
edition of his poems. In 1808 he was appoint- 
ed registrar to the admiralty in Bermuda, 
where he arrived in January, 1804. The office 
was neither lucrative nor adapted to his tastes; 
and intrusting his business to a deputy, he re- 
turned to England, having first made a rapid 
tour through a portion of the United States 
and Canada. His ‘‘ Odes and Epistles” (1806) 
presented a series of poetical notes of his pro- 
gress and comments upon American institutions 
and literature. This volume was severely han- 
dled by Jeffrey in an article in the “‘ Edinburgh 
Review.” Moore challenged the reviewer, and 
a meeting took place, which was interrupted by 
the police before a shot had been fired. It was 
subsequently discovered that one of the pistols 
had no bullet, and Byron, in his ‘‘ English Bards 
and Scotch Reviewers,” made a ludicrous allu- 
sion to “‘ Little’s leadless pistol,” for which he 
was called to account by Moore. A second duel 
was however avoided, and thenceforth Moore 
was on terms of warm friendship with both 
Jeffrey and Byron. In 1811 he married Miss 
Bessie Dyke, a young actress, and adopted liter- 
ature as a profession. Having tried his hand 
at serious satire in his “‘ Corruption,” ‘ Intol- 
erance,’” and the ‘Sceptic” (1808-’9), he at- 
tempted jeux d’esprit and political squibs, wri- 
ting among others the ‘“‘ Twopenny Post-Bag ” 
(1812), which like most of his similar pieces 
was in the interest of the whig party. In 
July, 18138, he was established at Mayfield cot- 
tage, near Ashbourne in Derbyshire. Here 
were written many of the songs adapted to 
the ancient music of his native country, known 
as ‘‘Jrish Melodies” (1807-’84). They were 
commenced at the suggestion of Mr. Power, a 
music publisher, and were extended to ten 
series. For the arrangement of the melodies 
he was indebted to Sir John Stevenson. These 
songs have enjoyed a popularity beyond that 
of any similar poems in the English language. 
He also published two series of ‘‘ Sacred Melo- 
dies”? (1816), six series of ‘‘ National Airs” 
(1819-28), *‘ Legendary Ballads” (18380), and 
many miscellaneous pieces, the airs and ar- 
rangements for which were prepared by Sir 
John Stevenson or himself. In the latter part 
of 1814 Moore agreed to furnish the Messrs. 
Longman with a poem of the same length as 
Scott’s ‘‘Rokeby,” for which he was paid 
£3,000. The idea of writing an oriental ro- 


804 MOORE 


mance had occurred to him several years pre- 
vious, and at the time of making the contract 
much of the preliminary reading and a portion 
of the poem were already completed. Two more 
years of labor produced his “‘ Lalla Rookh,” the 
most elaborate of his works (1817), a series of 
four eastern stories, connected by a thread of 
prose. This poem has passed through number- 
less editions, and has been translated into Per- 
sian. After its publication the poet accompanied 
Rogers to Paris, where he obtained the mate- 
rials for his ‘‘ Fudge Family in Paris” (1818), 
which was succeeded in 1819 by ‘‘Tom Crib’s 
Memorial to Congress.” About this time, at 
the request of the marquis of Lansdowne, he 
took up his residence at Sloperton cottage, 
_ near Bowood, Wiltshire, the seat of that no- 
bleman. Having become involved, through 
his agent in Bermuda, in liabilities amounting 
to £6,000, in September, 1819, he went to 
Paris to avoid arrest, declining many offers of 
assistance. Soon after he accompanied Lord 
John Russell to Italy, and visited Byron at 
Venice. His impressions of travel were re- 
corded in his ‘‘ Rhymes on the Road,” pub- 
lished with the ‘‘ Fables for the Holy Alliance” 
in 1823. Establishing himself in Paris in 
1820, he sent for his family and resumed his 
literary pursuits. In 1822, after negotiation. 
the claim against him was reduced to 1,000 
guineas, toward the discharge of which the 
uncle of his agent contributed £300, while the 
marquis of Lansdowne lent Moore the balance; 
and he returned to Wiltshire. His “‘ Loves of 
the Angels” appeared in 1823, the “ Life of 
Sheridan” in 1825, and ‘“‘The Epicurean,” a 
prose fiction, in 1829. _ His most important 
prose work was his ‘‘ Notices of the Life of 
Lord Byron” (2 vols. 4to, 1830), founded on 
the journals and memorandum books of the 
poet, and a mass of correspondence furnished 
by the publisher Murray and others. Ten 
years before Byron had intrusted to Moore an 
autobiography extending to 1820, to be pub- 
lished after his death, which Moore in 1821 
disposed of to Murray for £2,000. The sudden 
death of Byron in 1824 revealed the existence 
and projected publication of this manuscript, 
and Moore was persuaded into an arrangement 
by which it was repurchased from Murray and 
burned, on the ground that it contained dis- 
closures affecting the character of many per- 
sons, living and dead. The objectionable pas- 
sages, according to Lord John Russell, did not 
exceed three or four pages. With such mate- 
rials as were subsequently procured he com- 
piled a biography, for which he received from 
Murray £4,870. His remaining works com- 
prise ‘The Summer Féte” (1831), a poem; 
‘“‘ Memoirs of Lord Edward Fitzgerald ” (1831) ; 
“Travels of an Irish Gentleman in Search of a 
Religion” (1833); and the ‘History of Ire- 
land” (4 vols. 12mo, 1835), written for Lard- 
ner’s ‘‘ Cabinet Cyclopedia.” He wrote little 
else beyond an occasional trifle in verse for the 
periodicals, and the prefaces and a few addi- 


MOORS 


tions to a collected edition of his poetical 
works, published by the Longmans in 1840-41, 
in 10 vols. His latter years were clouded by 
domestic grief, his children having all died be- 
fore him, and by mental imbecility caused by 
softening of the brain, In 1835 a literary 
pension of £300 was conferred upon him. 
His “‘ Memoirs, Journal, and Correspondence ” 
were sold for £3,000 to the Longmans, who 
published them in 8 vols. (1852-’6), under the 
editorial supervision of Lord John Russell, 
in accordance with the testamentary desire of 
the poet. The journal embraces the period 
between 1818 and 1847. 

MOORE, Zephaniah Swift, an American clergy- 
man, born in Palmer, Mass., Nov. 20, 1770, 
died June 80, 18238. He graduated at Dart- 
mouth college in 1793, was principal of the 
Londonderry academy in 1793-4, entered the 
ministry, and preached at Leicester from 1798 
to 1811, when he was appointed professor of 
languages in Dartmouth college. He was 
chosen president of Williams college in 1815, 
but failing to procure the removal of the in- 
stitution to the banks of the Connecticut, he 
resigned in 1821, and was chosen president of 
Amherst college. 

MOOR FOWL. See Prarmican. 

MOORS (Lat. Mauri; Sp. Moros; Dutch, 
Moors), the people of Mauritania or Morocco 
and adjoining parts. The Arabs who con- 
quered Mauritania in the 7th century con- 
verted to Mohammedanism the native popula- 
tion, who in Europe were still called Moors, 
though in their own language they called 
themselves Berbers, while by the Arabs they 
were termed Moghrebin, ‘‘men of the west.” 
Arabic manners and customs, and in a corrupt 
form the Arabic language, soon prevailed in 
the country, the Arab conquerors freely amal~ 
gamating with their converts, who far ex- 
ceeded them in numbers. In 711 an army 
drawn from this mixed population crossed 
the straits at Gibraltar, so named from their 
Arab leader, and began the conquest of the 
Spanish peninsula. The Spaniards and Portu- 
guese called these invaders Moors because 
they came from Mauritania, and the term 
Moors with them soon became synonymous 
with Mohammedans or Moslems, as the in- 
vaders designated themselves. The Spanish 
writers subsequently applied the term to all 
the Mohammedans of northern Africa; and 
when, at the close of the 15th century, the 
Portuguese made their way around the cape 
of Good Hope and encountered the Arabs on 
the coasts of E. Africa and of S. Asia, they 
still called them Moors. Even the Turks, who 
in race, language, and everything but religion, 
were foreign and alien to both Moors and 
Arabs, were sometimes loosely spoken of as 
Moors by the Spanish historians. In 1246 
Mohammed ibn Alahmar, king of Granada, 
became vassal of Ferdinand III. of Castile, and 
from this time the Moorish rule declined in 
Spain, until it received its death blew from 


MOORSHEDABAD 


MOOSEHEAD LAKE 805 


Ferdinand the Catholic, who in 1492 raised the | height of the bird when standing erect is 5 ft., 


cross on. the walls of Granada. After this 
event many of the Moors emigrated to north- 
ern Africa, where they were inhospitably re- 
ceived by the Arabs, but found a home in the 
coast cities. The remnant in Spain, named 
Moriscoes, were subjected to a bloody persecu- 
tion by Philip II., and were finally and com- 
pletely expelled from Spain by Philip II. in 
1609. (See Span.) 

MOORSHEDABAD, a town of British India, in 
Bengal, 124 m. N. of Calcutta; pop. about 
150,000, including 90,000 Brahmans and 56,000 
Mussulmans. It is the most populous town of 
the district of Moorshedabad (area, 2,705 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1872,. 1,355,549), but has been 
superseded by Berhampore as the capital. The 
town comprises Moorshedabad proper on the 
EK. bank of the Bhagruttee (an arm of the 
Ganges) and Mahinagar on the W. bank; it 
extends N. and S. about 8 m., with an average 
breadth of 4 m. It consists chiefly of mud 
buildings, but contains a splendid palace of 
dazzling whiteness, beautifully situated, and 
completed in 1840; and there is also a native 
college. The commerce in silk and indigo, the 
staple products, is considerable, and the situa- 
tion of the town is the most favorable on the 
water route between Calcutta and the North- 
western Provinces; but the port is inaccessible 
during the spring except for the smallest craft. 
The defective drainage makes the place very 
unhealthy. It was once the capital of Bengal, 
and so. prosperous that Clive used to compare 
it to the city of London; but it has greatly 
declined. The court of the titular nawaub of 
Bengal, however, still ‘‘plays here its farce of 
mimic state,” according to Hunter’s ‘ Our In- 
dian Mussulmans” (London, 1874). 

_ MOORUK, the native name of a species of 
struthious bird, discovered in 1857 in the island 


Mooruk (Casuarius Bennetti). 


of New Britain, and named by Mr. John Gould 
casuarius Bennetti, in honor of Dr. George 
Bennett of Sydney, N.S. W., who first brought 
it to the notice of the scientific world. The 


of which the neck is 2 ft.; the color rufous 
mixed with black on the back, and raven black 
about the neck and breast; the loose wavy skin 
of the neck is iridescent, with tints of bluish 
purple, pink, and green; the feet and legs are 
large and strong, pale ash-colored, the claw of 
the inner toe being nearly three times as long 
as the others; there is a horny plate on the 
top of the head, resembling pearl covered with 
black lead; the bill is narrower, longer, and 
more curved than in the emu, somewhat like 
that of a rail, with a black leathery cere at the 
base, and a small tuft of black hair-like feath- 
ers behind the plate, continued here and there 
over the neck; the wings are rudimentary. 
Living specimens have been exhibited at the 
London zodlogical gardens. It seems.to form 
the link between the emu and the cassowary, 
resembling the former in its bearing and gait; 
it also resembles the kiwi-kiwi (apteryz) in the 
style of its motions and attitudes; itis tame and 
familiar in captivity, and when pleased dances 
about its place of confinement; it will thrive on 
boiled potatoes, with occasionally a little meat; 
it emits a peculiar whistling chirping sound, 
and some louder notes resembling the name 
given it by the natives; it is shy, difficult to 
approach, and still more difficult to pursue on 
account of its speed in running through the 
thick brush and its extraordinary power of 
leaping; it has all the inquisitiveness of the 
domesticated fowls, The eggs are of about the 
same size and form as those of the common 
cassowary, having in most cases thick tubercu- 
lated shells; they vary from 138 to 14 in. in cir- 
cumference in the longest diameter, and from 
11 to 114 in the widest; the color is pale olive 
green, with darker olive tubercles; sometimes 
they are smooth and without spots.—Another 
struthious bird is the C. australis (Wall), dis- 
covered in the Cape York district of Australia 
in 1854. It is about the same size as the moo- 
ruk; the head is without feathers, covered 
with a bluish skin, and has a bright red protu- 
berance or helmet; the skin of the neck has 
six or eight round fleshy balls of blue and scar- 
let; the body is thickly covered with dark 
brown wiry feathers; the wings are mere ru- 
diments. The flesh was eaten by its captors, 
and was said to be delicious. It is stronger 
and heavier than the emu, very wary, and not 
easily killed except with the rifle. 

MOOSE. See Exx. 

MOOSEHEAD LAKE, an irregular sheet of water 
on the borders of Somerset and Piscataquis 
counties, Me., the largest lake in the state and 
the source of Kennebec river, about 35 m. long 
and from 8 to 12 m. wide. It is situated 1,023 
ft. above the level of the sea, in the midst of a 
wild and as yet mostly uninhabited region, 2 
m. §. of the Penobscot and 75 m. N. by E. of 
Augusta. The densely wooded shores, which 
in general are but slightly elevated, rise in 
Spencer mountain, at the head of Spencer bay 
on the E. shore, to a height of 4,000 ft. Owing 


806 MOOSE. WOOD 


to the varied nature of the surrounding scenery 
and to the vast numbers of game, including the 
deer and caribou, which still frequent the pri- 
meval forests, Moosehead lake has for many 
years possessed a high reputation as a resort 
for tourists and sportsmen. Steamboats ply 
daily between Greenville on the 8S. extremity 
and Mt. Kineo, a distance of about 20 m. 
MOOSE WOOD. See Marte, vol. xi., p. 139. 
MOQUIS, a tribe of semi-civilized Indians in 
Arizona, between lon. 110° and 111° W., and 
lat. 835° and 36° N., on the Little Colorado and 
San Juan rivers. They were among the tribes 
visited in 1540 by Coronado, who apparently 
left sheep and other domestic animals among 
them, which they preserved. The Franciscans 
in time established missions there, but on the 
general rising in 1680 the Moquis killed or ex- 
pelled the missionaries. The viceroy of Mexico 
in 1723 attempted to reduce the Moquis, but 
failed. In 1748, however, the Franciscan Juan 
M. Menchero converted a number of them, with 
whom he founded the pueblo of Gandia. Of 
late years they have been peaceable, and have 
suffered much from the attacks of the Apaches 
and Navajos. They form nine families or clans, 
the Deer, Sand, Water, Bear, Hare, Prairie 
Wolf, Rattlesnake, Tobacco, and Reed Grass 
clans, the hereditary chief being of the Deer 
clan. They are an exclusively agricultural peo- 
ple, raising grain, vegetables, fruit, and cotton. 
They have some donkeys, sheep, and goats. 
They live in seven villages situated on bluffs 
from 200 to 500 ft. high, viz.: Taywah (Tegua), 
Sechomaive, Jualpi (Gualpi), Meshonganave, 
Shungopave (Xungopavi), and Oreybe. Their 
houses are, like those of New Mexico, built 
in terraced stories, reached by ladders, but in- 
ferior to them, though formerly much better 
than at present. They are of stone laid in 
mud; the rafters are of stout poles, with other 
poles crossing, covered with rushes; the floors 
are of earth. They knit, weave, and spin, 
making blankets and women’s robes, which 
they trade with other tribes. When they first 
came within the jurisdiction of the United 
States they were estimated at about 8,000. 
Intercourse was for a time cut off by hostile 
tribes, but in 1852 the Moquis sent curious 
symbolical presents to the president to open 
the way to their towns. They were almost 
destroyed by smallpox in 1855-’6, and no help 
having been given to advance their agriculture, 
they lost many by famine in 18667. On both 
these occasions they abandoned their villages 
and scattered among the mountains or emi- 
grated to their allies the Pueblos of New Mex- 
ico. Their population in 1872 was pretty accu- 
rately fixed at 1,663, showing a great decline. 
They use no intoxicating drink, and the wo- 
men are virtuous. The men wear blankets and 
leggins of dressed skins, the women a woven 
tunic and a shawl or blanket. Before mar- 
riage the latter wear their hair in two rolls like 
horns at the side of the head, and after marriage 
in two rolls at the side of the face. The Moquis 


MORAL PHILOSOPHY 


assimilate in many respects to the people of 
Zui, New Mexico, their ancient allies. 

MORA, a N. E. county of New Mexico, bor- 
dering on Texas and intersected by the Cana- 
dian river and several of its tributaries; area, 
about 5,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 8,056. The 
W. part is mountainous. The chief produc- 
tions in 1870 were 44,115 bushels of wheat, 
57,349 of Indian corn, 27,314 of oats, 41,580 lbs. 
of wool, and 917 tons of hay. There were 678 
horses, 808 mules and asses, 3,328 milch cows, 
2,328 working oxen, 3,718 other cattle, 30,561 
sheep, and 4,827 swine; 4 flour mills, 1 distil- 
lery, and 1 woollen mill. Capital, Mora. 

MORADABAD, a town of British India, capital 
of a district of the same name, in the division 
of Rohilcund in the Northwestern Provinces, on 
the right bank of the Ramgunga, 100 m. N. E. 
of Delhi; pop. about 60,000. It is dilapidated, 
and even the great central thoroughfare has 
lost its former cleanly appearance. It has a 
large market place, used as a bazaar, and an 
extensive commerce in sugar, cotton, wheat, 
and other articles. 

MORALES, Luis de, a Spanish painter, born in 
Badajoz in 1509, died there in 1586. Either 
from his constant choice of sacred subjects or 
(less probably) from the merits of his work, 
he received the surname of el Divino, the 
divine. His pictures were nearly all heads, 
generally of Christ or the Virgin; some au- 
thorities believe that there are no instances of 
his painting the figure at fulllength. His Hece 
Homo and Mater Dolorosa are the best types 
of his paintings. In spite of his acknowledged 
ability, the prices he received for his works 
are said not to have been enough to compen- 
sate him for the great labor and time he spent 
upon them; and he lived in the greatest want 
until his old age, when he was supported by 
Philip I]. His chief works are at Toledo, Val- 
ladolid, Burgos, and Granada. 

MORAL PHILOSOPHY, or Ethies (Lat. mos, Gr. 
700¢, manner, practice), the science of duty; 
the principles which prescribe what ought to 
take place, and the reasons why it should take 
place, in human conduct and actions. The 
ancient Greeks divided philosophy into logic, 
physics, and ethics: the first treated the uni- 
versal and necessary forms of thought; the 
second, so much of the subject matter of 
thought as pertains to material nature; and 
the third, the whole nature and activity of free 
and intelligent beings. More precisely defined, 
ethics is that division of practical philosophy 
comprehending the doctrines of the right in 
human life, and is distinguished from polity 
and esthetics, which embrace respectively the 
doctrines of the expedient and the beautiful or 
noble. Or it may be defined as natural in dis- 
tinction from civil jurisprudence, treating of 
the relations, rights, and duties by which the 
members of universal society are by the law 
of nature under obligation toward God, them- 
selves, and each other. Ethics regards mental 
dispositions ; jurisprudence, outward acts. The 


MORAL PHILOSOPHY 


former extends to all moral qualities; the lat- 
ter is limited to the virtue of justice, since no 
written law can enjoin gratitude or generosity. 
Moral law is imposed by the conscience; civil 
law, by the decree of the legislator. Right is 
what aman may lawfully or morally do. Duty 
is what he must morally do. Crime is what he 
lawfully must not do. Vice is what he morally 
must not do. The law of nature, or the law 
of God, embracing the law of nations, is some- 
times used as comprehending the whole of mo- 
rality, the whole theory of conduct, and some- 
times as containing only those unwritten rules 
of justice which are enforced by punishment 
in civilized countries, and at the breach of 
which it would be generally thought, if there 
were no government, that men might defend 
themselves by violence. Positive law, natural 
law, and moral law have been termed the three 
ascending degrees in the whole science of duty. 
The first inquiry in moral science is after an 
ultimate rule, a supreme principle of life, which 
shall be of imperative and universal authority, 
and around which shall be grouped all the mo- 
tives and maxims of action. From this central 
principle every ethical system receives its char- 
acter. These systems may be ranged in two 
classes, according as the ultimate moral rule is 
objective or subjective, dependent on something 
without or within the mind. The most promi- 
nent objective theories are those which adopt 
as the ultimate principle and basis of morality: 
1, the authority of the state; 2, the revealed 
will of God; 8, something inherent in the 
nature of things; 4, the greatest happiness. 
Hobbes maintained the first, and Descartes 
the second. To the third division belong Dr. 
Samuel Clarke’s theory of the fitness of things, 
Wollaston’s of the truth of things, Wayland’s 
of the relations of things, and President Ed- 
wards’s of the beauty in the union or consent 
of one mind with the great whole of being, in 
the love of being in general. To the fourth 
division belongs the Epicurean theory of per- 
sonal pleasure, which was made to coexist with 
virtue by Aristotle, to which Paley gave a more 
religious aspect by weighing future eternal 
happiness against present self-renunciation, 
and which Bentham advanced with reference 
to public utility and the greatest good of the 
greatest number. The principal subjective 
theories find the essence and test of morality 
in: 1, natural susceptibility to pride, gratified 
by flattery; 2, an inner reciprocal sympathy ; 
8, an inner sense, which gives moral distinc- 
tions; 4, an immediate intuition. Mandeville 
defined virtue as the offspring of flattery be- 
gotten upon pride, its motive being vanity, and 
its object praise. Adam Smith urged that the 
ground of morality was a reflex sympathy, by 
which the observer changes place in imagina- 
tion with the actor, and affirms the action to 
be right or wrong according as it receives or 
repels his sympathy. Shaftesbury and Hutche- 
son maintained a distinct and specific moral 
sense, which immediately apprehends moral 


807 


distinctions, and is to each man the source 
of obligation and the measure of virtue. Dr. 
Brown modified this theory by denying the 
existence of virtue and vice in the abstract, 
and claiming that a universal sentiment, by 
reason of the original conformation of the hu- 
man mind, approves certain intentions and af- 
fections as right, disapproves others as wrong, 
and is the ultimate source of all moral truth. 
Friedrich von Schlegel regarded this moral 
sense or universal sentiment as an inward reve- 
lation, which is in us but not of us, which is a 
divinely awakened awe of the Supreme Being, 
and which enjoins obedience to every form of 
God’s commandments. Those who claim an 
immediate intuition of moral truth suppose in 
the human mind a higher reason for the appre- 
hension of universal and necessary principles. 
The reason immediately beholds the right, and 
is of ultimate and conclusive authority. Its 
affirmation, founded on intellectual intuition, 
is the sufficient sanction of duty. Such, with 
various modifications, is the theory of Cud- 
worth, Kant, and Coleridge.—Ethics is not, 
like mathematics or metaphysics, an indepen- 
dent science. It rests upon philosophical or 
theological principles, only the application or 
operations of which it deals with. It takes a 
dynamical and not a statical view of the ele- 
ments of life. It presupposes human liberty, 
the power to employ our mental and physical 
capacities as we will, and to determine the end 
toward which they shall be directed ; for other- 
wise the sentiments of duty and of responsi- 
bility would be without foundation, would at 
most be mere phenomena of consciousness, and 
moral philosophy could be only the natural his- 
tory of human actions. Its distinctive quality 
would be lost, destiny taking in it the place of 
duty. The supremacy of the conscience, how- 
ever it be defined, whose mandate is duty, is 
also presupposed, since a moral nature is pre- 
requisite to the science of moral action. Con- 
science implies a supreme law, having reference 
to a general end, and constituting an ultimate 
rule of right, the determination of which, and 
its application to all departments of conduct, 
are the tasks of moral philosophy. A complete 
moral system states the supreme good of man, 
the supreme moral principle which should guide 
his action, and his particular duties to himself, 
to mankind, and to God.—Christian ethics is 
the doctrine of Christian life, embracing so 
much of dogmatics as pertains not to knowledge 
but action. Schleiermacher, Rothe, and others 
have regarded it as identical with dogmatics, 
on the ground that Christian faith and morals, 
thought and purpose, knowledge and action, 
are not separable. It differs from philosophical 
ethics in its subject, which is not man, but 
Christians; inits principle, founded on the rec- 
ognized relation between man and God; in its 
source, being derived not from the reason, but 
from the teaching of Christ and the apostles ; 
and in our perception of it, which is not by 
any analytical process, but by the Christian 


808 


consciousness.—The earliest ethical speculations 
in Greece appear in the maxims of the gnomic 
poets. The first attempt to introduce a scien- 
tific analysis into the details of practical wisdom 
was that of Pythagoras, whose moral system 
was linked with a mysterious symbolism of 
numbers. Of oriental origin, the Pythagorean 
discipline has been likened to philosophy on a 
tripod; it taught by symbols, spoke in tropes, 
wrote in verses, and, instead of reasoning, ut- 
tered oracles. Its elementary ideas are those 
of unity and duality, the finite and the infinite, 
the right and the oblique, to the former of which 
corresponds good, and to the latter evil. From 
unity the harmony of numbers is derived, and 
the sovereign good is the rhythmical order of 
nature. When the principle of unity predomi- 
nates in intelligent beings, there is spiritual har- 
mony; and as harmony is not unity, but only an 
imitation of it, so virtue is not absolute good- 
ness, but only an imperfect representation of it. 
God is the absolute unity, and is alone wise, and 
to imitate him as far as possible is the duty of 
all imperfect beings, who cannot be wise men, 
but only philosophers or friends of wisdom. 
The Pythagoreans distinguished the animal soul, 
whose seat is the heart, and the rational soul, 
which abides in the brain, and gave to the latter 
the supremacy. They, therefore, laid stress on 
self-command and temperance as essential to 
the vision of truth, and tended to ascetic prac- 
tices, yet maintained that justice and love were 
inseparable. They were unsurpassed by any 
school of antiquity in urging the duties of 
friendship. The Pythagorean aristocracy re- 
sembled an oriental sacerdotal caste, and the 
Pythagorean political institutions in southern 
Italy mark the conflict between the genius of 
the Orient and that of Greece, between the- 
ocracy and humanity, the nobility and the 
people, the servitude of tradition and the lib- 
erty of thought. Heraclitus repeated Pythag- 
oras, and Democritus opposed him, founding 
the sensualist ethical school, and developing 
the most complete and scientific moral system 
prior to Socrates, which was, however, only a 
corollary and result of his atomic physical 
doctrines. The sovereign good of man, accord- 
ing to him, is not pleasure but happiness, which 
consists in constant and tranquil content. To 
be at once temperate, daring, and confident, and, 
having never done nor wished anything absurd, 
to trust in fortune, was the whole purport of 
his ethical maxims. The age of the sophists 
succeeded. They, however, neither formed a 
school, nor their doctrines a system. Gram- 
marians, rhetoricians, statesmen, metaphysi- 
cians, and moralists, from all the schools of 
Greek philosophy, their special influence was in 
inspiring respect for intellectual attainments 
and performances, and their best service was in 
habituating the Greek mind to a free examina- 
tion of all human knowledge. The weapon 
which they wielded was a rhetorical eloquence, 
under the sway of which the mythological di- 
vinities began to lose their majesty, the ancient 


MORAL PHILOSOPHY 


traditions which had charmed successive gene- 
rations ceased to have authority, the institu- 
tions of state tended toward equality and to- 
ward a foundation of reason instead of experi- 
ence, and the enthusiasm of Greek culture was 
transferred from martial and political accom- 
plishments to the arts, letters, and oratory. 
Their method was powerful to destroy rather 
than build up, yet the common statement that 
they were intellectual and moral corrupters is 
elaborately disputed by Mr. Grote. He regards 
them as the regular exponents of Greek moral- 
ity, neither above nor below the standard of 
the age, maintains that Socrates was not their 
great opponent but their eminent representa- 
tive, that they were the authorized teachers, 
the established clergy of the Greek nation, and 
that Plato was the dissenter, who attacked 
them not as a sect but as an order of society. 
Socrates is usually styled the father of moral 
philosophy; yet he was rather a sage than a 
philosopher, and is renowned rather for his 
wonderful moral consciousness and for his 
power of exciting the analytical faculties of 
others than for his positive speculative thought. 
He affirmed the reality of the distinction be- 
tween good and evil, that it was founded in 
nature and not in convention, yet he did not 
precisely determine wherein it consists. He 
enjoined the supremacy of duty, yet he gave 
no objective or subjective definition of virtue. 
His highest motive was to make reason prevail 
in human life, public and private, as it prevails 
in the universe. The elements of his instruc- 
tion were: a supreme Deity, the principle of 
order and beauty in nature, and of justice and 
truth in man; and a series of human virtues, 
the principal of which were wisdom or a par- 
ticipation in the divine intelligence, justice, 
which is conformity to universal reason, for- 
titude, which gives courage and strength to 
endure trouble and resist difficulties, and tem- 
perance, which subdues the passions and makes 
us capable of intellectual delights. He was the 
first to treat distinctly of ethical science, apart 
from cosmological and metaphysical specula- 
tions, and laid down the principle of individual 
and social security and happiness as the end to 
which all moral precepts have reference. Like 
the other moral philosophers of antiquity, he 
confounded ethics and politics, and was a 
preacher of virtue in the interest of the state. 
—The aim of Socrates was to reform morals, 
that of his disciple Plato was to explain thought. 
The latter did not frequent public places to 
teach the excellence of virtue, but, with a 
mind whose natural function seemed to be the 
contemplation of the essence of things, he dis- 
dained the shadows of earth for the eternal and 
divine realities of an ideal world, and developed 
schemes of thought which caused the fathers 
of the church to recognize him as one of their 
precursors. His fundamental ethical principle 
rests upon the antagonism of the visible and 
the invisible, the divine and the earthly. Man 
is an exile upon the earth, to which he is united 


MORAL PHILOSOPHY 


by his senses and passions; but by his pure in- 
telligence, his love, by dim reminiscences and 
regrets, he communes with heaven, which is 
his true home. He thus by opposite faculties 
and impulses tends to opposite goals. By 
yielding to the one he degrades himself, and to 
some extent perishes. By cherishing the other 
he resumes and retains his divine excellences. 
The four cardinal virtues are temperance, cour- 
age (Gvuédc), wisdom, and love. The first two 
are relative, the product of earthly imperfec- 
tion; the second two are real, the remnants of 
our original perfection. They all have their 
foundation in wisdom, the fruit of reason, 
which sees through the material world the 
world of ideas of which it is a dim copy, and 
contemplates the supreme beauty of the essen- 
tial universe. The Platonic morality is there- 
fore speculative; virtue is referred finally to 
the intellect. A magnificent ideal is presented, 
the sentiment of love is commanded, and it is 
assumed that to know the right will be sufficient 
to practise it. There is no place in his philos- 
ophy for that perversity by which the soul sees 
the better and follows the worse, avoids what 
it loves and embraces what it hates; a phenom- 
enon, however, which Plato himself has de- 
scribed. The virtue which won his admiration 
implies a pure intelligence, obedience to which 
by the heart and will is presupposed. Nor 
did he precisely define the nature of moral 
good and evil; his analysis did not reach to the 
absolute; and he left truth, beauty, and good- 
ness to blend together and lose themselves in 
their supreme source. God is the principle of 
moral order, and virtue consists in knowing 
and imitating him. ‘ Alone among the ancient 
philosophers,” says St. Augustine, ‘‘ Plato made 
happiness consist not in the enjoyment of the 
body or of the mind, but in the enjoyment of 
God, as the eye enjoys the light.” The princi- 
ple of the ideai contained in his philosophy 
has proved itself imperishable, and has more 
than once in modern times prompted both 
ethical and metaphysical speculations to higher 
standpoints.—The ethics of Aristotle place the 
sovereign good in happiness, which is insepara- 
ble from virtue, and consists in life and action. 
The gods themselves are happy only because 
they act. This theory of activity, which makes 
virtue to be the best possible disposition of all 
human functions, was one of the remarkable 
amendments made by him in the system of his 
master. An action is right or wrong only 
when it proceeds from free will and personal 
responsibility, and its moral desert must be 
judged by the end which it proposes, that is, 
by the intention. The Socratic and Platonic 
mistake of regarding vice as the involuntary 
product of ignorance is thus corrected. Virtue 
is a habit, a sort of moral dexterity; single 
acts cannot constitute it; but the virtuous dis- 
position must be constant, acquired by oft re- 
’ peated acts, and underlying the whole art of 
life. But the characteristic ethical statement 
of Aristotle is that virtue is a mean between 


809 


two extremes. At one point-all the passions 
are good; below or above that, they violate 
the order of nature, and are bad. Equally 
removed from extreme excess and extreme 
deficiency there lies in all spiritual and physi- 
cal conditions an intervening state, which is 
that of virtue. To act when we ought, in the 
right circumstances, in the proper manner, and 
for legitimate persons and purposes—that is 
the juste milieu which characterizes morality. 
Hence there is always only one way of acting 
well, while there are thousands in which we 
may do wrong. He however gives no absolute 
definition of virtue, as an abstract mean be- 
tween two abstract extremes, does not deter- 
mine it as a fixed mathematical point, but makes 
it relative to the circumstances and disposition 
of the individual, a centre varying according 
to the pains and pleasures, desires and hatreds 
which encircle it. This ingenious theory is 
derived a posteriori instead of suggested a pri- 
ori, is an inference and not an instinct, and has 
perhaps never been applied as a practical cri- 
terion of duty. As in metaphysics Aristotle 
completely sundered God from the world, so in 
ethics he separated the speculative from the 
practical reason, and gave to morality no foun- 
dation in absolute science. His moral scheme 
was a branch of politics, virtue was a civil 
quality to be developed only in the state, and 
his views of man and life were not universal but 
essentially Greek and republican. To prove 
that man was something more than a member 
of society was a task for the future.—This task 
was fulfilled by the cynicism of Diogenes and 
the stoicism of Zeno, while the conquests of 
Alexander may be said to have denationalized 
the Greek ethics. Diogenes proclaimed him- 
self a citizen of the world, and the government 
of the universe the only polity worthy of our 
admiration. Opposed to patriotism, family, 
and property, the cynic placed virtue in the 
strength to endure privations and in indepen- 
dence of social relations. Under the banner 
of inward freedom and power, he verged to- 
ward asceticism, misanthropy, and impudence. 
The same tendency more strikingly appears 
in stoicism, the leading feature of which is tyr- 
anny over self, a revolt against the senses and 
passions, contempt of pain, pleasure, death, 
and of all the accidents of humanity. It was 
the philosophy of Roman citizenship, lying 
underneath the inflexibility of discipline and 
duty. Cleanthes and Epictetus both declared 
force to be the only virtue. <A rigorous ad- 
herence to the essential elements, the lowest 
terms of human nature, a contempt for plea- 
sure as something not designed in the scheme 
of natural law and inconsistent with its ideal 
of the freedom and independence of the soul, 
a striving to shape the individual life accord- 
ing to the rational nature, which is itself in 
conformity with the rational order of univer- 
sal nature, an abstract apprehension of virtue 
as the subjection of personal to universal ends, 
and a consequent moral indifference to exter- 


810 


nal good, were the prominent characteristics 
of the ethical system of the stoics, which was 
rivalled only by Epicureanism in the amount 
of its influence on Greek and Roman thought 
and life. Its moral standpoint was one of 
abstract subjectivity, its scheme of particular 
duties was conceived with reference to an 
ideal of rational freedom, and its motives were 
all heroic. Stern, haughty, and inflexible, it 
disregarded the lighter graces both of inward 
and outward nature in its contemplation of 
the laws and the energy of the primitive forces 
of the soul. Stoicism was one of the modes 
of reaction against the degeneracy of Greek 
society; Epicureanism, another. Like Aris- 
totle, Epicurus placed the highest good in hap- 
piness. The prize of life is the possession of 
supreme pleasure. All other virtues are but 
the auxiliaries of prudence or wisdom, which 
is the architect of our happiness, teaching us, 
in whatsoever situation we may happen to be 
placed, to derive from it the utmost advan- 
tages. Thus by prudence the wise man will 
abstain from the burden of public affairs and 
from marriage, will observe the laws of his 
country, acquire means to live with dignity 
and ease, practise sobriety and moderation, cul- 
tivate friendships, and aim after a life without 
a trouble (arapagia). This serene pleasure he* 
does not allow to be disturbed by fears of 
death or of the gods; for the gods live in 
changeless and blessed repose in empty space, 
undisturbed by any management of human 
affairs; and death is the end of all feeling, 
and not an evil to be dreaded, since when 
death is, we are not. His ethical system does 
not recognize any positive end of life, and 
proposes nothing higher than a state of pas- 
sionless repose; and from the multitude of his 
disciples during several centuries there pro- 
ceeded no original thought and no preéminent 
man. The system itself degenerated, until it 
became strange that a philosopher who was 
proverbially blameless and temperate, who 
nurtured himself on barley bread and water, 
with which he boasted that he could rival 
Jupiter in happiness, should have been the 
founder of Epicureanism. The Horatian nil 
admirari expresses the melancholy but not 
the sensuality of its later character. The in- 
fluence of the Platonic and Aristotelian ethical 
theories declined; stoicism and Epicureanism 
remained as rival sects.. During the first Chris- 
tian centuries stoicism predominated in intel- 
lectual theories, and philosophers of all schools, 
poets, historians, and rhetoricians, spoke like 
Seneca and Epictetus of the sacred love of the 
world, of the equality of man, of universal 
law, and a universal republic. Unlike the ear- 
lier philosophers, who had founded ethics on 
the system of the human faculties and passions 
with reference to their combined operation in 
the state, the Neo-Platonists gave a theologi- 
cal and mystical character to duty in connec- 
tion with their doctrines of emanation. The 
object of life was to rise by processes of as- 


MORAL PHILOSOPHY 


ceticism and ecstatic vision from the world of 
the senses into which we have fallen to our 
original home in the world of ideas, and the 
virtues which mark the successive steps in 
this return are distinguished as physical, po- 
litical, ethical, purificative, contemplative, and 
theurgic.—While all antiquity had made the 
sovereign good consist in escape from pain, 
either by virtue or by pleasure, Christianity 
by the mystery of the passion announced the 
divinity of sorrow. From this time until the 
rise of modern philosophy ethics cannot be 
separated from dogmatics. During a thousand 
years of theological speculations on the prob- 
lems of life, no system of philosophical ethics 
was attempted. The characteristic element in 
Christian virtue is love. If the Christian ideal 
of perfect charity were realized, ethics and 
politics would alike be absorbed in a higher 
science. Prominent as were the ideas of faith, 
hope, charity, and self-sacrifice in the age of 
the apostolic and the church fathers, their basis 
remained from the first rather religious than 
speculative, notwithstanding the persuasion 
that in the reason enlightened by the Word 
there was given a ground of union between 
objective revelation and subjective knowledge. 
Justin Martyr, ‘the evangelist in the robe of 
a philosopher,” began to apply the forms of 
ancient ethical philosophy to Christian con- 
ceptions of duty, and maintained human free- 
dom by identifying the will and the conscience. 
Augustine, though aiming to emancipate Chris- 
tian thought from antique influences, asserted 
the rationality of Christian morality, since it 
sprang from the absolute reason of Christ, who 
was both the central idea in philosophy and 
the ideal of life. While Augustine and Pela- 
gius were debating free will and sovereign 
grace, the same question was discussed in a 
different form by the last of the pagan phi- 
losophers, Plotinus and Proclus. The former, 
in a scheme of universal and absolute deter- 
mination, suppressed liberty; the latter urged 
that the essence of personality was liberty, 
that man was his own controlling demon, and 
used the terms autokinesy and heterokinesy, 
corresponding nearly to the autonomy and 
heteronomy of Kant. The most elaborate at- 
tempt to combine the moral ideas of Chris- 
tianity and those of Alexandrian paganism was 
made by the writings ascribed to Dionysius 
the Areopagite, which exerted great influence 
on later mystical theories. In the middle ages, 
mysticism, scholasticism, and casuistry succes- 
sively presided over the doctrines of Christian 
morality. St. Bernard and St. Victor were 
the leading representatives of mysticism. The 
former has been surpassed by no author in his 
delineations of the worth and power of love. 
From him proceeded that passionate inspira- 
tion, which the monastery of St. Victor per- 
petuated through the middle ages, and which 
remains embodied in the “‘ Imitation of Christ.” 
The two preéminent Christian sentiments, ac- 
cording to him, are humility and love, both 


MORAL PHILOSOPHY . 


springing from the knowledge of ourselves. 
A sense of humiliation is the first experience 
when we duly regard ourselves, and this pre- 
pares for intensity of love, which in its high- 
est degree is felt only with reference to God. 
The great masters of scholastic theological eth- 
ics were Peter Lombard, Thomas Aquinas, and 
Duns Scotus. The aim of all was to harmonize 
Aristotelianism and Christianity. The first 
completed the list of the seven cardinal virtues 
by adding faith, hope, and charity to the an- 
cient series of justice, fortitude, temperance, 
and wisdom. The second fully developed the 
medieval philosophy of virtue. He made the 
intellect the highest principle, and distinguished 
universal and special ethics, the former being 
that of perfect beings in heaven, the latter that 
of imperfect beings on earth. Duns Scotus 
opposed the primacy of the will to that of the 
intellect, and thus introduced a subjective ele- 
ment in place of the objective knowledge to 
which Aquinas had given prominence. While 
by the mystical method morality was referred 
to inner feelings, aspirations, and conflicts, and 
by the scholastic method it was founded on 
systems of intellectual principles, the casuisti- 
cal method assumed prominence, which limited 
itself to the determination of duty in particu- 
lar cases (casus conscientiev) in practical life. 
Numerous works of casuistry, some of them 
designed for the use of the confessional, were 
produced from the 18th to the 16th century, 
the principal of which were the Astesana by 
a Minorite of Asti, the Angelica by Angelus 
de Calvasio, the Pisanella, also called the Ma- 
gistruccia, by Bartholomew de Sancta Concor- 
dia in Pisa, the Rosella by the Genoese Minorite 
Trouamala, and the Monaldina by Archbishop 
Monaldus of Benevento. The Astesana treated 
in eight books of the divine commandments, of 
virtues and vices, of covenants and last wills, of 
the sacraments, of penance and extreme unc- 
tion, of ordination, of ecclesiastical censures, 
and of marriage. The tendency of casuistry was 
to dissipate the essential unity of the Christian 
life in the technical consideration of a diver- 
sity of works. It had begun to decline when it 
was revived and zealously improved by the 
order of Jesuits, and became their peculiar eth- 
ics. The doctrine of probabilities was devel- 
oped by them in cennection with it. Pascal and 
others assailed the indefiniteness and ambiguity 
cf casuistical principles. The Medulla of Her- 
mann Busenbaum, which is the basis of the 7he- 
ologia Moralis of Liguori, attained the highest 
reputation as an embodiment of Jesuitical eth- 
ics.—In the conflicts of the 16th century, when 
sects, schools, and parties were confounded and 
transformed, moral philosophy was subordinate 
to theology and politics. Montaigne, who of 
all the writers of the time was most distinctive- 
ly a moralist, pretended to no system. The 
conciliatory Melanchthon proposed a definition 
of virtue which includes the special features of 
all the schools and creeds; Suarez maintained 
the traditions of scholasticism; and Luther, 


811 


Bruno, and Bacon, as well as the later Descartes, 
prepared in different ways for the achievements 
of anewera. One of the relics of medizval dis- 
cussion was the foundation of naturallaw. The 
disciples of Aquinas made it depend on the 
nature of things; those of Scotus and Occam, 
on the authority of God. The former made it 
essentially a matter of the intellect; the latter, 
of the will. The former tended to establish 
morality as independent of the Deity, and to af- 
firm the eternal distinction between right and 
wrong, even if God did not exist; the latter 
tended to conceive of the moral law as an arbi- 
trary enactment, to regard nothing as good or 
bad in itself, and the command of a superior as 
the only foundation of moral distinctions. The 
ablest representative of the latter theory in 
modern philosophy is Hobbes. He denied that 
anything is naturally right or wrong, affirmed 
that pleasure and pain are the only objects to 
be desired or avoided, and limited human self- 
ishness only by the control of an absolute civil 
power, the necessity of which is proved by 
experience in order to prevent a state of uni- 
versal warfare. Morality is thus an artificial 
and prudential arrangement, dependent on the 
command of the political chief, without which 
the only virtues would be force and cunning. 
On the contrary, Grotius maintained moral dis- 
tinctions anterior to human convention, and 
established the law of nature and of nations as 
a special department in ethical science. The. 
idea of natural law was more precisely deter- 
mined by Pufendorf, who defined it as the pre- 
cept of right reason among men mutually social, 
making a disinterested care for the advantage 
of society the first duty. It does not extend 
beyond the limits of this life, is limited to the 
regulation of external acts, and exists in the 
nature of things and in the eternal principles 
of the divine reason. Leibnitz disputed each 
of these three propositions. The theory of 
Hobbes was professedly opposed by Cumber- 
land, who claimed the existence of certain nat- 
ural laws, independent of experience, and cog- 
nizable by right reason, which prompt us to the 
exercise of moral and social duties. The eter- 
nal and immutable distinction of right and 
wrong in the mind of God and as pure concep- 
tions of the human reason was sustained by 
Cudworth, and was the occasion of more pre- 
cise speculations in England as to the mode cr 
faculty by which we perceive the distinction.— 
The ethical writings of Malebranche were the 
most important produced in France in the lat- 
ter part of the 17th century. Virtue he defines 
to be the love of universal order, as it eternally 
existed in the divine reason, where every cre- 
ated reason contemplates it. Particular duties 
are but the applications of this love. He sub- 
stituted for the ancient classification of four 
cardinal virtues the modern distinction of 
duties toward God, men, and ourselves. Spi- 
noza, according to his opponents, by denying 
liberty in man and God, by recognizing only 
one divine substance and the modes thereof, 


812 ‘ 


made morality impossible, notwithstanding his 
principal work is entitled Hthica. But by defi- 
ning clear ideas as those of the reason and vague 
ideas as those of passion, and establishing it as 
the object of existence to attain to clear ideas, 
he succeeded, like most other moralists, in 
opposing reason to passion.. The being of the 
soul is thought. To increase this, to rise to a 
greater reality, to preserve and exalt our essen- 
tial nature, is at once the highest good and the 
highest virtue. Knowledge is happiness, and 
is not the reward of virtue, but virtue itself. 
To follow our desires is the law of practical 
life, and limitation, deficiency of might, is the 
only evil. But evilis merely arelative concep- 
tion of our own, formed by comparison of 
things with each other; there is no idea of it 
with God, who is always in harmony with him- 
self, acting according to the laws of his own 
essence.—lIn the 18th century moral philosophy 
rested in England chiefly on theories of disin- 
terested feeling and the moral sense, in France 
on sensationalism and self-interest; and in Ger- 
many the followers of Leibnitz maintained the 
supremacy of the reason and the doctrine of 
ideal good. Shaftesbury was the first to em- 
ploy the term moral sense, which, however, he 
did not define. Some of his intimations favor 
the theory of general benevolence proposed by 
Edwards. Wollaston’s definition of virtue as 
conformity to the truth of things, which Dr. 
Clarke changed to the fitness of things, gives 
to it an intellectual foundation, since truth and 
fitness are intellectual conceptions. Morality 
thus becomes the practice of reason. Hutche- 
son developed the suggestion of a moral sense 
by Shaftesbury, and supposed conscience and 
taste to be separate faculties which immediately 
introduce us to the objects of esthetics and 
ethics. But neither he nor Bishop Butler, after 
thus determining the subjective condition of 
virtue, undertook to show the objective distinc- 
tive quality common toright actions. Nothing 
therefore but the immediateness of moral emo- 
tion and determination is secured by their 
theory, since neither the moral sense nor the 
morality of actions is explained by the state- 
ment that they correspond to each other. 
Adam Smith, in referring morality to the prin- 
ciple of sympathy, rendered a service rather to 
the philosophy of the sympathetic affections 
than of ethics. Though perhaps no one has 
ever accepted his statement that moral approval 
depends first upon sympathy with the motives 
of the agent, secondly upon sympathy with the 
gratitude of those who have been benefited by 
his actions, thirdly upon a perception that his 
conduct has been agreeable to the general rules 
by which these two sympathies generally act, 
and fourthly upon a perception of the utility 
and beauty apparent in a system of behavior 
which tends to promote the happiness either of 
the individual or of society; yet his analysis of 
the workings of sympathy is admirably con- 
ceived and illustrated. It was apart of Hume’s 
ethical theory that general utility constitutes a 


MORAL PHILOSOPHY 


uniform ground of moral distinctions. Deny- 
ing a special moral faculty, he spoke sometimes 
of sympathy and sometimes of benevolence as 
the subjective quality which prompts us to be 
pleased with beneficial actions. Richard Price 
attempted to revive the intellectual in place of 
the sentimental theory of virtue, claiming that 
not only our moral feelings but all our emo- 
tions might ultimately be referred to the reason. 
He regarded right and wrong as simple ideas of 
the mind.—The maxim of La Rochefoucauld, 
‘Our virtues lose themselves in interest, like 
rivers in the sea,” describes the ethical theory 
of the French sensational philosophy. Condil- 
lac, the head of this school, regards all intellec- 
tual opérations, even judgment and volition, as 
transformed sensations; and Helvétius, apply- 
ing the theory to morals, held that self-love or 
interest is the exclusive motor of man, denied 
disinterested motives, made pleasure the only 
good, and referred to legislative rewards and 


-punishments as illustrating the whole system of 


individual action. A superior physical organi- 
zation alone gives to man his superiority to 
other animals. La Mettrie maintained an athe- 
istic Epicureanism; and though Condorcet pro- 
posed as a goal the perfectibility of mankind 
in the present state, he looked only to physical 
improvement, and wished to substitute an em- 
pirical education for the ideas and sanctions of 
religion and morality. The materialism, athe- 
ism, and fatalism of the epoch, which saw in 
the universe only matter and motion, and had 
pleasure for its single aim and law, were most 
completely and logically elaborated in D’Hol- 
bach’s Systéme de la nature.—The influence of 
Leibnitz and Wolf maintained a higher philos- 
ophy in Germany, and the latter advanced the 
ethical principle that we should act only with 
reference to making ourselves or others more 
complete and perfect. Moral perfection con- 
sists in the harmony of the present with the 
past and the future, and of ourselves with the 
essential nature of man. Whatsoever tends to- 
ward or against this is right or wrong. Thus 
ethics is the science of the possible in life, as 
philosophy is of the possible in the whole realm 
of knowledge. A eudeemonistic and utilitarian 
school succeeded in the latter half of the 18th 
century, marked by subjective idealism, which. 
made individual culture and happiness the 
highest principle and end, and cherished reli- 
gion on the ground that it was advantageous 
to earthly pleasure. Basedow, Reimarus, and 
Steinbart were the principal representatives 
of this tendency, the subjective standpoint of 
which appears also in numerous confessions 
and autobiographies, like those of Rousseau.— 
Kant rescued ethics from the prevalent senti- 
mental and sensational theories. ‘‘If,” said | 
he, ‘happiness, and not the law of inward 
freedom, be made the fundamental principle, 
there is an end to moral science.” He defines 
ethics as the philosophy of the laws of freedom. 
Freedom is an a priori fact, an element which 
affirms itself in the activity of the will. The 


MORAL PHILOSOPHY 


will has -the capacity of entire independence 
or self-determination, bound only by its own 
autonomy. The pure reason proposes to it a 
universal law, which we call the moral law, 
and which is a categorical imperative, requiring 
an unconditioned obedience. This law is, in 
Kant’s phraseology, the form of human action. 
Desires, passions, and material motives furnish 
the contents of action, and their influence con- 
stitutes the heteronomy of -the will. To ex- 
clude principles that are merely of a heterono- 
mic nature, to admit only such motives as.may 
be transformed into universal laws of the rea- 
son, so that the autonomy of the will may be 
inviolate, is the essence of morality. Thus the 
ethical law of Kant is: ‘‘ Act only on such a 
maxim as may also be a universal law.” A 
reverence for the moral law, which he com- 
pares to the starry heavens, a severance of the 
impulses of sense from moral motives, and an 
estimate of virtue as a triumph over resistance, 
characterize the Kantian morality. Sanctity is 
absolute conformity to the moral law, the ideal 
of moral perfection. Virtue is a constant ten- 
dency and progress toward this ideal. The 
supreme good is the highest happiness joined 
to the highest virtue. Since these do not cor- 
respond in the present state, the practical rea- 
son postulates for the attainment of the first 
the existence of God, and for the attainment 
of the second the immortality of the soul.— 
Personal autonomy becomes still more promi- 
nent in the philosophy of Fichte. According 
to him, the most profound and essential truth 
of our existence is the perpetual striving of 
the mind to develop itself, to realize its own 
nature, to bring into actual existence all that 
lies potentially in its consciousness. This fun- 
damental impulse furnishes the formal princi- 
ple of ethics, the principle of absolute autonomy, 
the self-formed aim of being. With it is asso- 
ciated the impulse of nature, which strives not 
for fulness and freedom, but for enjoyment. 
Both impulses aim at a unity, and their ap- 
proximation is an infinite progression. ‘‘ The 
world,’’ says Fichte, ‘‘is the sensized material 
of our practical life, the means by which we 
place before us, as object, the end and aim of 
our existence.” Destiny is the course of the 
moral determination of the finite rational being. 
The formula of ethics is therefore: ‘ Always 
fulfil thy destiny ;” this underlies the whole 
theory of particular duties. The conviction 
of duty, or conscience, is the condition of the 
morality of actions. A feeling of truth and 
certainty is the absolute criterion of the cor- 
rectness of this conviction, and never deceives, 
since it exists only when the empirical is in 
harmony with the absolute Ego. In the later 
form of Fichte’s philosophy, its moral strict- 
ness was relieved by religious sentiment, the 
elements of the Ego and duty being transformed 
into life and love. His formula, making mo- 
rality the fulfilment of destiny, is akin to the 
theory of Aristotle, and was adopted by Jouf- 
froy, the principal moralist of the French eclec- 


813 


tic school. In ethics alone Schelling scarcely 
departed from the principles of Fichte. In 
the system of Hegel, jurisprudence, ethics, and 
politics form the three divisions of the phi- 
losophy of mind viewed objectively. The re- 
moval of the antagonism between the universal 
and the particular will constitutes morality. 
To pursue the rational, or what is in accor- 
dance with the universal will, is right; to pur- 
sue the irrational is wrong. The three spheres 
in which moral purpose appears are the family, 
civil society, and the state. The state is the 
ethical whole, the highest embodiment of the 
moral idea, and its will should be supreme over. 
that of the individual. He thus recurs to the 
ancient notion of merging ethics in politics, 
gives to morality a foundation of civil absolu- 
tism, and regards the rise and fall of states as 
historical developments of special phases of 
the reason. Herbart resolves ethics into eesthet- 
ics. De Wette adopted Jacobi’s principle of 
feeling as the moral lawgiver, and stated the 
formula: ‘Live in order to live, and out of 
pure reverence and love of life ;”’ and Schleier- 
macher founded a system of ethics in which 
prominence is given to personal responsibility, 
and the invisible kingdom of God is made the 
highest good. Schopenhauer, in consequence 
of his peculiar psychology, held that progress 
could be made only by denial of the lower or 
sensuous instincts, and taught as the funda- 
mental principle of his ethics a form of ascet- 
icism, He held indeed to a generous sympathy 
with our fellow men in all their sufferings and 
woes, and would encourage even the most he- 
roic exertions in their behalf. But in refer- 
ence to ourselves he inculcated a pretty severe 
asceticism. The world, in his estimation, so 
far from being the best possible, is about as 
bad as it can be; and while sympathy and the 
exertions to which it leads tend to alleviate 
the sufferings of others, asceticism destroys 
the occasion for sympathy by preventing the 
evils which excite it. Beneke, however, a 
contemporary with Schopenhauer, inculcated 
a system in which morality is based on the 
feelings. This occasioned the outcry of ‘ Epi- 
cureanism,” and led him to publish a defence, 
which however, while varying the statements 
somewhat, left the general character of the 
doctrines unchanged. (Die beiden Grundprob- 
leme der Hthik, 1841; 2d ed., Leipsic, 1860.) 
The more recent German works that embrace 
the subject of moral philosophy are less meta- 
physical, being based principally on the results 
of recent physiological and psychological re- 
searches, They attempt, says Lichthorn, when 
speaking of the purpose of his own work, Die 
Exrforschung der physiologischen Naturgesetze 
der menschlichen Ceistesthdtigkeit (Breslau, 
1875), to show that the old metaphysical sepa- 
ration of body and soul, and the assumption 
that the relationship is merely mechanical, 
leads to results contrary to experience; and 
to establish the possibility of reaching a cor- 
rect solution by combining the great discov- 


814 


eries of Du Bois-Reymond on the electro-mag- 
netic nature of sensations and volitions, those 
of Darwin on organic adaptation and heredity 
in the animal world, and Haeckel’s ever in- 
creasing organic perfectibility. The writings 
of Moleschott, Karl Vogt, Biachner, and Strauss 
exhibit a similar tendency when treating ethical 
questions. Eduard von Hartmann’s Philoso- 
phie des Unbewussten (1869), though more meta- 
physical, keeps also in unison with the last dicta 
of experimental science. A further develop- 
ment of this system is Venetianer’s Der Allgeist: 
Grundziige des Panpsychismus (Berlin, 1874). 
‘-—Against the doctrines of a moral sense and 
of disinterested benevolence which had chiefly 
prevailed in English ethical philosophy from 
the time of Hutcheson and Butler, and which 
were zealously defended by Dugald Stewart, 
a utilitarian tendency was manifested which 
culminated in Jeremy Bentham. Previous to 
him Tucker had developed a system akin to 
the selfish theory, founded on Hartley’s prin- 
ciples of association; and Paley had declared 
the motive to virtue to be everlasting happi- 
ness, and had resolved the art of life into that 
of rightly settling our habits. Bentham gave 
to his moral theory the name of “‘the greatest 
happiness principle,” and represented the prac- 
tice of virtue as the art of maximizing happi- 
ness. All moral action proceeds, according to 
him, from the calculation of pains and plea- 
sures, estimated by their magnitude and their 
extent. In the proper balancing of these all 
morality consists, and virtue and vice are abso- 
lutely nothing, merely fictitious entities, when 
separated from happiness and misery. His 
aim was to expel from ethical science the 
word ‘“ ought,” which was claimed by Mackin- 
tosh as the simplest and most universal expres- 
sion of the moral sense. ‘The talisman of 
arrogance, indolence, and ignorance,” says he, 
‘“‘is to be found in a single word, an authori- 
tative imposture, which in these pages it will 
be frequently necessary to unveil. It is the 
word ‘ought.’ If the use of the word be ad- 
missible at all, it ‘ought’ to be banished from 
the vocabulary of morals.” Till this is done he 
proposes to neutralize its effect by the use of 
another potent word—“ why?” Yet Whew- 
ell has remarked that it is a mere assump- 
tion to prescribe that the answer to this query 
must be in the language of the utilitarian 
theory. Bentham urged the formation of gen- 
eral rules of conduct, and strict conformity 
to them, in order to avoid the temptations 
of our frailty and passions; and if a rever- 
ence for virtuous maxims and precepts thus 
takes the place in the mind of the utilitari- 
an of the direct application of his principle, 
there will be little difference between him and 
the believer in immutable morality, since the 
practical rules of both will coincide. The la- 
ter writings on moral philosophy in England 
seem to have settled down upon the doctrines: 
1, that the aim of morality should be the 
striving after an ideal standard of human ex- 


MORAL PHILOSOPHY 


cellence; those most religiously inclined be- 
ing disposed to take Christ as the ideal stan- 
dard; others, looking to a model which they 
have formed for themselves, considering man, 
his nature and his relations; 2, that there 
are certain self-evident truths or fundamental 
axioms in morals as in mathematics, to which 
assent is given by all minds as soon as their 
meaning is fully comprehended; 8, that the 
character of all acts is to be determined by 
reasoning upon their natural tendency, differ- 
ing in this from Paley’s system and the systems 
of expediency in general, in teaching that the 
character of acts is to be determined rather 
by their general features than by the peculiar 
circumstances of each particular case, and that 
thus a system of moral philosophy can be built 
up by reasoning concerning classes of acts, as 
truthfulness, benevolence, fraud, &c., just as we 
build up a system of mathematics by reason- 
ing concerning lines, surfaces, solids, &c.; the 
reasoning being based in both cases alike upon 
certain self-evident axioms and certain defi- 
nitions of classes of acts. John Stuart Mill, 
who acknowledges the influence of both Ben- 
tham and Comte, in the latter portion of his 
work on ‘ Logic” proposes and discusses the 
inquiry whether ethics may not be reduced to 
a certain science, and principles be as definitely 
established in the art of life as the indisputable 
laws of physics. He develops the subject no 
further than to state that happiness, in the full 
meaning of the word, must be the recognized 
goal of existence and aim of action. Herbert 
Spencer, without treating moral science in a 
special work, includes an ethical theory in his 
general doctrine of evolution. He holds that 
the science of right conduct determines how 
and why certain modes of conduct are detri- 
mental and others beneficial. These deductions 
are to be taken as laws of conduct, and to be 
conformed to irrespective of a direct estimation 
of happiness or misery. There have been and 
still are developing in the race certain funda- 
mental moral intuitions, which are the results 
of accumulated experiences of utility gradually 
organized and inherited, which have come to be 


- quite independent of conscious experience ; and 


these moral intuitions will respond to the de- 
monstrations of moral science, and will have 
their rough conclusions verified by them. Hap- 
piness is the end, and the conduct which tends 
to happiness is right for that reason; yet be- 
cause the laws of life are fixed, the course of 
conduct which will secure the greatest happi- 
ness will necessarily restrict many individuals, 
The principles by which individuals are restrict- 
ed for the sake of the whole are the principles 
of absolute morality; while the absolutely 
moral man is not one who conforms to these 
principles from external coercion or self-coer- 
cion, but who acts them out spontaneously. 
Alexander Bain identifies conscience with edu- 
cation under authority. He holds that self- 
approval and disapproval are transferred, by 
constant association, from the experience of 


MORAL PHILOSOPHY 


reward and prnishment for actions to the cor- 
responding disposition to do or avoid those 
actions. He founds his conclusion on these 
reasons: 1. That human beings in society are 
placed under discipline. 2. That when moral 
discipline is neglected, there is no security for 
virtuous conduct. 8. That the association of 
an action with disapprobation and punishment 
gives rise to a state of mind, in reference to it, 
which is not distinguishable from moral senti- 
ment.—The Italian school of philosophy of the 
present century presents the subject of, ethics 
in new phases. Virtue, according to Rosmini, 
is founded on the idea of possible being. Uni- 
versal being is the absolute good and the prin- 
ciple of every particular good. Moral good is 
the absolute good in so far as it is desired by 
man, since it is desire which first leads him to 
the idea of perfection, which is elaborated into 
that of being. The first precept of the moral 
law, therefore, is to love being as such. But 
as the moral act must be with reference to the 
ultimate goal and infinite object of thought, 
the formula is thus transformed: ‘‘ Love in- 
telligent beings, not for themselves, but for 
their supreme end, which is God.” Virtue 
consists in the conformity of intuitive to reflex 
knowledge, and its essential principle is truth. 
Obligation rests on the power of rational deci- 
sion, on what a person knows. Conscience is 
a speculative judgment on the morality of the 
practical judgment and on its consequences. 

famiani, also, seeks in ontology the sources 
of moral order. According to him, ‘ absolute 
good exists,’ and a deduction from the idea of 
a first infinite cause is the fundamental princi- 
ple of ethics. Virtue isthe voluntary coépera- 
tion of free and rational beings in the moral 
order of the universe, in which consists the 
absolute good, and which converges to God. 
Deviation, on the contrary, is evil and sin. 
The moral law in most general terms com- 
mands: ‘‘Do good.” Duty requires the ac- 
complishment of the part assigned to each in- 
dividual in working out the supreme end of 
society. But beyond this fulfilment, there isa 
heroic virtue whose object is the greatest pos- 
sible realization of good, and which consists 
in the appropriation of individual capacities 
to the general interests of society. Mamiani 
maintains, as a matter of history, that right 
intentions have never resulted in greater evil 
than good, but that by a preéstablished har- 
mony even a false application of a truth must 
result in some undesigned advantage. The 
law of progress reigns in the moral as in the 
material world, and ultimate perfection in an 
immortal state is the goal of humanity. Gio- 
berti defines virtue to be the knowledge of an 
absolute law and the conformity of a free will 
to that law. Law is an idea considered in 
reference to the will, and an ethical must be 
founded on a metaphysical system. An ulti- 
mate law cannot be considered independently 
of religion, because it is in fact God himself. 
The divine will manifested in the moral im- 


573% VoL, xL.—b2 


815 


perative appears clothed with an absolute right. 
God as the absolute law reigning over the free 
human will is the condition of obligation. The 
ideal formula of Gioberti transferred to the 
department of ethics becomes: Being, by means 
of the human will, creates the good; the human 
will, preferring law to affection, creates virtue ; 
virtue, reconciling affection with law, creates 
happiness. All these Italian systems of ethics 
recall the ancient speculations on the subject 
by referring virtue ultimately to the intellect, 
making ontological conceptions of being the 
foundation of responsibility. They also con- 
nect virtue closely with religion, and give to 
it something of an ecclesiastical character.— 
The study of moral philosophy by American 
writers runs back into the last century, when 
Jonathan Edwards developed his theory of the 
nature of virtue, which he defined as the love 
of being in general, including under the term 
being both God and man, thus finding a philo- 
sophical formula for the Scriptural summary 
of thelaw. The theory of Edwards was modi- 
fied by his followers, Samuel Hopkins and 
Nathanael Emmons, who made virtue to con- 
sist in disinterested benevolence, rigidly ex- 
cluding all self-love. Their theory, however, 
was held rather as a religious doctrine than as 
a philosophical opinion. Following the gen- 
eral direction of Edwards, President Dwight 
and Dr. Taylor held that benevolence is the 
highest good, blessing both giver and receiver ; 
man being so constituted that he finds his high- 
est happiness in promoting the happiness of 
others. More recently President Wayland has 
held that the rule of right is seen in the appre- 
hension of the relations between things; as 
the relation of parent and child, state and citi- 
zen, Creator and creature. President Hickok 
holds that there is an imperative of reason, 
which impels us to do that and that only 
which is due to spiritual excellency. In wor- 
thiness of the approbation of our spiritual na- 
ture every virtue finds its end. This absolute 
right is simple, immutable, and universal. Prof. 
Haven holds that right is a simple idea in- 
capable of definition, expressing an eternal and 
immutable distinction inherent in the nature 
of things, and not the creation of arbitrary 
power, whether of man or God. It belongs 
to all voluntary rational action, arises with the 
dawn of intelligence, and is universal, and not 
derived from anything external to the mind 
itself. Education simply appeals to it. Presi- 
dent Hopkins holds that the moral problem is 
an inquiry after the nature and ground of 
obligation. It presupposes a moral nature in 
man, but is not an inquiry as to man’s moral 
powers. The ultimate obligation is that we 
should choose that which leads to the attain- 
ment of the end of our existence, and this is 
found in love; all questions under theoretical 
morals may be resolved by an exposition of 
the law of love, and all questions under prac- 
tical morals by an exposition of love as a law. 
—See Meiners, Allgemeine kritische Geschich- 


816 MORAN 
ite der dlteren und neueren Ethik (1800-1) ; 
Méller, Das absolute Princip der Ethik 
(1819); Staudlin, Geschichte der Moralphiloso- 
phie (1822); De Wette, Christliche Sittenlehre 
(1819-21); Henning, Principien der Ethik 
in historischer Entwickelung (1824); Vetter, 
Ueber das Verhdltniss der philosophischen zur 
christlichen Sittenlehre (1834); Daub, Vorle- 
sungen iiber die Prolegomena zur theologischen 
Moral, und iiber die Principien der Ethik 
(1839); Wirth, System der speculativen Ethik 
(1841-2); Rothe, Theologische Hthik (1845) ; 
Fuchs, System der christlichen WSittenlehre 
(1850); Gioberti, Del buono (1848); Rosmini- 
Serbati, Filosofia del diritto (1844); Bautain, 
Philosophie morale (1842); Denis, Histoire 
des théories et des idées morales dans lanti- 
quité (1855); Janet, Histoire des idées morales 
et politiques (1856); Mackintosh, ‘‘ Disserta- 
tion on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy ” 
(1815); Blakey, ‘‘ History of Moral Science ”’ 
(1833); Whewell, ‘‘ History of Moral Philoso- 
phy in England” (1852); Wayland, ‘‘ Elements 
of Moral Science’’ (1835); Alexander, ‘ Out- 
lines of Moral Science” (1852); Hickok, 
“Moral Science” (1853); Haven, ‘ Moral 
Philosophy ” (1859); Mark Hopkins, “ Lec- 
‘tures on Moral Science” (1863), and ‘‘ The 
Law of Love, and Love as a Law” (1868); 
Bain, ‘‘ Mental and Moral Science” (1868); and 
E. H. Gillett, ‘‘ The Moral System” (1874). 
MORAN. I. Thomas, an American artist, born 
‘in Bolton, Lancashire, England, Jan. 12, 1837. 
His family came to the United States when he 
“was seven years old and settled in Philadelphia. 
At the age of 16 he was apprenticed to an en- 
graver, but at 19 became a landscape painter, 
‘though he never studied under any master. In 
1861 he visited England to study the works of 
‘Turner and other English artists, returning in 
1862. In 1866 he visited England, France, It- 
‘aly, and Switzerland. He removed to Newark 
‘in 1871, and accompanied an exploring expe- 
‘dition to the Yellowstone river. On his re- 
‘turn he painted (1871-2) ‘‘The Grand Cafion 
of the Yellowstone,” on a canvas 7 by 12 ft. 
in size. He afterward visited many parts of 
the west, including the Yosemite valley and 
the cafions of the Colorado river, and from 
studies made in the latter region painted (1873- 
’4) “The Chasm of the Colorado,” a picture 
of the same size. For these two paintings, 
which were bought by congress, and were the 
first landscapes ever purchased by the govern- 
ment, the artist received $20,000. Among his 
other works are: ‘‘ Balboa discovering the 
Pacific” (1860); ‘Salvator Rosa sketching 
Banditti” (1860); ‘‘Childe Roland” (1861); 
‘“‘ Autumn on the Wissahickon” (1863); ‘The 
Wilds of Lake Superior ” (1864); ‘‘The Track 
of the Storm” (1865-6); ‘The Woods were 
God’s first Temples” (1867); ‘‘ Hiawatha and 
the Serpents” (1868); ‘‘ Dream Land” (1869); 
and ‘The Castle of Indolence” (1871). He is 
also a successful illustrator of books. IL. Peter, 
an American artist, brother of the preceding, 


MORATIN 


born in Bolton, March 4, 1842. When 16 years 
old he was apprenticed to a lithographic printer, 
but soon began the study of landscape painting 
with his brother Thomas. Having become 
convinced that his best efforts were in animal 
painting, he went to London in 1864 and spent 
many months in the study of Landseer’s works. 
Among his principal works are: ‘A Quarrel- 
some Family,” ‘“‘ Domestic Felicity,” ‘‘ Return 
from the Fair,” ‘‘Troublesome Models,” ‘The 
Dawn of Day,” ‘‘Morning after the Storm,” 
“The Critics,” “An Outcast,” and ‘“‘A Rainy 
Day.”—Epwarp, another brother, is also an 
artist, devoting himself to marine subjects. 
MORAT (Ger. Murten), a town of Switzer- 
land, in the canton and 8 m. N. by W. of the 


‘city of Fribourg, on the S. E. shore of the 


lake of Morat, and on the high road from Bern 
to Lausanne; pop. in 1870, 2,328. It has a cas- 
tle and a commercial school, and is memorable 
for the victory achieved there by the Swiss 
over Charles the Bold of Burgundy, June 22, 
1476. An obelisk was erected on the battle 
field in 1822. (See Caries THE Boip.)—The 
lake is about 6 m. long, 24 m. broad, and 850 
ft. deep. A narrow and flat strip of land sep- 
arates it from the lake of Neufchatel, into which 
it empties through the river Broye. 

MORATA, Olympia Fulvia, a learned Italian 
woman, daughter of the poet Fulvius Peregri- 
nus Moratus, born in Ferrara in 1526, died in 
Heidelberg, Oct. 26, 1555. She received a care- 
ful and extended classical education, and early 
in life (according to some authorities in her 
16th year) lectured in Ferrara on subjects of 
classical learning. She married a German phy- 
sician, Andreas Grunthler, and lived at Schwein- 
furt, where she became an early convert to 
Protestantism. In 1553, when the city was 
captured by Margrave Albrecht of Branden- 
burg, her library was plundered, and she was 
compelled to flee to Hammelburg. Soon after- 
ward her husband was appointed professor at 
Heidelberg, and she removed with him to that 
city. Her works consist of Greek and Latin 
poems, published in Basel in 1558, and in fre- 
quent subsequent editions. Biographies of her 
were written by Nolten (Frankfort, 1731 and 
1775), Kartzschke (Zittau, 1808), and Bonnet 
(Paris, 1850). The last has been translated 
into German by Merschmann (Hamburg, 1860). 

MORATIN. I. Nicolas Fernandez, a Spanish 
poet, born in Madrid, July 20, 1787, died there, 
May 11,1780. He was a lawyer by profession, 
but became the reformer of the Spanish the- 
atre, and, with the aid of a royal injunction, 
drove the autos sacramentales from the stage. 
He wrote a comedy called Petimetra (1762), 
Diana, a didactic poem (1765), and a narrative 
poem, Las naves de Hernan Cortés. His best 
tragedies are Lucrecia, Ormesonda, and Guz- 
man el Bueno. He also wrote in prose on his- 
torical subjects. In 1821 his son published a 
volume of posthumous poems, together with 
a life and some of his more celebrated lyrics. 
Ii. Leandro Fernandez de, a Spanish dramatist, 


MORAVIA 


son of the preceding, born in Madrid, March 
10, 1760, died in Paris, June 21, 1828. He 
worked as a jeweller till he was 23 years 
old. At18he obtained the second prize of the 
academy for his poem La toma de Granada. 
In 1780 he published a satire entitled Leccion 
poética, and in 1787 he was made secretary to 
the Spanish embassy at Paris; and he was af- 
terward sent at the public charge to study the 
drama of Germany, England, Italy, and France. 
On his return an office in the department of 
foreign affairs was assigned him. About this 
time he published a translation of Hamlet, and 
brought out in the theatre EZ baron (18038), La 
mogigata (1804), and H/ st de las nifias (1806), 
the most popular of his plays, performed for 
26 nights consecutively, reprinted four times in 
the same year, and translated into many lan- 
guages. After many misfortunes he went to 
Paris in 1827, and died in poverty. Other 
celebrated works of Moratin are the comedies 
Ll viejo y la niia and La comedia nueva, and 
Origenes del teatro espafol. He has been 
called the Spanish Moliére. A complete. edi- 
tion of his works has been published. 
MORAVIA (Slav. Morawa; Ger. Méhren), a 
margraviate and crown land of Austria, situa- 
ted between lat. 48° 40’ and 50° 15’ N., and 
lon. 15° 10’ and 18° 28’ E., bounded N. and N. 
E. by Prussian and Austrian Silesia, E. and 
S. E. by Hungary, 8. by Lower Austria, and 
W. and N. W. by Bohemia; area, 8,585 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1872, 2,030,975. The country is most- 
ly mountainous, the principal ranges being 
the Moravian mountains, the Sudetic range 
with its eastern continuation the Gesenke, and 
the Carpathians, which respectively separate it 
from Bohemia, Silesia, and Hungary. The val- 
leys and the southern districts, which are most- 
ly level, are fertile. The principal rivers are 
the March or Morawa, which rises in the north- 
ern corner of the country, flows S. 8S. E. and 
S. S. W. through its entire breadth, receiving 
almost all other watercourses, and after form- 
ing a part of the Hungarian, boundary falls into 
the Danube; the Beczwa, E. of the March, and 
the Hanna, Zwittawa, Schwarza, Iglawa, and 
Thaya, W. of it. The Oder, which flows N. 
E. into Silesia, has its head waters S. of the 
Gesenke range. The climate is comparative- 
ly mild. Moravia yields excellent grains and 
fruits, hemp, flax, and wine, and vast quanti- 
ties of timber, iron, coal, marble, alum, vitriol, 
sulphur, lead, and pipe clay, and some silver. 
Some of the mines have been known since the 
8th century. Gold and silver were formerly 
extracted, but little attention has been paid 
to these ores since the 16th century, and the 
iron and coal mines are not worked to their 
full extent. Pasturage covers a considerable 
extent of the country, and large numbers of 
cattle, sheep, and horses are reared. Wool- 
len, linen, cotton, thread, leather, arms, nee- 
dles, domestic utensils, porcelain, pottery, glass, 
paper, beet sugar, and chemical products are 
manufactured. Railways intersect. the coun- 


817 


try, connecting it with Austria proper, Bohe- 
mia, Silesia, and Galicia. The inhabitants are 
mainly of Slavic origin (about 72 per cent.), 
including Slovaks on the confines of Hungary, 
Hannaks in the fertile central region watered 
by the Hanna, and the Czecho-Moravians in 
the districts adjoining Bohemia. The Germans 
(26 per cent.) and Jews (2 per cent.) mostly 
inhabit the towns, the former being most nu- 
merous in the regions adjacent to Silesia and 
Austria. The bulk of the inhabitants are Ro- 
man Catholics, the number of the Protestants 
amounting to 57,000, and that of the Jews to 
42,000. Previous to 1848 the latter were sub- 
ject to the most oppressive obligations and 
restrictions. The Roman Catholics are under 
the archbishop of Olmitz and the bishop of 
Briinn; the Lutherans and Reformed have each 
one superintendent. Educational institutions 
of a high grade are numerous, and about 99 
per cent. of the children of proper age attend 
school. The university of Olmiitz has been 
abolished. The provincial diet is composed of 
the Landeshauptmann, the archbishop of Ol- 
mutz, the bishop of Brinn, and 97 deputies. 
Next to Bohemia and Lower Austria, Moravia 
has the largest number of manufactories of any 
Austrian province, the aggregate annual value 
of the manufactures being estimated at about 
$74,000,000. In politics and literature the 
Moravians, mainly according to national lines 
of division, partake in the movements of the 
Czechs in Bohemia or of the Germans in Aus- 
tria.—Before the close of the 6th century the 
country was successively occupied by the Qua- 
di, Rugii, Heruli, and Longobardi, and in the 
following period by Slavic tribes, who, after 
the decline of the kingdom of the Avars, found- 
ed the empire of Great Moravia, the name be- 
ing derived from the river Morawa (March). 
Charlemagne conquered it, and he and his suc- 
cessors exacted tribute and the adoption of 
Christianity, of which St. Cyril became the 
great apostle among the Moravians. Swato- 
pluk, who rebelled against the German emperor 
toward the close ofthe 9th century, made Mo- 
ravia a powerful state; but it soon after suc- 
cumbed to the combined attacks of the Hunga- 
rians and Germans. -Moravia was now often 
invaded by Poles, Hungarians, Ozechs, and 
Germans. In the 11th century it was attached 
to Bohemia, and about the end of the follow- 
ing century constituted a margraviate of the 
empire, though dependent as a fief upon the 
Bohemian crown. After numerous divisions, 
it came with Bohemia into the possession of 
the house of Hapsburg by the death of King 
Louis IJ. of Hungary and Bohemia in the bat- 
tle of Mohdes (1526), his crowns being inher- 
ited by Ferdinand J. of Austria. The Austrian 
constitution of 1849 made it a separate crown 
land, as well as Austrian Silesia, which was 
formerly ‘united with it. (See Austria, and 
Bouemrs.) In 1866 Moravia was invaded by 
the Prussians.—See Dudik, Mdhren’s allge- 
meine Geschichte (4 vols., Briinn, 1860-65). 


818 


MORAVIANS, United Brethren, or the Unitas 
Fratram, a church of evangelical Christians, 
historically and ecclesiastically distinct from 
the society of the ‘‘ United Brethren in Christ,” 
with whom they are often confounded. Their 
history proper begins with the year 1457; but 
their preparatory history extends back as far 
as the 9th century, when Christianity was in- 
troduced into Bohemia and Moravia by Cyril 
and Methodius, who gave the people a Slavic 
version of the Bible, and built up a national 
church. (See Cyrin anp Mernopius.) Hence 
for several centuries the people of Bohemia 
and Moravia manifested the spirit of what was 
afterward Protestantism, holding fast to eccle- 


siastical principles opposed to the injunctions . 


of the Roman Catholic church, and submitting 
to the Bible as the only rule of faith and prac- 
tice. Eventually, however, they were brought 
under the sway of the papal see. The most 
celebrated of their reformers was John Huss, 
who was burned at the stake in 1415. Assoon 
as the news of his death reached his native 
country, fierce disturbances broke out. A 
powerful party arose, called the Hussites, who 
waged war for several years with great fury 
against the imperialists. After a time the 
Hussites separated into two factions: the 
Oalixtines, who insisted principally on the res- 
toration of the cup to the laity in the Lord’s 
supper; and the Taborites, whose aim was a 
general reformation of the whole church. In 
1433 the council of Basel granted the cele- 
brated ‘‘ compacts’? to the Bohemians, ‘by 
which the most essential of their demands were 
nominally conceded. The Taborites refused 
to receive these compacts; whereupon the Ca- 
lixtines turned their arms against them, and 
totally defeated them in 1434. The Calixtines 
now became the national church of Bohemia, 
and hostilities ceased. But a party among the 
remnant of the Taborites, dissatisfied with 
what they regarded as corrupt practices in this 
church also, withdrew more and more from 
the communion of the Calixtines, and through 
the instrumentality of Rokitzana or Rokyzan, 
the Calixtine candidate for the archbishopric, 
who at first favored the movement, received 
permission from George Podiebrad, then regent 
and subsequently king of Bohemia, to settle on 
one of his estates, known as the barony of Litiz 
or Liticz. This was in 1456. A considerable 
number of persons under the leadership of 
Gregory, a nephew of Rokitzana, took up their 
abode on this estate. In 1457 they organized a 
religious society, elected 28 elders, and took the 
name of ‘ Brethren and Sisters of the Law of 
Christ,” which was afterward changed to the 
simpler one of “Brethren.” At a later period 
the title Unitas Fratrum or ‘ Unity of the 
Brethren” was adopted, Their pastors were 
Calixtine priésts who entertained evangelical 
views, and who had joined the society. Such 
was the beginning of the Moravian church. In 
1461, at the instigation of “Rokitzana, who had 
become their inveterate enemyy a fierce per- 


MORAVIANS 


secution burst upon ‘the Brethren, many of 
whom suffered martyrdom. This persecution 
only served to increase their number, and in 
1467 a synod was held at Lhota, on the estate 
of Litiz, to effect a more complete organiza- 
tion. After protracted deliberations the Breth- 
ren resolved to separate entirely from the na- 
tional establishment, and to change their socie- 
ty into an independent church. Being anxious 
to secure a ministry whose validity the Calix- 
tines and Roman Catholics would be compelled 
to acknowledge, they sought the episcopal suc- 
cession from a colony of Waldenses, settled 
on the confines of Bohemia and Austria, who 
had obtained this succession. The Waldensian 
bishop Stephen, and his assistants, consecrated 
three men sent to him by the synod of Lhota 
to the office of bishop. As soon as these events 
became known, new persecutions broke out, 
but the Brethren continued to increase. To- 
ward the close of the 15th century they had 
more than 400 churches in Moravia and Bo- 
hemia, had published several confessions of 
faith, owned two printing establishments, and 
were preparing a catechism and hymn book for _ 
publication. In the 16th century they sent 

several deputations to Luther, but there were 
differences of opinion between them and him 
in respect to discipline, on which the Breth- 
ren insisted very strongly. They established 
churches in Poland, and at length the Unitas 
Fratrum was composed of three provinces, 
the Bohemian, Moravian, and Polish, each 
governed by its own bishops, but all confed- 
erated as one church, holding general synods 
in common. In the beginning of the 17th 
century the Unitas Fratrum became one of 
the legally acknowledged churches of the land. 
A remarkable work, completed some time be- 
fore, was the celebrated Bohemian Bible of 
Kralitz, translated from the original by a com- 
mittee of bishops, after a labor of 15 years. 
In 1621 Ferdinand II. began a series of per- 
secutions directed against all the Protestant 
denominations in Bohemia and Moravia, and 
known as the anti-reformation. His plans 
were successful. Protestantism was totally 
overthrown in these countries, more than 50,- 
000 of whose inhabitants emigrated. The 
Brethren’s church ceased to exist in Bohe- 
mia and Moravia, but continued in Poland 
about 30 years longer, as a church in exile. 
This church, too, was destroyed in the war 
with Sweden (1656), the remnant uniting with 
the Reformed denomination. In this way the 
Unitas Fratrum, as a distinct organization, 

disappeared for 66 years. But John Amos 
Comenius, the last bishop of the Moravian 
line, not only published several works by 
which the history, doctrines, and discipline 
of the Brethren were preserved, but also pro- 
vided for the continuance of the episcopate. 

(See Bonem1an BrerHrEN.) Many families in 
Moravia still secretly entertained the views of 
their fathers. Among these an awakening 
took place in the first quarter of the 18th cen- 


MORAVIANS 


tury, through the instrumentality of a Moravian 
exile named Christian David. In consequence 
of this awakening, the desire to live in a Prot- 
estant country was felt more and more. Fifty 
years after the death of Comenius, in the night 
of May 27, 1722, two families of Moravians 
escaped from their native country, and reached 
Berthelsdorf, an estate in Saxony belonging to 
Count Zinzendorf, who had offered them a ref- 
uge. Other Moravians soon joined them, and in 
five years acolony of 300 persons lived on Count 
Zinzendorf’s estate. They built a town, and 
called it Herrnhut; introduced the discipline 
of their fathers, preserved by the publications 
of Comenius; and in 1785 obtained the epis- 
copal succession of the Unitas Fratrum. Zin- 
zendorf soon became a bishop of the Brethren, 
and devoted himself entirely to their service. 
Churches were established in various parts of 
the continent, in North America, and in Great 
Britain. In 1749 the British parliament ac- 
knowledged the Moravian Brethren as an epis- 
copal church, and passed an act encouraging 
them to settle in the North American colonies. 
They devoted themselves to missions among 
‘the Indians with great success, one of their 
most celebrated stations being at Gnadenhitten 
(‘‘tents of grace”’’) in what is now Tuscarawas 
co., Ohio, where 100 Moravian Indians were 
treacherously massacred by whites, March 8, 
1782, on a groundless suspicion of having been 
concerned in certain outrages in Pennsylvania. 
The numbers of the Brethren, both in America 
and in Europe, never increased as did those of 
many other denominations of Christians. This 
was owing to two causes. First, almost the 
entire strength of the renewed Moravian church 
was concentrated on the foreign mission field. 
Secondly, the fundamental principle underlying 
the efforts of Zinzendorf and his coadjutors, on 
behalf of the church at home, was Spener’s idea 
of ecclesiola in ecclesia, little churches within 
the church, households of faith whose mem- 
bers should be separated as much as possible 
from the world, and which should constitute 
retreats where men could hold undisturbed 
communion with God. This idea, carried out 
consistently, resulted in the establishment of 
Moravian settlements, that is, towns founded 
by the church, where no one who was not 
a member was permitted to own real estate, 
although strangers, complying with the rules of 
the community, were allowed to lease houses. 
A system so exclusive necessarily kept the 
church numerically small, although it undoubt- 
edly was of great advantage in other respects, 
and served to foster the missionary zeal which 
has distinguished the Moravians. During the 
last 40 years great changes have taken place 
in the United States in respect to this system, 
and also in regard to the constitution of the 
church generally. The last general synod, held 
at Herrnhut in 1857, remodelled the constitu- 
tion, and opened the way for a more general 
development of the resources of the church in 
the home field.—The Unitas Fratrum now con- 


819 


sists of three provinces, the American, conti- 
nental, and British, which govern themselves 
in all provincial matters, but are confederated 
as one church in respect to general principles 
of doctrine and practice, and the prosecution 
of the foreign mission work. Each province 
has a provincial synod, whose executive is an 
elective board of bishops and elders, styled the 
‘‘ Provincial Elders’ Conference,” to which the 
entire management of the church in provincial 
things, including the appointment of pastors, is 
intrusted in the interval between two synods. 
For the general government of the three proy- 
inces and the foreign missions, there is a gen- 
eral synod, which meets every 10 or 12 years, 
and to.which each province sends the same 
number of delegates. The executive board of 
the general synod is called the “ Unity’s El- 
ders’ Conference,” and is the highest judica- 
tory for the whole Unitas Fratrum, when that 
synod is not in session. In the American 
province there are two districts, the northern 
and the southern, each having a synod and 
a provincial elders’ conference. The seat of 
government for the northern district is at 
Bethlehem, Northampton co., Pa.; and for 
the southern, at Salem, Forsyth co., N. C. 
The Moravian churches in these two districts, 
without exception, are now like those of other 
Christian denominations, the exclusive system 
having been given up entirely. The establish- 
ments formerly found in the settlements, and 
known as brethren’s, sisters’, and widows’ 
houses, have likewise passed away. In the 
British province, the seat of government. is 
at Ockbrook, Derbyshire. Only four of the 
churches of this province are settlements, and 
even these are gradually undergoing modifi- 
cation. In the continental province, the old 
system was strictly kept up till quite recently, 
when several important changes were intro- 
duced, which before long will practically do 
away with the exclusive polity altogether. 
The governing board, which is at the same 
time the general board for the whole ‘‘ Unity” 
(the name by which the Unitas Fratrum is 
generally known in Moravian phraseology), 
has its seat at Berthelsdorf, a village on the 
estate of the same name, in Saxony, about a 
mile from Herrnhut; it assembles for business 
in the castle formerly inhabited by Count 
Zinzendorf, who devoted his entire property 
to the good of the church. On the continent 
of Europe a Moravian settlement still has 
brethren’s, sisters’, and widows’ houses. Ina 
brethren’s house unmarried men live together, 
and engage in various trades and professions, 
the profits of which go to the church; in a 
sisters’ house unmarried women reside, and 
have an opportunity of earning a livelihood 
by different kinds of work; a widows’ house 
is a home for indigent or other widows, where 
they live comfortably at a very cheap rate. 
Each house has a spiritual and temporal su- 
perintendent, a common refectory and dor- 
mitory (except in the case of widows’ houses), 


820 


and a prayer hall, where religious services are 
daily held. There is nothing monastic in the 
regulations by which these establishments are 
governed. The inmates remain in them en- 
tirely at their own option, and are almost in- 
variably such as have no other home. <A com- 
munity of goods never existed at any time in 
a Moravian church or Moravian institution. 
During the Indian wars the system of ‘‘ com- 
mon housekeeping,” as it was called, was in- 
troduced; but each person retained his own 
private property, and when the wars were 
over and the settlements secure, the system 
was given up. It continued only for about 
20 years.—The Moravians are an evangelical 
church, in the fullest sense of the term, as it 
is commonly used in the United States. 
have no confession of faith, as such; but the 
doctrines which they uphold are embodied in 
a catechism and a special litany, called the 
Easter morning litany, and used on Easter 
Sunday. Catholicity eminently marks the 
church, in a doctrinal point of view. Its mot- 
to may be said to be that of Augustine: ‘‘In 
essentials unity, in non-essentials liberty, in 
all things charity.”” The distinguishing fea- 
ture of Moravian theology is the prominence 
given to the person and atonement of Christ. 
He is regarded as the centre of Christian doc- 
trine, ‘‘in whom all the promises of God are 
yea and amen, and in whom we have the grace 
of the Son, the love of the Father, and the 
communion of the Holy Ghost.” The Mo- 
ravian ministry embraces bishops, presbyters, 
and deacons. Bishops only have the right to 
ordain. They are usually appointed by lot, in 
imitation of the mode of appointing the apos- 
tle Matthias. The Moravian episcopacy is not 
diocesan ; the bishops are bishops of the whole 
Unitas Fratrum, have an official seat in the 
general synod, and can be appointed only by 
this body, or by its executive board. They do 
not govern the church in virtue of their office, 
but only when elected to the governing boards. 
However, they are almost invariably members 
of these boards by election. In other respects, 
their duties relate to the spiritual concerns of 
the church. The Moravian episcopal succes- 
sion from 1467 to 1874 embraces 174 bishops. 
There are 17 bishops in office at present. Of 
these, 6 reside in Germany, 4 in England, 6 in 
the United States, and 1 in the West Indies. 
The ritual of the church is similar to that of 
the Protestant Episcopal. A litany is used, in 
several languages, in all the different parts of 
the Unity; and there are regular forms for 
infant and adult baptism, the sacrament of the 
Lord’s supper, the rites of confirmation and 
ordination, burial, and marriage. Love feasts, 
in imitation of the apostolical agapsx, are cele- 
brated ; and liturgical services, particularly on 
occasion of church festivals, are held in many 
churches. The Moravians are distinguished 
for their church music.—The present numeri- 
cal strength of the home church is as follows 
(1875): in the American province there are 


They 


MORAVIANS 


75 churches, 8,315 communicants, and 14,737 
souls; in the continental, 28 churches, 5,872 
communicants, and 7,345 souls; in the British 
province, 40 churches, 3,249 communicants, 
and 5,548 souls. The whole number of com- 
municants in the three provinces is 17,436, 
and of souls 27,630. Although the church is 
so small, it is engaged in very extensive opera- 
tions. There are 5 church boarding schools in 
the American province (at Nazareth, Bethle- 
hem, and Litiz, Pa., Hope, Ind., and Salem, 
N. C.), at which more than 600 pupils are 
annually educated; 15 in the British province, 
educating about 400 pupils every year; and 25 
in the continental province, with about 1,000 
pupils. Nearly all the scholars come from 
beyond the pale of the church. At Bethle- 
hem, Pa., there is a college, and in connection 
with it a theological seminary. Similar insti- | 
tutions belong to the continental province. 
The next enterprise is that of domestic mis- 
sions. ‘These, in the United States, were com- 
menced very recently among the German im- 
migrants. On the continent of Europe the 
enterprise is extensive, and peculiarly interest- 
ing. It is called the work of the Diaspora, 
from the original Greek of 1 Peter i. 1, and has 
for its object the evangelization of the state 
churches, without proselyting their members. 
Hence societies within these churches are 
formed and regulated by the missionaries, who 
hold meetings for prayer and exhortation, and 
visit from house to house, but never adminis- 
ter the sacraments. There are 120 missiona- 
ries, male and female, engaged in this enter- 
prise. It extends over Saxony, Prussia, and 
other German countries, Switzerland, parts of 
France, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and the 
Russian empire. In the Russian provinces of 
Livonia and Esthonia the cause prospers very 
much, there being more than 250 chapels, and 
more than 60,000 members. The whole num- 
ber of Diaspora members, as they are called, 
on the continent, is about 80,000. But the 
great work which chiefly engages the energies 
of the church, and in which all the provinces 
unite, is that of foreign missions. It was com- 
menced in 1732, when Herrnhut constituted the 
only Moravian church, numbering about 600 
souls. Since then about 2,300 missionaries, 
male and female, not counting the native assis- 
tants, have labored in this field. Unsuccessful 
missions were commenced in Lapland, among 
the Samoyeds, in Algeria, Ceylon, China, Per- 
sia, the East Indies, the Caucasus, Guiana, 
Guinea, among the Calmucks, in Abyssinia, and 
in Tranquebar. At present the church has 
missions in Greenland, Labrador, North Amer- 
ica (among the Indians), on the Mosquito coast, 
in the islands of St. Thomas, St. Croix, St. 
John, Jamaica, Antigua, St. Christopher, Bar- 
badoes, and Tobago, in Surinam, 8. Africa, 
Thibet, and Australia. There are 333 mis- 
sionaries in the field, not counting the native 
assistants ; 92 regular stations, not counting 
the out stations; and 69,322 converts under 


MORAWA 


religious instruction, of whom 59,848 are in 
church fellowship, including baptized chil- 
dren, and the rest candidates for admission. 
The total number of souls connected with the 
Unitas Fratrum, not counting the Diaspora 
members, is 96,952.—See ‘The Moravian 
Manual” (Bethlehem, Pa., 1869). 

MORAWA, a river of Austria. See Marcu. 

MORAY, Earl of. See Murray. 

MORAYSHIRE. See Excinsarre. 

MORAZAN, Francisco, the last president of the 
republic of Central America, born in Hondu- 
ras in 1799, shot in Costa Rica, Sept. 15, 1842. 
He was secretary general of Honduras in 1824, 
was soon after elected chief or governor of 
the state, and distinguished himself both as a 
statesman and as a military commander. In 
several contests he led the liberal forces of his 
own and the adjacent states, with unvarying 
success, against the reactionary party, and 
finally in 1829 drove them from the city of 
Guatemala, for which the national congress de- 
creed him the title of saviour of the republic. 
He declined the post of president, but remained 
commander-in-chief of the forces, and in virtue 
of special powers delegated to him by the con- 
gress, he expelled the archbishop of Guatemala 
and the monks, suppressed the convents, abol- 
ished tithes, and devoted the other property 
and revenues of the church to education and 
charity. He inaugurated various schemes of 
public improvement, in which he was arrested 
in 1832 by the invasion of the republic from 
Mexico by a large force under Arce, the ex- 
pelled president, who was seconded by various 
local outbreaks of his partisans. These dis- 
turbances were promptly suppressed by Mora- 
zan, who soon after accepted the presidency. 
In 1836 the cholera made its appearance with 
extraordinary fatality. The ignorant popula- 
tion, more particularly the Indians, became 
much excited, and the clerical party proclaimed 
that the pestilence was due to the poisoning of 
the waters by the whites, liberals, and foreign- 
ers. The consequence was a general outbreak 
of the lower orders of the people and the 
Indians, under the lead of Rafael Carrera. In 
1840 Morazan sought refuge in Chili, whence 
in 1842 he went with some followers to Costa 
Rica, where he was made governor of the state 
by acclamation. He at once began to organ- 
ize an army with a view to the reéstablishment 
of the old federation; but the plan- was not 
popular in Costa Rica, and a revulsion ensued. 
Morazan and his handful of adherents were 
surprised, and, after a brilliant struggle, com- 
pelled to surrender. Morazan was tried by a 
drum-head court martial and shot. 

MORBIHAN, a maritime department of France, 
in Brittany, bordering on Cétes-du-Nord, Hle- 
et-Vilaine, Loire-Inférieure, Finistére, and the 
bay of Biscay; area, 2,625 sq. m.; pop. in 
1872, 490,352. Its name is derived from a 
gulf on its shore, called Morbihan, or small 
sea. The coast-is indented by numerous bays 
aud harbors. JBelle-Isle and several smaller 


MORDVINS 891 
islands off the coast belong to this depart- 
ment. The northern districts are hilly, but 
the southern are mainly composed of exten- 
sive and fertile plains. The principal river is 
the Vilaine, and the department is traversed 
by the Blavet and the Brest and Nantes canals. 
The sardine fishery gives employment to more 
than 3,000 men. The principal minerals are 
iron, tin, lead, slate, and salt. ‘There are manu- 
factures of linen, woollens, &c. Ship building 
is extensively carried on. The common cereals 
and flax and hemp are raised, and the depart- 
ment is celebrated for its cider. Much atten- 
tion is paid to rearing bees, and wax and 
honey are among the principal exports. The 
inhabitants of Morbihan are Bretons, and speak 
a dialect somewhat similar to that of the Cor- 
nish peasants in England. It is divided into the 
arrondissements of Lorient, Vannes, Pontivy or 
Napoléonville, and Ploérmel. Capital, Vannes. 

MORDANTS (Fr., from Lat. mordere, to bite), 
materials used in dyeing and calico printing 
for the purpose of fixing the colors. Their ac- 
tion is in accordance with a twofold attraction 
for the coloring matter and the material of 
the fabric, serving as a bond of union. Sub- 
stances which produce precipitates by acting 
upon the dyestuff, so that they may be pro- 
duced within the fibres of the fabric, are also 
called mordants. In the strictest sense, how- 
ever, they are not true mordants, but more 
properly speaking are components of the dye- 
ing material, the mordant being a material 
that has the property of fixing the dye which 
has already been produced. It acts by altering 
the texture of the fibre in such a way as to 
cause it to retain the particles of the color. 
The principal mordants are the aluminic, 
stannic, and ferric salts, in which the affinity 
of the base and acid is comparatively weak, 
so that the precipitated coloring matter may 
be formed without much difficulty. The action 
of a mordant generally depends much upon the 
temperature at which the operation is con- 
ducted, as must be apparent from a considera- 
tion of the effects of heat upon chemical affin- 
ity, the affinity between some substances being 
much more affected by alterations of tempera- 
ture than that between others. These reac- 
tions are also greatly modified by the nature 
of the fabric operated upon, and in general can 
only be well ascertained by experiment. Dye- 
ing, therefore, like nearly all industrial pro- 
cesses, requires for its perfection the combi- 
nation of theory with practice. (See Carico 
Printing, and DYEING.) 

MORDAUNT, Charles. 
Earl OF. 

MORDVINS, a people inhabiting eastern Rus- 
sia. They form a subdivision of the Bulgaric 
or Volgaic family of the Finnic branch of the 
Turanian, Uralo-Altaic, or Mongolian races, and 
are related to the Tcheremisses and Tchuvashes. 
(See Finns.) Their number has been estimated 
at 400,000, and their territory lies principally 
between the rivers Oka and Volga in the Rus- 


See PETERBOROUGH, 


822 


sian governments of Nizhni Novgorod, Tam- 
bov, Pensa, Simbirsk, and Saratov, extending 
also into Samara and Astrakhan. Dialectically 
they may be subdivided into Mokzhas, chiefly 
dwelling on the banks of the Sura and Mokzha, 
and Ersas, occupying the shores of the Oka.— 
See Ahlquist, Mokscha-mordwinische Gramma- 
tik (St. Petersburg, 1871). 

MORE, Hannah, an English authoress, born in 
Stapleton, Gloucestershire, Feb. 2, 1745, died 
in Clifton, Sept. 7, 1833. She was educated at 
a seminary kept by her sisters in Bristol, in the 
direction of which she afterward became asso- 
ciated. At the age of 16 she composed a pas- 
toral drama, ‘‘The Search after Happiness” 
(1773). In 1774 appeared her tragedy of 
“The Inflexible Captive,” and in 1775 two 
legendary poems, “Sir Edred of the Bower.” 
and “The Bleeding Rock.” Garrick brought 
out her tragedy of “Percy” in 1777. ‘The 
Fatal Falsehood” was produced in 1779. 
About this time religious impressions induced 
Miss More to cease writing for the stage. A 
volume of ‘‘Sacred Dramas” (1782), ‘ Florio,” 
a satirical tale (1786), a ‘‘ Poem on the. Slave 
Trade” and ‘ Thoughts on the Manners of the 
Great” (1788), and ‘‘ Religion of the Fashion- 
able World” (1791) were among her next pro- 
ductions. She began at Bath in 1795 a monthly 
periodical called the ‘‘ Cheap Repository,” con- 
sisting of short moral tales written by herself, 
among which was “The Shepherd of Salis- 
bury Plain.’”’ The work attained an enormous 
circulation. Miss More removed to Cheddart, 
founded there several schools, and soon ex- 
tended her charitable efforts for the education 
of the poor into all the surrounding country. 
After the appearance of her ‘‘Strictures on the 
Modern System of Female Education” (1799), 
she was invited to draw up a plan of instruction 
for the princess Charlotte of Wales, and pro- 
duced ‘‘ Hints toward forming the Character 
of a Young Princess” (1805). ‘‘ Coslebs in 
Search of a Wife,” her most popular work 
(1809), went through 10 editions in one year. 
It was followed by ‘ Practical Piety” (1811), 
‘‘ Christian Morals” (1812), an “‘ Essay on the 
Character and Writings of St. Paul’ (1815), 
and ‘‘ Modern Sketches” (1819). In 1828 she 
removed from Barleywood in Gloucestershire, 
where she had lived for several years with her 
sisters, to Clifton. She accumulated by her 
writings about £30,000, one third of which she 
bequeathed for charitable purposes. The best 
edition of her works is in 11 vols. 16mo (Lon- 
don, 1853).—See ‘‘Memoirs of the Life and 
Correspondence of Mrs. Hannah More,” by 
William Roberts (4 vols. 8vo, London, 1834; 
2 vols. 12mo, New York, 1836), and “ Corre- 
spondence of Hannah More with Zachary Mac- 
aulay” (London, 1860). 

MORE, Henry, an English philosopher, born in 
Grantham, Lincolnshire, Oct. 12, 1614, died in 
Cambridge, Sept. 1, 1687. He studied at Eton, 
and in 1631 removed to Christ’s college, Cam- 
bridge, where he took the degree of bachelor 


MORE 


in 1685 and of master in 1639, became a fellow 
of his college, and passed the remainder of his 
life in retirement and meditation. The rectory 
of Ingoldsby was resigned by him in 1642, and 
he became a prebendary of Gloucester in 1675, 
but soon resigned. In 1640 he published a 
philosophical poem, entitled ‘‘ Psychozoia, or 
the Life of the Soul.” At the request of Lady 
Conway, a Quakeress, he wrote the Conjectura 
Oabalistica, the Philosophie Teutonice Cen- 
sura, and other works. The first of these 
treatises was an attempt to interpret the book 
of Genesis into three distinct meanings, the 
literal, philosophical, and mystical or divinely 
moral. In 1656 appeared his Hnthusiasmus 
Triumphatus, a discourse on the nature, causes, 
kinds, and cure of enthusiasm. Among his 
other publications are: Enchiridium Metaphy- 
sicum; ‘*The Mystery of Godliness ;” ‘The 
Mystery of Iniquity;” a ‘‘ Discourse on the 
Immortality of the Soul;” and a treatise en- 
titled ‘‘ Medela Mundi, or Cure of the World,” 
left unfinished. His principal writings ap- 
peared in English (2d ed., 1662; 4th ed., 1712), 
and a complete edition of his works was pub- 
lished in Latin (1679). His life was written 
by the Rev. Richard Ward (London, 1710). 
MORE, Sir Thomas, an English statesman, born 
in London in 1480, executed there, July 6, 1535. 
He was the son of Sir John More, one of the 
justices of the court of king’s bench, was edu- 
cated in Latin under Nicholas Hart, and in his 
15th year was placed in the family of Cardinal 
Morton, archbishop of Canterbury. The aged 
cardinal often predicted that ‘t whosoever shall 
live to see it, this child will prove a marvellous 
rare man.” In 1497 he went to Oxford, where 
he studied Greek under Grocyn, and formed a 
lifelong friendship with Erasmus. At the uni- 
versity, or soon after leaving it, More composed 
the greater part of his English verses, and also 
wrote Latin epigrams (Basel, 1520), which con- 
tain proofs that he always regarded government 
as dependent on the consent of the people. 
From Oxford he passed to the study of law 
successively at New Inn and at Lincoln’s Inn, 
London, at the same time delivering lectures 
on jurisprudence at Furnival’s Inn, and on 
Augustine’s De Civitate Dei at St. Laurence’s 
church. He manifested a predilection for mo- 
nastic life, but soon relinquished the project of 
adopting it, and resolved on marriage. Of the 
three daughters of Mr. Colt, a gentleman of 
Essex, the second seemed to him the fairest; 
but when he considered the slight and conse- 
quent grief to the eldest sister if the younger 
were preferred to her in marriage, he then ‘ of 
a certain pity framed his fancy ” to the former, 
and married her. Called to the bar, he quick- 
ly rose to professional eminence, his practice 
amounting to £400 a year. He was employed 
in nearly every important case brought before 
the courts, was appointed under-sheriff and 
judge of the sheriff’s court for London and 
Middlesex, was elected a burgess of the parlia- 
ment under Henry VIL, and his eloquence both 


MORE 


at the bar and in parliament was frequently 
successful against the claims of the crown. 
His effective opposition to a royal grant, caus- 
ing Henry VII. to declare that ‘a beardless 
boy had disappointed all his purpose,” drew a 
fine and imprisonment upon his father, and he 
himself had resolved to leave the country at 
the time of that monarch’s death. After the 
accession of Henry VIII. he was still more 
prominently employed in public affairs. In 
1514 and 1515 he was sent on embassies to the 
Netherlands with reference to commercial in- 
tercourse; after his return he became a privy 
councillor; in 1521 he was knighted and made 
treasurer of the exchequer; and at various 
times he was employed in France to manage 
the intrigues of Wolsey with Francis I. When 
parliament assembled in 1523, he was chosen 
speaker of the house of commons, and dis- 
played his tact and quiet firmness when the 
house by its silence refused a heavy grant 
which Cardinal Wolsey had appeared in state 
to demand. In 1525 he was appointed chan- 
cellor of the duchy of Lancaster; in 1527 he 
accompanied Wolsey on his magnificent em- 
bassy to France; and about this time he pub- 
lished several learned, witty, and bitter pam- 
phlets against the reformers. He succeeded to 
the lord chancellorship in 1529, after the fall 
of Wolsey, and in this position evaded the de- 
mand of the king for an opinion concerning 
his divorce from Queen Catharine. The charges 
that he was over-zealous in his official efforts 
for the suppression of heresy were partially 
denied in his ‘“‘ Apology,” written in 15338. He 
constantly refused to lend his authority to the 
king’s project of divorce and second marriage; 
and after holding the great seal for two and a 
half years, he determined no longer to coun- 
tenance by his official position measures which 
he disapproved, and obtained permission to 
resign. In his house at Chelsea he lived in 
retirement, making ready for evil times. Im- 

licated in the alleged imposture of Elizabeth 

arton, the nun of Kent, whom he believed to 
be inspired, he was yet in the investigation 
treated leniently. When at length in 1534 he 
was required to swear allegiance to the act of 
succession for securing the throne to the off- 
spring of Anne Boleyn, he refused, and was 
committed to the tower for misprision of trea- 
son, where he remained more than a year, with 
permission to receive his relatives and corre- 
spond with his friends. A deputation then 
waited on him to urge his acknowledgment of 
the royal supremacy, but he declined to an- 
swer. The council interrogated him again and 
again in subsequent interviews; but finally 
(July 1, 1535) he was brought to the bar of 
the high commission charged with traitorously 
imagining and attempting to deprive the king 
of his title as supreme head of the church. He 
was condemned, and returned to the tower. 
On the morning of his execution he dressed in 
his most elaborate costume, preserved his com- 
posure to the last, and, as the fatal stroke was 


MOREAU 893 


about to fall, signed for a moment’s delay 
while he moved aside his beard, murmuring: 
‘Pity that should be cut; that has not com- 
mitted treason.” There is little information 
concerning the style of More’s oratory. In his 
prose writings, but a very small part of his vo- 
cabulary has become superannuated. His frag- 
mentary ‘History of Richard III,” (1641) is 
the first example of classical English prose. 
The work by which he is chiefly known is his 
Utopia, published in Latin (Louvain, 1516; 
Basel, 1518), and soon translated into English, 
French, Dutch, and Italian. It is an account 
of an imaginary commonwealth in the island 
of Utopia, feigned to have been discovered 
by a companion of Amerigo Vespucci, from 
whom More learns the tale. Society there is 
represented as free from indolence and ava- 
rice, luxury and want, oppression and intoler- 
ance; and the ideas that pervade the account 
are in advance of the age of the author. The 
best English translation is by Bishop Burnet. 
A collection of More’s Latin works was pub- 
lished at Louvain in 1556, and of his English 
works at London in 1557. There are biogra- 
phies by his son-in-law Roper (1626), Hoddes- 
den (1652), his great-grandson Thomas More 
(1726), and Sir James Mackintosh (‘‘ Cabinet 
Cyclopzedia,” 1831). 

MOREA. See PELOPONNESUS. 

MOREAQ, Jean Victor, a French general, born 
at Morlaix, Aug. 11, 1763, died at Laun, Bohe- 
mia, Sept. 2, 1813. He studied law at Rennes, 
and in 1787 was made provost of the school. 
He supported the parliament of Brittany in its 
opposition to the crown, but afterward exerted 
his influence against it, and became the leader 
of the revolutionary party at Rennes. In 
1792, at the head of a battalion of volunteers, 
he joined the army of the north, was made a 
brigadier general in 1793, and general of divi- 
sion in 1794. Commanding the right wing of 
the army under Pichegru, he had an important 
share in the conquest of Holland. In the 
campaign of 1796 he was commender-in-chief 
of the army of the Rhine and Moselle, defeated 
the Austrians under the archduke Charles at 
Neresheim, Aug. 11, and penetrated to the 
centre of Bavaria; but hearing of Jourdan’s 
defeat at Wirzburg, and being aware that the 
archduke with all the Austrian forces in Ger- 
many was falling upon him, he made a mas- 
terly retreat in the face of two powerful 
armies, so that on arriving in Alsace after an 
orderly march of 26 days, his own force was 
unimpaired, and he had 18 guns and 2 standards 
taken from the enemy, and nearly 7,000 prison- 
ers. In the following year he recrossed the 
Rhine and took the fortress of Kehl, but was 
stopped by the news of the preliminaries of 
Leoben. He was suspected on account of his 
friendship for Pichegru, and for 18 months 
remained out of service. The directorial gov- 
ernment recalled him in the day of danger. 
Sent to northern Italy under Scherer, who left 
him in command of the French troops when 


824 MOREAU 


everything seemed to be lost, he was defeated 
hy Suvaroff at Cassano, April 27, 1799, and 
executed a retreat from the banks of the Ad- 
da first to Turin, and then to Genoa, which, 
though less famous, is perhaps more admi- 
rable than that of 1796. He and Macdonald 
were superseded by Joubert, under whom Mo- 
reau consented to serve. Joubert having been 
killed at Novi, Moreau saved the remnant 
of the French army. He had in the mean 
while been appointed commander of the army 
on the Rhine. , Passing through Paris, he be- 
came acquainted with Bonaparte, and assisted 
him on the 18th Brumaire by watching over 
the two reluctant directors who were kept 
prisoners in the Luxembourg palace. While 
Bonaparte was executing the campaign which 
ended with the victory of Marengo, Moreau, 
who had crossed the Rhine, April 25, 1800, 
had several successful contests with the Aus- 
trians, drove Gen. Kray across the Danube, 
won the decisive battle of Héchstidt, advanced 
as far as Munich, and on July 15 signed the 
armistice of Parsdorf. Austria showing a dis- 
inclination to a definite arrangement, a win- 
ter campaign was required. Moreau, with 
100,000 men, received orders to cross the Inn 
and march on Vienna. On Dec. 3 he met the 
Austrians under the archduke John at Hohen- 
linden, where he won a brilliant victory. He 
then rapidly crossed the Inn, the Salza, and the 
Traun, defeated the archduke Charles at Lam- 
bach, occupied Linz on the Danube and Steyer 
on the Enns, and was within two days’ march 
of Vienna when the emperor consented to the 
terms proposed by the first consul, and signed 
the treaty of Lunéville, Feb. 9, 1801. After 
his return to Paris, Moreau married; and yield- 
ing to the influence of his wife and mother-in- 
law, who persuaded him that he was not treated 
as he deserved to be, he gave free expression to 
his discontent, and was privy to, if not deeply 
concerned in, the conspiracy of Georges Ca- 
doudal and Pichegru in 1804. For this he was 
sentenced by a court martial to two years’ 
imprisonment, which Bonaparte commuted to 
exile. Moreau came to the United States, 
bought an estate at Morrisville, Pa., on the 
Delaware river, opposite Trenton, N. J., and 
engaged in agricultural pursuits. At the end 
of nine years Alexander I. of Russia invited 
him to return to Europe, and gave him a flat- 
tering welcome. He was induced by the czar 
to devise a plan for the invasion of France. 
He became a bosom companion of Alexander, 
was near him at the battle of Dresden, Aug. 
27, 1813, and was advising upon a certain 
manceuvre on a hill near Racknitz, when a 
cannon ball from Napoleon’s guard broke both 
his legs. He was carried on the retreat to 
Bohemia, and died five days later. His re- 
mains were interred in St. Petersburg. A 
monument was dedicated to him in Paris in 
1819.—See Vie politique, militaire et privée 
du général Moreau, by A. de Beauchamp (8vo, 
Paris, 1814). The best account of his career is 


MOREL | 


found in Thiers’s Histoire de la révolution fran- 
caise and Histoire du consulat et de Vempire. 

MOREHOUSE, a N. parish of Louisiana, bor- 
dering on Arkansas, bounded W. by the Wash- 
ita, and drained by Bartholomew and Beuf 
rivers; area, 950 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 9,387, 
of whom 6,375 were colored. It has an un- 
dulating surface, subject to inundation, with a 
fertile soil. The chief productions in 1870 
were 180,032 bushels of Indian corn, 17,399 
of sweet potatoes, 55,950 lbs. of butter, and 
11,154 bales of cotton. There were 1,136 
horses, 1,825 mules and asses, 2,510 milch 
cows, 5,785 other cattle, 2,570 sheep, and 10,- 
833 swine. Capital, Bastrop. 

MOREL (Fr. morille), the common name for 
morchella esculenta, an edible fungus found in 
Europe, Asia, and North America. It grows 
in orchards, woods, and damp pastures, pre- 
ferring a heavy argillaceous soil to a sandy 
one, and is especially frequent on burnt soil 


Morel (Morchella esculenta). 


or where cinders have been deposited. It is 
usually about 4 in. high, with a white, cylin- 
drical, smooth stem; the pileus or cap is near- 
ly spherical, sometimes elongated, and adheres 
to the stem by its base; its surface is covered 
with a network of ribs which run together 
irregularly and give the cap the appearance of 
being pitted over its whole surface; its color 
is a pale buff. Morels appear in spring and 
early summer, and though they are less gen- 
erally known than the mushroom, they are by 
some more highly prized. They are used in 
cookery for flavoring ragouts, gravies, &c., and 
are also eaten stewed in the same manner as 
mushrooms, They are found onrare occasions 
in the New York markets, and in England, 
where they are much better known, they are sel- 
dom offered for sale fresh. Unlike the mush- 
room, the morel preserves its flavor when dried, 
and in that state it is an article of commerce. 
The chief supply is from Germany; and as 
the plants are found most abundantly upon 


-. 


MORELIA 


charred soil, it was the custom of the peasants 
to encourage their growth by setting fire to 
the woods, a practice now prohibited by law. 
There are several other species of morchella 
in this country and Europe, all of which, ac- 
cording to some authors, are edible, while 
Berkeley says that MW. semilidbera is of doubtful 
reputation. There is no record in the princi- 
pal European horticultural works of any at- 
tempts to cultivate this fungus, but it would 
not be difficult to imitate the conditions under 
which it grows naturally. - 
MORELIA, an inland city of Mexico, capital 
of the state of Michoacan and of a district of 
its own name, 125 m. W. by N. of Mexico; 
pop. officially estimated in 1869 at 30,000. The 
city stands upon a rocky hill 6,488 ft. above 
the sea; its streets are wide and cross each 
other at right angles, but are mostly disfigured 
by open sewers. On one side of the Plaza de 
los Martires, the largest square, stands the ca- 
thedral, and the other sides are flanked by ex- 
tensive arcades, the principal business centre. 
The construction of the houses is remarkably 
substantial, but few of them are of more than 
two stories. The cathedral has two towers 
about 200 ft. high. The government palace 
has a handsome exterior. The San Nicolas 
college, first built in the 16th century, and re- 
constructed in 1868, in the renaissance style, is 
one of the finest edifices in the republic. The 
numerous convents and nunneries were sup- 
pressed in 1859, and the buildings are for the 
most part in ruins. Water is supplied by an 
aqueduct, constructed in 1788, 3 m. long, with 
vast and lofty arches, and of imposing aspect. 
The bull ring is one of the best and most 
spacious in Mexico. There are two asylums 
or houses of refuge, one for each sex, a hos- 
pital, a fine prison, two or three barracks, and 
two cemeteries. Besides the college above 
mentioned, including departments of law, 
medicine, pharmacy, and agriculture, there is 
a considerable number of schools of various 
grades. The manufacturing industry is limited 
to cotton and woollen fabrics, of which there 
are two factories, one having 68 looms and 
employing 200 hands; and guayabate, a delicate 
fruit preserve, extensively exported to Mexico. 
—The city was founded in 1541, and received 
the name of Valladolid, which in 1828 was 
changed to that of Morelia, in honor of the 
patriot José Maria Morelos, who as well as 
Iturbide was a native of the place. In spite 
of a somewhat insalubrious climate, periodical 
inundations, and occasional earthquakes, Mo- 
relia has rapidly increased in extent and im- 
portance; in 1856 it had only 30 streets, and 
now has 99. It was made a bishopric in 1863. 
MORELLA, Count dee See Caprera, Ramon. 
MORELOS, an inland state of Mexico, bound- 
ed by the state and the federal district of Mex- 
ico, Puebla, and Guerrero; area, 1,887 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1868, 121,098; in 1873, according to 
the annual report of the ministry of public 
works, 147,039. This state, which was for- 


MORELOS 825 


merly included in that of Mexico, forms a part 
of the S. E. slope of the central table land, 
and has a mean elevation of about 4,500 ft. 
above the sea. It is very mountainous, and 
the volcano of Popocatepetl, one of the highest 
points, if not the culminating point, of North 
America, is on the N. E. boundary; but the 
highest peaks are separated by plains of re- 
markable fertility. Almost the whole country 
is of volcanic formation. The cave of Caca- 
huamilpa, near the village of the same name, 
is reported one of the most curious in the 
world; the entrance is formed by an arch 
75 ft. high and 150 wide; in the interior are 
vast natural divisions or compartments called 
alones, where snow-white stalactites and sta- 
lagmites abound, resembling obelisks, palms, 
&c. Numerous streams water the plains, but 
the Cuernavaca and Cuautla, tributaries of the 
Amacusaque, are the only considerable rivers. 
The climate, mild in the north, is extremely 
hot and insalubrious in the south; malignant 
fevers and endemic dysentery are the prevail- 
ing maladies. The staple productions are the 
sugar cane and several varieties of exquisite 
fruits, immense gardens being laid out in 
various parts of the state for their cultiva- 
tion. There were 22 silver mines in operation 
in 1878, and gold, quicksilver, cinnabar, lead, 
chalk, and kaolin are produced. The prin- 
cipal industries are the manufacture of sugar, 
molasses, and rum of superior quality. The 
sugar manufactured in 1873 amounted to 20,- 
478,200 Ibs., and the molasses to 8,682,211 
gallons. There were in the state 184 public 
schools, 82 of which were for females, with 
an aggregate attendance of 7,271, exclusive of 
86 enrolled in the state literary institute at 
Cuernavaca. Morelos is divided into five dis- 
tricts, and the chief towns are Cuernavaca, 
the capital, Cuautla de Morelos, Yautepec, Jo- 
nacatepe, and Tete-Cola. 

MORELOS, or Montemorelos, a city of Mex- 
ico, capital of a district of the same name, in 
the state of Nuevo Leon, 70 m. 8. E. of Mon- 
terey; pop. about 9,000. The town is 2,000 
ft. above the sea. The old portion is ruinous, 
but the modern part has wide and regular 
streets, substantial buildings, and courtyards 
filled with trees and flowers. Streams of pure 
water flow through the streets. There are sev- 
eral churches, three public schools, and manu- 
factories of sugar, rum, agricultural imple- 
ment, hardware, silver, and hats. The original 
name of the city was San Mateo del Pilon. 

MORELOS, José Maria, 2 Mexican revolution- 
ist, born in 1780, shot in the city of Mexico, 
Dec. 22, 1815. He was curate of Nucupetaro 
in Valladolid, and in October, 1810, joined the 
insurgent chief Hidalgo against the Spaniards, 
reeeiving a commission to act as captain gen- 
eral of the provinces on the S. W. coast. He 
set out with five negroes to conquer Aca- 
puleco, which was strongly garrisoned. On 
his march he was joined by about 1,000 men, 
chiefly negro slaves, with whom under cover 


896 MORETO 


of night he surprised and signally defeated the 
Spaniards, Jan. 25, 1811. His army at length 
acquired discipline, and he encountered the 
Spanish army at Cuautla Amilpas, Feb. 19, 
1812, and defeated it after a hard-fought battle, 
in which the royalists lost 500 men. A second 
army was sent against him, and for several 
weeks he was besieged in Cuautla, from which 
he skilfully withdrew his troops May 2, in the 
face of a greatly superior force. Subsequent- 
ly he won several victories, captured Orizaba, 
Tehuacan, and Oajaca, and at length compelled 
Acapulco to surrender, Aug. 30, 1818. In 
December of the same year he marched against 
Valladolid, but was defeated there by Iturbide 
with great loss. From this time he suffered 
a succession of defeats, till on Nov. 16, 1815, 
he was taken prisoner after a gallant resis- 
tance against an overwhelming force, and was 
carried to Mexico, tried, and executed. He 
died with the utmost composure. 

MORETO, Agustin, a Spanish dramatist, born 
about 1600, died in Toledo, Oct. 28, 1669. He 
was prominent as a writer for the stage until 
the last 12 years of his life, which he passed 
as rector of the hospital del refugio of Toledo. 
He was a friend and imitator of Lope de Vega 
and Oalderon. His works comprise a few re- 
hgious and heroic plays, and some serious 
dramas. His most popular comedy, Desden 
con el desden (‘‘Disdain met with Disdain”’), 
is reckoned among the four classic produc- 
tions of the Spanish drama, and was adapted 
for the French stage by Moliére (La princesse 
d’Hlide), for the Italian by Carlo Gozzi (La 
principessa filosofa, o il Contraveleno), and for 
the German by Joseph Schreyvogel (West), 
under the title of Donna Diana. The most 
nearly complete edition of his comedies was 
issued between 1676 and 1703. 

MORETTO, Il. See Bonvicrno. 

MORFIT, Campbell, an American chemist, born 
in Herculaneum, Mo., in 1820. He studied at 
Columbian college, Washington, D. C., and 
subsequently devoted himself to the study of 
chemistry in the laboratory of Prof. James CO. 
Booth of Philadelphia. He then engaged in 
the manufacture of commercial chemicals. In 
1848 he became co-editor with Prof. Booth of 
the ‘‘ Encyclopedia of Chemistry.” He publish- 
ed numerous scientific papers, and also wrote 
a report to the United States ordnance depart- 
ment on gun metal. For the investigations 
to which this latter refers he established a 
laboratory at the Pikesville arsenal, Md., and 
he originated the chemical department of the 
Maryland institute. From 1854 to 1858 he 
was professor of analytical and applied chem- 


istry in the university of Maryland, which post. 


he resigned to remove to New York; and 
since 1864 he has resided in London, England, 
His principal works are: ‘‘ Applied Chemistry 
in the Manufacture of Soaps and Candles” 
(Philadelphia, 1847) ; ‘‘ Chemical and Pharma- 
ceutical Manipulations” (1848); ‘‘ A Report of 
the Progress of the Chemical Arts,” prepared 


MORGAN 


with Prof. Booth for the Smithsonian institu- 
tion (1851); ‘‘ Perfumery, its Manufacture and 
Use”? (1852-5); ‘Oleic Soaps” (London and 
New York, 1871); and ‘‘ Mineral Phosphates” 
(1873). The last two are elaborately illustrated. 

MORGAGNI, Giovanni Battista, an Italian anato- 
mist, born in Forli, Feb. 25, 1682, died in 
Padua, Dec. 6, 1771. He took his degree of 
M. D. at Bologna, in 1711 became professor 
of the theory of physic at Padua, and in 1715 
professor of anatomy. He is regarded as the 
founder of pathological anatomy. His works 
include Adversaria Anatomica (38 vols. 4to, 
Bologna and Padua, 1706-’19), enlarged and 
published under the title of Adversaria Omnia 
(6 vols., Padua, 1741); and De Sedibus et 


Causis Morborum per Anatomen Indagatis (2 


vols. fol., 1761; 6 vols., Leipsic, 1827), trans- 
lated into various languages. 

MORGAN, the name of counties in 10 of the 
United States. I. A N. E. county of West 
Virginia, bordering 8. W. on Virginia, separated 
from Maryland by the Potomac, and drained 
by Cacapon river; area, 350 sq. m.; pop. in 
1870, 4,815, of whom 116 were colored. The 
surface is mountainous, and the soil light and 
unproductive except in the valleys. There are 
large deposits of iron and coal. Berkeley 
Springs in this county is one of the oldest wa- 
tering places in the United States. The Bal- 
timore and Ohio railroad passes through the 
county. The chief productions in 1870 were 
27,697 bushels of wheat, 58,142 of Indian corn, 
19,835 of oats, 10,915 of potatoes, 7,564 Ibs. of 
wool, 41,183 of butter, and 1,996 tons of hay. 
There were 882 horses, 1,112 milch cows, 1,456 
other cattle, 2,683 sheep, and 2,552 swine. 
Capital, Bath. If. A central county of Georgia, 
bounded E. by Appalachee and Oconee rivers, 
and drained by their branches; area, 272 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 10,696, of whom 7,058 were 
colored. The surface is undulating, and the 
soil, based on limestone, is fertile. Small quan- 
tities of gold have been found, and there are 
large granite quarries. The county is inter- 
sected by the Georgia railroad. The chief pro- 
ductions in 1870 were 19,820 bushels of wheat, 
129,948 of Indian corn, 14,325 of oats, 8,019 
of sweet potatoes, 38,968 lbs. of butter, and 
4,868 bales of cotton. There were 636 horses, 
721 mules and asses, 1,144 milch cows, 1,975 
other cattle, 1,363 sheep, and 38,762 swine. 
Capital, Madison. Tl. A N. county of Ala- 
bama, bounded N. by the Tennessee river; 
area, 720 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 12,187, of whom 
3,358 were colored. The surface is mountain- 
ous and the soil generally fertile. The Mem- 
phis and Charleston railroad passes through 
the N. W. part. The chief productions in 1870 
were 23,336 bushels of wheat, 833,332 of In- 
dian corn, 17,701 of oats, 19,902 of sweet po- 
tatoes, 4,389 bales of cotton, 6,747 lbs. of wool, 
70,886 of butter, and 11,877 gallons of sorghum 
molasses. There were 2,462 horses, 660 mules 
and asses, 2,944 milch cows, 924 working oxen, 
3,977 other cattle, 4,962 sheep, and 14,844 


MORGAN 


swine. Capital, Somerville. IW. A N. E. 
county of Tennessee, drained by the head 
streams of Emory’s river; area, 640 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1870, 2,969, of whom 101 were colored. 
The surface is diversified by mountains covered 
with large forests. There are extensive beds 
of coal. The chief productions in 1870 were 
52,642 bushels of Indian corn, 15,548 of oats, 
9,910 of potatoes, 7,944 lbs. of tobacco, 9,197 
of wool, 29,225 of butter, and 485 tons of hay. 
There were 515 horses, 940 milch cows, 2,851 
other cattle, 4,812 sheep, and 9,532 swine. 
Capital, Wartburg. V. An E. county of Ken- 
tucky, intersected by Licking river; area, 806 
sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 5,975, of whom 44 were 
colored. The surface is hilly, and the soil in 
the valleys is rich. Timber is abundant, and 
iron, coal, alum, copperas, and oil springs are 
found. The chief productions in 1870 were 
10,479 bushels of wheat, 226,751 of Indian 
corn, 34,139 of oats, 17,678 of potatoes, 16,800 
lbs. of tobacco, 20,960 of wool, 89,717 of but- 
ter, and 1,035 tons of hay. There were 1,502 
horses, 662 milch cows, 1,099 working oxen, 
2,349 other cattle, 10,102 sheep, and 8,036 
swine. Capital, West Liberty. VI A S. E. 
county of Ohio, intersected by Muskingum 
river; area, 360 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 20,368. 
It has an uneven surface, and a rich soil based 
on limestone. Large quantities of salt are pro- 
cured. The chief productions in 1870 were 
192,701 bushels of wheat, 613,837 of Indian 
corn, 137,546 of oats, 71,821 of potatoes, 486,- 
125 lbs. of tobacco, 313,372 of wool, 593,454 
of butter, and 20,400 tons of hay. There were 
6,637 horses, 5,795 milch cows, 11,058 other 
cattle, 78,009 sheep, and 16,468 swine; 2 manu- 
factories of agricultural implements, 7 of car- 
riages and wagons, 2 of coal oil, 12 of salt, 4 
tanning and currying establishments, 3 saw 
mills, and 11 flour mills. Capital, McConnells- 
ville. Vi. A central county of Indiana, drained 
by the W. fork of White river and its branches; 
area, 453 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 17,528. The 
surface in the south is uneven, in other parts 
level, and the soil is fertile. It is traversed by 
the Indianapolis and Vincennes and the Cin- 
cinnati and Martinsville railroads. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 328,131 bushels of 
wheat, 1,188,289 of Indian corn, 63,489 of oats, 
48,402 of potatoes, 11,127 lbs. of tobacco, 61,471 
of wool, 229,355 of butter, and 8,183 tons of 
hay. There were 6,142 horses, 4,375 milch 
cows, 9,560 other cattle, 20,902 sheep, and 
84,606 swine; 20 manufactories of carriages, 
2 of furniture, 9 of saddlery and harness, 1 of 
woollen goods, 1 wool-carding establishment, 
82 saw mills, 6 tanneries, 4 currying establish- 
ments, and 9 flour mills. Capital, Martins- 
ville. Vil. A W. county of Illinois, bounded 
N. W. by the Illinois river and drained by sev- 
eral creeks which afford water power; area, 
550 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 28,463. The surface 
consists chiefly of rich level prairies, diversified 
by small groves. The soil is a deep black loam; 
coal is abundant. It is traversed by the Peoria, 


827 


Pekin, and Jacksonville, the Great Western, 
and several other railroads. The chief pro-_ 
ductions in 1870 were 375,719 bushels of wheat, 
3,198,835 of Indian corn, 198,724 of oats, 68,105 
of potatoes, 77,156 of wool, 295,798 of butter, 
and 29,671 tons of hay. There were 10,330 
horses, 5,648 milch cows, 30,809 other cattle, 
15,040 sheep, and 44,588 swine; 12 manufac- 
tories of agricultural implements, 3 of boots 
and shoes, 5 of brick, 28 of carriages, 7 of fur- 
niture, 8 of saddlery and harness, 2 of cigars, 
2 of woollen goods, and 11 flour mills. Capi- 
tal, Jacksonville. IX. A central county of Mis- 
souri, bounded S. in part by Osage river and 
drained by some of its tributaries; area, 648 
sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 8,434, of whom.307 were 
colored. The surface is diversified and in some 
places well wooded. The soil is generally fer- 
tile. Lead, coal, and limestone are found. 
The Missouri Pacific railroad skirts the N. 
border. The chief productions in 1870 were 
83,123 bushels of wheat, 228,175 of Indian 
corn, 138,259 of oats, 16,424 of potatoes, 23,468 
Ibs. of wool, 41,333 of butter, and 2,909 tons 
of hay. There were 3,409 horses, 1,063 mules 
and asses, 2,771 milch cows, 5,680 other cattle, 
10,366 sheep, and 11,493 swine. Capital, Ver- 
sailles. X. A N.E. county of Utah, watered by 
Weber river and its tributaries; area, 600 sq. 
m.; pop. in 1870, 1,972. It is crossed by the 
Union Pacific railroad: The chief resources 
are agricultural, but coal and iron are believed 
to exist. Gold mines have been recently opened. 
The chief productions in 1870 were 12,960 
bushels of wheat and 3,950 of potatoes. The 
value of live stock was $40,490. There wero 
7 saw mills. Capital, Morgan. 

MORGAN, Daniel, an American general, born 
in New Jersey in 1736, died in Winchester, 
Va., July 6, 1802. In early life he removed to 
Frederick (now Clarke) co., Va. In 1755 he 
joined the expedition of Braddock as a team- 
ster, and for some real or fancied indignity to 
a British officer received 500 lashes. He also 
received a painful wound which disfigured his 
countenance for life. He worked as a farmer 
till the outbreak of the revolution, when, in 
command of a company of riflemen, he started 
for Boston, reaching the American camp, after 
a march of 600 miles, in three weeks. In De- 
cember, 1775, he accompanied the expedition 
of Arnold to Quebec, and in the attack on that 
city was taken prisoner. Soon after his release, 
toward the close of 1776, he was appointed 
colonel of a rifle regiment. During Washing- 
ton’s retreat through New Jersey in 1776 and 
the campaign in the same state in 1777, he ren- 
dered valuable services, and in the summer of 
the latter year joined Gates, then in command 
of the northern army. In the battle of Be- 
mus’s heights Morgan’s riflemen took a distin- 
guished part. Continuing in active service in 
the north until the summer of 1780, he was then 
made brigadier general and transferred to the 
southern army. He gained a decisive victory 
over Tarleton at the Cowpens, Jan. 17, 1781, 


828 MORGAN 


for which he received a gold medal from con- 
gress, and followed it up by a series of well 
conceived manceuvres which seriously embar- 
rassed Cornwallis. Before the close of the 
campaign he was compelled by ill health to 
retire to his home in Virginia. He aided in 
quelling the whiskey insurrection in Pennsy]- 
vania in 1794, and was a member of congress 
from 1795 to 1799. 

MORGAN, Sir Henry, a British buccaneer, born 
about 1637, died in Jamaica in 1690. He 
was the son of a farmer in Wales, became a 
sailor, and for many years maintained his po- 
sition among the West India islands as chief 
of a host of pirates, composed of adventurers 
from all the nations of Europe. From his 
strongholds, one of which was the island of St. 
Catharine, he made many successful descents 
upon the Spanish settlements in his vicinity, 
and at sea captured many rich prizes. The 
most daring of these expeditions was that in 
which he captured and sacked Portobello and 
Panama, amassing a large fortune. (See Buo- 
OANEERS.) He afterward settled in Jamaica, 
where he was made a marine commissary and 
knighted by Charles II. 

MORGAN, Lewis Henry, an American author, 
born in Ledyard, Cayuga co., N. Y., Nov. 21, 
1818. He graduated at Union college in 1840, 
and studied law at Rochester, where he began 
to practise in 1844, and where he still resides. 
In 1864 he retired from practice. In 1851 he 
published ‘“‘The League of the Iroquois,” a 
full and accurate account of the Six Nations 
and their institutions. His researches among 
the Iroquois led him to observe their pecu- 
liar system of family relationship, which he 
found prevailed also among the tribes of the 
west, and of which in his ethnological studies 
he discovered unmistakable traces among the 
barbarous nations of the old world. This 
led him to institute investigations in all parts 
of the globe by means of letters and circu- 
lars addressed to missionaries and to United 
States ministers and consuls. The results of 
this correspondence were embodied in ‘“ Sys- 
tems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Hu- 
man Family,” published by the Smithsonian 
institution in 1870, which Sir John Lubbock 
pronounced ‘one of the most valuable con- 
tributions to ethnological science which have 
appeared for many years.” In 1868 Mr. Mor- 
gan published ‘‘The American Beaver and his 
Works,” the result of much observation of the 
beaver in the neighborhood of Lake Superior. 
In 1861 he was a member of the New York 
assembly, and in 1868-9 a state senator. 

MORGAN. I. Sydney (Owenson), lady, an 
Irish authoress, born about 1783, died in Lon- 
don, April 18, 1859. Her father was an actor, 
and a man of considerable literary acquire- 
ments. In 1797 she published a volume of po- 
ems, followed by two tales, ‘St. Clair” (1804) 
and “The Novice of St. Dominick (1805), and 
a novel, ‘‘The Wild Irish Girl” (1806), of which 
seven editions were printed in two years. In 


MORGANATIC MARRIAGE 


4807 appeared her “ Patriotic Sketches of Ire- 
land” and ‘‘ The Lay of an Irish Harp, or Met- 
rical Fragments.” In March of the same year 
her comic opera, ‘‘ The First Attempt, or the 
Whim of a Moment,” was brought out with 
great success in the Theatre Royal, Dublin. In 
1809 she published ‘‘ Woman, or Ida of Ath- 

ns;” and in 1811 ‘‘ The Missionary.” In 1812 
she was married to Sir Thomas Charles Mor- 
gan, with whom she subsequently travelled 
over various parts of Europe, residing for con- 
siderable periods in France and Italy. Among 
the results of her travels were a review of the 
social state of France (4to, London, 1817), and 
a similar work on Italy (2 vols. 8vo, 1821), 
both of which caused much controversy. The 


popularity of these works introduced the au- 


thoress to the fashionable and literary circles 
of England. Among her remaining works 
were her novels, ‘‘ O’Donnell” (1814), ‘‘ Flor- 
ence Macarthy”’ (1816), ‘“‘ The Life and Times 
of Salvator Rosa” (1824), ‘‘ Absenteeism” 
(1825), and ‘‘The O’Briens and the O’Flaher- 
tys” (1827); ‘‘ Book of the Boudoir,” contain- 
ing several autobiographical sketches (1829) ; 
‘* Dramatic Scenes from Real Life” (183883); 
‘The Princess, or the Béguine,” written during 
a visit to Belgium (1835); ‘‘ Woman and her 
Master” (1840); and ‘‘ Passages from my Au- 
tobiography” (1858). Lady Morgan was one 
of the most brilliant conversationists of her 
time. She passed her last years at her resi- 
dence in London, in the enjoyment of a pen- 
sion of £300.—See W. J. Fitzpatrick’s ‘‘ Friends, 
Foes, and Adventures of Lady Morgan ” (Dub- 
lin, 1859). If Sir Thomas Charles, an English 
author, husband of the preceding, born in 
London about 17838, died there, Aug. 28, 1843. 
He was educated at Eton and Cambridge, and 
in 1809 took the degree of M. D. He removed 
to Ireland, having a place under government 
as a commissioner of the Irish fisheries, was 
knighted in 1811, and in 1812 married Miss 
Owenson. Soon afterward he relinquished 
his profession for the pursuit of literature, and 
was an industrious contributor to periodicals, 
He is the author of ‘“‘ Sketches of the Philoso- 
phy of Life” (1818), and ‘‘ Sketches of the Phi- 
losophy of Morals” (1822), and published in 
conjunction with his wife a collection of essays 
and miscellanies entitled ‘‘The Book without 
a Name” (1841). He furnished four appen- 
dices to Lady Morgan’s first work on France. 
MORGAN, William. See Anti-Masonry. 
MORGANA. See Fara Moreana. 
MORGANATIC MARRIAGE (Ang.-Sax. morgan 
gifu, Ger. Morgengabe, morning gift or dowry), 
the term for a marriage concluded between a 
man of superior and a woman of inferior rank, 
in which it is stipulated that the latter and her 
children shall be entitled neither to the rank 
nor to the possessions of the husband, the 
dowry (morning gift) being in lieu of all other 
privileges. Marriages of this kind are not in- 
frequent in the princely houses of Germany, 
and one of the most noted was that of King 


MORGARTEN 


Frederick William III. of Prussia with the 
countess Auguste von Harrach, who thereupon 
received the title of princess of Liegnitz. 

MORGARTEN, a hill in Switzerland, about 2 
m. W. of Rothenthurm, on the margin of the 
lake of Egeri, and on the E. border of the can- 
ton of Zug, memorable as the scene of the bat- 
tle of Nov. 16, 1815, in which a body of 1,400 
Swiss mountaineers from Schwytz, Uri, and 
Unterwalden, ill armed and undisciplined, to- 
tally vanquished an Austrian army of 20,000 
under the duke Leopold. The hill overlooks 
a narrow pass between it and the lake. When 
the Austrians had entered this pass, a por- 
tion of the Swiss hurled down upon them 
immense masses of rock, which killed many 
and threw the cavalry into confusion; the re- 
mainder of the Swiss, stationed at the end of 
the pass, then charged them, and but few 
escaped. This was the first victory achieved 
by the Swiss in their struggle for freedom. A 
chapel stands at the foot of the hill, in which 
service is performed annually on the anniver- 
sary of the battle. 

MORGENSTERN, Christian, a German painter, 
born in Hamburg in 1805, died Feb. 26, 1867. 
His parents were poor, and he began life as 
assistant of an exhibitor of panoramas. In 
1823 he was admitted to the school of paint- 
ing of Bendixen, and in 1827 he exhibited his 
first work, ‘‘Oaks near a Swamp,” which pro- 
cured for him a small stipend from the govern- 
ment. He spent some time in Holstein, ex- 
plored Norway, attended the academy of fine 
arts at Copenhagen, and settled in Munich in 
1830, choosing the ‘‘ Heath of Liineburg”’ as 
the theme of his first work in that city. He 
produced exquisite landscapes of the moun- 
tains of Berchtesgaden and Salzburg, of the 
romantic castles of Alsace and the Vosges 
mountains, of Lakes Starnberg and Chiem, and 
of Heligoland. His pictures of moonlight and 
stormy nights on Heligoland are regarded as 
his masterpieces. Shortly before his death he 
exhibited in Paris a new painting of the heath 
of Liineburg. He also excelled in etching. 

MORGHEN, Raffaelle Sanzio, an Italian engraver, 
born in Florence, June 19, 1758, died there, 
April 8, 1838. He was instructed by his father, 
an engraver, and at 20 years of age executed 
a series of seven plates representing masks 
from the carnival'of Naples of 1778. He was 
then placed in the school of Volpato in Rome, 
‘and in 1781 married the only daughter of his 
master. In 1787 he produced his engraving of 
Guido’s *“‘ Aurora.” He visited Naples in 1790, 
and removed in 1793 to Florence, where he 
opened a public school of engraving. His first 
important work in Florence was the print of 
Raphael’s Madonna della seggiola, and in 1795 
he commenced the Mudonna del sacco of An- 
drea del Sarto, and the ‘‘ Transfiguration” of 
Raphael, the latter his most elaborate work, 
completed in 1812. But this is considered less 
meritorious than his print of the ‘“‘ Last Sup- 
per” after Leonardo da Vinci, the early impres- 


MORGUE 899 


sions of which (1800) are among the most pre- 
cious productions of his graver. According to 
his pupil Nicolé Palmerini, to whom he gave 
impressions of every plate from the first out- 
line to the finished proof, Morghen executed 73 
portraits, many of which were of living per- 
sonages besides the great poets and painters of 
Italy, 47 Biblical and religious pieces, 44 his- 
torical and mythological pieces, 24 views and 
landscapes, and 13 vignettes and crests. The 
Palmerini collection of his prints was purchased 
by the duke of Buckingham for £1,200. 
MORGUE (from the Languedocian morga, a 
repulsive face), a place for the exhibition of 
dead bodies of unknown persons, with a view 
to their identification. Such establishments 
existed in Paris as early as the 17th century, 
in connection with prisons. The one in the 
Chatelet was succeeded in 1804 by a separate 
establishment, which was enlarged in 1880; 
but this proving inadequate, another was open- 
ed in 1866 close by the Seine, behind the cathe- 
dral of Notre Dame. It consists of a central 
pavilion and two wings. The dead are placed 
inside a glazed partition, on slabs of marble, 
and streams of water and other means are em- 
ployed to delay decomposition. The average 
period of exhibition is 24 hours, and the greater 
number of the bodies are recognized. When 
there is evidence of death by violence, the 
bodies are examined in. the dissecting room. 
The burial of the unrecognized and poor is at 
the public expense in special lots in the ceme- 
teries. The effects not claimed by relatives are 
retained for six months. The following table 
shows the number exposed in ten years: 


AGES Males Females. Total. 

Bitod 2D sehic hos seats 505 115 620 
DD ytOSd Ds sae tite ne eerste 1,050 192 1,242 
4ONCONGDL Act eat att nee 599 163 62 
GONTOMSOT La es Foe ese 125 58 183 
LOCAL cate vie sicite alee 2,279 528 2,807 


Besides these, there were 94 fragments, 296 
foetuses, and 197 new-born infants; the num- 
ber of the last has greatly increased of late 
years, in consequence of the suppression of 
deposit boxes in foundling hospitals. In the 
whole number there were 1,766 suicides, most 
of them recovered from the Seine. A majority 
of these were natives of Paris, of the poorest 
classes. The annual average is about 250 adult 
males and 50 females, but is much larger in 
time of epidemics and disturbances. It has 
been exceptionally large since the Franco-Ger- 
man war, the suicides increasing from 567 in 
1872 to 660 in 1873, and to nearly 1,000 in 
1874.—The morgue in New York was estab- 
lished in June, 1866. It is on the grounds of 
Bellevue hospital, and is under the charge of 
the warden of the hospital, a keeper, and an 
assistant. As soon as a corpse is brought in, 
a full account of its recovery, when and where 
found, a description, and other particulars are 


830 MORGUE 


recorded. Notice is sent to the coroner, and 
if there are indications of a violent death the 
case is reported to the superintendent of po- 
lice. Recognized bodies, by permission of the 
coroner, are removed by friends; those un- 
recognized are exposed on marble slabs, under 
streams of water, for 72 hours, or less at the 
discretion of the warden. Photographs are 
taken for the inspection of persons in search 
of missing friends. The clothing is exhibited 
30 days, and kepta year. Unrecognized bodies 
are buried in the city cemetery on Hart’s isl- 
and, and numbers and records permit their 
identification and removal. In no case is a 
corpse devoted to dissection. On the first day 
of each month the warden makes a detailed 


report of all bodies, identified or not, to the: 


commissioners of public charities and correc- 
tion. From June, 1866, to Oct. 19, 1874, 1,283 
bodies were received, of which more than one 
half were recognized and removed by friends. 
Nearly three fourths were bodies of persons 
drowned, a large proportion of them while ba- 
thing. From January to October, 1874, there 
were brought from the rivers to the morgue 
127 males and 17 females, of whom 101 males 
and 11 females were found in May, June, July, 
and August, leaving but 26 males and 6 females 
for the five colder months. But in New York, 
as in Paris and elsewhere, the warm months 
are selected by suicides who drown them- 
selves. A considerable number of those who 
are drowned purposely or by accident or are 
murdered and thrown into the East or North 
river, are not recovered, but are carried away 
by the tide. Of infants dead from neglect or 
other causes at time of birth, and of fcetuses, 
only a few are taken to the morgue.—The 
morgue in Brooklyn, N. Y., was erected in 
1870 at a cost of $25,000, and is the most 
complete building of the kind in the country. 
It is in Willoughby street, in the rear of the 
jail, and, with every convenience for the ex- 
hibition and preservation of bodies, contains 
rooms for post-mortem examinations, a large 
jurors’ court room, which can be used as a 
chapel for funerals, and residence rooms for 
the keeper and his family. It is under the 
supervision of the coroners. The rules and 
regulations are substantially those of the New 
York morgue. Minute descriptions of the 
unrecognized are published in two of the city 
newspapers. In no case is a corpse given up 
for dissection till every means of identification 
has been exhausted. The number of bodies 
averages 150 a year, more than half of them 
drowned, and there is in addition an annual 
average of about 50 dead infants and foetuses. 
The number of bodies recognized and removed 
by friends in four years is as follows: 62 in 
1871, 91 in 1872, 142 in 18738, and 45 to 
Sept. 1, 1874. In 1874, to the same date, 101 
bodies, some of them recognized, were buried 
from the morgue at public expense.—The 
morgue in Chicago, Ill., is on the grounds of 
the Oook county hospital, and was opened 


MORIKE 


June 1, 1872. It is in charge of the warden of 
the hospital, under the supervision of the su- 


-perintendent and medical director of public 


charities. The rules and regulations are nearly 
identical with those of the New York morgue. 
A law which went into effect July 1, 1874, 
permits the devotion of unrecognized bodies to 
dissection. The receipt of bodies has been as 
follows: 70 males and 7 females in 1872, 94 
males and 9 females in 1878, and 102 males 
and 11 females to Oct. 5, 1874. Of these, 32 
were infants dead from neglect or other causes 
at time of birth, and there were in addition 6 
foetuses. Of 261 deaths in three years, 105 
were caused by drowning, 52 by railway acci- 
dents, 23 by suicide, and 81 resulted from 
other causes; and 212 bodies were recognized. 
—The morgue in Boston, Mass., was opened in 
1851, near the Massachusetts general hospital, 
and is in charge of an undertaker. A coroner 
is called to determine whether deaths are by 
violence, suicide, or accident. Bodies are ex- 
posed 48 hours or longer, and descriptions are 
recorded, garments exhibited and preserved, 
and notices inserted in the newspapers, but no 
photographs are taken. Unclaimed bodies are 
buried at public expense. Statute law forbids 
devoting unknown bodies to dissection. Re- 
ports are made to the city registrar. About 
100 bodies are annually received, and about 
two thirds of them are recognized. No infants 
are sent to the morgue, unless inquests are 
necessary; they are delivered to the city un- 
dertaker for burial.—An ordinance adopted in 
St. Louis, Mo., in September, 1874, provides for 
the establishment of a morgue in that city. 

MORHOF, Daniel Georg, a German scholar, 
born in Wismar, Feb. 6, 1639, died in Libeck, 
June 30,1691. He became professor of poetry 
at Rostock in 1660, and at Kiel in 1665, pro- 
fessor of history in 1673, and librarian in 1680. 
He was a voluminous author, and his principal 
work, Polyhistor, part of which appeared in 
his lifetime (Libeck, 1688), was published 
complete in 1704, and was for a long time a 
standard work on universal literature. 

MORIAH, Mount. See JERUSALEM. 

MORIER, James, an English author, born 
about 1780, died in Brighton, March 30, 1849. 
He studied the oriental languages, spent about 
six years (1810-’16) in Persia as secretary of 
legation and minister plenipotentiary, and pub- 
lished ‘‘ Travels in Persia, Armenia, and Asia 
Minor to Constantinople” (London 1812); ‘‘A 
Second Journey through Persia, Armenia, and 
Asia Minor” (1818); and a series of novels, 
the most interesting of which is ‘‘The Ad- 
ventures of Hajji Baba” (5 vols., 1824-8). 
Among his other works are ‘ Zohrab, or the 
Hostage” (1832), ‘‘ Ayesha, the Maid of Kars” 
(1834), and “The Mirza” (1841), all illustra- 
tions of Persian life. 

MORIKE, Eduard, a German poet, born at 
Ludwigslust, Wiirtemberg, Sept. 8, 1804, died 
June 4, 1875. He studied in Stuttgart, pre- 
pared himself at Urach and Tubingen for the 


MORLAKS 


ministry, and was for a while a pastor. But 
ill health impelled his retirement, and he was 
a teacher at Stuttgart till 1866. He was one 
of the best of the Swabian poets, and made 
excellent translations of Anacreon and Theoc- 
ritus. His works include Maler Nolten, a 
novel (Stuttgart, 1832); Gedichte (18388; 4th 
ed., 1867); ldylle vom Bodensee (1846; 2d ed., 
1856); Das Stuttgarter Hutzelmdénnlein, a 
fairy tale (1858); Vier Hredhlungen ; and Mo- 
zart auf der Reise nach Prag, a novel (1856). 
Lachner set to music his opera Die Regenbri- 
der, and Hetsch and F. Kauffmann many of 
his songs and ballads. 

MORLAKS, the name of a portion of the Slavic 
population of Dalmatia and the adjoining mar- 
itime districts of Austro-Hungary. They are 
skilful mariners, and form a large portion of 
the sailors in the Austrian navy. The coast of 
the Adriatic between Carlopago and Zengg is 
from them called Morlacca, and the strait be- 
tween it and the islands of Veglia, Arbe, and 
Pago the strait of Morlacca. 

MORLAND, George, an English painter, born 
in London about 1764, died there, Oct. 29, 
1804. His father was an artist, under whose 
direction he made pictures and drawings for 
sale. When 21 he left his father’s house and 
pursued his art alone, reaching the full ma- 
turity of his powers about 1790, after which 
period he gave himself up to intemperance and 
profligacy. During the last few years of his 
life he was seldom sober, and painted only to 
supply his actual necessities. Many of his 
later works were executed in sponging houses, 
in one of which he died. His subjects were 
generally selected from low life, and he ac- 
quired an astonishing skill in painting domestic 
animals, especially pigs. He was also very 
successful in delineating the more common 
species of English landscape. His execution 
deteriorated greatly toward the close of his life, 
but his pictures were nevertheless in such de- 
mand that a regular manufactory of imitations 
of them was established by his brother Henry. 

MORLEY, Henry, an English author, born in 
London, Sept. 15, 1822. He was sent to a 
Moravian school at Neuwied on the Rhine, 
and graduated at King’s college, London, where 
he established and edited the ‘‘ King’s College 
Magazine.” He practised medicine in Shrop- 
shire from 1843 to 1848. Beginning in 1847, 
he has published numerous papers on public 
health. From 1851 to 1857 he was Dickens’s 
assistant in editing ‘‘ Household Words,” and 
from 1856 to 1859 joint editor of the London 
‘¢ Examiner,” of which he was sole editor from 
1859 to 1864. In 1859 he became professor 
of English literature in- King’s college, and in 
1865 in University college. He was the most 
active promoter of the association formed in 
1869 for the education of women in connec- 
tion with the latter institution. His principal 
publications in book form are: ‘‘The Dream 
of the Lily Bell,” tales and poems (1845); 
“Sunrise in Italy,” poems, and ‘‘ Tracts upon 

574 VOL. x1.—53 


MORMONS 83] 


Health, for Cottage Circulation” (1847); “A 
Defence of Ignorance” (1851); “Life of Ber- 
nard Palissy of Saintes” (2 vols., 1852); ‘Life 
of Jerome Cardan” (1854); ‘Life of Henry 
Cornelius Agrippa” (1856); “Gossip and 
Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair” (1857); “A 
History of English Literature” (2 parts pub- 
lished, 1864 and 1867, the first devoted to 
writers before Chaucer, the second reaching 
from Chaucer to Dunbar); “Steele and Ad- 
dison’s Spectator, original and corrected texts” 
(1868); ‘Tables of English Literature” 
(1870); ‘Clément Marot, and other Studies” 
(1871); and “A First Sketch of English Lit- 
erature” (8 vols., 1878). 

MORLEY, John, an English author, born in 
Blackburn, Lancashire, Dec. 24, 1838. He 
graduated at Lincoln college, Oxford, in 1859, 
early became a contributor to the “ Saturday 
Review,” and in 1867 succeeded George Henry 
Lewes as editor of the “Fortnightly Review.” 
He published “‘Edmund Burke, a Historical 
Study,” in 1857, ‘Critical Miscellanies,” in- 
cluding essays on De Maistre, Condorcet, Car- 
lyle, and Byron, in 1871, and in the latter year 
also a volume on Voltaire. In April, 1872, he 
delivered at the London royal institution a lec- 
ture on Rousseau, which was afterward elabo- 
rated into two volumes (1873). In 1878 he de- 
livered a series of lectures on ‘‘ The Limits of 
the Historic Method.” In that year also he was 
active in resisting the educational system intro- 
duced by the Gladstone government, because 
of its denominational character, and published 
“The Struggle for National Education.” His 
latest work is ‘‘On Compromise” (1874). 

MORLEY, Thomas, an English composer, died 
in London at an advanced age about 1604. He 
graduated as a bachelor of music at Oxford in 
1588, and was made gentleman of Queen Eliza- 
beth’s chapel in 1592. He was a pupil of Wil- 
liam Birde and a student of the forms of the 
Italian madrigal writers. His works consist 
of canzonets, madrigals, anthems, and church 
services. In imitation of Giovanelli, who had 
employed 87 of the most celebrated Italian 
composers to write madrigals in honor of the 
Virgin Mary, Morley obtained from English 
composers 24 madrigals in praise of Queen 
Elizabeth under the name of Oriana, entitling 
the collection ‘‘The Triumphs of Oriana, to 
five and six voices, composed by divers several 
authors, newly published by Thomas Morley, 
Bach. of Musicke and Gentleman of her Maj- 
esty’s honorable Chapell” (1601). Among the 
composers represented in this collection were 
John Milton, father of the poet, Wilbye, and 
Benet. Morley wrote also a treatise of much 
value entitled ‘‘A Plaine and Easie Introduc- 
tion to Practical Musicke.” 

MORMONS, or Latter Day Saints, a sect founded 
by Joseph Smith, who was born at Sharon, 
Vt., in 1805, and was killed at Carthage, IIL, 
in 1844. (See Smitu, JosrpH.) According to 
his own account, Smith at about the age of 
15, while living with his father, who was a 


832 


farmer in Ontario (now Wayne) co., N. Y., be- 
gan to have visions. On the night of Sept. 21, 
1823, the angel Moroni appeared to him three 
times, informing him that God had a work for 
him to do, and that a record written upon gold 
plates, and giving an account of the ancient 
inhabitants of America and the dealings of 
God with them, was deposited in a particular 
place in the earth (a hill in Manchester, On- 
tario co., N. Y.), and, with the record, two 
transparent stones in silver bows like specta- 
cles, which were anciently called the Urim 
and Thummim, on looking through which the 
golden plates would become intelligible. On 
Sept. 22, 1827, the angel of the Lord placed in 
Smith’s hands the plates and the Urim and 
Thummim. The plates were nearly 8 in. long 
by 7 in. wide, and a little thinner than ordi- 
nary tin, and were bound together by three 
rings running through the whole. Altogether 
they were about 6 in. thick, and were neatly 
engraved on each side with hieroglyphics in a 
language called the reformed Egyptian, not 
then known on the earth. From these plates 
Smith, sitting behind a blanket hung across 
the room to keep the sacred records from pro- 
fane eyes, read off, with the aid of the stone 
spectacles, the ‘‘ Book of Mormon,” or Golden 
Bible as he sometimes called it, to Oliver Cow- 
dery, who wrote it down as Smith read it. It 
was printed in 1830, in a volume of several 
hundred pages. Appended to it was a state- 
ment signed by Oliver Cowdery, David Whit- 
mer, and Martin Harris, who had become pro- 
fessed believers in Smith’s supernatural pre- 
tensions, and are called by the Mormons ‘“‘the 
three witnesses.” They said: ‘‘ We declare 
with words of soberness that an angel of God 
came down from heaven, and he brought and 
laid before our eyes that we beheld and saw the 
plates and the engravings thereon.” Several 
years afterward all three of these witnesses quar- 
relled with Smith, renounced Mormonism, and 
avowed the falsity of their testimony. Immedi- 
ately on the appearance of the ‘‘ Book of Mor- 
mon’ many of Smith’s neighbors testified that 
he had repeatedly made contradictory state- 
ments about the plates and the Golden Bible. 
The ‘Book of Mormon” is a collection of 16 
distinct books professing to be written at dif- 
ferent periods by successive prophets. Its style 
is a verbose imitation of that of the common 
English translation of the Bible, portions of 
which, to the number in all of 800 passages, 
are incorporated without acknowledgment, and 
are frequently cited by Mormons as specimens 
of the book. A multitude of names are in- 
troduced, some Hebrew and Biblical, others 
Greek and Latin, and the rest imitations of the 
former. The first book professes to be the 
work of Nephi, a Jew, the son of Lehi, who 
dwelt at Jerusalem in the days of King Zede- 
kiah, about 600 B. ©. In obedience to the 
command of the Lord, who appeared to him 
in a dream, he went into the wilderness of 
Arabia and dwelt there a long time with his 


MORMONS 


family. At length, still under divine instruc- 
tion, Lehi and his family set out in search of 
a promised land, and after travelling ‘‘ nearly 
eastward” for eight years, “through a wil- 
derness,”’ they reached the ocean. Here they 
built a ship, and, guided by a compass, sailed 
to America. The Book of Mormon itself gives 
no indication of the part of the continent on 
which they landed, but later Mormon inter- 
pretations or revelations declare it to have 
been the coast of Chili. Those who arrived 
in America were Lehi and his wife, his four 
sons, Laman, Lemuel, Sam, and Nephi, and 
their four wives, two “‘sons of Ishmael” and 
their two wives, and Zoram, a servant, and 
his wife; in all, eight adult men with as many 
wives. Besides these, there were two infant 
sons of Lehi born during the journey through 
the wilderness, Jacob and Joseph. In Ameri- 
ca they found ‘‘ beasts in the forest of every 
kind, both the cow, and the ox, and the ass, 
and the horse, and the goat.” Soon after his 
arrival in America Lehi died, and dissensions 
speedily ensued between Nephi and his elder 
brothers Laman and Lemuel; and, separating 
from them, Nephi moved into the wilderness 
accompanied by Sam and Zoram and their 
families, the boys Jacob and Joseph, and such 
of the women and children as took his side. 
Laman and Lemuel and the ‘‘ sons of Ishmael” 
and their families, as a punishment for rebel- 
ling against Nephi, whom the Lord had ap- 
pointed to be their ruler, were cursed by the 
Lord, and they and all their posterity con- 
demned to have dark skins and to “ become 
an idle people, full of mischief and subtlety, 
which did seek in the wilderness for beasts of 
prey.” This was the origin of the American 
Indians, who are consequently believed by the 
Mormons to be of Jewish race. Nephi died 
about 50 years after his arrival in America, 
and his people continued to be called Nephites 
and to be governed by kings bearing the name 
of Nephi for many generations. The record 
of their history was continued on golden plates 
by Jacob the brother of Nephi, Enos the son 
of Jacob, Jarom the son of Enos, Omni the 
son of Jarom, and finally by Mormon, whose 
name is given to a single book, as well as to 
the whole volume, and who, ‘‘many hundred 
years after the coming of Christ,” transmitted 
to his son Moroni the plates containing the 
writings of the authors already mentioned, 
together with those of Mosiah, Zeniff, Alma, 
Helaman, Nephi the Second, and Nephi the 
Third. These books consist almost wholly of 
a narrative of transactions in North and South 
America, chiefly of wars between the Nephites 
and the Lamanites or red men, and of revolu- 
tions in the land of Zarahemla, which was near 
the isthmus of Darien, where there was an 
exceeding great city. At length, in the days 
of Nephi the Second, a terrible earthquake 
announced the crucifixion of Christ at Jerusa- 
lem, and three days afterward the Lord him- 
self descended out of heaven into the chief 


MORMONS 


city of the Nephites, in sight of all the people, 
to whom he exhibited his wounded side and 
the prints of the nails in his hands and feet. 
He remained among them 40 days, instructing 
them in Christianity and instituting Christian 
churches. The Christians of America, unlike 
their brethren in the old world, immediately 
adopted the Christian era for their chronologi- 
cal computations; and according to the rec- 
ord, in the four following centuries the wars 
between them and the heathen Lamanites con- 
tinued to rage, with great destruction of the 
* Christians, whose populous and civilized cities, 
which were very numerous throughout North 
America, were gradually captured and de- 
stroyed. In the year 384 the Christians made 
their final stand on the hill Cumorah, in west- 
ern New York, where in a great battle 230,- 
000 of them were slain. Moroni, one of the 
survivors, after wandering a fugitive till A. D. 
420, sealed up the golden plates on which all 
these things were written, and hid them in 
the hill where they were found by Joseph 
Smith. One of the books in the collection, 
the book of Ether, gives an account of an 
earlier settlement of America than that of 
Lehi, by a colony from the tower of Babel, 
soon after the deluge, which was led by Jared, 
and in time became a great nation, which was 
destroyed for its sins before the arrival of 
the colony from Jerusalem,—The religious 
teachings of the “‘Book of Mormon” relate 
in great part to doctrinal questions that were 
rife in the villages of western New York 
about 1830. Calvinism, Universalism, Metho- 
dism, Millenarianism, Roman Catholicism, and 
other modern forms of belief, are discussed. 
Infant baptism is warmly condemned, and po- 
lygamy is repeatedly denounced.—According 
to the opponents of Mormonism, from inves- 
tigations made soon after the appearance of 
the ‘“ Book. of Mormon,” the fact is fully es- 
tablished that the real author of the work was 
Solomon Spalding, who was born in Ashford, 
Conn., in 1761, graduated at Dartmouth col- 
lege in 1785, was ordained, and preached for 
three or four years. Relinquishing the minis- 
try, he engaged in mercantile business at Cher- 
ry Valley, N. Y., whence in 1809 he removed 
to Conneaut, Ohio. In 1812 he removed to 
Pittsburgh, and thence in 1814 to Amity, Pa., 
where he died in 1816. He wrote several 
novels, which he was in the habit of reading 
to his friends in manuscript, as they were so 
worthless that he could find no publisher for 
them, while his poverty prevented him from 
issuing them at his own expense. During 
his residence in Ohio in 1810-12 he wrote 
a romance to account for the peopling of 
America by deriving the Indians from the 
Hebrews, in accordance with a notion then 
prevalent in some parts of the country that the 
American Indians were descended from the 
lost tribes of Israel. As early as 1813 this 
work was announced in the newspapers as 
forthcoming, and as containing a translation of 


833 


the ‘Book of Mormon.” Spalding entitled 
his book ‘Manuscript Found,” and intended 
to publish with it by way of preface or adver- 
tisement a fictitious account of its discovery in 
a cave in Ohio. His widow published a state- 
ment in the ‘Boston Journal,” May 18, 1839, 
declaring that in 1812 he placed his manuscript 
in a printing office at Pittsburgh, with which 
Sidney Rigdon was connected. Rigdon, she 
says, copied the manuscript; and his possession 
of a copy was known to all in the printing 
office, and was often mentioned by himself. 
Subsequently the original manuscript was re- 
turned to the author, who soon after died. 
His widow preserved it till after the publication 
of the ‘‘Book of Mormon,” when she sent it 
to Conneaut, where a public meeting, com- 
posed in part of persons who remembered 
Spalding’s work, had requested her to send 
the manuscript that it might be publicly com- 
pared with the ‘Book of Mormon.” She says 
in conclusion: ‘I am sure that nothing would 
grieve my husband more, were he living, than 
the use which has been made of his work. The 
air of antiquity which was thrown about the 
composition doubtless suggested the idea of 
converting it to the purposes of delusion. Thus, 
a historical romance, with the addition of a 
few pious expressions, and extracts from the 
sacred Scriptures, has been constructed into a 
new Bible, and palmed off upon a company of 
poor deluded fanatics as divine.” Sidney Rig- 
don was born in St. Clair township, Allegheny 
co., Pa., Feb. 19, 1798. Soon after getting 
possession of a copy of Spalding’s manuscript, 
he quitted the printing office and became a 
preacher of doctrines peculiar to himself, and 
very similar to those afterward incorporated 
into the ‘“‘ Book of Mormon.” He had a small 
body of converts to his notions when about 
1829 he became associated with Joseph Smith, 
who was then endeavoring to gain believers to 
his tale of the golden plates and stone specta- 
cles. It is asserted that through Rigdon’s 
agency Smith became possessed of a copy of 
Spalding’s manuscript, which he read from 
behind the blanket to his amanuensis Oliver 
Cowdery, with such additions as suited the 
views and purposes of Rigdon and himself. 
Immediately on its publication, the ‘‘ Book of 
Mormon” was recognized not only by Spal- 
ding’s widow but by many of his friends as his 
long lost work. The printing of the ‘ Book of 
Mormon” was done at the expense of Martin 
Harris, who had some property, and was per- 
suaded that he could make money by the 
speculation. While the work was in progress, 
this man called upon Prof. Anthon of New 
York with a transcript on paper which Smith 
had given him of the characters on one of the 
golden plates. ‘This paper,” Prof. Anthon 
says in a letter dated New York, Feb. 17, 
1834, ‘was in fact a singular scroll. It con- 
sisted ‘of all kinds of crooked characters, dis- 
posed in columns, and had evidently been pre- 
pared by some person who had before him at 


834 


the time a book containing various alphabets. 
Greek and Hebrew letters, crosses and flour- 
ishes, Roman letters, inverted or placed side- 
ways, were arranged and placed in perpen- 
dicular columns; and the whole ended in a 
rude delineation of acircle, divided into various 
compartments, decked with various strange 
marks, and evidently copied after the Mexican 
calendar given by. Humboldt, but copied in such 
away as not to betray the source whence it 
was derived.” This letter was written to con- 
tradict a report set afloat by Smith that Prof. 
Anthon had pronounced the characters to be 
Egyptian hieroglyphics.—Smith and Rigdon 
. seem at first to have had vague and confused 
ideas as to the nature and design of the church 
they were about to establish. They were both 
inclined to teach millenarianism, which at that 
time was beginning to attract attention in 
western New York; and they accordingly 
settled into the doctrine that the millennium 
was close at hand, that the Indians were to be 
speedily converted, and that America was to be 
the final gathering place of the saints, who 
were to assemble at New Zion or New Jeru- 
salem, somewhere in the interior of the conti- 
nent. With the ‘“ Book of Mormon” as their 
text and authority, they began to preach this 
new gospel; and Smith’s family and a few 
of his associates, together with some of Rig- 
don’s previous followers, were soon numerous 
enough to constitute the Mormon church, as it 
was styled by the people around them, or the 
church of Latter Day Saints, as they presently 
began to call themselves. The church was first 
regularly organized at Manchester, N. Y., April 
6, 1830, and the first conference was held at 
Fayette, N. Y., in June, at which time the 
number of believers had increased to 80. 
Smith, directed as he said by revelation, in 
January, 1831, led the whole body of believers 
to Kirtland, Ohio, which was to be the seat 
of the New Jerusalem. Here converts were 
rapidly made, and soon, desiring a wider field 
for the growth of the church, Smith and Rig- 
don travelled westward, looking for a suitable 
location, which was found in Independence, 
Jackson co., Mo., where in August Smith dedi- 
cated a site for the temple to be erected by the 
saints, and named the place New Jerusalem. 
On their return to Kirtland, where they pro- 
posed to remain for five years ‘“‘and make 
money,” Smith and Rigdon established a mill 
and a store, and set up a bank without a charter, 
of which Smith appointed himself president, 
and made Rigdon cashier. The neighboring 
country was flooded with notes of very doubt- 
ful value ; and in consequence of this and other 
business transactions in which Smith and Rig- 
don were accused of fraudulent dealing, a mob 
on the night of March 22, 1832, dragged the 
two prophets from their beds, and tarred and 
feathered them. About a year afterward a 
government for the church was instituted, con- 
sisting of three presidents, Smith, Rigdon, and 
Frederick G. Williams, who together were 


-MORMONS 


styled the first presidency, a revelation from 
the Lord having declared that the sins of Rig- 
don and Williams were forgiven, ‘‘ and that 
they were henceforth to be accounted as equal 
with Joseph Smith, jr., in holding the keys of 
his last kingdom.” About this time Brigham 
Young, a native of Vermont, a painter and 
glazier about 80 years of age, became a con- 
vert to Mormonism. (See Youne, BrigHam.) 
He arrived at Kirtland toward the close of 
1832, and was soon ordained an elder, and 
began to preach. His talent and shrewdness 
speedily made him prominent, and in Febru- 
ary, 1835, when a further step was taken in the 
organization of a hierarchy by the institution 
of the quorum of the twelve apostles, he was 


‘ordained one of the twelve, and sent out with 


the other apostles to preach the new doctrines. 
His field of labor was the eastern states, and he 
was signally successful in making converts. In 
1836 a large and costly temple, which had been 
for three years in process of building, was con- 
secrated at Kirtland; and in 1837 Orson Hyde 
and Heber OC. Kimball, the latter of whom had 
become a convert in 1832, were sent as mis- 
sionaries to England. In January, 1838, the 
bank at Kirtland having failed, Smith and Rig- 
don, to avoid arrest for fraud, fled in the night, 
hotly pursued by their creditors, and took 
refuge in Missouri. In that state, meanwhile, 
large numbers of Mormons had collected, and 
had become involved in quarrels with the 
people, by whom they were charged with 
plundering and burning habitations, and with 
secret assassinations; and after various con- 
flicts with mobs, who drove them successively 
from Jackson co. and from Clay co., they set- 
tled in Caldwell co., at the town of Far West, 
where Smith and Rigdon joined them. The 
conflicts with the Missourians still continued, 
and many outrages were committed and sey- 
eral persons killed on both sides. In the midst 
of their external troubles, internal dissensions 
broke out among the Mormons. Several of 
their leading men apostatized and accused Smith 
of gross crimes and frauds. On Oct. 24, 1888, 
Thomas B. March, president of the 12 apostles, 
and Orson Hyde, also one of the apostles, made 
before a justice of the peace in Ray co., Mo., an 
affidavit in which March said, corroborated by 
Hyde: ‘‘They have among them a company, 
consisting of all that are considered true Mor- 
mons, called the Danites, who have taken an 
oath to support the heads of the church in all 
things that they say or do, whether right or 
wrong. .. . The plan of said Smith, the proph- 
et, is to take this state; and he professes to 
his people to intend taking the United States, 
and ultimately the whole world. This is the 
belief of the church, and my own opinion of the 
prophet’s plan and intentions. The prophet 
inculcates the notion, and it is believed by 
every true Mormon, that Smith’s prophecies 
are superior to the law of the land. I have 
heard the prophet say that he would yet tread 
down his enemies and walk over their dead 


MORMONS ~ 


bodies; that if he was not let alone he would 
be a second Mahomet to this generation, and 
that he would make it one gore of blood from 
the Rocky mountains to the Atlantic ocean.” 
The defiant and menacing tone of the Mormon 
leaders contributed much to the excitement 
against them. Rigdon, in a sermon preached 
at Far West, July 4, 1838, said: ‘We take 
God and all the holy angels to witness this day, 
that we warn all men in the name of Jesus 
Christ:to come on us no more for ever. ' The 
man, or the set of men, who attempts it; does 
it at the expense of their lives. And that mob 
that comes on us to disturb us, it shall be be- 
tween them and us a war of extermination, 
for we will follow them till the last drop of 
their blood is spilled, or else they will have to 
exterminate us. For we will carry the seat of 
war to their own houses, and their own fami- 
lies, and one party or the other shall be utterly 
destroyed.” Toward the close of 1838 the 
conflict between the Mormons and the Mis- 
sourians assumed the character and proportions 
of civil war. The Mormons armed themselves, 
and, assembling in large bodies, fortified their 
towns and defied the officers of the law. The 
militia of the state was called out by the gov- 
ernor, and Rigdon and Smith were arrested, 
charged with treason, murder, and felony. The 
forces of the state being overwhelming in 
number, the Mormons capitulated and agreed 
to quit Missouri, and to the number of several 
thousands crossed the Mississippi into Illinois. 
They were soon after joined by Smith, who 
broke out of the jail where he had been con- 
fined awaiting trial. Rigdon had previously 
been liberated by a writ of habeas corpus. 
The Mormons were kindly received in Illinois, 
and Dr. Isaac Galland, who owned alarge tract 
of land at Commerce, in Hancock co., gave 
Smith a considerable portion of it in order to 
enhance the value of the rest by the settlement 
of the Mormons there. Smith accordingly re- 
ceived a revelation commanding the saints to 
establish themselves at Commerce, and build a 
city to be called Nauvoo on the land presented 
to him, which he divided into house lots and 
sold to his followers at high prices. By this 
transaction, and by other equally successful 
speculations, the prophet in a few years amass- 
ed a considerable fortune. Nauvoo soon grew 
to be a city of several thousand inhabitants, 
the saints being summoned by a new revelation 
to assemble there from all quarters of the 
world, and to build a temple for the Lord, and 
a hotel in which Smith and his family should 
“have place from generation to generation, 
for ever and ever.” The legislature of Illinois 
granted a charter for the city of Nauvoo, con- 
ferring upon it extraordinary privileges, which 
enabled Smith, Rigdon, and the other leaders 
to exercise almost unlimited civil power. They 
were authorized by charter to organize a mil- 
itary body, which was accordingly formed 
under the name of the Nauvoo legion, and 
comprised nearly all the Mormons capable of 


835 


bearing arms. Smith was commander of this 
force with the rank of lieutenant general. Be- 
sides this office, he held those of mayor of the 
city and first president of the church. By a 
revelation given April 6, 1830, he had been 
appointed ‘‘seer, translator, prophet, apostle 
of Jesus Christ, and elder of the church;” and 
the Lord had said to him: “ The church shall 
give heed to all his words and commandments 
which he shall give unto you; for his word 
shall ye receive as if from my own mouth, in 
all patience and faith.” The civil and military 
offices which he conferred upon himself at 
Nauvoo and the legion at his command gave 
him supreme power within the city, whose 
charter had been purposely so framed that the 
state authorities were almost excluded from 
jurisdiction within its limits. On April 6, 
1841, the foundation of the temple was laid at 
Nauvoo, by Lieut. Gen. Smith, who appeared 
at the head of the legion, surrounded by a 
numerous military staff; and the saints being 
commanded by revelation not only to con- 
tribute to its erection, but to labor personally 
upon the work every tenth day, its walls 
rapidly arose.—In 1838 Smith had persuaded 
several women to cohabit with him, calling 
them his spiritual wives, although he had a 
lawful wife to whom he had been married in 
1827. His wife became jealous of these rivals, 
and to pacify her Smith received, July 12, 
18438, a revelation authorizing polygamy. This 
fact being whispered at Nauvoo, much scandal 
was created in consequence. The imputation 
was strenuously denied in public, and in 1845 
the heads of the church deemed it prudent to 
put forth a formal denial in the following 
words: “Inasmuch as this church of Christ 
has been reproached with the crimes of for- 
nication and polygamy, we declare that we 
believe that one man should have but one wife, 
and one woman but one husband; except in 
case of death, when either is at liberty to 
marry again.” It was not till 1852 that they 
admitted the truth, and boldly avowed and 
defended polygamy on the ‘authority of the 
revelation of 1843. Meantime Smith in 1843 
and 1844 made advances to so many women in 
Nauvoo, soliciting them to become his spiritual 
wives, that great uproar was created by the 
declarations of those whose virtue was proof 
against his attempts. Among others who re- 
pelled and denounced him publicly was Mrs. 
Foster, wife of Dr. Foster. Her husband, to- 
gether with William Law and others who had 
been similarly outraged, renounced Mormon- 
ism, and commenced at Nauvoo the publica- 
tion of a newspaper, the ‘‘ Expositor,” to ex- 
pose Smith. In the first number they printed 
the affidavits of 16 women to the effect that 
Joseph Smith, Sidney Rigdon, and others had 
endeavored to convert them to the spiritual 
wife doctrine, and to seduce them under the 
plea of having had special commission from 
heaven. This publication created great excite- 
ment, and on May 6, 1844, Smith and a party 


836 MORMONS 


of his followers attacked the ‘ Expositor” 
office and razed it to the ground, destroying 
the presses and other contents of the building. 
Foster and Law took refuge in Carthage, the 
county seat, where they obtained warrants 
against Joseph Smith, his brother Hyrum 
Smith, and 16 others. The warrant was served 
upon Smith, but he refused to obey, and the 
constable who served it was driven from Nau- 
voo. The county authorities called out the 
militia to enforce thelaw; the Mormons armed 
themselves, and a civil war seemed impending, 
when the governor of the state persuaded the 
two Smiths to surrender and take their trial. 
They were committed to the jail at Carthage, 
and a guard stationed for their protection. On 


the evening of June 27 a mob attacked the 


jail, overpowered the guard, and fired upon 
the prisoners with rifles through a window and 
door. Hyrum Smith was instantly shot dead. 
Joseph returned the fire with a revolver till 
his charges were exhausted, and then at- 
tempted to escape through the window, but 
was shot as he leaped through it and fell to 
the ground dead. The death of the prophet 
caused much temporary confusion among the 
saints. Sidney Rigdon aspired to succeed him 
as head of the church; but Brigham Young 
was chosen first president, and Rigdon, being 
contumacious, was cut off from the communion 
of the faithful, cursed, and solemnly delivered 
to the devil ‘‘to be buffeted in the flesh for a 
thousand years.” In 1845 the charter of Nau- 
voo was repealed by the legislature of Illinois, 
and the Mormons made preparations to remove 
to the Rocky mountains. Early in the follow- 
ing year they gathered in considerable numbers 
at Council Bluffs, lowa. Those who remained 
in Nauvoo became again involved in trouble 
with the surrounding people, and in September, 
1846, the city was cannonaded for three days, 
and its inhabitants were driven out at the point 
of the bayonet. In the following year pioneers 
crossed the plains from Council Bluffs to Salt 
Lake valley, Utah, where Brigham Young ar- 
rived July 24, 1847. In May, 1848, the main 
body of the saints set out for Utah, and arrived 
at the Great Salt lake in the autumn. Salt 
Lake City was founded (see Satr Laxe Ciry), 
and large tracts of land were brought under 
cultivation. An ‘emigration fund” was es- 
tablished, and large numbers of converts were 
brought by a well organized system from Eu- 
rope, chiefly from the working classes of 
Great Britain, and especially from Wales. A 
considerable number came also from Sweden 
and Norway, and a smaller number from Ger- 
many, Switzerland, and France. In March, 
1849, a convention was held at Salt Lake City 
and a state organized under the name of De- 
seret, understood by the Mormons to signify 
“the land of the honey bee.” A legislature 
was elected and a constitution framed and sent 
to Washington; but congress refused to recog- 
nize the new state, and in September, 1850, 
organized the country occupied by the Mor- 


mons into the territory of Utah, of which 
Brigham Young was appointed governor by 
President Fillmore. In the following year 
the federal judges were forced by threats of 
violence from Brigham Young to quit Utah, 
and the laws of the United States were openly 
defied and subverted. This led to the re- 
moval of Brigham Young, and the appoint- 
ment of Col. Steptoe of the United States 
army as governor. Ool. Steptoe arrived in 
Utah in August, 1854, with a battalion of sol- 
diers; but such was the state of affairs in the 
territory that he did not deem it prudent to 
assume the office of governor, and after win- 
tering in Salt Lake City he formally resigned 
his post and removed with his troops to Cali- 
fornia. In a sermon preached in the taber- 
nacle at Salt Lake City on the Sunday after 
Col. Steptoe’s departure, Brigham Young said: 
‘‘T am and will be governor, and no power 
can hinder it, until the Lord Almighty says: 
‘Brigham, you need not be governor any 
longer.’’’? Most of the civil officers who were 
commissioned about the same time with Col. 
Steptoe arrived in Utah a few months after he 
had departed. They were harassed and terri- 
fied like their predecessors. In February, 1856, 
a mob of armed Mormons, instigated by ser- 
mons from the heads of the church, broke into 
the court room of the United States district 
judge, and at the point of the bowie knife 
compelled Judge Drummond to adjourn his 
court sine die. Soon afterward all the United 
States officers, with the exception of the Indian 
agent, were forced to flee from the territory. 
These and similar outrages at length determined 
President Buchanan to supersede Brigham 
Young in the office of governor, and to send 
to Utah a military force to protect the federal 
officers and to compel obedience to the laws. 
The Mormons attempted to justify their treat- 
ment of the United States officials, by alleging 
that some of them were profligate and disrep- 
utable persons; an accusation which they at- 
tempted to sustain by scandalous statements 
which were probably not entirely destitute of 
truth. In 1857 the office of governor of Utah 
was conferred upon Alfred Cumming, a super- 
intendent of Indian affairs on the upper Mis- 
souri, and that of chief justice on Judge Eckels 
of Indiana; and a force of 2,500 men under 
experienced officers was sent to protect them 
in the discharge of their functions. The Mor- 
mons were greatly excited at the approach of 
these troops. Young in his capacity of gov- 
ernor issued a proclamation denouncing the 
army as a mob, and forbidding it to enter the 
territory, and calling the people of Utah to 
arms to repel its advance. The army reached 
Utah in September, and on Oct. 5 and 6 a party 
of mounted Mormons destroyed several of the 
supply trains, and a few days later cut off 800 
oxen from the rear of the army and drove them 
to Salt Lake City. The army, of which Col. A. 
S. Johnston had by this time assumed the com- 
mand, was overtaken by the snows of winter 


MORMONS 


before it could reach Salt Lake valley, and 
about the middle of November went into win- 
ter quarters on Black’s Fork near Fort Bridger. 
On Noy. 27 Gov. Cumming issued a proclama- 
tion declaring the territory to be in a state of 
rebellion. In the spring of 1858, by the inter- 
vention of Mr. Thomas L. Kane of Pennsyl- 
vania, who had gone to Utah by way of Cali- 
fornia, bearing letters from President Buchan- 
an, a good understanding was brought about 
between Gov. Cumming and the Mormon lead- 
ers; and toward the end of May two commis- 
sioners, Gov. Powell of Kentucky and Major 
McCulloch of Texas, arrived at the camp with 
a proclamation from the president, offering 
pardon to all Mormons who would submit 
themselves to federal authority. This offer 
was accepted by the heads of the church, and 
shortly afterward the troops entered Salt Lake 
valley, and were stationed at Camp Floyd on 
the western side of Lake Utah, about 40 m. 
from Salt Lake City, where they remained till 
May, 1860, when they were withdrawn from 
the territory. (See Uran.)—The priesthood 
of the Mormon church is organized into the 
following quorums: the first presidency, the 
twelve apostles, the high council, the seventies, 
high priests, elders, priests, teachers, and dea- 
cons. The first presidency (in 1875) consists 
of Brigham Young, George A. Smith, and 
Daniel H. Wells. They preside over and direct 
the affairs of the whole church. The twelve 
apostles constitute a travelling presiding high 
council. The whole hierarchy is divided into 
two bodies, the Melchizedek priesthood and 
the Aaronic priesthood. To the former, which 
is the highest, belong the offices of apostle, 
seventy, patriarch, high priest, and elder. The 
Aaronic priesthood includes the offices of bish- 
op, priest, teacher, and deacon, and can be 
held only by ‘literal descendants of Aaron,”’ 
who are designated as such by revelation. The 
Mormon church teaches that there are many 
gods, and that eminent saints become gods in 
heaven, and rise one above another in power 
and glory to infinity. Joseph Smith is now 
the god of this generation. His superior god 
is Jesus, whose superior god and father is 
Adam. Above Adam is Jehovah, and above 
Jehovah is Elohim. All of these gods have 
many wives, and they all rule over their own 
descendants, who are constantly increasing in 
number and dominion. The glory of a saint 
when he becomes a god depends in some de- 
gree on the number of his wives and children, 
and therefore polygamy is inculcated and wives 
are ‘“‘sealed”’ to saints here on earth to aug- 
ment their power in the heavens. The gods 
are in the form of men, and they are the fathers 
of the souls of men in this world. The ten 
commandments are considered the rule of life, 
together with a revelation given to Joseph 
Smith, Feb. 27, 1833, which is called “‘ A Word 
of Wisdom.” It teaches that it is not good to 
drink wine or strong drinks, excepting in the 
sacrament of the Lord’s supper, and then it 


MORNAY 837 


should be home-made grape wine; that it is 
not good to drink hot drinks, or chew or smoke 
tobacco; that strong drinks are for the wash- 
ing of the body, and that tobacco is an herb 
for bruises and sick cattle; that herbs and 
fruits are for the food of man; that grain is 
for the food of man and beasts and fowls; 
and that flesh is not to be eaten by man ex- 
cepting in times of winter, cold, and famine. 
This ‘*‘ Word of Wisdom,” however, is not re- 
garded precisely as a commandment, but as a 
revelation to show forth the will of God, and . 
“suited to the condition of all saints, young 
and old, male and female, without distinction.” 
Infant baptism is condemned, but the children - 
of the saints are considered old enough at 
eight years to be baptized. Baptism for the 
dead is practised, a living person being publicly 
baptized as the representative of one or more 
deceased persons. Washington, Franklin, and 
other famous men have thus been vicariously 
baptized into the church. There have been 
many dispensations of religious truth, begin- 
ning with Adam and ending with the greatest 
of all, that through Joseph Smith, which is to 
culminate in the building of the New Jerusa- 
lem in Jackson county, Mo., and the gathering 
together of all the saints on the continent of 
America. A portion of the Mormons reject 
polygamy, and do not approve of the political 
schemes of Brigham Young and the leaders of 
the church in Utah. Joseph Smith, the son 
of the prophet, is regarded by them as the true 
living head of the church, and under his direc- 
tion they have established themselves at Nau- 
voo. Their number is inconsiderable. Anoth- 
er branch of the church has recently estab- 
lished itself at Independence, Mo., the sup- 
posed site of the ‘‘New Jerusalem.” (For 
the political and social condition of the Mor- 
mons in Utah, see Uran.)—See “The Mor- 
mons,” by Charles Mackay (London, 1851) ; 
‘‘The Mormons or Latter Day Saints in the 
Valley of the Great Salt Lake,” by Lieut. J. 
W. Gunnison (Philadelphia, 1852); ‘‘ The Book 
of Doctrines and Covenants selected from the 
Revelations of God by Joseph Smith” (Liver- 
pool, 1854); ‘‘Utah and the Mormons,” by 
Benjamin G. Ferris (New York, 1856); “A 
Compendium of the Faith and Doctrines of the 
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints,” 
by Franklin D. Richards, one of the twelve 
apostles (Liverpool, 1857); ‘‘ Mormonism, its 
Leaders and Designs,” by John Hyde, jr., for- 
merly a Mormon elder (New York, 1857); and 
“The Rocky Mountain Saints,” by: T. B. H. 
Stenhouse (New York, 1873). 

MORNAY, Philippe de, seigneur du Plessis- 
Marly, known as Duplessis-Mornay, a French 
soldier, born at Buhy, Isle de France, Noy. 5, 
1549, died at Forét-sur-Sévre, Nov. 11, 1628. 
His father was a Roman Catholic, but his 
mother secretly brought him up as a Prot- 
estant, and after his father’s death in 1560 he 
openly professed that religion. At an early 
age he travelled extensively, attached himself . 


338 MORNY 


to Admiral Coligni, and drew up a memorial 
in behalf of the Huguenots, which was pre- 
sented to Charles 1X. and Catharine de’ Medici. 
After the massacre of St. Bartholomew’s, 
from which he had a narrow escape, he took 
refuge in England. He returned in 1575, and 
Ilenry of Navarre intrusted to him some im- 
portant missions to Queen Elizabeth. Being 
appointed general superintendent of Navarre, 
he stood almost alone the brunt of the reli- 
gious civil war. On the alliance of his master 
with Henry III., he was placed in command of 
the town of Saumur, assigned as a place of 
safety to the Protestants. In 1589 he arrested 
and kept prisoner the old cardinal de Bour- 
bon, whom the leaguers had proclaimed king 
in opposition to Henry IV. He opposed the 
abjuration of the latter, and evinced so intem- 
perate a zeal for Calvinism as to incur the king’s 
displeasure. Nevertheless he kept his gover- 
norship of Saumur, where on the death of Hen- 
ry (1610) he proclaimed the authority of Maria 
de’ Medici; but he quarrelled with that prin- 
cess, and in 1620 was compelled to resign his 
office, receiving as indemnity a sum of 100,000 
livres. His high character, virtue, and knowl- 
edge made him for nearly half a century the 
chief of the French Calvinists; and he was 
commonly styled by the Catholics le pape des 
Huguenots. He left various controversial 
works, and also his personal Mémoires (4 vols. 
4to, 1624—’52; more complete edition by Au- 
guis, 12 vols. 8vo, 1822-5). See also Mémoires 
de Madame de Mornay, published by Mme. 
de Witt under the auspices of the French his- 
torical society (2 vols., Paris, 1868-9). 
MORNY, Charles Auguste Louis Joseph de, duke, 
a French statesman, reputed half brother of 
Napoleon III., born in Paris, Oct. 28, 1811, 
died there, March 10, 1865. He was regarded 
as the son of Queen Hortense and the count 
Auguste Charles Joseph de Flahaut. He as- 
sumed the name of the count de Morny, a 
French nobleman resident at the Isle de France 
(Mauritius), who is said to have received 800,- 
000 francs for adopting him as ason. He was 
educated under the care of his supposed grand- 
mother, Mme. de Flahaut, also known as Mme. 
de Souza from her second marriage with a 
Portuguese nobleman of that name, and placed 
in the institution Muron. His proficiency in 
study was remarkable, and he early attracted 
the attention of Talleyrand, who predicted that 
De Morny would one day be a minister. He 
attended one of the military schools of Paris 
during two years, and left it in 1832 with the 
rank of sub-lieutenant. He then served in 
Algeria, where he was wounded, and was deco- 
rated with the order of the legion of honor for 
saving the life of Gen. Trézel. Queen Hor- 
tense, on her death in 1837, bequeathed to 
him an annuity of 40,000 francs, and he soon 
became noted for his commercial and financial 
speculations. In 1838 he purchased near Cler- 
mont a manufactory for beet sugar, and largely 
engaged in that and other enterprises, From 


‘years 1856-7. 


MOROCCO 


1842 to 1848 he was a member of the chamber 


of deputies, and in 1849 he was elected to the 
legislative assembly. He was one of the most 
effective assistants of Louis Napoleon in the 
coup @état of Dec. 2, 1851. After that event 
he held the. office of minister of the interior 
until Jan. 23, 1852, when he relinquished it 
because Fould, Magne, and Rouher had with- 
drawn from the administration on account of 
the confiscation of the property of the Orleans 
family. Subsequently he became a member of 
the legislative body, and from 1854 to the time 
of his death was its president. He attended 
the coronation of the emperor Alexander II. as 
the representative of the French government, 
and was ambassador to Russia during the 
While at St. Petersburg he 
married, Feb. 19, 1857, a Russian lady of rank 
and wealth. In 1862 he was made duke, Dnu- 
ring the last years of his life he was actively 
engaged in railway, mining, and other com- 
mercial and industrial enterprises. Morny, 
under the pseudonyme Saint-Remy, was the 
author of several farces and operettas. 

MORO, Attoni, also called Sir Anthony More, 
a Flemish painter, born in Utrecht about 1520, 
died in Antwerp about 1580. He gained con- 
siderable reputation as a portrait painter, and 
in 1552 he executed likenesses of the Spanish 
crown prince, the future Philip IL., and of va- 
rious members of the royal family of Portugal. 
In 1554 he painted the portrait of Philip’s sec- 
ond wife, Mary of England, during whose reign 
he was court painter. Several of his portraits 
of the queen and of the English nobility are 
in the palace of Hampton court. Subsequent- 
ly he was in the service of Philip II. and the 
duke of Alva, by the latter of whom he was 
appointed to the lucrative office of receiver 
general of the revenues of West Flanders, 

MOROCCO, or Maroceo (Arab. Maghreb el-Aksa, 
“the extreme west,” or £l-Maghreb, ‘the 
west”), a sultanate in N. W. Africa, between 
lat. 27° and 36° N. and lon. 4° 30’ E. and 11° 
50’ W., bounded N. by the Mediterranean, 
E. by Algeria, S. by the desert of Sahara, and 
W. by the Atlantic; area, about 260,000 sq. 
m. Its frontier on the desert is generally con- 
sidered to be on a line drawn directly E. from 
Cape Nun; its frontier on the province of 
Oran, Algeria, was determined by treaty of 
March 18, 1845. The coast line on the Medi- 
terranean, about 250 m. long, runs N. W. from 
Algeria to Cape Tres Forcas (Ras ed-Deir), 
thence W. S. W. to about lon. 4° 30’ W., 
where it again turns N. W. to Punta de Afri- 
ca, its most northerly point; thence the course 
of the coast line is W. 8. W. through the strait 
of Gibraltar to, Cape Spartel on the Atlantic, 
where it turns abruptly and pursues a general 
S. W. course of about 750 m. to Cape Nun. 
On the Mediterranean coast Spain holds sey- 
eral fortified convict stations: Ceuta on Pun- 
ta de Africa, Pefion de Velez, Alhucemas, Me- 
lilla, and the Jafarin islands. There are sey- 
eral small harbors belonging to Morocco, of 


MOROCCO 839 


which the best, that of Tetuan, at the mouth of 
the little river Martil, is unfit for large vessels. 
On the Atlantic coast, besides Tangier in the 
strait of Gibraltar, the principal harbors are: 
El-Araish (Larash), Rabat, Casablanca (Dar el- 
Baida), Mazagan (Jedyda), Saffi (Asfy), and 
Mogadore. Mazagan has a bay protected by 
the land against all dangerous winds, and is 
the only harbor on the coast possessing natural 
advantages which might make it a good port 
of the second class. The Portuguese founded 
an establishment here in 1506, but abandoned 
it in 1769. The country back of Mogadore is 
composed of hills of moving sand, and the 
place would have no existence but for the will 
of the sovereign. It was founded in 1760 by 
Sidi Mohammed, who closed Agadir, the port 
of Sus, once the best and most important in 
the empire, from fear that the inhabitants, en- 
riched by foreign commerce, would assert their 
independence. There are a few smaller and 
unimportant ports at the mouths of rivers.— 
The interior is divided into two great slopes by 
the Atlas mountains, which traverse it from N. 
E. to 8. W. The chain is composed of several 
parallel ranges, connected with each other, and 
several separate lesser chains, preserving gen- 
erally the same parallelism, divide the country 
between the main range and the Atlantic into 
fertile valleys and plains. Onthe Mediterranean 
coast a maritime range, called Er-Rif, from 
2,500 to 3,500 ft. high, extends from Nemours 
in Algeria to the strait of Gibraltar; and there 
are also several chains running to the coast at 
right angles to the main range. Of the infe- 
rior chains on the southeast but little is known. 
The main range of the Atlas contains some of 
the most elevated peaks in N. Africa, many of 
which are covered with snow the greater part 
of the year. Miltzin, a peak about 30 m. S. E. 
of Morocco, is 11,500 ft. high. From all these 
mountains flow numerous streams, to which the 
natives give the general name of wed or wad. 
None of them are navigable, and many disap- 
pear in summer in the sands of the desert. 
Most of them change their names several times 
during their course. The principal rivers of 
the N. W. slope are the Lucos, Sebu, Bure- 
krag, Umm er-Rebiah, and the Tensift, all of 
which empty into the Atlantic; those of the 
S. E. slope are the Muluia, which falls into the 
Mediterranean, the Ghir, which is lost in the 
desert, and the Draa, Nun, and Sus, which 
empty into the Atlantic. All the rivers are 
rapid, and in spring and summer the larger 
ones cannot be forded with safety.—Little is 
known of the geology of Morocco, but gneiss 
is supposed to be the principal formation in the 
Atlas. Marbles of different kinds are found, 
one of which is as white as Carrara marble. 
It is probable that the celebrated Numidian 
marbles of the Roman writers came from the 
Atlas. Gold in quartz veins is also found in 
these mountains, and galena rich in silver in 
the metamorphic rock in different parts of the 
country. Oopper, iron, tin, nickel, cobalt, and 


antimony are abundantin Sus. At the foot of 
Jebel Hadyd, 15 or 16 m. N. E. of Mogadore, 
are numerous traces of ancient iron mines, 
which are supposed to have been worked by 
the Carthaginians. The ore found there is fine 
and rich. Sulpbur, rock salt, and nitre are 
found in. various places; and there are nu- 
merous mineral springs, of which the hydro- 
sulphurous springs of Mulai Yakub near Fez 
are said to cure cutaneous affections and scrof-. 
ula.—On the great slope N. W. of the Atlas range 
the climate is temperate and delightful. A re- 
freshing sea breeze prevails during the greater 
part of the year, and the hot winds from the 
desert are intercepted by the mountains. On 
the plain of the city of Morocco it is hot in 
summer, but the thermometer seldom rises 
above 95°, and in winter it seldom falls below 
40°. The mean annual temperature is about 
64°. Snow never falls there, but the winds 
from the glaciers of the Atlas occasionally make 
the nights very cold. At Mogadore the extreme 
fluctuation of the thermometer does not exceed 
35°; the annual rainfall averages 21 inches. 
The year is divided into a wet and a dry sea- 
son; during the former, from November to 
March, showers are frequent; but during the 
other part of the year rain seldom falls, 
Toward the south there is less rain; and on 
the 8. E. side of the mountains our knowledge 
of the climate is very imperfect, but extremes 
of heat and cold are supposed to prevail, and 
rain to be entirely wanting.—The Atlas moun- 
tains are clothed with luxuriant forests, in 
which are found the live oak, the cork oak, and 
the oak with edible acorns; the Aleppo pine, 
cedar of Lebanon, spruce, locust, and juniper ; 
the thuja, which produces sandarach, the eu- 
phorbia, and other valuable gum trees; and in 
Sus flourishes the argan, the seeds of whose 
fruit produce a valuable oil, much used by the 
natives. The principal fruits are the date palm, 
olive, orange, grape, citron, banana, fig, almond, 
and pomegranate; but all the other fruits of 
southern Europe and northern Africa, and 
many of those of more tropical climes, grow in 
perfection. Among the wild plants of the 
southern provinces are the caper, the archil, 
the dagmuz or tikiut with a juice like honey, 
and the jernun or talelt, which also furnishes 
a sweet milky juice. Agricuiture is in a very 
primitive state, and but a very small part of 
the arable land is cultivated. The annual pro- 
duction is scarcely sufficient to supply the wants 
of the people, and when the harvests fail fam- 
ine ensues. Yet Morocco might become, under 
an enlightened government, one of the most 
productive regions of the world. Wheat, bar- 
ley, maize, millet (durra), and other cereals 
grow to perfection, but barley is the principal 
grain; cotton does well, and rice and sugar 
cane would succeed if properly cultivated; 
flax, hemp, and tobacco are raised to a limited 
extent; and beans, peas, lentils, sesamum, saf- 
fron, canary grass, and in some parts a few ° 
turnips, are cultivated in sufficient quantities to 


840 MOROCCO 


supply the inhabitants. Indigo, cochineal, and 
silk could be raised with success, and some parts 
of the Atlas seem to be well adapted for coffee. 
—Of wild animals, the lion and the panther 
are found in the forests and valleys of the 
Atlas, and monkeys in the wooded mountains; 
in the level country the hyena, jackal, and 
wild boar abound; and in the Sahara plains 
the ostrich, gazelle, and several other species of 
antelopes. Among the serpents are the cerastes, 
or horned viper, and a black snake called the 
buska, which is 6 or 7 ft..long and very venom- 
ous. Inoffensive serpents are numerous, and 
are domesticated in some places, particularly in 
Morocco, where they are scrupulously respected 
in the houses. 
meleon abound, and the locust and a great 
variety of other insects of all colors, forms, 
and natures infest many parts of the country. 
Among the birds are the stork, flamingo, and 
many kinds of small game. The domestic ani- 
mals are numerous, and the wealth of many of 
the tribes consists entirely in their flocks and 
herds, Horses, mules, asses, camels, cattle, 
sheep, and goats abound, but the pastoral art 
is in almost as primitive a state as agriculture. 
The small spirited Barbary horses are still 
raised, but the sultan’s prerogative of taking 
the best for the use of his army wherever he 
can find them is a serious check on this indus- 
try. Their export, as well as that of horned 
cattle, is prohibited; but a few thousand of 
the latter are permitted to be shipped yearly 
for the use of the English garrison at Gibraltar. 
The sheep are much larger than the European 
varieties, and have broad tails loaded with fat, 
often weighing from 380 to 50 Ibs. The wool 
is of fine quality and almost invariably white. 
The goats furnish the skins from which the 
celebrated morocco leather is made. Poul- 
try abounds, and the rivers and waters of the 
coast are full of fish.—The inhabitants may be 
divided into five races, Berbers, Arabs, Moors, 
Jews, and negroes. The Berbers, who are the 
aborigines, occupy the Atlas and lesser moun- 
tain ranges. They are a fine race physically, 
are distinguished for courage, resolution, and 
temperance, and make good warriors and hunt- 
ers. They are more laborious and persevering 
than the Arabs, and follow agriculture rather 
than pastoral pursuits. They are the best ma- 
sons in the country, and most of their houses 
are built of stone. The Arabs, who compose 
the greater part of the rural population in the 
plains and in the valleys near the coast, are in 
general the descendants of the Mohammedan 
invaders. They also are a fine race physically, 
but they are braggarts and fanatics, and jealous 
in disposition; are incapable of supporting 
prosperity, and are often embroiled with the 
government. They live in tents, and are mostly 
agricultural laborers and shepherds. The Moors 
are a hybrid race, the greater part of them 
being descendants of those who were driven 
from Spain. They inhabit the cities and towns, 
and are generally effeminate, intriguing, and 


Scorpions, lizards, and the cha- 


given to pleasure and idleness. In youth they 
are slender, but become very corpulent in later 
life. They are more polished in their manner 
than the Arabs, but less social. Many of 
them hold official positions, and a large part 
of the commerce is in their hands. The Jews 
chiefly inhabit the cities, although some are 
found among the Berbers, and a few even in 
the Sahara at Wad Nun and at Akka. They 
are more ignorant than their brethren in other 
countries, but are shrewd and enterprising, and 
many of them become rich, as they are the sole 
dealers in bullion. Most of them are engaged 
in commerte. The negroes are slaves or de- 
scendants of slaves imported from Soodan and 
other parts of central Africa. As there is 
no prejudice against color in Morocco, their 
descendants are of all shades of complexion, 
and most of the sherifs and principal officials 
are mulattoes. Many of them become free 
when converted to Islamism, and are then 
enrolled in the bokhary or body guard of the 
sultan. They are intelligent and docile, but 
more stubborn and more malicious than the 
Moors and Arabs. In general the people of 
Morocco are barbarous and fierce, but not fero- 
cious or bloodthirsty as they have sometimes 
been represented. The vendetta is customary 
among them, but they do not assassinate stran- 
gers and travellers. Theft is seldom accom- 
panied by murder, except in case of prolonged 
resistance. Craig, alate English traveller, says 
the rarity of crime is remarkable. The total 
population has been estimated from 3,000,000 
to 15,000,000. Reaumier, who visited Morocco 
in 1866, thinks the latter number the more 
probable; but according to Craig, the popula- 
tion, which at the beginning of the century, 
by a valuation considerably exaggerated, was 
estimated at 14,000,000, does not now exceed 
4,000,000. The depopulation is still going on, 
and in the seaport towns alone has there 
been any development in the past few years. 
—The chief languages spoken are the Berber 
and the Arabic. In the south a modified 
form of the Berber is called Shellooh. The 
Arabic is but a gross dialect of the language of 
the Koran, and the pronunciation differs in 
the different provinces. The Jews speak an 
almost unintelligible Arabic jargon, and those 
of Tetuan, Tangier, and El-Araish an idiom 
of Spanish that is almost as bad. The negroes 
speak the Arabic with a pronunciation pecu- 
liar to themselves; many of them preserve also 
their native Mandingo and Bambara tongues. 
The dominant religion is Mohammedanism of 
the Sunnite division and Malekite sect. The 
Berbers know generally only the profession of 
faith of the Koran, and follow blindly the 
teachings of the marabouts who govern them. 
The negroes make sincere converts to Islam- 
ism, but are much addicted to the practice of 
magic. The Jews belong to the Sepharadic 
(peninsular or western, improperly called Por- 
tuguese) division of their race, and follow the 
Talmud as interpreted by their rabbis to the 


i 


——- 


MOROCCO 


letter. Christianity is now tolerated. Educa- 
tion is at alow ebb. In Fez only are there any 
remains of the ancient universities. Young 
men destined to letters, law, or the service of 
religion are instructed there in grammar and 
Arab poetry, and in Mussulman law and theol- 
ogy. Elsewhere youth are taught little more 
than to recite passages of the Koran. The once 
famous libraries of Fez and Morocco have dis- 
appeared, and the empirical use of a few sim- 
ples and the practice of immoderate bleeding 
and cauterization with fire are all that remains 
of the medicine of Avenzoar and Averrhoes. 
Printing is unknown, and the architectural 
skill once characteristic of the race is now but 
a tradition.—Manufacturing industry is almost 
as degenerate. The most remarkable products 
are the beautiful and delicate tissues of wool 
and silk, woven by hand at Fez; the embroi- 
deries on velvet and leather; the famous mo- 
rocco leather, now almost entirely superseded 
in Europe by the products of the Marseilles 
tanneries; the carpets and rugs of Rabat and 
Salé; arms, and silver and gold work. Most 
of the cities contain tanneries where morocco 
of different colors is produced, the red and the 
yellow being of particular excellence. The 
dyers use cochineal, rakaut, and pomegranate 
skins. The French introduced fuchsine, and 
for a time it superseded other red dyes, but its 
use was finally prohibited. At Fez are made 
and exported large numbers of the red caps 
which bear the name of that city. Their fine 
color is produced by a dye made from a berry 
found in the vicinity. Fez and Tetuan also 
manufacture bricks, which are sent to all the 
cities of Morocco, but not in large numbers, 
for they are used only in the houses of the 
rich. The best arms are made in Morocco and 
Tetuan. Jewelry and work in silver and cop- 
per are mostly in the hands of the Jews.—The 
maritime commerce is wholly carried on by 
foreigners. No vestiges remain of the famous 
Barbary corsairs that once scoured the Mediter- 
ranean, and Morocco now has no ship capable 
of making sail, and no sailor able to manage 
one. In 1871, 1,307 ships, of the total ton- 
nage of 201,367, entered the eight free ports 
of Morocco. The entries at the several ports 
were as follows: Tetuan 214, Tangier 461, 
El-Araish 65, Rabat 24, Casablanca 168, Maza- 
gan 224, Saffy 56, and Mogadore 95. Of these, 
617 were English, 172 French, 362 Spanish, 
142 Portuguese, and 14 of other nations. The 
total value of the exports for 1871 was $3,906,- 
000; imports, $4,566,000, The principal ex- 
ports are goat skins, wool, grain, olive oil, 
gum, wax, and almonds; the principal imports 
are Manchester goods, silver bullion, hardware, 
tea, and sugar. The inland traffic is inconsid- 
erable, as there are no roads except in the vi- 
cinity of the towns, and few of the rivers have 
bridges; but there is a large trade with central 
Africa and with the East by caravans. The 
southern trade is carried on through Tafilet, 
snd the caravans, which number sometimes 


841 


from 15,000 to 20,000 camels, go as far as Tim- 
buctoo, where they meet the merchants from 
further south and exchange products. The 
principal articles exported by this route are 
woollen cloths and haiks (mantles), Turkish 
daggers, looking glasses, salt, and tobacco; 
which are bartered for ivory, gold dust, ostrich 
feathers, gums, malagheta or Guinea pepper, 
asafoetida, incense, and slaves. The trade with 
the East is carried on by one large caravan 
yearly, which assembles at Fez about seven 
months before the great festival at Mecca, and 
occupies the intervening time in dealing with 
the countries through which it passes. This 
caravan, which is much larger than those going 
south, carries skins and fine leather, woollen 
cloths and carpets, cochineal, indigo, and os- 
trich feathers; and brings back Persian silks 
and India goods, Egyptian cotton and raw 
silk, spices, perfumes, &c.—The sultanate of 
Morocco consists nominally of the former 
kingdoms of Fez and Morocco, of Sus, of the 
oasis of Tafilet, and of several tribes S. E. of 
the Atlas; but while the sultan, in his spiritual 
character of emir of the believers, is venera- 
ted by all the Mohammedans of the west, his 
temporal authority extends practically only over 
the cities and the plains, About two thirds of 
the whole country, including the Atlas, a large 
part of Sus, and, with the exception of Tafilet, 
all the 8. slope of the Atlas from Wad-Ghir to 
the ocean, ought to be considered as politically 
independent. The sultanate is divided into 28 
provinces, in each of which are from 2 to 15 
small tribes, which are subdivided in the plains 
into dwars, or movable collections of tents, 
and in the mountains into tchwrs, or hamlets 
and villages in which the dwellings are per- 
manently attached to the soil. Each province 
has its marabouts, sheikhs, and notables, who 
united form a council. In the semi-indepen- 
dent provinces this is called ait arbain, and it 
affects to govern according to the precepts 
of the Koran. In those belonging properly 
to the sultan each province has one or several 
kaids or governors, who administer the gov- 
ernment as they please, on condition of keep- 
ing communication safe, paying the imposts, 
furnishing their contingent of men and horses 
for the army, and sending to the sultan at each 
great festival as large a present of money as 
possible. The kaids are assisted by sheikhs 
chosen by themselves, who act directly upon 
the chiefs of dwars and tchurs. ‘The cities are 
governed by a kaid, who is amenable to the 
sultan. Under him are a cadi or minister of 
public worship and of justice; a mohtasseb or 
chief of police; a nadher or keeper of the 
property of the mosques; and the omena or 
administrators of the customs and the proper- 
ty of the state. All the cities are enclosed by 
walls, and the gates are shut at night. The 
streets have no names, and the houses no num- 
bers, but the division into quarters is distinct, 
and the inhabitants of each are held responsi- 
ble as a body for the maintenance of order. 


842 - MOROCCO 


The chief interior cities, in the order of impor- 
tance, are as follows: Fez, Morocco, Mequinez, 
Azimur, Tarudant, Theza, Ujda, Alcazar el-Ke- 
bir, Wezzan, Sofron, Dunnet, and Tafilet or 
Tafilelt. The capitals are Fez and Morocco, in 
each of which the sultan resides for two or 
three years at a time. Mequinez is inhabited 
chiefly by the families of the body guard. 
Wezzan is the grand centre of the brotherhood 
of the Mulai Thaieb, and is peopled only by 
the descendants of the founder of this order 
in Algeria and Morocco. Tarudant is the capi- 
tal of Sus. The army proper consists of about 
30,000 cavalry, composed of the body guard 
and the military tribes of Fez, the Sherarda, 
Sherarga, Ondaya, and a part of the Gherwan, 
who follow from father to son the military 
profession (mekhazni). The greater part of 
these troops always accompany the sultan; 
the rest are detached in companies according 
to need. Permanent garrisons, varying from 
1,000 to 300 in number, are stationed only at 
Fez, Marve, Rabat, Ujda, and in the Rif. In 
the other towns there are generally from 20 to 
50 soldiers at the disposition of the authorities, 
The military enjoy great privileges and live at 
their ease. They are armed with sabres and 
long flint-lock guns, and wear no other dis- 
tinctive uniform than the Fez cap, which is 
worn by all state officials. The late sultan Sidi 
Mohammed tried to form an infantry corps, 
but the discipline was not compatible with 
the character and habits of the people, and 
the 8,500 or 4,000 men whom he raised were 
mostly renegades and foreigners. The goy- 
ernment has mints at Fez,.Morocco, and Ra- 
bat, but they do little more than convert 
French crowns into the money of the coun- 
try.—The Mauritania of the ancients comprised 
Morocco and a part of Algiers. (See Maurt- 
TANIA.) When the Arabs completed their con- 
quest of northern Africa (698-709) the Moors 
adopted their religion and customs. No gen- 
eral government was organized till about 787, 
when Edris ibn Abdallah, a descendant of Mo- 
hammed, founded the kingdom of Fez. His 
son and successor, Edris ibn Edris, founded 
the city of Fez about 807. In the 11th cen- 
tury the warlike sect of the Al-Murabathin 
or Almoravides arose among the indepen- 
dent tribes in the deserts of the south, and 
about 1058 their chief Abubekr ibn Omar was 
proclaimed emir of all Morocco. In 1070 he 
crossed the mountains, and in 1072 founded 
the city of Morocco. The dynasty of,the Al- 
moravides was succeeded by those of the Al- 
mohades, the Beni Merinas, and the El-Wa- 
tasi. In 1561 the descendants of Sherif Ho- 
sein founded a new dynasty, which in the be- 
ginning of the 17th century had extended its 
sway over all Morocco and as far 8. as Timbuc- 
too. In 1578 King Sebastian of Portugal in- 
vaded the country, but was defeated at Alcazar 
and probably killed. On the death of Hamed 
Sherif al-Mansour, his empire was divided 
among his five sons, which led to the estab- 


lishment in 1648 of a new dynasty by Muley 
Sherif el-Fileli, king of Tafilet, which still 
continues on the throne. In 1787 the sultan 
made a treaty of peace and friendship with the 
United States, and in 1836 a second treaty of 
peace and commerce, to remain in force for 50 
years. In 1814 the slavery of Christians was 
abolished, and in 1817 the sultan disarmed his 
marine and prohibited piracy. In 1844, du- 
ring the reign of Abderrahman (1823-59), the 
Moors took up.arms to aid Abd-el-Kader 
against the French, and the prince de Joinville 
bombarded Tangier and took possession of Mo- 


'gadore, which was given up on the conclusion 


of peace. The French also bombarded Salé in 
1851, in retaliation for the plunder of a ship 


on the coast. In 1859 the French made an in- 


cursion from Algeria into Morocco in revenge 
for depredations on their frontiers, and in the 
same year Spain declared war in retaliation 
for attacks on her commerce by the Rif 
pirates. On Feb. 6, 1860, Tetuan surrendered 
after a well contested battle (Feb. 4), and in 
April a treaty of peace was signed, which 
guaranteed to Spain 400,000,000 reals for the 
expenses of the war. In the same year a 
Moroccan ambassador was sent to London, the 
first since the time of Charles II., and in 1861 
the British government gave a guarantee for a 
loan of £426,000 to the sultan to meet his en- 
gagements with Spain. In March, April, and 
May, 1870, a French detachment from Algeria 
under Gen. Wimpffen made a tour of explora- 
tion through 8. E. Morocco, and reported fa- 
vorably on the climate, water, &c. In Septem- 
ber, 1871, an insurrection of Berbers broke 
out in Morocco, and the Spanish fortifications 
at Melilla were attacked; but the guns of the 
besiegers were dismounted by the fire from 
the citadel. The sultan Sidi Mohammed, who 
succeeded his father Abderrahman in 1859, 
died Sept. 20, 1878, and his son Muley Hassan 
was proclaimed Sept. 25. 

MOROCCO (Arab. Marakesh), a city and one 
of the capitals of the sultanate of Morocco, on 
the N. side of a plain 1,500 ft. above the sea, 4 
m. 8. of the river Tensift, and about 250 m. §S, 
W. of Fez; lat. 31° 38’ N., lon. 7° 36’ W.; pop. 
about 50,000. The walls, which are 7 m. in 
circuit, are built of tappia (earth, pebbles, and 
lime pounded together), and are about 28 ft. 
high. One part is flanked with towers at reg- 
ular intervals, but most of them are in ruins, 
and the walls are so dilapidated that pedestrians 
easily find a passage in after the gates are 
closed. There are seven gates, besides two 
leading into the kasbah or citadel. <A large 
part of the enclosed space is covered with gar- 
dens. The streets are wide at the gates, but in 
the centre of the city they form a network of 
filthy lanes, almost impassable for pedestrians 
in rainy weather. The houses are generally 
of one story, built of tappia whitewashed, with 
flat roofs and terraces, and opening on an inner 
court. They have no windows or doors to the 
street, the entrance usually opening on a lane 


Ee 


MOROCCO 


connecting with the main street. The houses 
of the better classes have a second story of 
brick. There is no public promenade except 
the great square of the Jama el-Fna, where 
jugglers and mountebanks perform by day, and 
which is the rendezvous at night of the vaga- 
bonds of the city. A market for the sale of 
horned cattle is held in it every Friday. There 
are other markets and several bazaars for par- 
ticular classes of goods. The iron merchants, 
blacksmiths, carpenters, and butchers have each 
their special street, which is shut at night, and 
in which no one is allowed to reside. Whole- 
sale dealers have their offices in the caravan- 
saries. The palace of the sultan, in the kasbah 
in the S. part of the city, consists of two grand 
courts, in the midst of gardens, around which 
are the royal residence and the chambers of 
the ministers and secretaries. N. of the palace 


MORPHIA 843 


and attached to it is the treasury, said to con- 
tain immense wealth. There are many mosques, 
some of which are very large, but none of 
any architectural pretensions. One having a 
tower 250 ft. high, surmounted by a lantern, 
is said to have been built by the architect of 
the Giralda at Seville. There are three pris- 
ons, one for Jews, one for general criminals, 
and one for prisoners of state. In the N. part 
of the city is the Zawia or sanctuary of Sidi 
ibn Abbas, a charitable institution, where the 
poor receive alms and an asylum for the night. 
Jt is also an inviolable refuge for criminals. 
Like most of the mosques, it is very rich, the 
houses and gardens belonging to it being valued 
at more than $1,000,000. Without the walls 
are several aqueducts, mostly ruinous, but which 
still bring water from the mountains into the 
reservoirs, and supply 20 public baths. The 


Morocco, 


inhabitants of Morocco are a mixture of Moors, 
Algerines, Tunisians, Egyptians, Arabs from 
the Sahara, negroes, and Jews. The latter, 
who number about 6,000, have a quarter of 
their own, called El-Melah. They seldom go 
into the city proper, and when they do both 
men and women are obliged to take off their 
shoes. <A large part of the business is in their 
hands, and they are the gold, silver, copper, 
and tin smiths of the city. Morocco is an 
agricultural rather than an industrial centre. 
The sole manufacture in which it excels is that 
of leather, particularly of red and yellow moroc- 
co. All products of the country, excepting the 
cereals, pay an octroi duty both going in and 
going out of the gates. There is also a tax of 
24 per cent. on all sales, paid by the buyer, and 
the government has a monopoly of tobacco.— 


Morocco was founded in 1072 by Abubekr ben | 


Omar, of the dynasty of the Almoravides. It 
was captured and nearly destroyed in 1146 by 
Abdelmumen, king of the Almohades, who 
rebuilt and restored it in 1147—’8. Schools and 
colleges were founded by his successors, and in 
the 13th century it was a famous seat of learn- 
ing, and the Moors of Spain, Algeria, and Tunis 
sent their children to be educated in its uni- 
versities. At the height of its prosperity it 1s 
said to have had a population of more than 
500,000. Its decadence began with the expul- 
sion of the Moors from Spain. 
MORPHEUS (Gr. popdéy, to shape), in Gre- 
cian mythology, the son of Sleep and god of 
dreams. He is represented in a reclining pos- 
ture, with a crown of poppies. His name (the 
fashioner or moulder) was derived from his 
function of shaping and controlling dreams. 
MORPHIA. See Opium. 


844 MORPHY 

MORPHY, Paul Charles, an American lawyer, 
celebrated as a chess player, born in New Or- 
leans, La., June 22, 1887. He early exhibited 
a fondness for the game of chess, and at the 


age of 12 had encountered successfully the best. 


amateurs of his native city. He entered St. 
Joseph’s college in 1850, and during his col- 
lege course exhibited his remarkable skill in 
various contests with Léwenthal and others. 
At the chess congress in New York in 1857, 
he defeated in a majority of games, many be- 
ing at considerable odds, the first players of 
the United States. In 1858 he first exhibited 
his ability to play without seeing the board, 
sometimes conducting seven games at once. 
In the summer of that year he played 14 games 
with Lowenthal in London, in which Morphy 
won 9, Léwenthal 3, and 2 were drawn. On 
Aug. 26 Mr. Morphy attended the annual meet- 
ing of the British chess association at Birming- 
ham, where he played eight games simultane- 
ously without seeing the boards, winning six 
games and losing one, and one being drawn. 
In September he went to Paris, where he first 
played a match of seven games with Mr. Harr- 
witz, winning five and drawing one; and after 
defeating the best French players at the café 
de la régence, including Riviére, Laroche, Jour- 
noud, and Devinck, he encountered on Dec. 20 
the celebrated Adolph Anderssen, considered 
the champion of German chess. The result of 
the match was: Morphy 7, Anderssen 2, drawn 
2. Mr. Morphy continued in Paris playing 
with his usual success till April 4, 1859, when 
he returned to London, and during the remain- 
der of his stay exhibited his power in matches 
and in blindfold play as before. On his return 
to the United States he was admitted to the 
bar, and since then has resided and practised 
his profession in New Orleans, with short in- 
tervals of residence in Richmond and Mobile. 
MORRIS. I. A N. county of New Jersey, 
bounded N. E. by the Pequonnock river, E. 
and S. E. by the Passaic, and drained by Rock- 
away and Whippany rivers and the head 
branches of the Raritan; area, 650 sq. m.; 
pop. in 1870, 43,137. Itis traversed by ranges 
of hills, some of which, as Schooley’s and West 
Trowbridge mountains, reach a considerable 
elevation. It abounds in copper, iron, zine, 
marble, limestone, sandstone, and manganese; 
there are 27 iron mines, which give employ- 
ment to a great number of the inhabitants. It 
is intersected by the Morris canal and the Mor- 
ris and Essex railroad, the latter passing through 
the capital. The chief productions in 1870 
were 80,897 bushels of wheat, 23,776 of rye, 
608,024 of Indian corn, 290,721 of oats, 49,- 
764 of buckwheat, 168,611 of potatoes, 18,361 
Ibs. of wool, 535,274 of butter, and 34,859 
tons of hay. There were 5,170 horses, 8,595 
milch cows, 5,883 other cattle, 8,770 sheep, 
and 7,046 swine; 4 manufactories of brick, 13 
of carriages and wagons, 1 of cotton goods, 13 
of iron in various forms, 8 of machinery, 4 of 
paper, 1 of roofing materials, 5 of sash, doors, 


MORRIS 


and blinds, 4 of woollen goods, 5 tanneries, 4 
distilleries, 24 flour mills, and 15 saw mills. 
Capital, Morristown. I. An E. central county 
of Kansas, watered by the Neosho river and 
other streams; area, 655 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 
9,225. It is traversed by the Missouri, Kansas, 
and Texas railroad. The soil in parts is fer- 
tile. The W. portion is level and destitute of 
timber. The chief productions in 1870 were 
41,714 bushels of wheat, 89,815 of Indian corn, 
15,341 of oats, 17,549 of potatoes, 30,590 Ibs. 
of butter, and 4,991 tons of hay. There were 
1,033 horses, 3,604 cattle, 682 sheep, and 642 
swine. Capital, Council Grove. 

MORRIS, a city and the capital of Grundy 


co., Illinois, on the Illinois and Michigan canal, 


and the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific rail- 
road, 58 m. S. W. of Chicago; pop. in 1870, 
8,138. It is the shipping point of the county, 
and has an important trade in grain. It is the 
seat of St. Angela’s academy, an institution 
for the superior instruction of females, under 
the control of the Roman Catholics, which was 
established in 1857. In 1878-’4 it had 10 in- 
structors and 190 students. The city has 
graded public schools, including a high school, 
two national banks, two weekly newspapers, 
and several churches. 

MORRIS, Charles, an American naval ofiicer, 
born in Connecticut in 1784, died in Washing- 
ton, D. C., Jan. 27, 1856. He entered the 
navy in July, 1799, and served in the war with 
Tripoli, 1801-’5. In January, 1807, he was 
promoted to a lieutenancy, and in the war of 
1812 served as first lieutenant of the frigate 
Constitution, distinguishing himself during the 
chase of that ship for three days and nights 
by a British squadron in July, 1812, and by 
his gallantry in the action between the Con- 
stitution and Guerriere on Aug. 19, in which 
he received a severe wound. He was made 
captain, and in 1814 appointed to the command 
of the Adams of 28 guns, in which he made 
an important cruise upon the coasts of the 
United States and Ireland, harassing British 
commerce. In August, 1814, Capt. Morris 
entered the Penobscot river, and running up 
to Hampden made preparations to heave out 
for repairs. While he was engaged in this, a 
strong British expedition entered the river to 
capture the ship. A militia force assembled 
for her protection gave way, and Capt. Morris 
destroyed her, directing his crew to break up 
into small parties and make their way for 200 
m. across the thinly inhabited country to Port- 
land. He was off duty but 24 years in a career 
of 56. At his death he was chief of the bureau 
of ordnance and hydrography. 

MORRIS, Clara. See supplement. 

MORRIS, Francis Orpen. See supplement. 

MORRIS, George P., an American journalist, 
born in Philadelphia, Oct. 10, 1802, died in 
New York, July 6, 1864. At an early age he 
removed to New York, where he wrote for 
the ‘‘New York Gazette” and the “ Ameri- 
can,” to the first of which he contributed 


MORRIS 


verses as early as his 15th year. In August, 
1828, in conjunction with Samuel Woodworth, 
he established the ‘‘New York Mirror,” in 
which N. P. Willis and Theodore Fay were 
afterward associated, and which was discon- 
tinued Dec. 31, 1842. In 1848 Morris and 
Willis commenced the publication of the ‘‘ New 
Mirror,” which extended to three volumes, 
and in 1844 of the ‘‘ Evening Mirror,” a daily 
paper. At the close of 1845 he established 
alone a weekly journal called the “ National 
Press,” the title of which was changed to that 
of the “Home Journal” in November, 1846, 
when Willis again joined him. He acquired 
his chief reputation as a song writer, and his 
‘* Woodman, spare that Tree,” ‘‘ We were Boys 
together,” ‘‘Land-Ho!” ‘Long Time Ago,” 
“The Origin of Yankee Doodle,” ‘‘ My Moth- 
er’s Bible,” ‘*‘ Whip-poor-Will,” &c., became 
very popular. Various editions of his poems 
have been published. In 1887 he produced a 
drama entitled ‘‘ Briercliff,” which had a run 
of 40 nights, and in 1842 he wrote the libretto 
of an opera entitled ‘‘The Maid of Saxony.” 
He also published a volume of prose sketches 
entitled ‘‘The Little Frenchman and his Water 
Lots” (1888). He was long a general of militia. 

MORRIS, Gouverneur, an American statesman, 
born at Morrisania, Westchester co., N. Y., 
Jan. 31, 1752, died there, Nov. 6, 1816. He 
graduated at King’s (now Columbia) college 
in 1768, and in 1771 was admitted to the bar. 
At the age of 18 he wrote a series of news- 
paper articles on finance, which attracted much 
attention. From 1775 to 1778 he was a dele- 
gate to the provincial congress of New York, 
in which he was a member of the committee 
for drafting a constitution for the state. He 
was a delegate to the continental congress in 
1777, and passed the following winter at Val- 
ley Forge as one of a committee appointed to 
examine, with Washington, into the state of 
the army. In 1779 he published a pamphlet 
entitled ‘‘ Observations on the American Revo- 
lution.” In May, 1780, he was thrown from 
his carriage, and his leg was injured so as to 
require amputation. In July, 1781, he was 
chosen by Robert Morris as assistant superin- 
tendent of finance, which office he held for 3} 
years. After the revolution he resumed the 
practice of law, and also engaged with Robert 
Morris in mercantile speculations. On the 
death of his mother in 1786, he purchased the 
patrimonial estate at Morrisania from his 
brother. In 1787 he published an address to 
the assembly of Pennsylvania against the aboli- 
tion of the bank of North America. He was 
a delegate from Pennsylvania to the constitu- 
tional convention of 1787, and was one of the 
committee of five appointed to draft the con- 
stitution. Mr. Morris sailed for France on 
business in December, 1788, and while there 
kept a minute diary. In 1791 he was appoint- 
ed by Washington secret agent to England, to 
settle unfulfilled terms of the old treaty; he 
remained in London till September, but effected 


845 


nothing. In 1792 he was appointed minister 
plenipotentiary to France, and served until 
October, 1794, when he was recalled at the 
request of the French government, and tray- 
elled in Europe until the autumn of 1798. In 
1800 he was elected by the legislature of New 
York to fill a vacancy in the United States 
senate, and served in that body till 1808, act- 
ing with the federalists. He spent the latter 
years of his life in retirement. He was a fine . 
orator, and delivered numerous public ad- 
dresses. He was one of the earliest promoters 
of the project for constructing the Erie canal, 
was chairman of the canal commissioners from 
their first appointment in March, 1810, until 
near the end of his life, and in the summer of 
1810 examined the route to Lake Erie. Mor- 
ris’s resemblance to Washington was so close 
that he stood as the model of his form to the 
sculptor Houdon. His life, with selections 
from his correspondence and papers, has been 
written by Jared Sparks (8 vols. 8vo, 1882). 
MORRIS, Lewis, a signer of the Declaration of 
Independence, half brother of the preceding, 
born at Morrisania, Westchester co., N. Y., in 
1726, died there, Jan. 22,1798. He graduated 
at Yale college in 1746, and engaged in farm- 
ing on a very extensive scale on his paternal 
estate at Morrisania. He took strong ground 
against the act of parliament compelling the 
inhabitants of the province of New York to 
furnish with supplies the foreign troops quar- 
tered upon them. He was elected to the con- 
gress of 1775, and was a member of the com- 
mittee on munitions of war. After the close 
of the session he was sent west to detach the 
Indians from the British. In 1776 he resumed 
his seat in congress, and signed the Declaration 
of Independence, although his estate was then 
in the hands of the enemy. For this his manor 
was laid waste and his family expelled. He 
afterward served in the state legislature. 
MORRIS, Philip Richard. See supplement. 
MORRIS, Robert, an American financier, and 
asigner of the Declaration of Independence, 
born in Lancashire, England, Jan. 20, 1734, 
died in Philadelphia, May 8, 1806. _When 13 
years old he came to America, was placed in 
the counting house of Charles Willing, a mer- 
chant in Philadelphia, and in 1754 entered into 
partnership with the son of his employer. 
The firm continued till 1798, and at the begin- 
ning of the revolution was the largest com- 
mercial house in Philadelphia. Mr. Morris 
opposed the stamp act, signed the non-impor- 
tation agreement of 1765, and was elected a 
delegate to the congress of 1775, serving on the 
military and naval committees. On July 1, 
1776, he voted against the Declaration of In- 
dependence, and on the 4th declined to vote at 
all, considering the time premature and inap- 
propriate; but when it was adopted he signed 
it. He was reélected to congress July 20, and 
again in 1777. At this period he was largely 
employed in managing the fiscal affairs of the 
country; and on his personal responsibility he 


_ its enabarrassments. 


846 MORRIS 


frequently borrowed large sums for the use of 
the government. In 1780 Mr. Morris, in con- 
junction with other citizens of Philadelphia, 
established a bank, by means of which 3,000,- 
000 rations of provisions and 300 hogsheads of 
rum were forwarded to the army. On Feb. 20, 
1781, he was unanimously elected superinten- 
dent of finance, and by subsequent resolutions 
of congress was invested with almost the entire 
control of the financial affairs of the govern- 
ment. At this time the treasury was more than 
$2,500,000 in debt, the army was destitute, and 
the credit of the country exhausted. He es- 
tablished the bank of North America, which 
was incorporated by congress Dec. 31, 1781, 
and went into operation Jan. 7, 1782, with a 
capital of $400,000. Pennsylvania and several 
other states soon afterward passed laws to pro- 
tect and facilitate its operations; and it proved 
very eflicient in relieving the government of 
In the beginning of 1781 
he furnished the army with several thousand 
barrels of flour; and in the campaign of that 
year he supplied nearly everything required for 
the expedition against Cornwallis. For this 
purpose he issued his own notes to the amount 
of $1,400,000, which were finally all paid. But, 
harassed by the claims of the public creditors, 
and indignant at the indisposition of the sey- 
eral states to fulfil their engagements, Mr. Mor- 
ris resigned in January 1783, but consented to 
serve until May 1, and did not finally withdraw 
until November, 1784. On May 6, 1784, con- 
gress at his urgent request appointed three 
commissioners to superintend the treasury, and 
a committee to inspect the conduct of the de- 
partment. He published a long and able ac- 
count of his administration. Before he resigned 
he issued a public notice pledging himself per- 
sonally to provide for his engagements in behalf 
of the government. No agent of marine being 
appointed, Mr. Morris, as superintendent of 
finance, was compelled to regulate the affairs 
of the navy until the close of 1784. He aided 
in obtaining the renewal of the charter of the 
bank of North America in 1786, which had 
been annulled by the Pennsylvania legislature 
in 1784. In 1787 he was a member of the con- 
vention which framed the federal constitution ; 
and on Oct. 1, 1788, he was elected a member 
of the first United States senate. He declined 
the post of secretary of the treasury offered 
to him by Washington, and recommended 
Alexander Hamilton as a suitable incumbent. 
In partnership with Gouverneur Morris, in the 
spring of 1784, he sent to Canton the first 
American vessel that ever appeared in that 
port. In his old age he lost his fortune by 
land speculation, and during the latter years 
of his life was confined in prison for debt. 
Mr. Morris was an impressive public speaker 
and an able writer. 

MORRIS, Thomas A., an American bishop, born 
in Kanawha co., Va., April 28, 1794, died in 
Springfield, O., Sept. 2, 1874. He was licensed 
as a preacher of the Methodist Episcopal 


MORRIS DANOE 


church in 1814, and joined the Ohio conference 
in 1816.. He labored in the itinerant ministry 
in Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee till 1834, 
when he was elected first editor of the ‘‘ West- 
ern Christian Advocate” at Cincinnati. In 
1836 he was elected bishop. For several years 
previous to his death, through physical infir- 
mity, he was debarred from active duty. He 
published ‘‘ Sermons,” and ‘Sketches of West- 
ern Methodism” (Cincinnati, 1852). 

MORRIS, William, an English poet, born near 
London in 1834. He is the eldest son of a 
merchant who died in 1844, leaving a large 
estate. He was educated at Forest school in 
Walthamstow, at Marlborough, and at Exeter 
college, Oxford. He studied painting, but did 
not succeed in that profession. In 1858 he 
published a small volume entitled ‘The De- 
fence of Guenevere, and other Poems.” In 
1863, with several partners, he set up in Lon- 
don an establishment for the artistic designing 
and manufacture of various articles, especially 
wall paper, stained glass, tiles, and household 
decorations. At this business Morris has ever 
since wrought as a designer, giving his even- 
ings to the composition of poetry. He pub- 
lished ‘‘ The Life and Death of Jason,” a nar- 
rative poem, in 1867, and ‘‘ The Earthly Para- 
dise”” (4 parts) in 1868-71. The latter poem 
is made up of 24 legendary and romantic tales 
in verse, recited by a company of voyagers 
who had sailed westward from Norway to find 
the earthly paradise. He has also published a 
poem entitled ‘‘ Love is Enough, or the Freeing 
of Pharamond ” (1873), and, in connection with 
Kirikr Magnusson, ‘‘ The Story of the Volsungs 
and the Niblungs,” translated from the Eddas. 

MORRIS DANCE, an old English dance, usually 
performed with castanets, tabors, staves, or 
swords, by young men lightly dressed, with 
bells fixed about their legs, and parti-colored 
ribbons streaming from their arms and shoul- 
ders. It is supposed to be derived from the 
Morisco or Moorish dance still popular in Spain 
under the title of the fandango. It can be 
traced as early as the reign of Henry VIL., 
when it was one of the sports of May day, 
Holy Thursday, the Whitsun ales, weddings, 
and other festivals. In the May game it was 
often performed by persons representing Robin 
Hood, Little John, Friar Tuck, Maid Marian, 
the fool, Tom the piper, and the hobby-horse. 
The May festivities of Robin Hood were chief- 
ly designed for the encouragement of archery, 
and it is not certain that either he or his com- 
panions were prominent in the dance. Maid 
Marian is supposed to represent his mistress, 
but the part was often filled by a boy dressed 
ina girl’s habit, and called queen of the May. 
It was once usual for the queen to be splendidly 
attired, but after the degeneracy of the dance 
the character was personated by a clown, who 
obtained the name of Malkin. Friar Tuck 
maintained his place in the sport till the reign 
of Elizabeth. The fool bore a bauble in his 
hand, and a coxcomb hood with asses’ ears on 


MORRISON 


his head. Tom the piper was a minstrel of the 
superior order, with a complicated red, blue, 
and yellow dress, a sword, a feather in his cap, 
and a tabor, tabor stick, and pipe to distinguish 
his profession. The hobby-horse was designed 
for antics and tricks of legerdemain. During 
the reign of Elizabeth the Puritans checked the 
May pastimes by their invectives against ‘the 
terrestrial furies” which indulged in them. 
Maid Marian and the hobby-horse were re- 
stored by King James’s ‘‘ Book of Sports,” but 
were again degraded during the commonwealth. 
In some parts of England, however, the dance 
continued till very recently, and it existed in 
France in the 18th century.—The fullest ac- 
count of the subject is by Douce, in a disserta- 
tion with his “ Illustrations of Shakespeare.” 

MORRISON, a central county of Minnesota, in- 
tersected by the Mississippi river, and watered 
by several small streams; area, about 1,175 
sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 1,681. The surface con- 
sists chiefly of rolling prairies; the soil is pro- 
ductive. The chief productions in 1870 were 
11,927 bushels of wheat, 9,345 of Indian corn, 
18,987 of oats, 18,668 of potatoes, and 20,005 
Ibs. of butter. The value of live stock was 
$56,116. Capital, Little Falls. 

MORRISON, Robert, an English missionary, 
born in Morpeth, Northumberland, Jan. 5, 
1782, died in Canton, Aug. 1, 1834. He was 
apprenticed to his father as a last maker, but 
commenced the study of theology in 1801, and 
entered the Independent academy at Hoxton 
in 1808. In 1804 he offered his services to 
the London missionary society, and in 1805 


removed to the mission college at Gosport,’ 


where he began the study of Chinese. In 


MORRISTOWN 847 


the winter of 1807 he was ordained, and in 
the following autumn went to Oanton, being 
the first Protestant missionary to China. In 
1808 he was appointed translator to the East 
India company’s factory at Canton, and began 
translating the Scriptures into Chinese. The 
New Testament appeared in 1814, and the Old 
Testament, executed with the assistance of Mr. 
Milne, in 1818. In November of the latter 
year Mr. Morrison caused the foundation of an 
Anglo-Chinese college at Malacca. In 1823-6 
he was in England, and became a member of 
the royal society. His Chinese grammar (4to, 
Serampore, 1815) and his Chinese dictionary 
(5 vols., Macao, 1815-’28) were his chief ori- 
ginal works. His ‘‘ Memoirs” were compiled 
by his widow (2 vols., London, 1839). 
MORRISTOWN, a post village in Morris town- 
ship, capital of Morris co., New Jersey, on the 
Whippany river and the Morris and Essex 
division of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and 
Western railroad, 48 m. N. N. E. of Trenton, 
and 82 m. by rail W. by N. of New York; 
pop.. about 5,000. It is built on an elevated 
plain commanding beautiful views of the sur- 
rounding country. The streets are regularly 
laid out, the houses neatly built, and there is 
a public square in the centre, in which is a 
soldiers’ monument. It is the principal mar- 
ket for the surrounding country, which is 
rich in agricultural products, and it contains 
a handsome court house, two national banks, 
manufactures of iron, &c., six hotels, five 
schools, three weekly newspapers, and eight 
churches. It is a favorite summer residence 
for citizens of New York. Morristown is no- 
ted as having been the headquarters of the 


SA 


Ah. 


bapa th ‘EuORH 


American army on two occasions during the 

revolutionary war, in the winters of 1776—7 

and 1779~80. The remains of an old fort are 

still visible in the rear of the court house. 

.The house occupied by Gen. Washington is 

now the property of the state. About 3 m. 
575 VOL, xI.—d4 


se oa ie 
New Jersey State Asylum for the Insane. 


from the village a new state insane asylum, 
one of the largest and best arranged in the 
country, is in course of erection. It is to be 


‘completed early in 1875, and with site and 


equipments will cost about $2,000,000. The 
grounds embrace 408 acres. The entire length 


848 MORROW 


of the building is 1,243 ft., and the depth, 
from the front of the main centre to the rear 
of the extreme wing, 542 ft. The wings on 
the right and left of the centre building are 
three stories high, except those at the extreme 
ends, which are two stories. It is built princi- 
pally of light granite quarried on the grounds, 
in ornamental style, and will accommodate 
about 1,000 patients. 

MORROW, a central county of Ohio, drained 
by the head streams of Vernon and Olentangy 
or Whetstone rivers; area, 370 sq. m.; pop. 
in 1870, 18,583. The surface is undulating 
and the soil highly fertile. It is intersected 
by the Oleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati, and 
Indianapolis railroad. A large quarry of free- 
stone is worked near the capital. The chief 
productions in 1870 were 207,714 bushels ‘of 
wheat, 615,679 of Indian corn, 343,300 of oats, 
92,452 of potatoes, 20,589 of flax seed, 31,242 
Ibs. of flax, 67,077 of maple sugar, 532,348 of 
wool, 652,684 of butter, and 38,106 tons of 
hay. There were 7,985 horses, 16,040 cattle, 
118,291 sheep, and 16,820 swine; 7 manufac- 
tories of carriages and wagons, 1 of dressed 
flax, 1 woollen factory, 3 flour mills, and 14 
saw mills. Capital, Mount Gilead. 

MORROW, Jeremiah, an American statesman, 
born in Gettysburg, Pa., Oct. 6, 1771, died in 
Warren co., Ohio, March 22, 1852. In 1795 
he removed to the Northwest territory, and 
in 1802 was elected a delegate to the con- 
vention for forming the state constitution of 
Ohio. He was the first representative in con- 
gress from that state, serving from 1803 to 
1813, and was United States senator from 1813 
to 1819. From 1822 to 1826 he was governor, 
then canal commissioner, and from 1841 to 
1848 was again a member of congress. 

MORSE. See Watrvs. 

MORSE, Edward §., an American naturalist, 
born in Portland, Me., June 18, 1838. He 
prepared himself for a mechanical engineer, 
and spent several years as a draughtsman in 
the Portland locomotive works, during which 
time he studied zodlogy. In 1859 he became 
connected withthe museum of natural history 
at Cambridge under Agassiz, and in 1867 with 
the Boston society of natural history as curator 
of mollusca; and he was one of the first officers 
of the Peabody academy at Salem, where he 
has long resided. In 1868 he was made a 
fellow of the American academy of arts and 
sciences, and in 1871 received the degree of 
Ph. D. from Bowdoin college, where until 
1873 he was professor of comparative anatomy 
and zodlogy. In 1872 he was elected lecturer 
on zoédlogy at Harvard college. Prof. Morse 
has been very successful as a public lecturer 
on natural history. His principal papers have 
been on the ‘ Terrestrial Pulmonifera of 
Maine,” “A Classification of Mollusca, based 
on the Principle of Cephalization,” ‘On the 
Land Slides in the Vicinity of Portland, Me.,” 


MORSE 


and *“*On the Embryology of Terebratulina,” 
which have appeared in the publications of the 
Boston society of natural history, the Portland 
society of natural history, the Essex institute 
at Salem, and the New York lyceum of natural 
history. He has endeavored to show that the 
relations of the brachiopoda are with the che- 
topod worms, and not with the mollusca, where 
they have heretofore been placed. 

MORSE. I. Jedidiah, an American geogra- 
pher, born in Woodstock, Conn., Aug. 23, 
1761, died in New Haven, June 9, 1826. He 
graduated at Yale college in 1783, was licensed 
to preach in 1785, in 1786 was tutor in Yale 
college, and in 1789 was installed as pastor 
of the first Congregational church in Charles- 
town, Mass. In 1794 he received the honorary 
degree of D. D. from the university of Edin- 
burgh. He prepared in 1784, at New Haven, 
a small 18mo geography, which was the first 
work of the kind published in America. This 
was followed by larger geographies and gaz- 
etteers of the United States from materials 
obtained by travelling and correspondence. 
Jeremy Belknap, the historian of New Hamp- 
shire, Thomas Hutchins, geographer general 
of the United States, Ebenezer Hazard, and 
others, who had undertaken a similar task, 
contributed to his use the materials they had 
gathered; and for 30 years he remained with- 
out an important competitor in this depart- 
ment. Reprints of the early editions of his 
larger geographical works were published in 
Great Britain, and French and German trans- 
lations in Paris and Hamburg. Much of Dr. 
Morse’s life was spent in religious controversy, 
in maintaining the orthodox faith in the New 
England churches against Unitarianism. He 
engaged actively in 1804 in the enlargement 
of the Massachusetts general association of 
Congregational ministers; in 1805 he estab- 
lished the ‘‘ Panoplist,” a monthly religious 
periodical, of which he was sole editor for 
five years; he was prominent in founding the 
Andover theological seminary, and in effect- 
ing the union between the Hopkinsians and 
other Calvinists on their common symbol, the 
assembly’s catechism, the articles of which 
union were signed in his own study in Charles- 
town, in the night of Nov. 80, 1807, by 
himself, Dr. Samuel Spring, and Dr. Eliphalet 
Pearson; and he participated in the organiza- 
tion of the Park street church in Boston in 
1808. His persevering opposition to the so- 
called “liberal” views of religion brought on 
him a persecution which deeply affected his 
naturally delicate health; and in 1820 he re- 
signed his pastoral charge. In that year he 
was commissioned by the government to visit 
the Indian tribes on our N. W. borders; and 
the record of his labors was published in 1822 
under the title of ‘‘ Indian Report,” &c. Dr. 
Morse also published ‘‘A Compendious His- 
tory of New England,” in conjunction with 


‘On the Tarsus and Carpus of Birds,” ‘On | Elijah Parish, D. D. (Cambridge, 1804; 8d ed.” . 


the Systematic Position of the Brachiopoda,” 


enlarged, 1820); ‘‘ Annals of the American 


MORSE 


Revolution” (Hartford, 1824); and 25 ser- 
mons and addresses on special occasions. His 
life has been written by the Rev. William B. 
Sprague, D. D. (New York, 1874). If. Sam- 
uel Finley Breese, an American artist and in- 
ventor, eldest son of the preceding, born in 
Charlestown, Mass., April 27, 1791, died in 
New York, April 2, 1872. He graduated at 
Yale college in 1810, and went to England 
with Washington Allston in 1811 to study 
painting under his tuition and that of Benja- 
min West. In 1813 he received the gold med- 
al of the Adelphi society of arts for an origi- 
nal model of a “Dying Hercules,” his first 
attempt at sculpture. He returned to the Uni- 
ted States in 1815, practised his profession in 
Boston and in Charleston, §. C., and removed 
to New York in 1822. In 1824—’5, in connec- 
tion with other artists, he organized a drawing 
association, which resulted in the establish- 
ment in 1826 of the ‘‘ National Academy of 
_.Design.” Morse was chosen its first presi- 
dent, and was continued in that oflice for 16 
years. In 1829 he visited Europe a second 
time to complete his studies in art, residing for 
more than three years in the principal cities 
of the continent. During his absence abroad 
he was elected professor of the literature of 
. the arts of design in the university of the city 
of New York; and in 1885 he delivered a 
course of lectures before that institution on 
the affinity of those arts. While in college Mr. 
Morse had paid special attention to chemistry 
and natural philosophy; and these sciences 
at length became a dominant pursuit with 
him. In 1826-7 Prof. J. Freeman Dana had 
been a colleague lecturer in the city of New 
York with Mr. Morse at the Athenszeum, the 
former lecturing upon electro-magnetism and 
the latter upon the fine arts. They were inti- 
mate friends, and in their conversations the 
subject of electro-magnetism was made familiar 
to the mind of Morse. The electro-magnet on 
Sturgeon’s principle (the first ever shown in 
the United States) was exhibited and explained 
in Dana’s lectures, and at a later date, by gift 
of Prof. Torrey, came into Morse’s possession. 
Dana even then suggested by his spiral volute 
coil the electro-magnet of the present day; 
this was the magnet in use when Morse re- 
turned from’ Europe, and it is now used in 
every Morse telegraph throughout both hemi- 
spheres. He embarked in the autumn of 1832 
at Havre on board the packet ship Sully; and 
in a casual conversation with some of the pas- 
sengers on the then recent discovery in France 
of the means of obtaining the electric spark 
from the magnet, showing the identity or re- 
lation of electricity and magnetism, Morse’s 
mind conceived not merely the idea of an elec- 
tric telegraph, but of an electro-magnetic and 
chemical recording telegraph, substantially and 
essentially as it now exists. The testimony to 
the paternity of the idea in Morse’s mind and 
to his acts and drawings on board the ship is 
ample.’ His own testimony is corroborated 


849 


by all the passengers (with a single exception) 
who testified with him before the courts, and 
was considered conclusive by the judges; and 
the year 1832 is therefore fixed as the date of 
Morse’s conception, and realization also, so far 
as drawings could embody the conception, of 
the telegraph system which now bears his 
name. (See Jackson, Cuartes Tuomas.) A 
part of the apparatus was constructed in New 
York before the close of 1832, but cireumstan- 
ces prevented its completion before 1835, when 
he put up a half mile of wire in coils around a 
room and exhibited a telegraph in operation. 
In September, 1837, he exhibited the operation 
of his system in the university of New York. 
From the greater publicity of this exhibition, 
the date of Morse’s invention has erroneously 
been fixed in the autumn of 1837, whereas he 
operated successfully with the first single in- 
strument in November, 1835. In 1837 he filed 
his caveat in the patent office in Washington, 
and asked congress for aid to build an experi- 
mental line from that city to Baltimore. The 
house committee on commerce gave a favorable 
report, but the session closed without action, 
and Morse went to Europe in hope of interest- 
ing foreign governments in his invention. The 
result was a refusal to grant him letters patent 
in England, and the obtaining of a useless brevet 
@invention in France, and no exclusive privi- 
lege in any other country. He returned home 
to struggle again with scanty means for four 
years, during which he continued his appeals 
at Washington. His hope had expired on the 
last evening of the session of 1842-8; but in 
the morning, March 4, he was startled with the 
announcement that the desired aid of congress 
had been obtained in the midnight hour of the 
expiring session, and $30,000 placed at his dis- 
posal for his experimental essay between Wash- 
ington and Baltimore. In 1844 the work was 
completed, and demonstrated to the world the 
practicability and the utility of the Morse sys- 
tem of electro-magnetic telegraphs. (See TEL- 
EGRAPH.) Violations of his patents and the 
assumption of his rights by rival companies 
involved him in a long series of lawsuits; but 
these were eventually decided in his favor, and 
he reaped the benefits to which his invention 
entitled him. It is doubtful if any American 
ever before received so many marks of distinc- 
tion. In 1846 Yale college conferred on him 
the degree of LL. D.; and in 1848 he received 
the decoration of the Nishan Iftikar in dia- 
monds from the sultan of Turkey. Gold med- 
als of scientific merit were awarded him by the 
king of Prussia, the king of Wirtemberg, and 
the emperor of Austria. In 1856 he received 
from the emperor of the French the cross of 
chevalier of the legion of honor; in 1857 from 
the king of Denmark the cross of knight com- 
mander of the first class of the Danebrog; in 
1858 from the queen of Spain the cross of 
knight commander of the order of Isabella the 
Catholic; from the king of Italy the cross of 
the order of SS. Maurice and Lazarus, and from 


850 MORSE 

the king of Portugal the cross of the order 
of the tower and sword. In 1856 the tele- 
graph companies of Great Britain gave him 
a banquet in London; and in Paris, in 1858, 
another banquet was given him by Americans, 
numbering more than 100, and representing 
almost every state in the Union. In the latter 
year, at the instance of Napoleon III., repre- 
sentatives of France, Russia, Sweden, Belgium, 
Holland, Austria, Sardinia, Tuscany, the Holy 
See, and Turkey met in Paris to decide upon a 
collective testimonial to him, and the result 
was a vote of 400,000 francs as a personal re- 
ward for his labors. On Dec. 29, 1868, the 
citizens of New York gave him a public dinner. 
In June, 1871, a bronze statue of him, erected 
by the voluntary contributions of telegraph 
-employees, was formally unveiled in the Cen- 
tral park, New York, by William Cullen Bry- 
ant; and in the evening a reception was held 
in the academy of music, at which Prof. Morse 
telegraphed, by means of one of the instruments 
used on the original line between New York 
and Washington, a message of greeting to all 
the cities of the continent. The last public 
service which he performed was the unveiling of 
the statue of Franklin in Printing House square, 
New York, on Jan. 17, 1872. Submarine te- 
legraphy also originated with Prof. Morse, who 
laid the first submarine lines in New York har- 
bor in the autumn of 1842, and received at 
the time from the American institute a gold 
medal for that achievement. In a letter from 
Mr. Morse to the secretary of the United States 
treasury, dated Aug. 10, 1848, it is believed 
occurs the first suggestion of the project of the 
Atlantic telegraph. While in Paris in 1839 he 
made the acquaintance of Daguerre, and from 
drawings furnished him by the latter he con- 
structed on his return the first daguerreotype 
apparatus and took the first sun pictures ever 
taken in America. He was the author of vari- 
ous scientific and literary papers. In 1829 he 
published a collection of the poems of Lucretia 
Maria Davidson, with a memoir; and in 1885 
2, volume entitled ‘‘ Foreign Conspiracy against 
the Liberties of the United States.” A series 
of papers of reminiscences of his early strug- 
gles in behalf of the telegraph appeared in 
1868. His life has been written by the Rey. 
S. Irenzus Prime, D. D. (New York, 1875). 
Iti. Sidney Edwards, an American journalist and 
geographer, brother of the preceding, born in 
Charlestown, Mass., Feb. 7, 1794, died in New 
York, Dec. 23, 1871. He graduated at Yale 
college in 1811. In 1812—13 he wrote a series 
of articles for the Boston ‘“‘ Columbian Centi- 
nel,” illustrating the danger to the American 
Union from an undue multiplication of new 
states in the south, and showing that it would 
give to a sectional minority the control of the 
government. In 1815, while studying at the 
law school in Litchfield, Conn., he was invited 
to establish a weekly newspaper in Boston, 
which resulted in the issue of the ‘ Boston 
Recorder,” the prototype of that class of jour- 


MORTGAGE 


nals now so widely known as “‘ religious news- 
papers.” He was the sole editor and proprietor 
during the 15 months in which he was con- 
nected with it. In 1817 Mr. Morse, in connec- 
tion with his elder brother, invented and pat- 
ented the flexible piston pump. In 1820 he 
published a 12mo school geography, and in 
1822 an 8vo geography, which was used as a 
text book in several American colleges. In 
May, 1823, in connection with his younger 
brother Richard C. Morse, he established the 
‘‘ New York Observer,” now the oldest weekly 
newspaper in that city, and the oldest religious 
newspaper in the state of New York. In 1834 
he conceived the idea of a new mode of engra- 
ving, ‘applicable especially to the production of 
plates for printing maps in connection with 
type under the common printing press; and 
after five years of experiment he succeeded in 
June, 1839, with the aid of his assistant, Henry 
A. Munson, in producing by the new art, which 
he named cerography, superior map prints. - 
One of the first applications of cerography was 
to the illustration of a school geography writ- 
ten by the inventor, of which more than 100,000 
copies were printed and disposed of during the 
first year. The art of cerography has never 
been patented, nor has the process been revealed 
to the public. Mr. Morse continued as senior 
editor and proprietor of the ‘‘ Observer” till 
1858, when he disposed of his interest to the 
Rey. Dr. 5. I. Prime, his associate since 1840. 
The last years of his life were devoted to the 
invention of the bathometer for rapid explora- 
tion of the depths of the sea, and he was en- 
gaged in an essay on the subject at the time 
of his death. 

MORTAR. See Arritiery, and Cannon. 

MORTGAGE (Fr. mort, dead, and gage, pledge; 
Lat. vadium mortuum). Kent defines a mort- 
gage to be ‘‘the conveyance of an estate by 
way of pledge for the security of a debt, to be- 
come void on payment of it.” The old law 
writers Glanvil and Spelman say that mort- 
gage is so called because, between the time of 
making the conveyance and the time appointed 
for payment of the debt, the creditor by the 
old law received the rents of the estate to his 
own use, so that these rents were dead or lost 
to the mortgageor. Littleton gives another 


derivation of the word, viz.: ‘If the feoffor 


doth not pay the sum due at the day limited, 
then the land which is put in pledge upon con- 
dition for the payment of the money is taken 
from him, ‘and so dead to him upon condition.” 
This‘ derivation is the one usually adopted; 
though the former has been sometimes pre- 
ferred, not only because the idea which it con- 
veys of the mortgage, or vadium mortuum, is 
directly opposed to that of the vadium vivum, 
an old form of security no longer in use, in 
which the accruing rents were applied to di- 
minish the debt, but.also because it illustrates 
the intention which mortgages were first prob- 
ably designed to effect. For in the times 
when the exaction of interest was esteemed 


MORTGAGE 


usurious and was prohibited by the law, this 
conditional alienation was devised, not at all 
with the design of depriving the mortgageor 
of his property if he failed to repay the money, 
but that the mortgagee might in the mean 
time receive the rents to his own use in lieu of 
what he would otherwise have received as in- 
terest.—A mortgage was generally created by 
a conveyance of lands from a debtor to’ his 
creditor, with a condition that if a sum of 
money were paid on a certain day the convey- 
ance should be void, and the debtor might have 
his former estate. But a mortgage might also 
be made by an absolute deed of conveyance 
and a defeasance back to the grantor. This 
defeasance was a separate instrument defeat- 
ing the principal deed by making it void if the 
condition was performed. The former mode 
was by far the more usual. The maxims of 
the common law were strictly applied to this 
kind of conveyance; and if the money were 
not paid at the very day specified in the deed, 
the lands were absolutely forfeited, nor would 
a subsequent tender of the money avail the 
debtor. But the mortgaged lands were plainly 
only intended as security for the payment of 
the money borrowed; and large estates were 
sometimes pledged for the payment of small 
debts. <A strict forfeiture in such cases was 
not only inconsistent with the plain principles 
of justice, but was contrary to the spirit of 
the contract. For these reasons the court of 
chancery interposed, and by an equitable con- 
struction mitigated the severity of the common 
law, by holding the condition to be in the na- 
ture of a penalty, against which a just relief 
should be given. This just relief consisted in 
allowing the debtor, if within a reasonable 
time he paid the debt with interest, to call on 
his creditor for a reconveyance of the lands. 
But on the other hand, chancery gave to the 
mortgagee, after reasonable indulgence to the 
mortgageor, the right to call upon the latter 
for the payment of the debt, or in default 
thereof to be for ever foreclosed or excluded 
from any further right of redemption. The 
right of redemption is considered in equity to 
be an inseparable incident of every mortgage, 
and no executory agreement that it shall be 
forfeited, lost, or abridged on failure to per- 
form the condition of the mortgage will be 
sanctioned. From mortgages, however, in re- 
‘spect to restrictions of the equity of redemp- 
tion, must be distinguished sales with agree- 
ments to repurchase, or, as they are usually 
termed, conditional sales. In their forms the 
two transactions are often very similar, and it 
is difficult to distinguish them. The difference 
is, that one is only security for a debt, while 
the other is a regular purchase, for a price paid 
or to be paid, to become absolute on a particu- 
lar event. Since this complete recognition of 
the equity of redemption’ by the courts, the 
mortgage has gradually ceased to be looked up- 
on as a conveyance of an estate; and though 


851 


as owner subject to alien on the land for the 
amount of the mortgage debt, and he may sell 
or mortgage again subject to such lien; the 
land may be taken on execution against him; 
it is subject to dower and curtesy, and on his 
death passes to his heirs. On the other hand, 
the interest of the mortgagee is personalty, and 
may be sold as such, and the mortgage lien 
passes on a sale of the debt whether formally 
assigned or not. One important incident usu- 
ally pertaining to ownership, however, still 
attaches to the mortgagee’s right; namely, 
that he may demand and obtain possession 
even before his debt is due. This right, how- 
ever, is taken away by statute in some of the 
United States. The lien of the mortgagee is 
terminated by payment, without any formal 
discharge, though an instrument to go upon 
the record of the mortgage as evidence of the 
fact is usually required and given. A tender of 
the amount due will also discharge the lien, 
even though not accepted.—The equity of re- 
demption can only be cut off by some species 
of foreclosure. Possession of the mortgagee 
may ripen into foreclosure, if he occupies the 
land for a period after the debt is due equal to 
the time required at law to bar a right to lands 
under the statute of limitations, and in some 
states for a much shorter period after formal 
entry as provided. If the mortgage, as is usu- 
ally the case, contains an authority to the mort- 
gagee to sell the land to satisfy the debt, he 
may foreclose by the exercise of this power 
at public auction, without resort to suit. Stat-. 
utes regulate the process, and usually require 
a previous published notice for several weeks 
or months. The most usual process of fore- 
closure is by suit in equity, or analogous pro- 
ceedings, in which decree or judgment will be 
entered that unless payment be made by a 
short day named, the land shall be sold by the 
proper officer of the court for its satisfaction. 
Sometimes, though only under peculiar circum- 
stances, a decree for strict foreclosure is made; 
that is, it is decreed that unless payment is 
made by the day fixed the equity of redemp- 
tion shall be barred, and the title of the mort- 
gagee be established. Usually the mortgage 
secures the personal obligation of the mort- 
gageor, evidenced by bond, note, or other form 
of promise; but sometimes it is given without, 
the mortgageor simply conveying the land with 
a condition that the conveyance shall be void 
if a certain sum shall be paid at a time named. 
Such a mortgage leaves it to his option to pay 
or not, and the mortgagee’s remedy is confined 
to the land if he fails to pay. But when a 
mortgage is given to secure a personal obliga- 
tion, the mortgagee will pursue his remedy by 
suit on such obligation or by foreclosure, as he 
may prefer; and if he elects the latter process 
and fails to realize sufficient to satisfy the debt, 
he may then resort to the personal responsibil- 
ity of the mortgageor for the deficiency. It 
should be added that mortgages may be condi- 


it still is so in form, the mortgageor is regarded | tioned for the performance of any other legal 


852 MORTIER 


promise besides the payment of money; but | 28, 1835. 


MORTIMER 


He served as captain under Du- 


the rules above given are equally applicable | mouriez in 1791, was made adjutant general 


to all cases.—Something may here be said of 
equitable liens in the nature of mortgages. In 
England, where the borrower of money de- 
posits with the lender the title deeds of an 
estate, he is regarded as charging the estate in 
equity with a lien for the security of the loan, 
and this is called an equitable mortgage, be- 
cause the courts of equity take notice of and 
enforce it, though it is not recognized at law. 
This principle is unknown in the law of the 
United States. But the similar lien of the 
vendor of lands for unpaid purchase money is 
recognized both here and in England. (See 
Lren.)—Many of the rules applicable to mort- 
gages of real property are involved also in 
those of personal property, but the difference 
in the subjects introduces some differences into 
the law. Any personal property, and any 
profits arising out of personal chattels, may 
be the subjects of mortgage. But the articles 
must be such that they are capable of being 
specifically designated and identified by written 
description. The mortgagee has the legal title 
subject to be defeated by redemption, and, un- 
less otherwise agreed, the right to the imme- 
diate possession. As between the parties, the 
mortgage is valid without a change of pos- 
session; but as to subsequent purchasers and 
creditors, the continued possession by the mort- 
gageor is prima facie but not conclusive evi- 
dence of fraud; the burden of proof rests on 
the mortgagee to explain the transaction, and 
it is for the jury to decide upon the facts. The 
mortgage must be generally recorded upon a 
public register ; but a full actual notice, such 
a notice, says the court in Massachusetts, as 
would have been given by the instrument of 
mortgage, may preclude a subsequent purchaser 
or creditor from availing himself of the omis- 
sion of registration. Under the usual statutory 
provisions the mortgage must be recorded in 
the town where the mortgageor lives. In these 
mortgages the property passes so completely 
to the creditor that, unlike the equity of re- 
demption in mortgages of real property, it 
cannot be seized on execution or attached as 
the property of a mortgageor. This rule is 
modified by statute in some of the states. As 
to assignment and extinguishment of the mort- 
gage by payment, the same general principles 
apply as to mortgages of real property. The 
same remark may be made of the distinction 
between mortgages and conditional sales. The 
legal doctrine respecting the mortgagee’s inter- 
est being strictly maintained, a failure to pay 
the debt. at the time appointed vests in him an 
absolute title, unless where the statutes of the 
state in which the transaction took place pro- 
vide an equity of redemption. In other cases, 
however, this right may be given by courts 
having equitable powers. 

MORTIER, Edouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph, duke 
of Treviso, a French soldier, born at Cateau- 
Cambrésis, Feb. 18, 1768, died in Paris, July 


for his bravery at Hondschoote in 1793, and 
became brigadier after the battle of Altenkir- 
chen, June 4, 1796. In this capacity he served 
in 1799 on the Danube, and in Switzerland 
under Masséna. After the 18th Brumaire Bo- 
naparte made him commander of the 15th and 
16th military districts, sent him to Hanover, 
which he conquered in 1803, put him at the 
head of the artillery of the consular guard, 
and in 1804 made him marshal of the empire. 
He led a division in the campaign against Aus- 
tria in 1805; subdued Hesse-Cassel and Ham- 
burg in 1806; worsted the Swedes in several 
encounters, and occupied Pomerania with the 
exception of Stralsund. In 1807 he assisted in 
the campaign against Prussia, fought at Fried- 
land, and received the title of duke of Treviso. 
As commander of the 5th corps of the army in 
Spain, he participated in the siege of Saragossa, 
won a victory at Ocafia, Nov. 19, 1809, laid 
siege to Cadiz, and defeated the Spaniards on 
the Gévora in 1811. In the expedition against 
Russia in 1812, he commanded the junior im- 
perial guard. He figured in nearly all the bat- 
tles fought in 1813; and on March 380, 1814, 
with Marmont, he took part in the defence 
of Paris. Having adhered to the Bourbons, 
he was named peer of France during the first 
restoration, but joined Napoleon on his return 
from Elba. On the second restoration, his 
refusal to sit among the judges of Marshal Ney 
lost him his peerage. In 1816 he was elected 
to the chamber of deputies, and in 1819 was 
restored to his seat in the upper chamber, 
where he voted with the liberal party. Under 
Louis Philippe he was ambassador to Russia 
in 1831, and prime minister in 1834, with the 
portfolio of the war department. He was 
killed by Fieschi’s “infernal machine,” while 
on horseback by the side of Louis Philippe. 
MORTIFICATION. See GANGRENE. 
MORTIMER, Roger, baron of Wigmore, ear] of 
March, the favorite of Isabella, queen consort 
of Edward II. of England, executed at Smith- 
field, Nov. 29, 1330. He was convicted of 
treason in the reign of Edward II. and par- 
doned, but afterward took part in the rebellion 
of the earl of Lancaster, and was made prison- 
er at Boroughbridge in 1322. His life was 
again spared, and having escaped from the 
tower, he went to France and entered the ser- 
vice of Charles of Valois. At Paris in 1325 
he met Queen Isabella, who had been sent 
thither by Edward to negotiate a treaty. The 
queen entered into guilty relations with him, 
and, having secured the person of her young 
son, planned with Mortimer and the other 
leaders of. the barons to secure possession of 
the kingdom. Mortimer went with her to 
England in 1826. The king was deposed, and 
his son Edward III. was proclaimed in his 
stead, and for some years Isabella and her para- 
mour governed the realm in the name of the 
young prince... A council of regency had been 


MORTMAIN 


appointed, but Mortimer superseded them ail. 
He procured the death of the dethroned mon- 
arch in his prison, and obtained the title of earl 
of March and valuable confiscated estates. But 
the scandal of his life was denounced from the 
pulpit; the nobles wearied of his arrogance, 
and Edward finally resolved to take the scep- 
tre into his own hands. While the queen and 
Mortimer in 1330 were lodged in Nottingham 
castle during the session of parliament in 
that town, the king and Lord Montacute with 
attendants entered by night and carried off 
the earl. The king summoned a new parlia- 
ment to meet him at Westminster, and by it on 
Nov. 26 Mortimer was condemned as a traitor. 

MORTMAIN (Fr. mort, dead, and main, hand; 
Lat. mortua manus). Under the system of feu- 
dal tenures, the lords of estates enjoyed cer- 
tain privileges on the death or change of their 
vassals. When the tenant died, leaving only 
an infant heir, the lord resumed the fee and re- 
tained it during the heir’s minority, in order to 
maintain out of its rents and profits a person 
capable of rendering the services due for the 
lands. This was the lord’s wardship. Mar- 
riage, in the sense of the feudal law, consisted 
in his right to exact a price for consenting to 
the marriage of his ward. Relief was another 
incident of feudal tenure; it was a fine or com- 
position paid by the heir for the privilege of 
succeeding to the estate, which had revested in 
the lord on the death of his immediate grantor. 
These and similar profits accrued to the lords 
on the death of their feudatories. It is the dis- 
tinctive quality of a corporation that it never 
dies, and lands held by such bodies produced 
none of these feudal fruits; but, in the lan- 
guage of Sir Edward Coke, ‘‘the lands were 
said to come to dead hands as to the lords.” 
The mischief existed even before the conquest. 
Within two centuries after it, says Blackstone, 
the busy acquisition of landed estates by the 
ecclesiastical corporations had diminished per- 
ceptibly the feudal services ordained for the 
defence of the realm; the circulation of proper- 
ty from man to man began to stagnate, and the 
lords were curtailed of their wardships, reliefs, 
escheats, and the like fruits of their seigniories. 
The evil attracted the attention of the legisla- 
ture, and it began to impose restraints on the 
capacity of corporations aggregate to acquire 
lands. The earliest of the laws made with this 
intent is contained in Magna Charta. The 
36th chapter of that instrument declares that 
‘‘it shall not be lawful for any one to give his 
lands to any religious house, and to take the 
same land again to hold of the same house, &c., 
upon pain that the gift shall be void and the 
land shall accrue to the lord of the fee.” This 
act destroyed the power to take by gift; for this 
mode had been adopted by the ecclesiastics to 
evade the necessity of asking the king’s license, 
which they must by the existing laws have 
done if they took the lands by purchase. The 
religious houses next attempted to accomplish 
their object by buying lands that were bona 


853 


Jide holden of themselves, as lords of the fee, 
or by taking long leases of the desired estates. 
This is the origin of those terms for 1,000 
years or more, sometimes met with in convey- 
ances. This evasion of forfeiture produced 
the statute de religiosis (7 Edward I.), which 
provides that ‘‘no persons, religious or other 
whatsoever, shall buy or sell any lands or 
tenements, or under the color of any gift or 
lease or any other title whatsoever receive the 
same, or by any other craft shall appropriate 
lands in any wise to come into mortmain, upon 
pain of forfeiture, at the election of the lords 
of the fee.” But their shrewd lawyers con- 
trived still to relieve the clergy from the em- 
barrassments of these acts. They observed 
that the statutes thus far extended only to gifts 
and conveyances between the parties. They 
invented what afterward became one of the 
most approved assurances in the English con- 
veyancing, namely, a recovery; that is, feign- 
ing title to the land which was intended to be 
conveyed, they brought an action to recover 
it. By collusion with the tenant no defence 
was made, and it was the necessary legal con- 
sequence that the land was adjudged to the 
demandants. This contrivance was defeated 
by the statute of Westminster the second, 13 
Edward IJ. Incapacitated now to take either 
by gift, purchase, lease, or recovery, and de- 
spairing of holding any legal estate in lands, 
the ecclesiastics resorted to the distinction, 
familiar to the Roman law, between the right 
to the rents and profits of land and the right 
of property in the land itself. They therefore 
procured a conveyance to a third person and 
his heirs, with the understanding that the re- 
ligious houses and their successors should have 
the beneficial enjoyment of the estate. This 
usufructuary interest, as distinguished from 
the legal ownership, was denominated the use, 
and founded the whole doctrine of uses and 
trusts in the present law. Once more the 
legislature interposed, and by the statute 15 
Richard II. declared that no conveyance of 
lands or other possessions should be made to 
the use or profit of any spiritual persons, with- 
out the license of the king and the mesne lords, 
upon pain of forfeiture. Though these statutes 
of mortmain were generally directed against 
the ecclesiastical corporations, civil corpora- 
tions were equally capable of the mischiefs 
which they contemplated; indeed, they are 
within the letter of the acts 7 Edward I. and 
15 Richard II. The effect of these statutes 
was to make all Jands conveyed in mortmain 
forfeitable, if the lords or the king elected. 
But a waiver of this right of forfeiture was 
always a sufficient license to corporations to 
hold lands. In process of time, as the mesne 
seigniories declined, and the rights of interme- 
diate lords could be hardly traced, the license 
of the king as lord paramount was esteemed 
sufficient. It was therefore provided by the 
statute 7 and 8 William III., c. 97, that for the 
future the crown might, in its discretion, grant 


854 


a license to take or alien in mortmain, of 
whomsoever the estates might be holden. The 
act 9 George II. is now the leading English 
statute of mortmain. It forbids the gift of 
money or lands to charitable uses, except by 
deed operating immediately, and without pow- 
er of revocation, formally executed and en- 
rolled in chancery at least six months before 
the donor’s death. In favor of churches, col- 
leges, and hospitals, some modifications of the 
statute have been admitted.—In the United 
States the English mortmain laws have not in 
general been adopted or recognized, except in 
Pennsylvania; and in that state, by an act 
passed in 1855, bequests, devises, or convey- 
ances for religious or charitable uses may be 
valid if made by deed or will at least one cal- 
endar month before the death of the testator 
oralienor. In New York, by a statute enacted 
in 1848, gifts to charitable corporations by will 
must be made two months before the testator’s 
death; and by another enacted in 1860 any 
person having a husband, wife, child, or parent 
is precluded from bequeathing more than one 
half his clear estate to any society, association, 
or corporation. In Georgia in like manner a 
gift to charitable uses by will is made void, if 
the testator has a wife or issue living, unless 
made 90 days before his death. In other states 
the checks to the acquisition of real estate by 
corporate bodies are such as are imposed by 
their charters, or by the general laws under 
which they have become incorporated. 
MORTON, a central county of Dakota, bound- 
ed E. by the Missouri river, recently formed, 
and not included in the census of 1870; area, 
about 1,100 sq. m. It is intersected by the 
Heart and Cannon Ball rivers. The Northern 
Pacific railroad is to pass through it. The 
surface consists chiefly of undulating prairies. 
MORTON, James Donglas, earl of, regent of 
Scotland, born in Dalkeith in 1580, executed 
in Edinburgh, June 3, 1581. He was a younger 
son of the great family of Angus, but in 1553 
succeeded to the estates and title of his father- 
in-law, the third earl of Morton. In 1561 he 
became privy councillor, and in the beginning 
of 1563 was appointed lord high chancellor. 
He participated in the murder of Rizzio, and 
fled to England, but was pardoned. Although 
cognizant of the plot to destroy Darnley, he 
seems to have had no hand in its execution. 
After the forced abdication of Mary which fol- 
lowed the death of Darnley, and the corona- 
tion of her infant son, Morton was reinstated 
in his office of lord chancellor. He supported 
the interests of the earl of Murray, the regent, 
against those of the queen; and to him is es- 
pecially due the result of the battle of Lang- 
side, in consequence of which Mary determined 
to fly to England. In the violent contentions 
which divided Scotland after the assassination 
of Murray, Morton became the real head of the 
Protestant party, and was a leader of that por- 
tion of the people who espoused the king’s 
cause as opposed to the queen’s. The earl of 


MORTON 


Mar, who had succeeded the earl of Lennox as 
regent, having died in October, 1572, Morton 
was elected regent in his stead on Nov. 24. 
Thenceforth he ruled Scotland with great rigor, 
thereby rendering himself odious. He resigned 
Sept. 12, 1577, but soon regained his authority. 
Through the agency of the new favorite of the 
king, Capt. Stewart, he was brought to trial 
for participation in the murder of Darnley, 
found guilty of high treason, and decapitated 
by an instrument called the maiden, which he 
is said to have introduced into Scotland. 
MORTON, John, one of the signers of the 
Declaration of Independence, born in Ridley, 
Chester (now Delaware) co., Pa, in 1724, died 


}in April, 1777. He was for many years a sur- 


veyor. In 1756 and for many sessions subse- 
quently he was a member of the general as- 
sembly of Pennsylvania, serving for several 
sessions as speaker. He was a member of the 
stamp act congress, which met in New York 
in 1765. From 1766 to 1770 he was high sheriff 
of his county, and afterward became judge of 
the court of common pleas, and a judge of the 
supreme court of Pennsylvania. In 1774~'6 
he was a member of the continental congress, 
and gave the casting vote of Pennsylvania in 
favor of the Declaration of Independence. He 
was chairman of the committee of the whole 
on the adoption of the system of confederation. 
MORTON, Nathaniel, secretary of Plymouth 
colony, Mass., born in England in 1612, died 
in Plymouth, June 29, 1685. He came to 
America with his father in July, 1623, and in 
1645 was appointed secretary of the colony, 
which office he held until his death. He was 
the author of ‘‘ New England’s Memoriall, or a 
Brief Relation of the most Memorable and 
Remarkable Passages of the Providence of God 
manifested to the Planters of New England,” 
&c., compiled chiefly from the manuscripts of 
his uncle William Bradford and the journals 
of Edward Winslow, and including the period 
from 1620 to 1646 (4to, Cambridge, 1669; 2d 
ed., 12mo, Boston, 1721; 3d ed., Newport, 
1772; 5th ed., with notes by Judge Davis, 1826; 
6th ed., with notes by the Congregational board, 
1855). In 1680 he wrote a brief ecclesiastical 
history of the Plymouth church in its records, 
MORTON, Oliver Perry. See supplement. 
MORTON, Samuel George, an American physi- 
cian, born in Philadelphia, Jan. 26, 1799, died 
there, May 15, 1851. He graduated at the 
university of Pennsylvania in 1820, entered 
the university of Edinburgh, and graduated 
there in 1823. In 1824 he settled in Phila- 
delphia as a physician. He was recording sec- 
retary of the Philadelphia academy of natural 
sciences in 1825, and president in 1840. In 
1834 he went to the West Indies, where he 
studied the diversity of races and the relations 
resulting from their contact. In September, 
1839, he was elected professor of anatomy in 
the Pennsylvania medical college, which post 
he resigned in 1848. His collection of skulls, 
which was the largest museum of comparative 


MORTON 


craniology in existence, contained about 1,500 
specimens, nearly 900 of which were human, 
obtained from widely separated regions of the 
earth. It now belongs to the Philadelphia 
academy of natural sciences. The result of 
nis investigations, as bearing specially on the 
American aborigines or Indians, is embodied 
in “Crania Americana, or a Comparative View 
of the Skulls of various Aboriginal Nations of 
North and South America; to which is pre- 
fixed an Essay on the Varieties of the Human 
Species,” with 78 plates and a map (folio, 
Philadelphia and London, 1889). His “ Crania 
Akigyptiaca, or Observations on Egyptian Eth- 
nography, derived from History and the Monu- 
ments,’ with numerous plates and illustrations 
(4to, 1844), was based principally on a collec- 
tion of 98 heads obtained by G. R. Gliddon 
from the tombs and catacombs of Egypt. He 
also published “ Observations on the Ethnology 
and Archeology of the American Aborigines” 
(Silliman’s ‘‘ Journal,” vol. ii., 2d series, 1846) ; 
an “Essay on Hybridity in Plants and Ani- 
mals, considered in reference to the question 
of the Unity of the Human Species” (2., vol. 
ili., 1847); and ‘‘ An illustrated System of Hu- 
man Anatomy, Special, General, and Micro- 
scopic” (1849). 

MORTON, William Thomas Green, an American 
dentist, born in Charlton, Mass., Aug. 9, 1819, 
died in New York, July 15, 1868. In 1840 he 
began the study of dentistry in Baltimore, and 
18 months afterward settled in Boston. Among 
improvements introduced by him was a new 
kind of solder by which false teeth are fas- 
tened to gold plates, preventing galvanic action. 
In his search for means of removing the roots 
of old teeth without pain, he tried stimulants, 
even to intoxication, opium, and magnetism, 
but in vain. While attending lectures at the 
medical college in Boston in 1844, for the pur- 
pose of increasing his knowledge with reference 
to this object, he learned that sulphuric ether 
could be inhaled in small quantities without 
danger; and after experimenting on himself, 
and becoming satisfied of its safety, he admin- 
istered it to a man on Sept. 30, 1846, producing 
unconsciousness, during which a firmly rooted 
bicuspid tooth was painlessly extracted. After 
numerous other successful experiments, he com- 
municated their result to Dr. J. C. Warren, and 
at his request administered the ether on Oct. 
16, 1846, in the Massachusetts general hos- 
pital, to a man from whose jaw was removed a 
vascular tumor, the patient remaining uncon- 
scious during the operation. From this dates 
the introduction into general surgery of the 
discovery of ethereal anesthesia. Like other 
great discoveries, it met with bitter profes- 
sional opposition. In order to protect himself 
against such opposition he obtained a patent 
for it, under the name of ‘‘letheon,” in No- 
vember, 1846, in the United States, and in the 
following month in England, offering, how- 
ever, free rights to all charitable institutions 
in all parts of the country. Notwithstanding 


855 


his generous offers, government appropriated 
his discovery to its use without compensation. 
Several claimants for the honor of the discov- 
ery soon appeared, among whom was Dr. C. T. 
Jackson; and when the French academy ex- 
amined the testimony, some of the members at 
first recognized him as the discoverer; but the 
committee of the academy awarded the Mon- 
tyon prize of 5,000 francs to ke equally divided 
between him and Dr. Morton. The latter de- 
clined to receive this joint award, protested 
against the decision of the academy, and in 
1852 received the large gold medal, the Mon- 
tyon prize in medicine and surgery. He had 
to contend with many troubles; his business 
was broken up, and his house was attached 
by the sheriff for debt; but his indomitable 
will and the encouragement of friends ena- 
bled him to maintain his claims. He presented 
his first memorial for compensation to con- 
gress in December, 1846, but the appointed 
committee did not report. Strengthened by 
the testimonial of the trustees of the Massa- 
chusetts general hospital in 1848, which con- 
ceded to him the discovery of the power and 
safety of ether in producing anesthesia, he 
made a second application to congress in Jan- 
uary, 1849; a committee composed of physi- 
cians reported that he was entitled to the 
merit of the discovery, but they did not rec- 
ommend any pecuniary remuneration. In De- 
cember, 1851, he made a third appeal to con- 
gress, and his memorial was referred to a select 
committee; the report of the majority award- 
ed the honor of the discovery to him, and in 
April, 1852, a bill was reported appropriating 
$100,000 as a national testimonial, on condi- 
tion that he should surrender his patent to the 
government. This bill was not acted upon 
directly, but having been brought before the 
senate as an amendment to the army appro- 
priation bill, it was defeated. In 1853 an 
amendment to the appropriation bill was of- 
fered, granting $100,000 to the discoverer of 
practical anesthesia; after a warm debate it 
passed the senate, 26 to 23, but failed in the 
house. In 1854 a similar bill passed the senate 
by 24 to 18, but was lost in the house. In 
the same year Morton attempted to obtain 
from the president a recognition of the validity 
of his patent, supported by the recommenda- 
tion of 150 members of congress that the right 
to use his discovery be purchased for the pub- 
lic service, or that the government respect its 
own patent and discontinue its use; after two 
years’ delay the president informed him that 
whenever it was decided in the courts that the 
government had violated his patent, it would 
pay. At this defeat his creditors became im- 
portunate, and reduced him to utter poverty ; 
but in the winter of 1856-’7 a plan for a na- 
tional testimonial was instituted in Boston, and 
an appeal was published signed by many of 
the principal physicians and merchants, in 
which they asserted an almost universal con- 
currence of the professional and other citizens 


856 


of Boston in assigning the merit of the dis- 
covery to Dr. Morton. In 1858 a similar ap- 
peal was made in New York, signed by the 
principal medical men of that city, and in 1860 
also in Philadelphia. In 1858 he instituted a 
suit against a marine hospital surgeon for in- 
fringing his patent, as suggested by the presi- 
dent, which was decided in his favor in the 
United States circuit court. In the last years 
of his life he was engaged in agricultural pur- 
suits, especially in the importation and raising 
of fine cattle at his farm in Wellesley, Mass. 
His death was caused by the excitement occa- 
sioned by an article attempting to deprive him 
of the honor of being the discoverer of anes- 
thesia; this attack brought on a fatal conges- 
tion and syncope. A monument in Mt. Au- 
burn was erected by citizens of Boston, with 
the following inscription, written by Dr. Jacob 
Bigelow: ‘“‘Wm. T. G. Morton, inventor and 
revealer of anesthetic inhalation; by whom 
pain in surgery was averted and annulled; 
before whom, in all time, surgery was agony; 
since whom science has control of pain.” The 
Montyon prize medal, his orders received from 
Russia and Sweden, and the silver box pre- 
sented in Boston, are deposited in the rooms 
of the Massachusetts historical society, Bos- 
ton. (See ANA&STHETICS, JACKSON, CHARLES 
THomas, and Wetis, Horacr.)—See “ Trials 
of a Public Benefactor,” by Dr. Nathan P. 
Rice (New York, 1859). 

MOSAIC (late Gr. povoeioc, belonging to the 
muses, polished, elegant, or well wrought), 
the representation of a design by fitting to- 
gether on a ground of cement numerous small 
pieces of stone and glass, of various colors, 
and generally cubical. Although one of the 
most mechanical of the fine arts, it is en- 
titled to rank asa style of painting, from the 
fact that it requires the preparation of a car- 
toon or colored design, as in the case of a 
fresco or an elaborate oil picture, and no in- 
considerable knowledge of form, color, and 
composition. Dating from a remote period, it 
has been transmitted to the present time, and 
in modern Italy has been carried to a higher 
degree of perfection than it attained at periods 
when it was almost the only species of picto- 
rial art in vogue. Of the mechanical process 
employed, the following description of the 
practice in the establishment at the Vatican 
in Rome will convey an adequate idea: ‘The 
slab upon which the mosaic is made is gener- 
ally of Travertine or Tibertine stone. In this 
the workman cuts a certain space, which he 
encircles with bands or cramps of iron. Upon 
this hollowed surface mastic or cementing 
paste is gradually spread as the progress of the 
work requires it, thus forming the adhesive 
ground or bed on which the mosaic is laid. 
The mastic is composed of calcined marble and 
finely powdered Travertine stone, mixed to 
the consistence of paste with linseed oil. Into 
this paste are stuck the smalti or small cubes 
of colored glass which compose the picture, in 


MOSAIC 


the same manner as were the colored glass, 
stone, and marble sectilia and tessere of the 
ancients. The smalti are vitrified but opaque, 
partaking of the nature of stone and glass, or 
enamels, and are composed of a variety of 
minerals and materials, colored for the most 
part with different metallic oxides. They are 
manufactured in Rome in the form of long, 
slender rods, like wires, of different degrees of 
thickness, and are cut into pieces of the requi- 
site sizes, from the smallest pin point to an 
inch. When the mastic has sufficiently indu- 
rated (and it acquires in time the hardness of 
stone), the work is susceptible of a polish like 
crystal. Care must be taken, however, that by 
too high a polish the entire effect of the work 
is not injured, as innumerable reflected lights 
in that case would glitter in every part of the 
picture. When the design is to be seen at a 
very considerable distance, as in cupolas or flat 
ceilings, the work is generally less elaborately 
polished, as the inequalities of the surface are 
then less distinguishable, and the interstices of 
the work cannot be detected by the specta- 
tor.’ By this process many copies of large 
pictures by Raphael, Domenichino, and other 
old masters in the Vatican have been execu- 
ted, occupying periods of from 12 to 20 years, 
and requiring from 10,000 to 15,000 different 
shades of the primary colors for the purposes 
of the work. In 1853 Pope Pius IX. sent to 
the crystal palace exhibition of New York a 
mosaic copy of Guercino’s “St. John the Bap- 
tist,” valued at $60,000, which at a short dis- 
tance it was impossible to distinguish from a 
highly finished oil painting. This, however, 
was a work of small importance in comparison 
with others preserved in the cathedrals of Eu- 
rope. Two other species of mosaic work are 
carried on in Tuscany (whence the name, Flor- 
entine mosaics), the pietre dure and pietre 
commesse, both of which are employed for or- 
namental purposes, and represent fruit, flow- 
ers, birds, &c. The former gives the objects 
depicted in relief in colored stones. The lat- 
ter consists of precious stones, as agates, jas- 
pers, lapis lazuli, &c., cut into thin veneer and 
carefully inlaid.—The employment of mosaics, 
which have always possessed a certain value, 
as well from their imperishable nature as from 
their intrinsic merits as works of art, origina- 
ted probably among those eastern nations by 
whom so many of the arts have been transmit- 
ted to Europe. The Romans acquired a knowl- 
edge of the process from the Greeks, who had 
borrowed it from the Asiatics; and by all of 
them it was originally applied as an ornament 
for pavements, the close imitation of inanimate 
objects scattered apparently over the floor be- 
ing the chief aim of the artist. Large histor- 
ical compositions, of which the mosaic repre- 
senting the battle of Issus from the casa del 
Fauno in Pompeii affords a felicitous exam- 
ple, succeeded; and under the first Roman em- 
perors the art attained a considerable degree 
of refinement, though still used chiefly as an 


MOSAIC 


adornment for pavements. The Romans made 
it coextensive with their civilization, and from 
Britain to the Euphrates remains of ancient 
Roman mosaics have frequently been exhumed. 
Of the varieties in use among the ancients, the 
principal were the pavimenta sectilia, consist- 
ing of floors formed of pieces of stone of dif- 
ferent colors, cut geometrically and cemented 
together; the pavimenta tessellata, or floors 
inlaid with small cubes of stone forming a col- 
ored design; the opus vermiculatum,.and the 
opus musivum, in which colored cubes of clay 
or glass of every conceivable tint, set up very 
much as types are by compositors, were em- 
ployed to produce elaborate finished pictures. 
The first three were included under the general 
name lithostrotum. With the overthrow of 
paganism and the establishment of the Chris- 
tian religion commenced a new and grander 
era in the history of the art; and mosaics, 
from being used almost exclusively in pave- 
ments, were transferred to the walls and ceil- 
ings of sacred edifices. The connecting link 
between the mosaic pavements of Pompeii and 
the mosaics of Christian origin is so slight, that 
Dr. Kugler is ‘‘ almost tempted to believe that 
historical mosaic painting of the grander style 
first started into life in the course of the 4th 
century, and suddenly took its wide spread.” 
For nearly 1,000 years from this period it 
was almost exclusively employed for mural 
decoration, and from its durability has pre- 
served a knowledge of the arts and in some 
degree of the religious ideas of the middle 
ages. From the 7th to the 9th century the 
most important and interesting remains of 
pictorial art are the mosaics in the churches 
and the manuscript illuminations; and the 
most ancient representations of the Virgin 
Mary now remaining are the old mosaics in 
the churches of Rome, Pisa, and Venice, re- 
ferred to the latter half of the 5th century. 
—Christian mosaics admit of two general di- 
visions, the later Roman and the Byzantine 
styles, the materials in use being in general 
cubes of colored glass, inlaid, in the Roman 
school, on a ground of blue or white, and in the 
Byzantine school on a gold ground, although 
in the latter the tesserw are frequently irregu- 
lar in size and the workmanship coarse. The 
former style flourished in Italy chiefly in the 
5th and 6th centuries, the most splendid speci- 
mens of it being found in the churches of Rome 
and Ravenna. The churches of Sta. Maria 
Maggiore in the former city and of San Vitale 
in the latter contain perhaps the finest. When 
in the 5th century the arts and sciences were 
driven out of Italy by the distracted state of 
the country, they found refuge in Constanti- 
nople, where about the commencement of the 
6th century arose that peculiar style pervading 
many branches of the fine arts, to which the 
general name of Byzantine has been applied, 
and which for five succeeding centuries had a 
predominant influence throughout Europe and 
among many eastern nations. The first and 


MOSASAURUS S57 
greatest example of it is the celebrated church 
of St. Sophia, built by Justinian about the 
middle of the 6th century, and adorned with 
an almost incalculable wealth of mosaics, of 
which only a few colossal seraphim and the 
traces of a figure of the Madonna have escaped 
the effects of Mohammedan iconoclasm. By 
the middle of the 7th century it gained a foot- 
hold in Rome, where the native school of mo- 
saics had lapsed into decay ; and subsequently 
it came into competition with the Lombard, 
Norman-Byzantine, and Romanesque styles, 
each of which betrays the influence of the 
parent Byzantine. The mosaics in the church 
of St. Mark in Venice, executed between the 
11th and 14th centuries, are perhaps the purest 
specimens of the style in Italy. They cover a 
surface of about 40,000 square feet of the up- 
per walls, wagon roofs, and cupolas, and are 
laid upon a gold ground. Others, in a different 
style, were executed as late as the 16th century, 
Titian, Tintoretto, and contemporary masters, 
in some instances furnishing the cartoons; 
and the whole is fitly described as “‘a gigan- 
tic work which even all the wealth of Venice 
spent six centuries in patching together.” In 
the 12th century a new or Romanesque style, 
founded upon Byzantine traditions, arose in 
Italy ; and early in the 18th century the Ital- 
ians in northern and central Italy, renouncing 
their dependence on Greek artists, began to 
execute mosaic work for themselves according 
to original conceptions of nature. Andrea 
Taffi, one of the earliest and most famous of 
the Italian mosaicisti, produced a figure of the 
Saviour 14 ft. high, which, Vasari says, spread 
his fame throughout Italy. Contemporary 
with and immediately succeeding him were 
Jacopo da Turrita, the Gaddi, Giotto, and oth- 
ers, of whom the last executed the celebrated 
navicella, now in St. Peter’s in Rome. Among 
the latest of the mosaicisti, who worked from 
their own or original designs, were Baldovi- 
netto, Gherardo, and particularly Ghirlandaio, 
the master of Michel Angelo, and Muziano, 
who brought the art to great perfection. At 
the commencement of the 17th century Clem- 
ent VIII. employed numerous artists to deco- 
rate the interior of the dome of St. Peter’s 
with mosaic copies of the works of eminent 
masters, and each succeeding century has added 
to the immense wealth in works of art of this 
description deposited in the church. In the 
18th century Pietro Paolo Cristofori founded 
a school for mosaic in Rome, where the art is 
now practised on a grander scale than in any 
other part of the world. 

MOSASAURUS, a gigantic fossil reptile,* so 
named by Conybeare from its having been first 
found on the banks of the river Maas, near 
Maestricht in Holland, in the upper cretaceous 
formations of that district. It was referred to 
the orders of cetaceans and crocodilians, but A. 
Camper and Cuvier showed from the teeth and 
the skeleton that its true place was between the 
monitors and the iguanian lizards. The bones 


858 MOSCHELES 


of the head are like those of monitors; the teeth 
of the jaws are compressed, sharp-edged, sup- 
ported on asocket in a shallow furrow, without 
true roots; there are teeth also on the pterygoid 
bones, as in the iguanians; there seem to have 
been 28 teeth in each jaw, with broad base and 
slightly curved. The head is elongated, and the 
mouth wide; the vertebre concavo-convex, 
34 from head to tail, the latter having nearly 
100; as the articular processes are absent from 
the middle of the back, it has been inferred that 


— = = = == 


SSS 
——SSSSS 


——— 5 
SSS = S 
—— 


SS 
EZ 
= S EE=S = = 
EZ A 


Mosasaurus (restored). 


the body possessed greater flexibility than that 
of the crocodiles; the tail is compressed later- 
ally, and has strong V-shaped bones below, in- 
dicating its use as a powerful swimming organ ; 
the ribs have a single head; the humerus short 
and thick as in the ichthyosaurus, and the limbs 
probably flattened into fins as in enaliosaurians. 
It must have been a very active marine carniv- 
orous animal. The best known species, J. 
Camperi (Conyb.), had a head 4 ft. long, while 
that of the largest living monitor is only 5 in., 
and the length of the animal must have been 
25 ft. After the capture of Maestricht by the 
French (1794), these bones were sent to Paris. 
(See Cuvier’s Ossemens fossiles.) This genus 
was abundant on the coast of New Jersey in 
the cretaceous epoch, and ten species have been 
described in the United States. Some of them 
attained a length of more than 50 ft. Their 
movements must have been rapid, by lateral 
undulations in the water, and serpent-like on 
land; according to Prof. Cope, they were prob- 
ably able to coil themselves like snakes; they 
were veritable sea serpents of the cretaceous 
seas. Clidastes and macrosaurus were small- 
er and more slender allied genera. The ge- 
nus geosaurus (Cuv.), found in the calcareous 
schists of Monheim, Bavaria, came nearer the 
crocodiles in the pelvis and thigh bones.—See 
‘“Proceedings of the Academy of Natural 
Sciences,” pp. 91, 92 (Philadelphia, 1859). 
MOSCHELES, Ignaz, a German composer, born 
of Jewish parents in Prague, May 30, 1794, 


MOSCOW 


died March 10, 1870. At eight years of age he 
received musical instruction from F. D. Weber. 
In three years he became a skilful pianist; and 
at 14 he was introduced at Vienna to Haydn 
and Beethoven, and by their advice became the 
pupil of Albrechtsberger, with whom he made 
rapid progress. Asa pianist he competed with 
Hummel, then reputed the first performer in 
Germany. After an extensive continental 
tour he in 1820 went to England, where he 
resided during the next 26 years. From 1825 
to 1846 he was professor in the academy of 
London and conductor of the philharmonic 
concerts, after which he became musical pro- 
fessor in the conservatory of Leipsic. Prob- 


_| ably no musician has so greatly influenced the 


cultivation in England of the classical music of 
Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, and kindred com- 
posers, or so fully developed a taste for piano- 
forte music and a knowledge of the resources 
of the instrument. As a performer of the 
sonatas and concertos of Beethoven he was 
without a superior. His compositions for the 
pianoforte are finished specimens of classical 
music, and his trios, quintets, &c., for the vio- 
lin and other instruments, evince great theo- 
retical knowledge. He translated into English 
Schindler’s ‘‘ Life of Beethoven,” to which he 
added valuable notes.—See Aus Moscheles’s 
Leben, edited by his wife (2 vols., Leipsic, 
1872-3), and adapted from the German by A. 
D. Coleridge (London, 1873). 

MOSCHI, an ancient people of Asia, S. of the 
Caucasus, whose territory at the time of Au- 
gustus was divided between Colchis, Iberia, 
and Armenia, and from whom a mountain 
range extending from the Caucasus to the 
Anti-Taurus received the name of Moschic 
mountains. Their name, in early classical 
writers, frequently appears coupled with that 
of the Tibareni, and the two tribes are gen- 
erally identified with the Meshech and Tubal 
of Scripture. (See JAPHETH.) 

MOSCHUS, a Greek bucolic poet, of the 3d 
century B. C. He was a native of Syracuse, 
and a pupil or imitator of Bion. Four of his 
lost idyls and some small fragments of his po- 
ems are still extant, chiefly in the Doric dialect. 
They are usually joined with those of Bion 
and Theocritus. The best editions are those 
of Jacobs (Gotha, 1795), Wakefield (London, 
1795), and Manso (Leipsic, 1807). 

MOSCOW (Russ. Moskva). I. A central gov- 
ernment of Russia, bordering on Tver, Vladi- 
mir, Riazan, Tula, Kaluga, and Smolensk; area, 
12,854 sq. m.; pop. in 1867, 1,678,784. Its sur- 
face is low and undulating, and its soil is only 
moderately fertile. The climate is temperate 
in summer, but the cold is intense in winter. 
The navigable streams are the Oka and its trib- 
utaries, the Moskva and Kliasma. Cattle and 
horses are reared in great numbers, but the in- 
habitants are chiefly engaged in manufactures. 
It is divided for administrative purposes into 
13 districts. I. A city, capital of the govern- 
ment, on the river Moskva, 390 8. E. of St. Pe- 


MOSCOW 


tersburg; lat. of observatory, 55° 45/19’ N., lon. 
37° 84’ 4” E.; pop. in 1871, 611,970. It is sur- 
rounded by an earthen rampart more than 23 m. 
long. The enclosed space is an irregular trape- 
zium, with an undulating surface, divided into 
unequal parts by the Moskva, which enters the 
circumvallation near the middle of the W. side 
and leaves it at the S. E. corner, finally joining 
the Oka, an affluent of the Volga. The httle 
river Yausa, flowing from the northeast, joins 
the Moskva within the wall. About three 
fourths of the city lies on the N. bank of the 
Moskva, and one fourth on the S. bank. On 
the latter are the Sparrow hills, extending E. 
and W., which include nearly the whole S. 
part of the city. On the N. side the Kremlin 
(Russ. Areml) occupies the principal elevation, 
directly on the bank of the river and very near 
the centre of the old city. From it radiate al- 


859 


most all the streets, like the spokes of a wheel, 
but with no regularity either of size or direc- 
tion. Around the Kremlin, at a radial distance 
of 1 and 14 m. respectively, are two wide and 
well planted boulevards, laid out after the con- 
flagration of 1812, each forming an irregular 
circle, the inner one terminating on the N. 
bank of the river, the outer one crossing the 
river and enclosing a portion of the city on the 
S. bank. Some of the principal streets were 
widened at the same time, but most of the 
smaller ones, as well as many of the buildings, 
were rebuilt on the old sites, so that many of 
the ancient characteristics have been preserved. 
Narrow lanes open into imposing squares, and 
the most stately buildings stand side by side 
with rows of humble cottages. The city, 
which has been fitly described as at once 
‘beautiful and rich, grotesque and absurd, 


Bum 


The Kremlin, Moscow. 


magnificent and mean,” is unequalled in pic- 
turesqueness. Its thousands of spires, domes, 
and minarets, diverse in form and color; its 
Kremlin with high walls and fantastic towers; 
its gardens, boulevards, and squdres; the 
strange intermingling of pagodas, temples, and 
churches, of Chinese tea houses and French 
cafés, of Turkish bazaars and Russian market 
places, present a strange yet attractive pano- 
rama, combining the most striking European 
and Asiatic characteristics.—There are five 
principal quarters, the Kremlin, Kitai-Gorod, 
Bieloi Gorod; Zemlianoi Gorod, and the Slo- 
bodi or suburbs. The Kremlin, the ancient 
citadel, is a nearly triangular enclosure sur- 
rounded with walls from 28 to 50 ft. in height 
and about 1+ m. in circuit, with massive 
towers at each angle, and battlements, em- 
brasures, and numerous smaller towers be- 


tween. It is entered by five gates, to each of 
which is attached a religious or a historical 
importance. The principal one, the Spasski or 
Redeemer gate, is reverenced by all Russians, 
and no person, not even the emperor, passes it 
without uncovering the head and making obei- 
sance to the faded picture of the Saviour above 
it. The Nikolski or Nicholas gate has an im- 
age of that saint over it, and is only second in 
sacred associations to that of the Redeemer. 
By the Troitzki or Trinity gate the troops of 
Napoleon entered and left the Kremlin. With- 
in the walls are cathedrals, churches, palaces, 
monasteries, and some of the finest public 
buildings and monuments of Moscow, with no 
symmetry of design, and of various styles and 
periods. The tower of Ivan Veliki (the Great), 
which looks down on all the surrounding spires, 
is an octagonal structure of five stories, its gild- 


860 


ed cross being nearly 325 ft. above the ground. 
In it are hung 84 bells, the largest of which 
weighs 64 tons. The Tzar Kolokol (see Brrr) 
stands upon a granite pedestal near its foot. 


Sacred Gate of the Kremlin. 


The sacred buildings of the Kremlin are the 
cathedrals of the Assumption, in which all the 
Russian emperors since the days of Ivan the 
Terrible have been crowned; of the Archangel 
Michael, the burial place of the imperial .fam- 
ily up to the time of Peter the Great; of the 
Annunciation, where the czars were former- 
ly baptized and married; and the church of 
the Redeemer in the Wood, one of the oldest 
buildings in Moscow. Other ecclesiastical 
buildings within its walls are the Miracle mon- 
astery, the Ascension convent, and the sacristy 
or house of the holy synod, where are pre- 
served the robes and the sacred vessels used by 
the different patriarchs. The palace is most- 
ly modern, having been built chiefly by Czar 
Nicholas on the site of the old one burned in 
1812. Within it are grand halls dedicated to 
the chief Russian orders of knighthood. The 
right wing, called the treasury, is devoted to 


MOSCOW 


the preservation of arms, armor, relics, regalia, 
and other treasures illustrative of the history 
of the reigning dynasty and of Russia. At the 
N. angle of the Kremlin is the arsenal, a mas- 
sive building in front of which are ranged long 
rows of captured cannon, among them 365 
pieces taken from the French in the retreat 
from Moscow. Opposite the arsenal is the sen- 
ate house, where sits the high court of appeal. 
—The Kitai-Gorod (Chinese town), E. of the 
Kremlin, is surrounded by a wall with 12 tow- 
ers and 5 gates. It was enclosed by Helena, mo- 
ther of Ivan the Terrible, when the Kremlin had 
become overcrowded. Within it the trade of 
Moscow has centred since 1596. The Gostinnoi 


| Dyor, or great bazaar, is an immense building 


three stories high and covering three squares, in- 
tersected by numerous passages lined with shops. 
Each business has its separate department or 
street. The shops are small, but the store 
rooms above contain large quantities Of goods, 
more than 75,000,000 rubles being invested 
beneath its roof. The Riadi also, a large open 
square laid out in narrow streets of booths, is 
in this quarter. In the Krasnaya Ploshtchad 
(Red place) is the cathedral of Vasili Blazhen- 
noi (St. Basil the Beatified), sometimes called 
the cathedral of Kazan, because it was built 
by Ivan the Terrible over the remains of St. 
Basil, to commemorate the taking of Kazan. 
It is a building of two stories, with 11 domes 
and cupolas, each of different form, height, 
and color, and each surmounting a chapel 
dedicated to some saint. Other objects of in- 
terest in this quarter are the Romanoff house, 
where the founder of the present dynasty was 
born, the Strastni monastery, and the ex- 
changes.—The Bieloi Gorod (white town) oc- 
cupies the zone between the inner boulevard 
and the Kremlin and Kitai-Gorod. It contains 
many of the principal buildings, including the 
governor’s palace, a fine building on elevated 
ground; the assembly house of the nobility, 
the grand hall of which will hold 2,000 per- 
sons; the university and the medical academy ; 
the military riding school (560 ft. long by 158 
broad), the roof of which is unsupported by 
any pillar, and which affords ample space for 
the simultaneous evolutions of 2,000 infantry 
and 1,000 cavalry; the foundling asylum, an 
immense quadrangular edifice, four stories in 
height above the basement, and having some- 
times 25,000 children under its support, with- 
in and without its walls; the post office, the 
theatres, many private palaces, several monas- 
teries and nunneries, and numerous churches. 
Among the last is the great temple of the 
Saviour, founded in 1812 to commemorate 
Russia’s triumph over Napoleon, and not yet 
finished: It is a regular cross of four equal 
branches, surmounted by a central cupola 84 
ft. in diameter, and having an exterior height 
above the pavement of 3438 ft. The interior 
walls are cased with polished labradorite and 
porphyry, and adorned with paintings, and the 
outside is ornamented with bass reliefs repre- 


MOSCOW 


senting Scriptural subjects and the events of 
the wars of 181215. In the area in front 
are the statues of the Russian generals promi- 
nent in those times.—The Zemlianoi Gorod 
(earthen town), so called from the former 
earth rampart, now the outer boulevard, occu- 
pies the zone between the two boulevards. It 
contains the depot of the commissariat, the 
depot for spirits, the commercial school, the 
imperial philanthropic society, and many other 
public buildings, besides a large number of fine 
private residences. The Zatchateiski monas- 
tery, which takes its name from the church 
dedicated to the Zatchatiye or conception of 
St. Ann, isa great ornament to this part of the 
city. The church is a Gothic building, noted 
for the elegance of its interior. The Slobodi 
(suburbs) constitute all that part of the city 
outside of the Zemlianoi Gorod. Within its 
limits are most of the great monastic and 
benevolent institutions, a large number of 
churches, many parks and handsome residences 
surrounded by gardens, an imperial palace, the 
empress’s villa, the race course, the St. Peters- 
burg railway station, &c. Among the great 
hospitals are the Galitzin, Sheremeteff, St. 
Catharine, Alexander, St. Paul, and the mili- 
tary. The Novo-Dievitchie convent is a vast 
institution founded in the 16th century, with 
high walls surmounted by 16 towers. It has 
six churches, inthe principal one of which are 
the tombs of many czarinas and princesses. 
Near it is the Dievitchie Pole or Maiden’s field, 
where the people are entertained at the im- 
perial coronations. The Seminoff monastery, 
dating from the 14th century, is also sur- 
rounded by walls with high towers, one of 
which is 125 ft. high. It has six churches and 
a belfry 330 ft. high. The Novospasski mon- 
astery has five churches and a belfry 235 ft, 
high. The Daniloff monastery, with white 
walls, and the Donskoi, with red walls and 
battlements, have many churches, chapels, 
cloisters, gardens, and courts within their 
bounds. Without the St. Petersburg gate, a 
short distance beyond the circumvallation, are 
’ the Petrovski palace and gardens, a fashion- 
able summer resort. Napoleon retired to this 
palace when the Kremlin became untenable.— 
Moscow has nearly 400 churches, all of the 
orthodox Greek faith, with the exception of 
the English and Roman chapels, a German 
and a French chapel, two or three Armenian 
chapels, and a Turkish mosque. It is the seat 
of one of the three metropolitans of the Russo- 
Greek church, and is excelled in ecclesiastical 
importance by St. Petersburg only. It is the 
residence also of many of the great Russian 
nobles, particularly in the winter. Between 
it and St. Petersburg exists a literary rivalry, 
which has done much to stimulate intellectual 
activity. Its schools and seminaries are cele- 
brated. The university, a state ‘institution 
under the authority of the minister of public 
instruction, has 100 professors and teachers 
and usually about 1,500 students. It has a 


861 


library of 160,000 volumes, a cabinet of coins 
and medals, museums of natural history, a 
botanical garden, chemical laboratory, and 
observatory, a medico-chirurgical school and 
fine anatomical theatre, and a printing office. 
Among the other educational establishments 
are a Greek theological seminary, a practical 
commercial academy and a commercial school, 
an institute of oriental languages, five male and 
three female gymnasia, two military gymna- 
sia and a military school, theatrical, mechan- 
ical, agricultural, veterinary, and other spe- 
cial schools, and numerous district and parish 
schools. The Catharine, Alexander, and Eliza- 
beth institutes are for the education of young 
ladies of noble birth, and the Nicholas insti- 
tute is for the instruction of female orphan 
children of the servants of the crown. There 
are several learned societies for the promotion 
of letters, art, and science; a public museum, 
with a library of 165,000 volumes and 5,000 
manuscripts, a gallery of painting and sculp- 
ture, and a cabinet of coins and medals; and 
several other museums and libraries. Moscow 
is the centre of Panslavism, and, though not 
now the political capital, is the real heart of 
Russia and the richest and most characteristi- 
cally Russian of all the cities of the empire. It 
is the residence of the general commanding 
the military circumscription of Moscow, con- 
sisting of 12 governments, and of a military 
and a civil governor general; and is the seat of 
a division of the directorial senate, consisting of 
the 6th, 7th, and 8th departments for criminal 
and civil affairs. For administrative purposes 
it is divided into 21 districts.—On account of 
its central position and superior facilities for 
transportation, Moscow is the great entrepot 
for the internal commerce of the empire. It 
has water communication with the Baltic, the 
Caspian, and the Black seas, and is connected 
by railway with St. Petersburg, Warsaw, Ta- 
ganrog on the sea of Azov (by two lines, each 
with important connections), Nizhni Novgorod 
(with a branch to Kineshma), and Vologda. 
In the winter an enormous traffic is carried on 
by sledges with Tiflis and other places; and in 
1874 a company was formed for trading with 
Afghanistan. It is also the centre of a great 
manufacturing industry, with several hundred 
establishments using steam power and the most 
approved machinery, and as many more in the 
surrounding towns and villages. Its chief 
manufactures are textile fabrics, principally of 
woollen, cotton, and silk, hats, gold and silver 
plate and jewelry, hardware, glass, porcelain, 
delft ware, paper, tapestry, chemical products, 
beer, brandy, and leather. Besides the Riadi 
and the Gostinnoi Dvor,.there are many other 
market places where a large trade is carried 
on. The horse market is of great importance. 
The so-called winter market presents a remark- 
able appearance during the winter, when the 
fish of the White sea and northern lakes, frozen 
oxen from the Crimea, Caspian sheep, and deer 
from the banks of the Irtish and Yenisei, are 


862 MOSELEY 


piled together. Industrial exhibitions and fairs 
often take place in the city.—Moscow is said 
to have been founded in the middle of the 12th 
century by George Dolgoruki, prince of Kiev. 
Ivan Danilovitch of Vladimir took the title of 
grand prince of Moscow in the early part of 
the 14th century, and it remained the seat of 
government from that.time until the begin- 
ning of the 18th, when the administration was 
transferred by Peter the Great to St. Peters- 
burg. Moscow was plundered by the Lithu- 
anians and the Tartars of Tamerlane in the lat- 
ter part of the 14th century, and subjected to 
many vicissitudes in the 15th and16th. It was 
nearly consumed by fire in 1536, in 1547, and 
again in 1571, when the Tartars set fire to the 
suburbs, and a large part of the population per- 
ished. During the insurrections caused by the 
pseudo-Demetriuses (1605-12), when the Poles 
and Cossacks took the city, it was again part 

ly destroyed. In 1812 it was entered by the 
French under Murat on Sept. 14, and on the 
15th by Napoleon, who took up his residence 
in the Kremlin. The city, deserted by its in- 
habitants, was set on fire by order of the gov- 
ernor, Count Rostoptchin, compelling Napo- 
leon to leave on Oct. 19, and to take his final 
departure on the 23d, and resulting in the dis- 
astrous retreat of the French army. The great- 
er part of the city was then destroyed, not- 
withstanding the efforts of the French to stay 
the progress of the flames; but it was rebuilt 
within a few years. 

MOSELEY, Henry, an English scientific writer, 
born about 1802, died Jan. 20, 1872. He took 
his degree at St. John’s college, Cambridge, 
in 1826, took orders, and for several years he 
was professor of natural philosophy and as- 
tronomy in King’s college, London. He was 
one of the first of the clergy to officiate as 
inspector of schools, and his services to educa- 
tion led to his being made in 1858 canon of 
Bristol cathedral. He afterward became vicar 
of Olveston, and in 1855 chaplain to the queen. 
He published several scientific works, the best 
known of which are ‘‘ Treatise on Mechanics 
applied to the Arts” (London, 1847), and “‘ Me- 
chanical Principles of Engineering and Archi- 
tecture” (1855). 

MOSELLE (Ger. Mosel; anc. Mosella), an af- 
fluent of the Rhine, which rises in France, in 
the S. E. corner of the department of Vosges, 
and flows N. and N. W. to Toul, in the 
department of Meurthe-et-Moselle (formerly 
Meurthe); thence its course is N. E. till it 
is joined by the Meurthe, when turning N. 
it passes through the former department of 
Moselle (now German Lorraine), and for over 
20 m. forms the boundary between Rhenish 
Prussia and Dutch Luxemburg. Then again 
turning N. E., it flows through Rhenish Prussia 
to Coblentz, where it falls into the Rhine. The 
Moselle is about 320 m. long, more than 160 m. 
of which is through France. Its chief tribu- 
taries are: on the right, the Meurthe, Seille, 
and Saar; on the left, the Madon, Ornes, and 


MOSER 


Sure or Sauer. The principal cities on its 
banks are Toul, Metz, Treves, and Coblentz. 
It is navigable for more than 200 m., or from 
its junction with the Meurthe to its mouth. 

MOSELLE WINES. See Germany, WINES OF, 
vol. vii., p. 775. 

MOSEN, Julins, a German poet, born at Ma- 
rieney, Saxony, July 8, 1803, died Oct. 10, 1867. 
He was the son of a schoolmaster, and studied 
jurisprudence at Jena and Leipsic. After fill- 
ing some inferior judicial stations in the prov- 
inces, he removed to Dresden, where he prac- 
tised his profession, and established a reputa- 
tion as a poetic and dramatic writer. In 1844 
he was appointed dramatic writer to the court 


theatre in Oldenburg. Among his published 


poems are: Lied vom Ritter Wahn (1881); Ge- 
dichte, including Andreas Hofer (1836); and 
Ahasver (1838). His principal tragedies are: 
Die Briute von Florenz and Wendelin und 
Helena (1836); Kaiser Otto ITT, (1840); Bern- 
hard von Weimar (1855); and Der Sohn des 
Fiirsten (1858). He wrote also the dramas 
and comedies Heinrich der Finkler (1836), 
Cola Rienzi (1886), Johann von Oesterreich 
and Die Wette (1842); and several fanciful 
novels, the principal of which is Bilder im 
Moose (1846). His collected dramatic works 
were published in Stuttgart in 1862, and his 
complete works in 8 vols. in Oldenburg (1863- 
4) and in Leipsic (1871). 

MOSENTHAL, Salomon Hermann, a German 
dramatist, born of Jewish parentage in Cas- 
sel, Jan. 14, 1821, died Feb. 17,1877. He took 
his doctor’s degree at Marburg in 1842, became 
private tutor in Vienna, and in 1851 archivist 
in the Austrian ministry. ‘His Deborah (Pesth, 
1850) and Sonnenwendhof (Leipsic, 1856) have 
been adapted to the English, Italian, Danish, 
Hungarian, and Bohemian stage; and he wrote 
many other dramas, among which is the tra- 
gedy Pietra (1865).. His Gesammelte Gedichte 
appeared in Vienna in 1866. 

MOSER, George Michael, an English enameller, 
born in Schaffhausen, Switzerland, about 1705, 
died in England, Jan. 23, 1788. According to 
Sir Joshua Reynolds, he excelled in his pro- © 
fession, had.a universal knowledge in all 
branches of painting and sculpture, and ‘“‘ may 
truly be said in every sense to have been the 
father of the present race of artists.” He was 
an original member of the royal academy, and 
for many years keeper of that institution, in 
which capacity he instructed the students in 
drawing and modelling from the antique.—His 
daughter Mary (Luoyp), distinguished as a 
flower painter, was the only woman, with the 
exception of Angelica Kauffmann, ever a mem- 
ber of the royal academy. She died at an 
advanced age, May 2, 1819. 

MOSER. I. Johann Jakob, a German jurist, 
born in Stuttgart, Jan. 18, 1701, died there, 
Sept. 30, 1785. He was educated at the uni- 
versity of Tibingen, where at the age of 19 he 
was appointed teacher, and in 1727 professor 
of law. In 1736 he was made director of the 


MOSER 


university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, but re- 
signed in 1739. In 1749 he founded at Hanau 
an academy for the instruction of young nobles 
in political science. In 1751 he returned to 
Wiurtemberg, where he was imprisoned from 
1759 to 1764 for memorializing the duke on the 
rights of the estates. He was the first to give 
a systematic account of European international 
law. His works are very numerous, embracing 
the voluminous Deutsches Staatsrecht (Nurem- 
berg, 1787-54), with various supplements. II. 
Friedrich Karl von, a German publicist, son of 
the preceding, born in Stuttgart, Dec. 18, 1728, 
died in Ludwigsburg, Nov. 10, 1798. He was 
for many years imperial councillor at the court 
of Vienna, and afterward a member of the 
administration of Hesse-Darmstadt. His Der 
Herr und der Diener (1759), exposing ad- 
ministrative abuses, created a great sensation. 
He exerted a still greater influence by means 
of the Patriotisches Archiv, which he edited 
from 1784 to 1790, and which was followed 
in 1792-4 by the Neues Patriotisches Archiv. 
He also wrote on international law, and is the 
author of a Geschichte der Waldenser (Zirich, 
1798), and of Luther's Fiirstenspiegel (new 
ed,, Frankfort, 1834). 

MOSER, Justus, a German author, born in 
Osnabriick, Dec. 14, 1720, died there, Jan. 8, 
1794. He studied jurisprudence at Jena and 
Gottingen, and became government attorney in 
1747; and for 20 years during the minority of 
the duke Frederick of York, who came into 
possession of Osnabriick in 1764, he was the 
principal adviser of the regent. He was after- 
ward a judge. One of his most celebrated hu- 
morous works is his Harlekin, directed against 
pedants and hypocrites of all kinds. In his 
work on the German language and literature 
he attacks the Gallomania and infidelity of 
Frederick the Great; and in a letter addressed 
to Jean Jacques Rousseau he opposes the theo- 
ries of that philosopher. His most important 
contribution to literature is his Osnabriickische 
Geschichte (2 vols., 1768; 8d ed., 1820; vol. 
iii. published from his literary remains by Her- 
bert von Bar, 1824). His short essays, Pa- 
triotische Phantasien. (4 vols., 177486), relate 
to local subjects. A complete edition of his 
works was published by Abeken (10 vols., Ber- 
lin, 18423), 

MOSES. See Hesrews, vol. viii., p. 583. 

MOSHEIM, Johann Lorenz von, a German ec- 
clesiastical historian, born in Liibeck, Oct. 9, 
1694, died in Géttingen, Sept. 9, 1755. He 
was educated at the gymnasium of Liibeck and 
the university of Kiel, where he became pro- 
fessor of philosophy. From 1723 to 1747 he 
was professor of theology at Helmstedt, and 
afterward till his death divinity professor and 
chancellor of the university of Géttingen. He 
was the author of a large number of works, 
the principal of which are /nstitutiones Histo- 
rie Eeclesiastice, Antiquioris et Recentioris (2 
vols., Helmstedt, 1726), and De Rebus Chris- 
tianorum ante Constantinum Magnum Com- 


576 VOL. x1.—65 


MOSSES 863 


mentarit (1753). The best English translation 
of these works is by James Murdock, D. D., 
‘“‘ Institutes of Ecclesiastical History” (8 vols., 
New Haven, 1832; revised, New York, 1839), 
and ‘“*Commentaries on the Affairs of the 
Christians before Constantine” (2 vols., New 


York, 1855). 
MOSKVA, Battle of the. See Boroprno. 
MOSLEMS. See MoHAMMEDANISM. 


MOSQUE (Arab. mesjid, ‘‘ place of prayer”’), 
a Mohammedan temple or house of worship. 
The first mosque was erected by Mohammed at 
Medina, part of the work being done by his 
own hands. The site was a graveyard shaded 
by date trees, which was selected by the proph- 
et because his camel knelt opposite to it on 
his public entry into the city. The edifice was 
square and capacious, the walls of earth and ° 
brick, and the roof supported by the trunks of 
palm trees and thatched with palm leaves. It 
had three doors. A part of the building was 
assigned as a habitation to the poor among 
the faithful who had no other homes. In this 
mosque Mohammed was buried; and though 
the original edifice was long ago replaced by 
a larger structure, the temple still bears the 
name of mesjid en-nebi, ‘‘the mosque of the 
prophet,” and has ever since served as a mod- 
el for the construction of Mohammedan places 
of worship. Everywhere the mosque is sub- 
stantially the same in plan, though differing 
in detail in some countries, as modified by 
national taste. What in Arabia was simple 
and elegant became highly ornate in Spain, 
florid in Turkey, and effeminate in India. In 
the reign of the caliph Walid I., toward the end 
of the 1st century of the Hegira, the cupola 
and the minaret were added to the mosque, 
and the Saracenic style of architecture was in- 
troduced throughout the Moslem world. The 
mosque of the prophet at Medina, the great 
mosque at Mecca, and the mosque of Omar 
at Jerusalem, are considered peculiarly holy, 
and are among the finest extant specimens 
of Moslem architecture. Cairo has about 400 
mosques, the chief of which, that of Sultan 
Hassan, is a majestic edifice in the purest 
style. The jumma musjid or great mosque at 
Delhi, built by Shah Jehan in 1631-7, is gen- 
erally considered the noblest building ever 
erected for Mohammedan worship. The prin- 
cipal mosque of Constantinople was original- 
ly the Christian church of St. Sophia. The 
mosque of Solyman the Magnificent, begun in 
1550 and finished in 1555, has six minarets. 
Attached to this mosque, as to almost all oth- 
ers, are various endowments for institutions of 
education, piety, and benevolence. It has an 
annual revenue of 300,000 piasters. 

MOSQUITO. See Guat. 

MOSQUITO COAST. See Nroaracua. 

MOSSES (musci), a large family of cryptoga- 
mic plants, the study of which forms a dis- 
tinct department of botany called bryology 
(Gr. Bpbov, moss), or muscology. Mosses have 
distinct stems, leaves, flower-like reproductive 


864 


organs, and seed-like bodies or spores which 
serve to propagate the species. They are cel- 
lular, and bear only a faint resemblance to 
the higher orders of plants. The stem of the 
mosses consists of cells of different forms and 
sizes, as may be readily seen by a transverse 
section, where those of the circumference are 
smaller and polyhedral, while those of the 
centre are elongated and by a closer arrange- 
ment approximate a woody texture. The stem, 
when it rises upward and ends in the organs 
of reproduction, is said to be determinate, and 
such a moss is acrocarpous; but when it ex- 
tends lengthwise and laterally in an indefinite 
manner, it is said to be indeterminate, and the 


moss is pleurocarpous, because the reproduc- | 


tive organs are borne upon the side branches. 
The leaves of mosses are always sessile, and 
usually clothe the stem; but in some species 
the lower part is bare, or at least only cov- 
ered with a few leaf-like scales. There are 
two distinct kinds of leaves: 1, those which 
grow upon the stem, and are called cauline; 2, 
those which surround the reproductive organs, 
and are called perichetial when they surround 
the fertile organs, and perigonial when around 
the male. These latter are more closely set 
than are the others, forming a sort of rosette 
in the centre of which the reproductive organs 
are lodged. The leaves of mosses are very 
simple, and usually consist of a single cellular 
layer, and they are destitute of stomata. They 
easily imbibe moisture, and as suddenly wither. 
A passing shower will revive the mosses which 
grow upon the driest rocks. The cells of the 
leaves are comparatively large, but the size 
differs greatly in different species. Each cell 
usually contains chlorophyl, though the cells of 
the sphagnum appear to be destitute of this 
principle. The cells are often uniform in size 
and general shape, except those toward the 
central portion of the leaf, where they assume 
an elongated form and constitute themselves 
into a sort of rib, nerve, or vein, which either 
bifurcates at the base and shortly ceases, or is 
produced into a single nerve and continues 
through the greater length of the leaf, or even 
extends beyond the apex and ends in a sort of 
point. The cells upon the edges of the leaf 
are sometimes modified into a border or into 
serrated processes like teeth. Sometimes sev- 
eral lamine are produced along the midrib or 
nerve of the leaf, and sometimes granules or 
bulbules are produced there. Buds or innerva- 
tions are also sometimes to be met with in the 
axils, which when separated can become new 
plants. With regard to the stem, the phyllo- 
taxis or position of the leaves is one-two, two- 
five, or three-eight.—The floral or reproduc- 
tive organs are of two kinds: 1. What may 
be regarded as the sterile or male flowers, 
the antheridia, consisting of cylindrical, pear- 
shaped, or ellipsoidal stalked sacs containing 
a granular mucilage, which when the antheri- 
dium is mature is expelled from an opening in 
the apex; it consists of spherical hyaline cells 


MOSSES 


from x55 tO x55 Of an inch in diameter, each 
containing a filiform antherozoid, which is fur- 
nished with two minutely slender, vibrating 
hairs. The antheridia are accompanied by 


Sterile Inflorescence. 1. A sterile Stem. 2 Antheridia 
(one emitting antherozoids) and Paraphyses. 3. An- 
therozoids. 


cellular jointed filaments called paraphyses. 2. 
The archegonia, which may be compared to 
fertile or pistillate flowers, are usually flask- 
shaped bodies, mixed, like the antheridia, with 
paraphyses, and like them produced within 
small clusters or rosettes of leaves, The cavity 
of the archegonium contains a free cell or 
nucleus, enveloped by mucilage; after fertili- 


Fertile Inflorescence. 1. A fertile Stem. 


2. Capsule with 
its Calyptra. 8. Capsule deprived of Calyptra, showing 
the Operculum. 4. The same with Operculum removed, 
exposing the Peristomium and Epiphragm. 


zation the archegonium elongates, as does its 
enclosed nucleus; but the nucleus grows much 
more rapidly than the archegonium, which at 
length is ruptured, its upper part forming a 


MOSSES 


cap, called the calyptra ; the nucleus in elon- 
gating forms a slender bristle, still capped by 
the calyptra, and when it has attained its full 
length the portion within the calyptra expands, 
and forms a capsule (theca, or urn), which is 
known as the fruit of the moss. The lower 
portion of the ruptured archegonium remains 
at the base of the bristle as a vaginula or 
sheath. In general, a single archegonium only 
becomes perfect and undergoes these: changes. 
These two distinct kinds of floral organs some- 
times exist in the same flower and are enclosed 
in the same perichetium, when the moss is 
called synecious; if, however, the antheridia 
occur on one part of the plant and the arche- 
gonia on another part, the moss is called mone- 
cious; and when each kind of organ occurs on 
separate plants, the moss is dicecious. The im- 
portance of these differences’ in the mosses is 
apparent from the fact that some species pro- 
duce in some countries only barren flowers or 
antheridia, and consequently can never be found 
there in fruit, a condition always desirable to 
those who collect for herbariums. It has been 
well ascertained that where the antheridia are 
wanting the archegonia never come to perfec- 
tion; and there are some dicecious species of 
hypnum, for instance, which are usually desti- 
tute of capsules from that cause.—The cap- 
sule, sporangium, or theca of mosses is cellu- 
lar, has a central axis called the columella, 
and contains spores. In some instances the 
sporangium is indehiscent (¢. g., phascum); in 
other cases it opens by four lateral valves 
(andrea), but in the majority of mosses it 
opens by means of alid (operculum). This lid 
is thrown off when the sporangium is mature. 


Between the base of the lid and the edge of 


the mouth of the capsule or sporangium are 
frequently several rows of large cells forming 
a sort of ring (annulus), which distend them- 
selves and assist in the dispersion of the spores. 
The edge of the mouth of the capsule in some 
mosses is entire (¢. g., gymnostomum), or it has 
a fringe (peristome) consisting of prolonga- 
tions and divisions of the two inner parietal 
layers of the capsule. The peristome consists 
of one or more rows of hygrometric cellular 
teeth, which are four or some multiple of that 
number. Where but a single row exists, the 
mosses are classed as aploperistomi, and where 
there are double rows as diploperistomi. The 
teeth are long and twisted together in barbula, 
or bifurcate in dicranum, or assume a variety 
of shapes, marking the different genera. In 
some mosses the inner parietal layer appears 
as a membrane called the epiphragm or tym- 
panum, stretched across the mouth from the 
walls of the sporangium to the columella. The 
capsule does not always rest in a perpendicular 
manner upon the seta, but may be inclined to 
one side, and bent downward or cernuous; 
and in some mosses one side of it is more de- 
veloped than the other, producing an unsym- 
metrical shape. Sometimes there is a consider- 
able thickening or swelling at its base, to which 


gether with the moss 


865 


the name of apophysis is given. The interior 
of the mature capsule is filled with a profusion 
of dust, which however will be found to con- 
sist of round bodies, which are in fact the 
spores or seeds. When they have been ejected 
from the capsule, they are in a condition to 
grow. From some part of their surface a blad- 
der-like swelling protrudes, which after a while 
extends itself by increase of similar ones into 
a confervoid thread. An entangled mass of 
such threads soon covers the soil, or the moist 
surfaces of substances on which the spores 
have fallen. So much do these threads resem- 
ble some of the alge, that they were mistaken 
for them by the earlier botanists. This con- 
fervoid vegetation continues from 5 to 20 days, 
when upon its surface very small buds appear. 
On examination these buds will be found to 
be composed of minute scaly leaves; and thus 
the axis or future stem is originated at their 
base. In some genera the moss scarcely de- 
velops itself beyond this condition, forming its 
fruit in the interior of the scale-like foliage. 
In other kinds of mosses the plants grow for 
a shorter or longer period of time before the 
inflorescence appears. These confervoid threads 
have been compared to the primordial leaves 
of the higher orders of plants; they differ how- 
ever in this, that on disappearing from the sur- 
face of the soil, similar threads penetrate it 
and seem to careless observers to be the roots. 
In many mosses such seeming roots are pushed 
from the under side of the stem, or even from 
the very extremities, in the progress of its 
growth.—Very little is known of the uses of 
the mosses. In the economy of nature they 
serve as precursors of the higher plants, ap- 
pearing first upon sterile places, and collecting 
among their matted . 
and tufted stems the i 

dust and sand. They 
afford secure lodging 
places for insects in 
winter, as well as food 
for them in summer. 
Some species of sphag- 
num enter largely into 
the formation of peat 
bogs; in these locali- 
ties the moss continues 
to grow above while it 
is constantly decaying 
below; a great num- 
ber of woody plants 
are found growing 
with the sphagnum, 
and these decaying to- 


form peat of various 
qualities. Some bot- 
anists regard sphag- 
num as sufficiently dif- 
ferent from other mosses to form an order by 
itself (sphagna), intermediate between the true 
mosses and the liverworts. When first taken 
from the bog sphagnum is very wet, but if thor- 


Peat Moss (Sphagnum 
acutifolium). 


866 


oughly squeezed or partly dried it serves an ex- 
cellent purpose in the transmission of trees and 
plants by packing their roots in the spongy and 
elastic mass; indeed for this purpose it is supe- 
rior to all other packing materials; it may be 
made to contain just the requisite amount of 
moisture, and it does not readily decay. It is 
also much employed by gardeners as a me- 
dium in which to grow orchids and plants that 
are naturally inhabitants of bogs, and for these 
uses it is a regular article of trade. Some 
hypna retain their elasticity on being dried, 
and serve for stuffing pillows. The Laplanders 
use turfs of polytricha for mattresses. Little 
brooms are sometimes made of these mosses. 
In dense forests (in the northern hemisphere) 
the northern side of trees is usually more 
thickly covered with mosses than the other 
sides. Some fanciful medicinal qualities are 
attributed to a few kinds.—The geographi- 
cal distribution of the mosses is very exten- 
sive; scarcely any part of the earth’s surface 
is destitute of them, from the polar regions 
to the equator. They constitute with lichens 
almost the only vegetation on the coast of the 
Polar sea, where the soil never thaws to a 
depth of more than a fewinches. The north- 
ern seacoast of Siberia is an immense morass 
whose entire surface is covered with mosses, 
The schistose rocks of Spitzbergen, rising above 
the everlasting ice, are, according to Martens, 
covered with these plants.. They enter largely 
into the flora of Greenland; the loftiest Swiss 
Alps, and the volcanic scoriz of Iceland, afford 
abundant species. Montagne in his Sylloge 
exhibits species from almost every portion of 
the globe, and the various exploring expedi- 
tions find these forms of vegetation wherever 
they have visited.—The earliest writer on the 
mosses who comprehended their structure was 
Micheli, who in 1729 described and depicted 
the most minute portions of their reproduc- 
tive organs, and seems to have understood their 
purposes. On the other hand, Dillenius (1741), 
Linnzeus (1753), and Adanson (1763) regarded 
the sporangium as analogous to the anther of 
the phanogamous plants. Schmiedel in 1760, 
and subsequently in his Jcones Plantarum et 
Analyses Partium (1762-97), described and 
figured the zoothece of the hepatice ; and, 
struck with finding them filled with a muci- 
laginous fluid analogous to that which fills 
the pollen grains, he considered them as male 
organs, and gave the name of female organs to 
the sporangia of mosses. Hedwig (Theoria 
Generationis, 1784) and other botanists now 
adopted the same view, until H. Mohl in 1833 
showed that the spores of the hepatica and 
mosses were developed exactly like the pollen 
grains, and that the ideas of Linneeus and others 
of that school were in a measure correct. We 
have seen, however, that the antheridia with 
their enclosed antherozoids seem: to be essen- 
tial in the production of the sporangium and 
its contents. In the United States the mosses 
were perhaps first collected by Dr. Muhlen- 


who likewise furnished specimens. 


MOSSES 


berg, of Lancaster, Pa. He sent many Ameri- 
can species to Hedwig, and they were described 
and published in the Species Muscorwm (Leip- 
sic, 1801). In 1813 Muhlenberg’s Catalogus 
Plantarum Americe Septentrionalis appeared, 
in which he gives the names of more than 170 
species. The value of this list is apparent, 
when it is known that his correspondence 
abroad was extensive and highly prized. Many 
of the species in Bridel’s Bryologia Universa 
(Leipsic, 1826) were from contributions of Dr. 
Torrey of New York, who at that time had 
made ample collections of cryptogamic plants ; 
and mention is frequently made by the same 
author of the names of Cooley and Dewey, 
Those of 
Newfoundland had been collected by De la 
Pylaie. A synoptical table of the ferns and 
mosses of the United States was published in 
1828 in the “‘ American Journal of Science and 
Arts,” vol. xv., by Dr. Lewis C. Beck. A list 
of the mosses of Massachusetts is appended to 
the second edition of Prof. Hitchcock’s “‘Geo- 
logical Report” of that state. The mosses of 
the British possessions in North America were 
collected by Drummond, the author of Muscé 
Scotici, who accompanied Franklin in his second 
land expedition in 1825. These subsequently 
appeared in sets of mounted specimens pub- 
lished by William Wilson at Glasgow in 1828; 
they were choice and valuable. In the Bos- 
ton “Journal of Natural History” for 1845 (vol. 
v.) is a paper by John L. Russell on some spe- 
cies noticed by him in eastern Massachusetts ; 
and in Hovey’s ** Magazine of Horticulture and 
Botany” for 1847, vol. xiii., is a valuable list 


-of White mountain species prepared by Wil- 


liam Oakes, who had made that region of New 
England his special study. In the catalogue of 
the plants of Cincinnati, Ohio, by Thomas G. 
Lea, are more than 80 species collected by him. 
In Agassiz’s ‘‘ Lake Superior, its Physical Char- 
acter, Vegetation,” &c. (Boston, 1850), the 
mosses of that region are elaborated by Les- 
quereux. Dr. Darlington, in the second edition 
of his Flora Cestrica (Philadelphia, 1853), fur- 
nishes a list of species detected within the lim- 
its of Chester co., Pa., and prepared by Thom- 
as P. James. The Musci Alleghanienses were 
issued from Columbus, O., in 1855, in two fas- 
cicles (4to), consisting of 215 species and well 
marked varieties of mosses, and 177 species 
of hepaticw. Fifty copies only of this superb 
work were printed for private distribution 
among the friends of the author. These spe- 
cimens were collected by William S. Sullivant. 
and Prof. Asa Gray, in a tour along the Alle- 
ghany mountains from Maryland to Georgia in 
1853. A similar work from the joint studies 
of Lesquereux and Sullivant, consisting of 355 
mounted specimens, and entitled Musci Bo- 
reali-Americant (Columbus, O., 1856), full of 
rich and well fruited species, and thus giving 
a view of the muscology of North America, 
furnishes ample materials for comparison. In 
the second edition of Prof. Asa Gray’s ‘‘ Man- 


MOSTAR 


ual of the Botany of the Northern United 
States” (1856) Mr. Sullivant gave descriptions 
of all the species known eastward of the Mis- 
sissippi river; but in subsequent editions of the 
‘‘Manual” these are omitted, and they have 
been published in a separate volume as ‘‘ The 
Musci and Hepatice of the United States east 
of the Mississippi River.” A most important 
_ aid to the student is ‘‘The Icones Muscorum, 
or Figures and Descriptions of most'of those 
Mosses peculiar to Eastern North- America 
which have not heretofore been figured.” This, 
also by Mr. Sullivant, is a handsome volume, 
with 129 copperplates, each illustrating several 
species. A description of the mosses and liver- 
worts found on the United States Pacific rail- 
road expeditions and surveys, with figures of 
the rarer and new species by Mr. Sullivant, 
can be found in the fourth volume of the exec- 
utive documents (senate) of the 33d congress, 
second session (Washington, 1856). Other val- 
uable contributions in this branch of botany 
from the same pen are to be seen in the ‘“ Me- 
moirs of the American Academy of Arts and 
Sciences” (Boston, 1848, &c.). The species 
found in Wisconsin are given by I. A. Lap- 
ham, in the fifth volume of the ‘ Transactions 
of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society ” 
(1860). Many novelties likewise have been 
brought to notice through the labors of ©. CO. 
Frost of Brattleboro, Vt., and by Prof. D. C. 
Eaton of New Haven, who have minutely 
examined that region. Mr. C. F. Austin, of 
Closter, N. J., has published named collections 
of mosses. The “ Bulletin of the Torrey Bo- 
tanical Club” (monthly, New York) contains 
important contributions to our bryology by 
Mr. Austin, and, especially with reference to 
southern and far western species, by Dr. Carl 
Miller of Halle, Germany. 

MOSTAR, a town of European Turkey, in the 
vilayet of Bosnia, capital of Herzegovina, on 
both sides of the river Narenta, 38 m. S. W. of 
Bosna-Serai, in lat. 48° 20’ N., lon. 17° 58’ E.; 
pop. about 18,000. The buildings of the town 
are scattered over a plain through which the 
river runs, and the only noteworthy ones are 
the governor’s palace and a few of the mosques, 
of which there are more than 30. There is also 
a Greek church, and the town is the residence 
of the Greek metropolitan of the district. 
There are two bazaars, and an extensive trade 
is carried on in agricultural products and silk. 
Mostar was founded about 1440, and named 
after the bridge crossing the Narenta at this 
point (Most Star, old bridge), which was 
probably built in the time of Trajan or Ha- 
drian, and still connects the two portions of 
the town. It consists of a single Roman 
arch, 95 ft. in span and about 80 ft. above the 
stream in summer. 

MOSUL, or Mossul, a town of Asiatic Turkey, 
capital: of a district of the same name in the 
vilayet of Diarbekir, on the right bank of the 
Tigris, 220 m. N. N. W. of Bagdad; pop. about 


40,000, of whom 9,000 are Christians, 1,500 | 


MOTH 867 
Jews, and the rest Arabs, Turks, and Kurds. 
Its fortifications are dilapidated.. The streets 
are narrow and irregular; the houses, mostly 
built of a composition of pebbles, lime, and 
clay, have flat roofs surrounded by parapets, 
and the stairs are always on the outside. It 
is one of the chief centres of the Jacobites, 
their bishop, next in rank to the patriarch, 
residing in a neighboring convent; there are 
also United Syrian and Chaldean bishops, and 
the Chaldean patriarch of Babylon usually re- 
sides here. It once had considerable com- 
merce, and it is still a thoroughfare for the 
trade between Bagdad, Syria, and Constanti- 
nople. Its manufactures are chiefly coarse 
cottons and shawls. In the middle ages it was 
noted for its muslin, with which it supplied 
Europe, and which derived its name from this 
place. The climate is very hot in summer, but 
the winters are mild and agreeable. In the vi- 
cinity are several hot sulphur springs which are 
much frequented. Mosul is chiefly interesting 
as being near the site of Nineveh, whose re- 
mains exist in great mounds on the opposite side 
of the river, excavated by Botta and Layard. 

MOTAGUA, Rio. See Guatemata, vol. viii., 
p. 289. 

MOTH (phalena, Linn.), the common name 
of the third and last section of the order lepi- 
doptera, the other two having been described 
under Burrerriy and Hawk Morn. | This sec- 
tion includes a great number of nocturnal in-’ 


' sects, also called night butterflies and millers, 


including all that cannot be arranged under 
the other sections. They vary greatly in size, 
color, and form; while those with gilded wings 
are very minute, the atlas moth of China (atta- 
cus atlas) covers a space 9 by 54 in. with its 
expanded wings, and the owl moth of Brazil 
(erebus striz) expands 1lin. The antenne are 
usually tapering, either naked or feathered, 
varying according to sex, and amplest in the 
males; the wings are bridled by bristles and 
hooks, the first pair covering the posterior, and 
sloping when at rest; some females have very 
small wings or none at all; the hind legs have 
two pairs of spurs. The tongue in most con- 
sists of a sucking tube formed of two hollow 
threads, rolled up when not in use; in some it 
is very short or wanting; there are generally 
two feelers, curving upward from the lower 
lip. The legs in the larve vary from 10 to 16; 
some in this condition are smooth and naked, 
others hairy uniformly or in tufts, others warty 
or spiny; some enclose themselves in silken 
cocoons (as the silkworm), others enter the 
ground, or undergo their change in the inte- 
rior of plants; the chrysalids are oval without 
angular elevations. Most moths conceal them- 
selves by day, flying only at night and during 
the warm season; a few, as some bombyces, fly 
by day and in the brightest sunlight. Modern 
entomologists generally recognize seven groups, 
as follows: I. Bombyces or spinners, including 
Latreille’s four sections of hepialites, bomby- 
cites, pseudo-bombyces, and aposura. This, the 


868 


largest group, was so named from bombyz, the 


old name of the silkworm, and its members are > 


generally thick-bodied, with feathered antennsz 
(at least in the males), very short or no feelers, 
with woolly thorax, and the fore legs often 
hairy; the caterpillars have 16 legs, and in 
most cases spin cocoons in which metamorpho- 
sis takes place. After Boisduval, Dr. Harris 
divides this group into nine families: 1. Litho- 
siadw, so called from their caterpillars living 
in stony places and often feeding on the lichens 
growing upon rocks. Many of the species are 
very handsome, but injurious from devouring 
grass; they are small, slender-bodied, with 
long bristly antennsw, narrow fore wings, and 
smooth back; they often fly in the daytime; 
their caterpillars are sparingly clothed with 
hairs growing in clusters from small warts, and 
enclose themselves in cocoons of silk inter- 
woven with their own hairs; the rings of the 
chrysalids are closely joined. _ The most ele- 
gant species is the deiopeia bella, with white 
body, thorax dotted with black, fore wings 
deep yellow crossed by about six black-dotted 
white bands, the hind wings scarlet bordered 
with black behind, and a spread of about 14 in. ; 


Deiopeia bella. 


it can hardly be called injurious to vegetation. 
2. Arctiade, tiger and ermine moths, called 
woolly bears from the thick hairy covering of 
most of their caterpillars. The tongue is gen- 
erally very short, and the antenne doubly feath- 
ered on the under side, hardly visible in the 
females; feelers shorter and thicker than in 
the preceding family; wings roofed on each 
side, thorax thick, abdomen short and plump, 
generally with black spots; they fly only at 
night. The hairy caterpillars run very fast, 
and when irritated roll themselves into a ball; 
some, like the salt-marsh caterpillar and the 
yellow bear, are very injurious to vegetation; 
when about to change they creep into a pro- 
tected place, and make a cocoon of their own 
hairs and a little silk; the chrysalis is smooth, 
with movable joints. Most of our tiger and er- 
mine moths belong to the genus arctia (Schr.). 
The largest is the A. virgo, which gives out a very 
disagreeable odor; it expands 24 in., and the 
wings are reddish; the larva is brown. The 
great American tiger moth (A. Americana), rep- 
resented in Europe by the A. caja, expands 24 
in.; the fore wings are brown marked with 
white, and the hind ochre yellow spotted with 
blue black, and with a white edge on the collar; 
the caterpillar is blackish brown. The yellow 
bear (A. [S.] Virginica) is very common and de- 
structive in gardens, devouring almost all kinds 


MOTH 


of plants; the moth is called the white miller, 
and would be called an ermine moth in England. 
The salt-marsh caterpillar (A. [S.] aer@a) is a 
great pest to the salt-hay crop; it appears to- 


Salt-marsh Caterpillar (Arctia acr#a). 


a. Pupa. 06. Moth. 


ward the end of June, attaining the full size 
during August, nearly 2 in. in length. The 
Isabella tiger moth (A. Jsadelle) is remarkable 
for the stiffness and evenness of its hairy cov- 
ering, black toward the head and tail and tan- 
red between, with black body and head; the 
moth is tawny yellow with black dots, and the 
antenneg are not feathered. Some arctians de- 
vour the leaves of trees, the most familiar and 
destructive of which are the fall web worms (A. 
[S.] tewtor); the brood make a web in common, ~ 
sometimes extending over entire branches, and 

feed in company under its protection, devour- 
ing the upper and pulpy portion of the leaves; 
when full grown they are a little more than an 
inch long, and are thinly clothed with hairs; 
the general color is greenish yellow dotted with 
black, the head and feet black; the moths are 
white, with tawny yellow fore thighs and black- 
ish feet; the wings expand about 14 in. For 
full descriptions of these and other arctians, 
see Dr. Harris’s work on “Insects Injurious 
to Vegetation.” 8. Liparida, so called from 
the thickness of the body of the females, which 
are sometimes destitute of wings, while the 
slender males have broad wings; the antenns 
are bowed and doubly feathered below; the 
feelers are very hairy, as are the fore legs; the 
males sometimes fly by day. The caterpillars 
are in most half naked, the thin hairs growing 
chiefly on the sides; they are called tussocks 
in England, and have sometimes proved very 
destructive there; they are far less common 
and injurious in this country, where they are 
called vaporer moths; they belong to the genus 
orgyia, among others. 4. Lasiocampade, with 
very thick woolly bodies, without the usual 


bristles or hooks to the wings, with the front 


edge of the hind wings turned up; the larvae 
are generally not warty, and are sparingly 
clothed with short soft hairs, mostly on the 
sides; both sexes are winged, and fly only at 
night. Here belong the tent or lackey cater- 
pillars so common in neglected orchards; the 
eggs are placed as little cylinders around the 
ends of branches, and the larve when hatched 
make a tent like a spider’s web between the 
forks of the branches of apple and cherry 


MOTH 


trees; they spin from the mouth a silken 
thread which serves to conduct them to the 
tent in their search for food, and in this man- 
ner their pathways become in time well car- 


; tt | | { HH) 
\ hy dul cA YY 
eo eee 


A 
| a 


——  —_ 


American Tent Caterpillar (Clisiocampa Americana). 
a. Cocoon. &. Moth. 


peted and secure. They are called lackeys in 
England, and livrées in France, from their 
parti-colored livery of white, black, and yel- 
low. The American tent caterpillar or lackey 
(clisiocampa Americana) is so abundant and 
so well known as one of the worst enemies in 
the orchard, as to receive in many districts the 
name of “the caterpillar.” The lappet moths 
are so called from the hairs which grow from 
fleshy or warty appendages that hang like legs 
from the sides of every ring; the American 
lappet moth is the gastropacha Americana, 
described in Dr. Harris’s work above cited. 
The Chinese silkworm (4ombyx mori), which 
belongs here, is noticed under Sirkworm, and 
the processionary moth (B. processionnea) un- 
der CaTERPILLAR. 5. Saturniade, containing 
some of the largest and handsomest moths, 
with thick woolly bodies, widely feathered 
antenns, and wings without bristles or hooks, 
and generally with a conspicuous spot in the 
middle of each; they fly during twilight. The 
most beautiful of all is the luna moth (attacus 
luna), with long-tailed wings of light green 
expanding 44 to 54 in., each having a transpa- 
rent spot encircled with white, red, yellow, 
and black; the larva is bluish green, from 2 
to 8 in. long, and when at rest nearly as thick 
as the thumb; it is found on walnut and hick- 
ory trees, and’ spins a strong cocoon within a 
cavity formed by the drawing together of a 
few leaves. The polyphemus moth expands 
6 in., and is of a dull ochre yellow color, with- 
out tails to the wings. The A. Cecropia ex- 
pands to 64 in., with rounded untailed wings 
of a grizzled dusky brown, with a red eye spot 
with white centre and black edge. The A. 
Promethea expands to about 4 in. All these 
moths make very large cocoons entirely of silk, 
surpassing in strength those of the silkworm, 
and capable of being manufactured into very 
durable fabrics. Two other moths of this fam- 
ily, whose processionary larve are furnished 
with severely stinging prickles, are the Saturnia 
fo, expanding from 24 to 34 in., and the SV. 


869 


Maia, resting like the former with the wings 
closed, expanding to about 8 in. 6. Cerato- 
campade@, or horned caterpillars, being armed 
with thorny points, some of the anterior long 
and curved like horns; in the moths the short 
antenne are feathered at the basal half and 
thence naked to the tip; the wings, closed when 
at rest, have no hooks nor bristles; this family, 
according to Harris, is exclusively American. 
One of the largest, rarest, and most magnifi- 
cent is the royal walnut moth (ceratocampa 
regalis), expanding 5 or 6 in., the fore wings 
olive-colored with yellow spots and red lines, 
the hind wings orange red with yellow patches 
and olive spots; the horns of the formida- 
ble-looking larva are unable to wound. Other 
horned larvee belong to the genus dryocampa, 
as the imperial moth (D. imperialis), with 
yellow wings sprinkled and spotted with pur- 
ple brown, expanding to about 5 in. 7%. Zeu- 
zerade or hepialide, whose larve are concealed 
in the wood and pith of plants like the borers 
of the hawk moths; these larve are whitish, 
soft, nearly naked, with horny heads, and 16 
legs; they make imperfect cocoons. Here be- 
long the ghost moth of Europe (hepialus hu- 
muli), very injurious to the hop vine; the 
famous cossus ligniperda, so destructive to the 
elm and willow; and various borers of the 
locust tree in this country, the carpenter moths 
of the genus ayleutes (Newman), which in- 
cludes the C. ligniperda ; the last are some- 
times called goat moths from their strong odor. 
8. Psychade, or sack-bearers, from the lar- 
vee bearing about with them cases in which 
they live, made of bits of straw, leaves, and 
sticks, and lined with silk; they undergo their 
change within these; here belong the genera 
psyche, eceticus (drop or basket worms), and 
perophora. 9. Notodontade, so called from 
the hunched or toothed back of the larva; 
some are naked, others slightly hairy, with 16 
legs, of which the last pair are sometimes modi- © 
fied into a forked caudal appendage; some 
seem to be without legs, showing only the 
soles of the feet. Here belong the odd-shaped 
limacodes or slug caterpillars, found on forest 
and orchard trees; the dicranura or fork-tails, 
the last pair of legs being held upward; and 
the various species of the old genus notodonta, 
as the WV. unicornis and concinna. Il. Noctue 
or owlet moths, equivalent to the noctualites 
of Latreille, so called from their flying chiefly 
at night like owls. This tribe contains many 
thick-bodied and swift-flying moths, which gen- 
erally have long and tapering antenne, long 
tongue, distinct feelers, wings fastened by bris- 
tles and hooks and roofed when at rest; the 
colors are usually dull, and shades of gray or 
brown; the larve are for the most part naked, 
slow-moving, usually with 16 legs, and nearly 
cylindrical; some make cocoons, while oth- 


ers go into the ground to transform. Their 


injury to vegetation is considerable. Among 
them are the maple moths (apatela) of Amer- 
ica and Europe; the nonagrians, like the spin- 


870 MOTH 


dle worms; the agrotidians or rustic and dart 
moths and cut worms; and the mamestrians, 
like the zebra, painted, and wheat caterpillars, 
and cotton worms. III. Geometre or phale- 
nites of Latreille, including the geometers, span 
worms, and loopers, so called from their man- 
ner of moving. The characters of this tribe 
are sufficiently given under Canker Worm. 
It contains the genus phalena, which has been 
divided into many subgenera. IV. Pyralides 
or delta moths (included in the deltoides and 
tineites of Latreille), nearly allied to the geom- 
eters, and so called from the triangular A form 
of the closed wing; the body is long and slen- 
der, the fore wings rather narrow and elonga- 
ted, antennz long and generally simple, and 
the legs slender; most of them fly by night, 
preferring moist localities. Here belong the 
meal moth (pyralis farinalis), the grease or 
tabby moth, the day-flying simaéthis (remark- 
able for their gyrations after alighting), the 
aquatic hydrocampa, &c. (living in cylindrical 
leafy cases in the larva state), and the hop-vine 
hypena. V. Tortrices or leaf-rollers, so named 
from the habit of most of their larves of making 
rolls of leaves fastened by silk, serving both for 
habitations and food; they have 16 legs, and are 
mostly naked. The moths rarely expand more 
than an inch, and carry their wings when at 
rest like a steep roof; the fore wings are very 
broad at the shoulders, and are generally pret- 
tily banded and spotted; the hind wings are 
plain; the antenne thread-like, the tongue 
short, the body thick, and the legs short; they 
fly only at night, and are most abundant in 
midsummer. The bud caterpillars are fre- 
quently very injurious in orchards and flower 
gardens, fastening the tender leaves together 
and eating the substance of the bud, and some 
bore into and destroy young fruits; apricots, 
peaches, and plums often suffer much in this 
way. The turpentine moths pierce the tender 
shoots and terminal buds of the fir and pine 
trees, the seat of their depredations being indi- 
cated by the oozing of the resin. The moth 
of the apple worm (carpocapsa pomonella), 
which expands three fourths of an inch, may 
be known by a large oval brown spot, edged 
with copper, on the hinder margin of the fore 
wings; they lay their eggs on the young sum- 
mer apples in July evenings, dropping them 
one by one in the hollow at the blossom end 
of the fruit; the larve are hatched in a few 
days, and at once burrow toward the centre, 
only one being commonly found in each fruit ; 
it reaches the full size in about three weeks, 
by which time it has burrowed in various di- 
rections, getting rid of the refuse fragments by 
a hole which it gnaws in the side, through 
which it also escapes after the premature fall 
of the fruit; they make silken cocoons, and 
are not generally changed to moths till the fol- 
lowing summer. Pears and cranberries are 
affected by a worm apparently the same as 
that of the apple. VI. Tinew (tinettes, Latr.), 
the moths par excellence of the household, the 


MOTHERWELL 


destroyers of clothing, carpets, furs, &c., and 
those referred to in the Scriptures and by the old 
writers. The larve are smooth, with 16 feet, 
living usually in cases made from the fragments 
of the substances which they devour fastened 
together with silk, in which they move freely 
and unseen. Though the smallest of the lepi- 
doptera, they are among the most beautiful 
and the most destructive. Here belong, among 
the crambida, the bee or wax moth (galleria 
cereana), noticed under BEE; among the tinea- 
de, the clothes moth (tinea vestianella), carpet 
moth (7. tapetzella), fur moth (7. pellionella), 
hair moth (7. crinella), and grain moth (7. 
granella); and among the yponomentada, the 
pack moth (anacampsis sarcitella), destructive 
to wool and its fabrics, and the Angoumois 
grain moth (butalis cerealella). The best pre- 
ventives against moths in household articles 
are to put them away before May or June 
where the moths cannot reach them when 
about to lay their eggs; to expose them to the 
air and sun for hours, after a good beating to 
dislodge any insects or eggs; to brush over 
their retreats with turpentine; to strew cam- 
phor, black pepper, tobacco, or shavings of 
Russia leather under or among carpets, wool- 
lens, furs, or feathers, when they are put away 
for the summer; the use of camphor wood or 
cedar trunks; corrosive sublimate washings, 
tobacco, and sulphur fumigations, and the ac- 
tion of heat and steam. For an account of 
the American and European grain moths, see 
Wueat Morn. VII. Alucite or feather-winged 
moths, equivalent to the pterophorites of La- 
treille. These may be known by the longi- 
tudinal division of their wings into narrow 
fringed branches like feathers; the antenns 
are slender and tapering, the tongue long, the 


_body and legs long and slender, the wings at 


rest not covering the body, but standing out 
like a folded fan; the flight is slow and feeble, 
sometimes diurnal, sometimes nocturnal; the 
larve are short and thick, slightly hairy, with 
16 legs, living on leaves and flowers, and con- 
structing no cases. There are few species, and 
they are rarely injurious to man. 
MOTHE (or Motte) CADILLAC. See Canixrac.. 
MOTHER CAREY'S CHICKEN. See Perret. 
MOTHER OF PEARL. See Prart. 
MOTHERWELL, William, a Scottish poet, born 
in Glasgow, Oct. 18, 1797, died there, Nov. 
1, 1835. He was educated at the grammar 
school in Paisley, and at the age of 15 was 
placed in the office of the sheriff clerk of that 
place. He was sheriff clerk depute of the coun- 
ty of Renfrew from 1819 to 1829. In 1819 he 
edited the ‘‘ Harp of Renfrewshire,” a collec- 
tion of songs and poems. In 1827 appeared 
his ‘‘ Minstrelsy, Ancient and Modern,” with 
an elaborate historical introduction and notes, 
and several original poems in antique guise. 
He edited for a year the “‘ Paisley Magazine,” 
and printed in it some of his best poems, and 
between 1828 and 1830 conducted the ‘ Paisley 
Advertiser.” In the latter year he took charge 


MOTHERWORT 


of the “‘Glasgow Courier,” a journal of very 
decided tory principles, with which he remained 
connected until his death. In 1832 he pub- 
lished ‘‘Narrative and Lyrical Poems,” and 
soon alter commenced in conjunction with 
James Hogg an annotated edition of Burns’s 
works, which he did not live to complete. In 
1849 a greatly enlarged edition of his poetical 
“remains, accompanied by a memoir, was pub- 
lished in London. The heroine of his most 
famous poem, ‘Jeanie Morrison,” a school- 
mate, did not know that it alluded to herself 
until years after its publication, when she was 
married to a Mr. Murdoch. Motherwell con- 
tinually altered the poem as long as he lived. 
MOTHERWORT (leonurus cardiaca; Gr. Aéwr, 
a lion, and ovpéd,-a tail), a plant belonging to the 
mint family or dabiatew. It is met with around 
walls, fences, and neglected spots near farms 
and gardens. The root is perennial, stem 2 to 
5 ft. high, branching near the base, and downy ; 


SW ol, 


Yor 


le WS 


Motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca), 


leaves 2 to 4 in. long, lobed and broad, grow- 
ing narrower toward the top of the stem, the 
uppermost wedge-shaped at base and three- 
cleft at the apex, all bending downward. The 
flowers are borne in many whorls; the calyx 
has rigid and prickly teeth; the corolla, hairy 
without, is pale purple; the nutlets contain- 
mg the seeds are triquetrous and truncate at 
summit. Another species, L. marrubiastrum, 
has become partially naturalized in some dis- 
tricts of Pennsylvania; it is a tall biennial 
with oblong-ovate stem leaves and whiter flow- 
ers. The common motherwort has a strong, 
pungent odor, and a bitter taste, and, as its 
name indicates, has been used as a remedy in 
diseases of females, and at one time it acquired 
a reputation in Russia as a preventive of hy- 
drophobia; at most it is an aromatic tonic, and 
its use is now confined to domestic practice. 

MOTION. See Mronantos. 

MOTLEY, John Lothrop, an American histo- 
rian, born in Dorchester, Mass., April 15, 1814, 


MOTLEY S71 
died in England, May 29, 1877. He graduated 
at Harvard college in 1831, spent a year at each 
of the universities of Gdttingen and Berlin, and 
travelled in the south of Europe, chiefly in It- - 
aly. On his return to America he studied law, 
and was admitted to the bar in 1836, but prac- 
tised little. In 1839 he published a novel, 
‘‘Morton’s Hope, or the Memoirs of a Young 
Provincial.” In 1840 he was appointed sec- 
retary of legation to the American embassy 
to Russia, and held the post for about eight 
months, when he resigned and returned to the 
United States. In 1849 he published “ Merry 
Mount, a Romance of the Massachusetts Col- 
ony.” Meanwhile he had contributed vari- 
ous articles to some of the leading reviews. 
About 1846 he began to collect materials for 
the history of Holland, writing enough to form 
two volumes; but, unable to find at home the 
authorities necessary for the thorough prose- 
cution of the subject, he embarked for Europe 
with his family in 1851. Dissatisfied with his 
previous labors, he threw aside all he had writ- 
ten, and began his task anew. In Berlin, 
Dresden, and the Hague, he passed most of his 
time during the next five years in the compo- 
sition of his history, ‘‘The Rise of the Dutch 
Republic ” (8 vols. 8vo, London and New 
York, 1856). It was reprinted in English at 
Amsterdam, and was translated into Dutch 
under the supervision of the historian Bak- 
huyzen van den Brink, who prefixed an intro- 
ductory chapter. A German translation was 


| published at Leipsic and Dresden; and a 


French translation, with an introduction by 
Guizot, was published in 1859 in Paris, and 
another in Brussels in 1859-60. It was also 
translated into Russian. In 1860 Mr. Motley 
published the first two volumes of the second 
portion of the work, entitled ‘‘The History of 
the United Netherlands from the Death of Wil- 
liam the Silent to the Twelve Years’ Truce, 
1609;” and in 1867 it was completed in two 
additional volumes. This was followed in 
1874 by ‘‘ The Life and Death of John of Bar- 
neveld, Advocate of Holland; with a View of 
the Primary Causes of the Thirty Years’ War ” 
(2 vols.). At the time of his death Mr. Mot- 
ley was engaged in writing a ‘‘ History of the 
Thirty Years’ War.” He was elected a mem- 
ber of various learned societies in Europe and 
America, among them of the institute of France 
in place of Mr. W. H. Prescott. In 1860 he 
received the degree of D. C, L. from the uni- 
versity of Oxford, and that of LL. D. from 
Harvard college. He also received the de- 
gree of LL. D. from the university of Cam- 
bridge, England. In 1861 he published in the 
London ‘‘ Times” a paper entitled ‘‘ Causes of 
the American Civil War,” and in 1868 de- 
livered before the New York historical society 
an address on ‘‘ Historic Progress and Ameri- 
can Democracy.” On Nov. 14, 1861, he was 
appointed minister to Austria, and resigned in 
1867. On the accession of President Grant in 
1869 he was appointed minister to England, 


872 MOTMOT 


but was recalled in November, 1870, when he 
revisited Holland, and afterward resided in 
England. 

MOTMOT (momotus, Briss.; prionites, Ill.), 
a genus of American fissirostral birds of the 
family of rollers and subfamily momotine. 
The single genus is characterized by a bill 
rather long, slightly curved, with compressed 
sides, hooked and obtuse tip, and lateral mar- 
gins serrated; wings moderate and rounded, 


Brazilian Motmot (M. Brasiliensis). 


fourth to sixth quills nearly equal and longest ; 
tail lengthened and graduated, with the two 
middle feathers usually longer than the others; 
tarsi as long as the middle toe, covered in front 
with narrow transverse scales; toes unequal, 
the outer nearly as long as the middle and 
united at the base as far as the second joint, 
the inner short and slightly united, the hind 
short and weak, and the claws compressed and 


MOTRIL 


curved; the tongue is long and barbed as in 
the toucans. The name is derived from the 
peculiar notes. There are about a dozen spe- 
cies, bold and wild, inhabitants of tropical 
America and the West Indies, especially in the 
deep shades of the forests or gloomy recesses 
of old buildings; they are usually solitary in 
the daytime, perching with the head drawn 
between the shoulders; they are most lively 
at early morning and in the dusk of evening, 
pursuing insects in short flights; they also eat 
fruits, lizards, and snakes, which are tossed 
into the air from the point of the bill and 
swallowed; they sometimes devour the eggs 
of other birds. The nest is made in holes of 


trees or banks of earth. They are said to peck 


off the barbs from a portion of the stem of 
the central tail feathers, leaving a rounded 
feathered surface at the tip. The best known 
species is the Brazilian motmot (IZ. Brasilien- 
sis, Lath.), about the size of a blackbird, of a 
deep rich green color, with bluish forehead, 
violet back of head, and black crown. The 
movements are awkward on the ground. 

MOTRIL, a town of Spain, in the province 
and 36 m. §. by E. of the city of Granada; pop. 
about 18,000. The streets are in a bad condi- 
tion. The principal square contains the colle- 
giate church and the town house. Among the 
other public buildings are chapels which for- 
merly belonged to convents and a handsome 
church connected with a nunnery. The Medi- 
terranean having receded about a mile, the port 
has been removed to Calahonda, 7 m. E. of 
the town, and to the roads of Baradero. The 
principal imports are rice, sugar, coal, and 
wine, and the exports comprise fruit, oil, wine, 
and lead. Fish and fruit are especially plenti- 
ful. There are many potteries and several 
sugar and other manufactories. 


END OF VOLUME ELEVENTH. 


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SUPPLEMENT TO VOLUME XI. 


MAHAFFY 


AHAFFY, John Peytland, a British scholar, 
born at Chafonnaire, Switzerland, Feb. 
26, 1839. He was educated in Germany, and 
at Trinity college, Dublin, where he graduated 
with high honors in 1859. He has been pro- 
fessor of ancient history there since 1871, and 
Donnellan lecturer since 1878. He is also ex- 
aminer in philosophy, music, and modern Jan- 
guages. He has a high reputation as a sports- 
man and cricketer, and has shot in the Irish 
eight at Wimbledon. Besides numerous pa- 
pers in periodicals, he has published a transla- 
tion of Kuno Fischer’s ** Commentary on Kant” 
(1866); ‘‘ Lectures on Primitive Civilization” 
(1868); ‘‘Prolegomena to Ancient History ” 
and ‘ Kant’s Critical Philosophy, for English 
Readers” (1871); ‘‘Greek Social Life, from 
Homer to Menander” (1874); ‘“ Greek An- 
tiquities” and ‘‘Rambles and Studies in 
Greece” (1876); and “ A History of Classical 
Greek Literature” (1880). 

MAINE. The population of the state in 1880 
was 648,936, of whom 324,058 were males, 
324,878 females, 590,053 natives, 58,883 for- 
eign, 646,852 whites, 1,451 colored, 8 Chinese, 
and 625 Indians. The chief agricultural pro- 
ductions were 242.185 bushels of barley, 382,- 
701 of buckwheat, 960,633 of corn, 2,265,- 
575 of oats, 26,398 of rye, 665,714 of wheat, 
1,107,788 tons of hay, 7,999,625 bushels of 
potatoes; number of horses, 87,848; 43,049 
working oxen, 150,845 milch cows, 140,527 
other cattle, 565,918 sheep, 74,369 swine; 
value of manufactures, $79,829,793. The re- 
ceipts for the year 1882 were from the fol- 
lowing sources : 


State taxes: «oy. Andeminceract ee charegiarss os aps screen $1,055,289 62 
County taxes s icr.Ciws seacoast ar. oe ate 11,501 06 
Tasion savings, DARKS c.setes canes eo ae ee 206,469 43 


Tax on railroad, telegraph, express, and insur- 


AUCH COMPANIES sl! cota ayel ovatsinl cies e ies jae ake 138,601 89 
Interest on deposits Aad tire Seek eee 10,532 31 
MIIBCOURNEOUS SOULCES .= s.c\c.sisisielecte ea wtealais cts.ciet 9,735 89 

MENUD ESE ta e's o's sua » dsl autee ate faeters ets malate tate S $1,482,180 20 


The expenditures for the year 1882 were as 
follows: 


MAINE 

PAUDIECHOGDU., he ves oe aus ce ae ee we oak ete cnsin a te $52,000 00 
Ingerestionspublic dobter.c.ccasose vee es eneaa 826,912 00 
Sipkingwun dye. ..s say cso eee oe 80,479 95 
Educational purposes..........c..2-00- sclaeieiesc 870,005 43 
ASriculburalpurposeSieces sence \eieles deed eaee 8,776 50 
State college of agriculture and mechanic arts.. 1,000 00 
Penal and reformatory TOSUTIGULLON Seperate cts 24,815 49 
Sundry other institutions} s.. 25/4... ce.ce sce 11,400 00 
Insane and other state paupers..............:. 44,239 37 
Military PUTPOBES 25... cece ces cee eee ne ee cess 15,235 56 
PCNSIOUSH Nee ete ah ecco t orn sean eins 19,582 70 

Railroad and telegraph taxes paid to towns and 
CULE Rae Sas seen eee eens Seber IT EN oS iat 14,727 09 
Indianttribeseussmas cee nents Sac tite series 13,785 35 
County taxes paldis5270. 22a ae. ent 2 9,384 49 

Miscellaneous and current expenses of the state 

government, including salaries of all state 
oflicers, judges, and county attorneys........ 107,487 10 
8 Movie) eae ee ACER cltanao e mac meen acre $1,099,880 94 


LIABILITIES AND RESOURCES, 


Jan. 1, 1882. | Jan. 1, 1883. 
LIABILITIES. 
Bonded: detveese sae deaiceincre $5,801,900 00) $5,749,900 09 
EDEUS te LUM aeteae site telciewel victor 707,283 59] 719,031 98 
Due school district No. 2, Mad- 

ISOM oereter cere capers ishsrstaleteis crate ks 1,000 00 1,000 06 
Soldiers’ bounty scrip........... 800 00 800 00 
Balance due on school fund, rolls 

of accounts, interest, and war- 

rants uncalled for, &c......... 414,679 86} 459,065 82 
County taxes collected .......... §,269 51 11,486 68 

Wotaley ere de bee cect $6,938,952 96 $6,941,284 48 
RESOURCES 

Sinkan Oy fond Aecidioe Maecietciue eae: 1,486,367 29) 1,571,185 03 

Wincollested taxes). ¢e .-..-s = 1,005,029 79} 1,011,722 85 

Cashvinitresstry cfu eee ae vets 142,405 26] 474,704 52 

Balance, net indebtedness of state |, 4,850,150 62) 8,883,672 58 

LOCALID ser erratets sect late see a's $6,933,952 96 $6,941,284 48 


The total bonded debt of the state, less the 
sinking fund, was 


Jan. 1, 1881 Re apa ak ca eh $4,576,048 
SE SAM Mt eE S 9h , 18eicPo icn'ials 2 Baste 365, 
IRE ES ho ge 4,178,715 


There are now in operation fifty-five savings 
banks, all but six of which have been chartered 
since 1865. 


In 1860 the deposits were Ss Revtetu a cede stvastte eae $1,466,457 56 
SELIM SOR ales Ply ve y-ased dusle cinta Seats amteeres 6,579,888 78 
“ 1880 ag Boe ey Rie Sete atte ete 23,277,675 82 
1881 sf beUh eh cate stermeculoeanee es oes 26,474,555 97: 
“© 1882 ae wet oie ree siecrieeia ohare tural . 29,503,889 71 


Corrygicgut Br D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 1880, 1883. 


874 


The number of depositors in these banks dur- 
ing the year increased 7,512, the total number 
being 95,487, of whom 76,602 were depositors 
of sums not exceeding $500 each. The aver- 
age amount to the credit of each depositor 
was $308 87.—On Dec. 1, 1881, there were 
in the insane hospital 450 patients (240 men 
and 210 women); admitted during the fol- 
lowing year, 194 (114 men and 80 women); in 
all, 644; discharged, 183 (103 men and 80 wom- 
en); remaining Dec. 1, 1882, 461 (251 men and 
210 women). The daily average number of pa- 


tients for the year 1881-’2 was 449.—The num- 


ber of prisoners in the state prison Nov. 30, 
1882, was 147, a falling off of 37 since the cor- 
responding date of 1881. There is a marked 
increase in the number of life-sentences. In 
1870 the number was 10, or 6 per cent. of the 
whole number of convicts; in 1876 it was 18, 
or 10 per cent.; now the number is 386, or 25 
per cent. The net cost to the state for the 
past two years above earnings has been about 
$90 per annum to each convict. The manufac- 
ture of shoes has been abandoned, and that of 
carriages increased.—During the eight years 
that the industrial school for girls has been in 
operation, 148 girls have been admitted to the 
institution. Of this number, 81 are now in 
good homes, 8 have been returned to friends, 
2 sent to the orphans’ home at Bath, 3 have 
escaped, 6 have been dismissed, and 4 have 
died, leaving 44 now in attendance. The aver- 
age attendance for the years 1881 and 1882 
was 39 and 40 respectively. The whole num- 
ber of boys who have been received into the 
state reform school since it was opened is 
1,711; 1,084 were committed for larceny, 190 
for truancy, and 104 for being common run- 
aways. The number remaining in Dec., 1882, 
was 110. The total receipts from Dec. 1], 
1881, to Dec. 1, 1882, were $21,742 60; ex- 
penditures, $21,716 40. Thenumber of pupils 
in the state in 1881 was 213,927; in 1880, 
214,656; a decrease of 729. The whole num- 
ber attending school in 1881 was 150,067; in 
1880, 149,829; an increase of 240. The de- 
crease in the number of children of school 
age has been constant since 1870, with the ex- 
ception of one year, and in11 years amounts to 
14,240. While there has been a decrease in 
school population, there has been a steady 
gain in attendance. The number of school 
districts in the state is 3,966; 89 towns have 
abolished the district system. There are 4,308 
school-houses. During the year 57 school- 
houses were erected, at an aggregate cost of 
$95,347. The estimated value of all the school 
property in Maine is $3,026,395. The number 
of male teachers employed in summer schools 
is 805; in winter schools, 2,257. Number of 
female teachers in summer schools, 4,638; in 
winter schools, 2,481. The average wages of 
male teachers per month, excluding board, is 
$28 23; of female teachers, $14 52. The total 
school resources for the year were $1,047,229. 
Of this amount, $706,521 came from town 


MAINE 


treasuries; $316,439 from the state, and $24,- 
269 from local funds. The amount expended 
for common schools, current expenses, was 
$965,697. There are 101 towns in the state 
where free high schools are maintained, an in- 
crease of 15 over 1880. The total cost of 
these schools was $69,469, of which the state 
paid $16,910. The state agricultural college 
has an endowment from the national govern- 
ment of $232,500, yielding an annual revenue 
of about $7,500. It has received from the 
state $187,218. It has buildings, grounds, 
library, apparatus, farming tools, stock, &c., 
valued at $145,000. It has required from the 
state, in addition to the income from the 
national endowment, less than $3,500 a year 
for all current expenses, and has graduated 
180 students and given instruction to 201 oth- 
er students.—The number of establishments 
devoted to the lumbering industry is 848, 
employing 9,839 men, and the total value of 
all products in 1880 was $7,933,868. Maine 
holds the rank of seventh state in the Union 
in the value of her lumber products, Mich- 
igan, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, New York, 
Ohio, and Indiana, in the order named, tak- 
ing the lead.—Maine stands at the head of 
the great fishing industry of the country. In 
1880 the number of persons employed was 
12,662; the number of vessels engaged was 
606; the capital invested was $3,454,302; the 
value of fishing products in marketable condi- 
tion was $8,739,224. The value of the same 
products in 1870 was only $979,610. It is 
estimated that the number of inhabitants of 
Maine who are largely dependent upon the 
fishing industry for a livelihood will not fall 
short of 48,000 men, women, and children, 
about 74 per cent. of the population, and it 
represents an industry of nearly $7,000,000. 
The total catch of the Maine fishing fleet dur- 
ing the year 1882, a total fleet of 289 vessels, - 
with a crew of 2,785 men, 71 being on the 
Grand and Western banks and 218 on the New 
England shore and George’s bank, was 78,806 
on the former grounds, and 221,911 on the lat- 
ter, being a total of 195,717 quintals. The to- 
tal catch of mackerel for. the New England 
fleet was 349,674, of which 119,547 is credited 
to Maine vessels. The following statement 
represents the fisheries according to their 
value: Herring fishery (including ‘the sardine 
industry), $1,048,753 ; mackerel fishery, $659,- 
304; cod fishery, $656,753; lobster fishery, 
$412,076; hake fishery, $278,836; haddock 
fishery, $225,393. The entire lobster catch of 
Maine for the year is found to be 14,234,182 
Ibs., of which 4,739,808 Ibs. were sold fresh, 
and 9,494,284 lbs. were put up by the 23 can- 
neries located in different parts of the state. 
The gathering and storing of ice is compara- 
tively a new industry in Maine. The ice har- 
vest on the Kennebec river and vicinity, in 
the year 1880, amounted to 1,000,000 tons, an 
increase of 750,000 tons over 1870.—The fol- 
lowing new railroad corporations were organ- 


MAINE 


ized durimg 1882: Kennebunk and Kennebunk- 
port railz:oad; length about 44 m.; standard 
gauge. Monson raijroad company; length about 


MAJOR 875 
length about 1 m.; standard gauge. The Bridg- 


ton and Saco river railroad company was organ- 
ized in 1882, and at the close of 1882 had nearly 


6 m.; gauge, 2 ft. Green Mountain railway; | completed the whole line of 154 m.; gauge, 2 ft. 


RAILROADS. 


| Whole length main 


NAME OF RAILROAD. Miles ; 
line operated. 

PATOUSLOOMPELEVOL LualLWAY:, 6 estat eralcisie tot CRT TR EMR ee ce Bacal te os cuigecle eaemad ne 80° 80° 
Atlaprc and StaLawrence (Grand Trunk), .c7taaeaskee ds os agedececseccsksdlwese cue los 824 149'5 
Androscoggin (Maine Central), viz.: 
SALUT AIOE seater ls ects oh ee ine ae arte Tee NA nS ee ay eins sais, 4.+ oG.9 4,sia's sib slew e's 8 15°65 
Brunswick to Farmington, including branch to Lewiston, ..... ........... ce cece seen eee 66°9 
BBB O RARE Fan CALAQHIN, fy sctacneh) home eae Ais © a that boy Re cash e Se sec eidien doa Rests 62°5 62°5 
Baugowandsnatandin: [ron WOrks Ballwayacuct ch esncc sdeeiseteeseleisies. css s censicewee siete ies 19° ee 
Belfast and Moosehead Lake (Muine Central)... 2.2.2... cece ccc cece ce tect ec ce recs en cecs 83° 33° 
Postonmane Males id 44 ie SSS tial cbs Meetealaded #25 Mela eictek tke, ca tone 44- 116° 
PALIOSCOU AIRS ACU LVLV CI gat a terete Mel Poteet siale, e/a a cnlie ale = elas. el scin\eio pe leks fos disieda¥eib.ai of eleie 6 15°5 15°5 
Bucksporviand, Banporsess eee coos aver. Pee ANTS. Sais eins Leche’ jess ses 18°8 18°8 
Huropean’ and North’ American (Maine Central) 2.0 cc eile recs cla vec cece cise ssccecocece 114-2 114°2 
Girandel rum ki eee eee te. oer ei teers dieses Sata Sees Aeide| delhi sith oe S50 aides oes — 1,388°5 
Houlton branch: (New brunswick and Canada) cco ess 4 slese a2 sj ejeisidieesaleidewtencee oes 3° 8° 
NGHOXTAUOMENNCOUNA TH pea are eer Ate ce clente me sntcoaternsie se csleiere ss doskitcasis cc's cs sdiccsevew sees 49° 49° 
Hewistonand vu purnnt Grange runk)seipy aca sc otis Sua ek ste ec cleleyeeiss adsicics Secese sess 5°56 55 
OWISLGH AUC EA UDULDH EL OLSO) es aii sere ehats ort, uc eieiees stei sunid) wip hebev ste. staple Aejelos, <b binledeys, ayele/oie/sae 5: 5: 
Maine Central (to Bangor via Augusta, inclusive of Portland and Kennebec, 63 miles)... 136°6 136°6 
Maine Central (Cumberland via Lewiston to Waterville).............cceescee cece ee eeee 72°93 72°93 
New Brunswick (Aroostook River)................2-00000% Wo tuida wis cietyochse ada Cate a Sas —— 174° 
New runswickvand Canada (EGultOn;DVanch cp «cle eis 0'a es sieiele o's aie Ac avisie <i wie vial eisiiewwc — 128° 
Newport. and: Dexter (Maine Central) Fagin ed naw occadcio a cides ole svelds cies Netaciseles sc cess. 14: 14° 
iNonway, brane (Grand wirink ) mc pers is rtaatsistc spa sbistee 2 tiste feist tie cle) -1p)Nehelerslaye iors elatel ares 1°5 1:5 
OidsOrehard hun Chon ecg nara sacoelore terre oeete tele sas alouesess"s)aich sence oes 8° Wehr Pice Saanas hoa oeee 2°5 2°5 
OCERINDLPCOUMI OLSON a. nee Pesan sree ot ond aie viel ticle wale Cidls lol nvevsie Guests nisnnes to cise bse 1°5 — 
Orchardvseaclwa tao tee ees sess ae ea ilatet ee Bie ctehe Go ssa titela se stale es 5 tae goes 3° 3° 
Portland and) Kennebec (Maine, Central) i... 5 nes. cca be cies tata 50 oe be + Sisle's's gets e 04 since eo — ae 
POLUANG ALOK OFAN SDUTL ten vate ae i ciciccclsl sinjen seine tees ois 8 cir s stores ere oF ejeibis.e's.ciccace eee ails 51° 110 
Portlandjand Rochester’ ss ssi. sles eles ess slele sw eta ceecte « aichte MD Cl BED CAOESEL trash Eee 49°5 52° 
Portland. Wacosand ports oub #5 ce fees bi<'<13 sitio a om wie Siciolere ls. s'slold.cydere sfere'slag siidete’s oles 50°75 51° 
POVGIANG (DOLSR) ry eta aU eee einai sa Rc aie elas sais oveinicia © est sieccvets, cle mn leyera oie pals Siogabe, avai siaysiays 7:25 7°25 
Portsmouth, Great Falls, and Conway.............. Fe PS MEN allel aye che Ghaieisie. ae ache a eats 2°92 72° 
RumifordiWalisiand( Buck fieldayps Pr seain ais esis aichd s a aicroiaiths aioe 36 Pejonmileg elds ieelaa scloes Sc 27°5 27°5 
PU AIAG Vk bud WCU ere eteiars ore gotchas polar een abate ototete fein ctane « Biole im Cacsievapalalcye ciois. ole stare's Goi e @ \ajc\(ojele) sielaieloreie 18- 18° 
POINOEAS bat raret Mee tials erate steele estes oiej chars erga ie a) octal pn imate oo SS ope oinin isi v's sl aisimaliesiatels oree aeele ais 25° 25° 
Somerset and Kennebec (Waterville to Skowhegan, Maine Central).................-2-- | 18°19 37°15 
St. Croix and Penobscot......... SR Oe GRA BOR ORE RE Bee COTE IRE CAE eee a AEE A AP 18: 22° 
Be Crom (New Brunswick and Canada) rc caiscvciai- cle cide siaidisa's vies close asses acess cicvics ae 50 q- 
Vy ett y Ville BUC MACIIGR ys faek eecc sce tec et apes bre seeles ccs ce cacn cect eacaener anes: 75 TS 

ANSE eet ene sel Pa rta oa ata5 ahs aia hee asad ole eis eral tierce oie ails ici oit she.a Biase) s/,Shejole. 4 0g wie he) o\ecar4 1,065°39 8,066°68 


—tThe following table, giving the tonnage of 
vessels launched, exhibits the ship-building of 
the state for four years: 


Lewiston, 19,083; Bangor, 16,856; Biddeford, 
12,651; Auburn, 9,555; Augusta, 8,665. See 
map in supplement to Volume V. 

MAJOR, Richard Henry, an English geographer, 


DISTRICTS. 1879, 1880. 1381, 1882. | born in London in 1818. He has had charge 
Dtasersdausddiaieion:) 62-81 atu) ite 182°90| 83-75 | Of the maps in the British museum since 1844, 
Frenchman’s Bay..| 283735] 28°89 81-30} 246-32 | and has made important discoveries. A manu- 
MACBINS tn o> 1,523°93) 1,007°53) 93°30) 2,904°40 | script which he found in 1861 transfers from 
Oanatingsy. 35.) 054.. 668°67| 1,845°99] 1,890°32] 1,055-57 
Bangui acts a,c 159°31 83°89} 1,042°75] 1,402°50 the Dutch to the Portuguese the honor of first 
Ee 23: SR ae : ine ety od toes discovering Australia, and makes the date of 

aldoboro’........ ATS" 312° 551° 2 . : 
Raanebari eek 2438-02 1°746-47| 11956°09| 730-92 that discovery 1601. Four years later he read 
Wiscasset ......... 41°06 27869 1346-68 atin before the society of antiquaries a paper on a 
Portland........... 7,200°39] 3,099°11) 2.037710] 5,879 Winans ‘oh Gt 
Baths! . cpa 1733-59] 29185-92| 8633413] 42187-71 | ™@2Ppemonde by Leonardo da Vinci, which is 
| ere | -——_——|—__-— | the earliest known map containing the name 

Aggregate..... 87,584" 61 35,847°15, 58,992°93) 75,084°91 | of America, and is now in the royal collection 

at Windsor. He has edited ‘‘Select Letters of 
A summary of 1882 follows: Christopher Columbus” (1847); ‘The Histo- 
uae * =a ry of Travaile into Virginia Britannia, by W. 

________ | Strachey, first Secretary of the Colony 
AL REHCITLOS,. . ) onc 4 s/octahe ere @areeecredciclene 12 5,897 02 (1849) ; “% India in the Fifteenth Century » 
Sleep e| Ma | Manet | 851); Barly Voyages to Terra Australis” 
2 EE RE SFP 11 4.833:22 | (1859); and ‘‘ Voyages of the Venetian Broth- 
MRM ais spike Se njole cle cgtin eae sce 14 PaO 24 ers Nicolé and Antonio Zeno to the Northern 
a Bi id cS <na0iyp Sine ead 163 | 75,084-91 | Seas, in the Fourteenth Century, comprising 


—The population of the principal places, by 
the census of 1880, was: Portland, 33,810; 


the latest known Accounts of the lost Colony 
of Greenland, and of the Northmen in America 
before Columbus.” The last of these had never 


876 MAKART 


before been elucidated. Mr. Major has also 
published one original work, “The Life of 
Prince Henry of Por tugal, surnamed the Navi- 
gator, and its Results” (1868). 

MAKART, Hans, a German painter, born in 
Salzburg, May 28, 1840. He studied in the 
school of Piloty at Munich, settled in Vienna, 
and is now a professor there. He excels as a 
colorist, but has been severely criticised for his 
bad drawing and his sensuous and artificial 
treatment. His works, most of which are 
very large, include ‘‘ Venice doing Homage to 
Catharine Cornaro” (exhibited at Philadel- 
phia in 1876, and now in the Berlin national 
gallery), ‘‘ Roman Ruins,” ‘‘ The Seven Capi- 
tal Sins,” “The Plague at Florence,” “ The 
Dream of a Man of Pleasure,” ‘‘Romeo by 
the Body of Juliet,” ‘‘ Cleopatra,” ‘“‘ Entrance 
of Charles V. into Antwerp,” and “ The Gifts 
of Sea and Earth.” 

MALLOCK, William Hurrell, an English author, 
born in Devonshire in 1849. His mother is a 
sister of Froude the historian. He was edu- 
cated at Oxford, where in 1871 he obtained 
the Newdegate prize for English poetry. He 
has published ‘“‘Every Man his own Poet” 
(1872); “The New Republic” (1876) ;.‘ The 
New Paul and Virginia, or Positivism on an 
Island ” (1878); ‘‘ Lucretius,” in the series of 
‘“¢ Ancient Classics for English Readers” (1878) ; 
“Ts Life Worth Living?” which had first 
appeared in fragmentary form in magazines 
(1879); a volume of poems (1880); ‘‘A Ro- 
mance of the Nineteenth Century ” (1881); and 
“Social Equality ” (1882). He resides in Ex- 
eter. 

MALTBY, Edward, an English prelate, born 
in Norwich in 1770, died in 1859. He was 
educated at Pembroke college, Oxford, where 
he carried off a large number of honors in clas- 
sics and mathematics. He was successively 
vicar of Buckden, Huntingdonshire, chaplain 
to the bishop of Lincoln, prebendary of Lin- 
coln, and preacher at Lincoln’s Inn, London. 
He was consecrated bishop of Chichester in 
1831, and translated to Durham in 1836. His 
published works are: ‘Illustration of the 
Truth of the Christian Religion” (8vo, 1802) ; 
‘Lexicon Greeco- Prosodiacum,” by Thomas 
Morell, over which the bishop spent eleven 
years (2 vols. 4to, 1815); ‘‘Sermons on Vari- 
ous Subjects” (2 vols. 8vo, 1819-22); ‘ Ser- 
mons preached in the Chapel of Lincoln’s Inn” 
(8vo, 1831); “* Psalms and Hymns” (1838); 
““Greek Gradus” (2d ed., 1840); and ‘‘ New 
and Complete Greek Gradus” (1851). 

MANBY, Charles, an English engineer, born 
in 1804. He served an apprenticeship under 
his father at the Horsley iron works in Staf- 
fordshire, and erected the first marine engines 
with oscillating cylinders, which his father had 
invented. He designed and built in 1820 the 
‘‘ Aaron Manby,” an iron sea-going vessel pro- 
pelled by steam, and served as engineer on her 
first voyage. He superintended the erection 
_of the Paris gas works, and, after service under 


MANNERS 


the French government, settled in London in 
1836 as a civil engineer. He was a member 
of the scientific international commission ap- 
pointed by M. de Lesseps to consider the pro- 


ject of a canal through the isthmus of Suez; 


and he originated in 1860 the engineer and rail- 
way volunteer staff corps, which is frequently 
consulted by the government as to transporta- 
tion of troops and the defence of the kingdom. 

MANITOBA. The areaof Manitoba is 123,201 
sq. m., and its population in 1881 was 65, 954, 
of whom 37,207 were males, 28,747 females, 
11,503 of English, 9,949 of French, 8,652 of 
German, 6,767 of Indian, 10,1738 of Trish, and 
16,506 of Scotch origin; 9,499 were Baptists, 


12,246 Roman Catholics, 14,297 Church of Eng- 


land, 7,470 Methodists, and 14,292 Presbyte- 
rians. A considerable number of Icelanders 
and Russian Mennonites have settled in the 
province. Its limits were extended on the N., 
E., and W. in 1881, prior to which its area was 
19; 787 sq. m.; pop. of the original territory in 
1881, 49,502; of the extension, 16,452. Win- 
nipeg, its capital, had 7,985 inhabitants in 1881. 
The boundary dispute between Ontario, Mani- 
toba, and the Dominion government was the 
subject of excited controversy during 1882. 
The disputed territory is about 97,000 sq. m. 
in extent. It is rich in timber, and contains 
mineral resources and some fertile tracts. The 
arbitrators to whom the question was referred 
in 1878, by the Dominion and Ontario govern- 
ments, awarded it to Ontario as possessing, un- 
der the British North America act, the same 
boundaries as the former province of Upper 
Canada, which had succeeded to the western 
boundaries of old Quebec. The western line 
was defined by the treaty of 1763 with France 
as the extension of a line drawn along the 
course of the Mississippi river. The northern 
line was determined by the southern boundary 
of the Hudson bay company’s territory, which 
was defined to be the ‘height of land.” The 
Ontario legislature promptly ratified the de- 
cision. The Dominion parliament not only 
omitted to do so, but made Manitoba a party 
to the dispute by an act passed in the closing 
days of the session of 1881, making the boun- 
dary of Manitoba conterminous with the west- 
ern border line of Ontario. The Dominion 
parliament passed a resolution providing for 
the joint administration of the disputed terri- 
tory by a commission appointed by the provin- 
cial government of Ontario and the federal 
government, pending the adjudication of the 
matter by the supreme court or the privy coun- 
cil. The question was still unsettled, the On- 
tario government being unwilling to have the 
award of the commission of arbitration. By 
the act of 1881, about 35,000 sq. m. of the dis- 
puted territory would be joined to Manitoba, 
including all the valuable timber between Lake 
Superior and the Lake of the Woods, estimated 
at 26,000,000,000 feet. 

MANNERS, John James Robert, an English states- 
man, born at Belvoir castle, Leicestershire, 


a 


MARDI GRAS 


Dec. 18, 1818. He is the second son of the 
fifth duke of Rutland. He was educated at 
Eton and Cambridge, graduating in 1889, and 
in 1841 was, with Mr. Gladstone, elected to 
parliament, as a conservative, for Newark. 
After being beaten in the elections of 1847 and 
1849, he was returned for Colchester in 1850. 
He was appointed first commissioner of the 
office of works and sworn a privy councillor 
in Lord Derby’s first two administrations (1852 
and 1858-9), and in his third (1866~’8) was 
reappointed, with a seat in the cabinet. In 
1874 he became postmaster general, but went 
out of office after the general election of 1880. 
He is a stanch churchman and a friend of the 
agricultural interest, and is heir presumptive 
to the dukedom of Rutland. He has published 
‘* Kngland’s Trust, and other Poems” (1841); 
“A Plea for National Holy-days” (1848); 
‘Notes of an Irish Tour” (1849); ‘ Notes of 
a Cruise in Scotch Waters, on board the Duke 
of Rutland’s Yacht Resolution, in 1848,” with 
sketches by J. C. Schetky (1850); ‘English 
Ballads, and other Poems” (1850); and sey- 
eral lectures and speeches. 

MARDI GRAS (Fr., fat Tuesday), the day pre- 
ceding Ash Wednesday. (See SHROVETIDE.) 
In New Orleans, Mobile, Galveston, and other 
large cities of the south, the time-honored 
custom of carnival and merry-making on that 
day is kept up—a custom that has been prac- 
tised in the old world for centuries. Selden 
says: ‘‘What the church debars us one day, 
she gives us leave to take out of another; first 
Carnival, and then Lent;’’ and Shakespeare: 
‘¢ Welcome, merry Shrovetide.” We read in 
‘‘Percy’s Household Book” (1512) that ‘the 
clergy and officers of Lord Percy’s chapel per- 
formed a play before his lordship upon Shrowf- 
tewesday, at night.” As early as 1827 the 
masked parade was introduced into New Or- 
leans by some young creole gentlemen just re- 
turned from Paris; but the pageant did not 
become an institution until 1837, when the cit- 
izens came out in sufficient force to make a 
brilliant display. The day is now a legal holi- 
day, and from two o’clock in the afternoon un- 
til sunset the streets are filled with masquer- 
aders, while the rest of the inhabitants estab- 
lish themselves in balconies, windows, and other 
available places, to witness the spectacle. The 
beuf gras (fat ox), a prize animal, with gar- 
landed horns, heading a procession of masked 
butchers, is a leading feature of the display. In 
1872 ‘Rex,” or the ‘“ King of the Carnival,” 


made his first appearance there, and added ma-. 


terially to the grandeur of the show; now he 
arrives annually at noon on Shrove Tuesday, 
having been previously heralded in all the daily 
journals; his landing at New York or some 
other port being duly noticed, and little inci- 
dents of his journey carefully reported, together 
with items of his prowess in war and self-pos- 
session in times of emergency. He is generally 
represented as a gray-bearded man, weighed 
down with the triumphs of centuries. In his 


MARYLAND 874 


march through the city he is preceded by two 
pages bearing his sceptre and the keys of his 
kingdom on velvet cushions, accompanied by 
his courtiers, and escorted by a guard of for- 
eign as well as United States soldiers fantas- 
tically dressed. A night parade was first in- 
augurated in 1857 by a secret society, the ‘* Mys- 
tick Krewe of Comus.”” The arrangements are 
most perfect, and are carried on so mysterious- 
ly that the result is always an entire surprise 
to the public. The maskers, young gentlemen, 
are drawn on open drags profusely decorated, 
and illustrate as they pass some poem, as “‘ Par- 
adise Lost” in 1857 and ‘“ Lalla Rookh” in 
1868, or some event in history, as in 1860, when 
they illustrated that of America by artistically 
arranged groups of living statuary mounted on 
moving pedestals. In 1867, as a change from 
their classical exhibitions, and in imitation of 
their ancestors who, in their masquerading on 
Shrove Tuesday in 1623, were represented as 
being “ better fed than taught,” the ‘‘ Mystick 
Krewe” made a tempting display of viands 
called the ‘* Feast of Epicurus.” Their ingenui- 
ty was put to the test in representing an ani- 
mated soup tureen and ladle, followed by fish, 
bivalve, and lobster, and the various courses 
and entrées of a gourmand’s dinner. Of course, 
walking bottles and wine glasses played a con- 
spicuous part in the procession, which ended 
with lively cups of coffee and bunches of cigars. 
In 1878 the Darwinian theory was developed, 
which furnished great scope for the imagina- 
tion: noticeable among the flowers was the 
magnolia bud, most tastefully humanized; the 
giraffe, alligator, deer, and ass were as effective 
if less attractive. In 1870 the ‘‘ Twelfth-Night 
Revellers””’ appeared upon the scene, and they 
have since vied with Comus’s Krewe in a host 
of fantastic tableaux. The pleasures of the day 
culminate in tableaux and a grand ball at the 
opera house, where the ‘“‘ carrot” and ‘‘ Oura- 
coa” of the Epicurean display, or the ‘‘ gorilla” 
of Darwin, pay their addresses to wondering 
damsels, and the Rex of the day chooses a Re- 
gina, who is crowned with fitting pomp. 

MARKS, Henry Stacy, an English painter, born 
in London, Sept. 18, 1829. He was educated 
in Paris and at the royal academy in London, 
and has been a constant exhibitor there since 
1853. He devotes himself almost entirely to 
genre and quaint or humorous medicval sub- 
jects. His most successful pictures are “ Dog- 
berry’s Charge to the Watch,” ‘Slender’s 
Courtship,” ‘‘The Sexton’s Sermon,” ‘The 
Book Worm,” “ Waiting for the Procession,” 
‘‘The Apothecary,” ‘ The Spider and the Fly,” 
‘‘Toothache in the Middle Ages,” ‘‘ Experi- 
mental Gunnery in the Middle Ages,” ‘‘ The 
Franciscan Sculptor,” and “A Day’s Earn- 
ings.” He has exhibited some water-colors, 
the chief of which is ‘‘The Princess and the 
Pelican.” 

MARYLAND. The population of the state in 
1880 was 934,948, of whom 462,187 were males, 
472,756 females; 852,137 natives, 82,806 for- 


878 


eign, 724,693 whites, 210,230 colored. The 
chief agricultural productions were 186,667 
bushels of buckwheat, 15,968,533 of corn, 1,- 
497,017 of Irish and 329,590 of sweet potatoes, 
1,794,872 of oats, 288,067 of rye, 8,004,864 of 
wheat, 264,468 tons of hay, 26,082,147 Ibs. of 
tobacco; number of horses, 117,796; 12,561 
mules and asses, 22,246 working oxen, 122,907 
milch cows, 117,387 other cattle, 171,184 sheep, 
335,408 swine; value of manufactures, $106,- 
780,563; of fishery products, $5,221,715; coal 
mines, 2,227,844 tons; iron ore, 57,940 tons. 
There were 2,551 public schools, including 486 
for colored children and 109 high schools; ex- 
pended for school purposes, $1,395,284; pupils 
enrolled, 149,981, of whom 26,533 were col- 
ored; average attendance, 85,449.—The re- 
ceipts into the treasury during the year end- 
ing Sept. 80, 1882, were $1,924,481 47, being 
$72,159 61 less than those of 1881. The state 
debt is $11,269,031 78, of which $401,529 18 
have been, in fact, paid in advance and de- 
posited in the sinking funds, leaving the out- 
standing debt $10,867,502 60. The interest of 
the state in works of internal improvement is 
held for, and when sold is applied to, the pay- 
ment of this debt. Under the defence re- 
demption loan act of 1882, the defence loan of 
1868, amounting to $3,000,000, bearing 6 per 
cent. interest, falling due in January, 1884, will 
be converted in 1883 at par into the new loan 
at 3°65 per cent. interest. The revenues for 
the year, $1,924,481 47, together with the bal- 
ance in the treasury, Sept. 80, 1881, of $752,- 
198 29, make a total of $2,676,679 76. While 
the actual value of property of every descrip- 
tion throughout the state has increased largely 
since the assessment of 1877, there has been a 
decrease in the assessed value upon which the 
direct tax is levied. The state levy for 1882, 
at the rate of 18% cents on the $100, was $871,- 
546 59, of which only $490,923 79 were paid 
into the treasury, leaving $380,622 80 uncol- 
lected. The receipts of taxes from incorpo- 
rated institutions were $63,336 41, leaving due 
and upaid $108,125 88. The receipts from li- 
censes and taxes of foreign insurance companies 
were $49,442 24. The gross receipts of the to- 
bacco warehouses were $72,070 53, and the net 
earnings were $3,667 10—a sum insufficient to 
pay the salaries ($1,800 each) of the tobacco in- 
spectors. The receipts on account of the oyster 
fund were $57,751 05, the expenses chargeable 
to which were $39,070 59. The total capital 
and credits of the state on Sept. 30, 1882, 
amounted to $31,475,338 85, of which $4,960,- 
293 27 are classed as ‘‘ productive,” and $26,- 
515,045 58 as ‘‘ unproductive,” that is, in ar- 
rears or worthless. The total disbursements 
for the year were $2,038,173 18, leaving a bal- 
ance in the treasury at the close of the fiscal 
year of $638,506 63.—The board of managers 
of the Maryland hospital for the insane, in 
their last report (Nov. 1, 1882), make the same 
complaint that is made in many other states, of 
the inadequacy of the hospital for the accom- 


MARYLAND 


modation of the patients already under treat- 
ment, and of the still larger number to whom 
admission is refused from want of room. The 
income of the hospital during the year was 
$89,431 86, of which the state contributed $16,- 
250, and the city of Baltimore $24,161 82; and 
the expenses were $89,269 80. The number of 
patients admitted during the year was 164, of 
whom 95 were males and 69 females. The 
whole number treated during that time was 
556, of whom 301 were males and 255 were 
females. The asylums for the deaf and dumb 
and the blind are reported to be in a flourish- 
ing condition. The report of the state board 
of education states that there are 2,058 public 
schools in the state, of which 1,937 are in the 
counties, and 121 in the city of Baltimore. 
This is an increase of 19 as compared with 
1881. The total attendance of pupils is re- 
ported as 159,945, of whom 111,668 are in the 
county schools, and 48,277 in Baltimore—an 
increase of 1,036 over 1881. These schools 
have 8,197 teachers, who receive in salaries 
$1,196,558 70, or an average of $374 each. 
The total expenses of the schools for the year 
were $1,651,908 67. The total receipts of the 
public-school tax for the fiscal year 1882 were 
$479,885 85, which, together with a balance 
on hand at the beginning of the year of $260,- 
613 24, made a total available sum of $740,- 
499 09. The total disbursements of this fand 
for the year were $535,855 34, leaving an avail- 
able balance for school year, beginning Oct. 1, 
1882, of $204,643 75. Schools for the colored 
people are established in each election district, 
and are kept open as many months in the year 
as the schools for the whites. The state nor- 
mal schools, one for white and one for colored 
teachers, are doing a good work. Higher edu- 
cation is provided by the St. John’s, the Western 
Maryland, Agricultural, Washington, Frederick, 
and Baltimore female colleges, which receive 
a partial but uncertain support from the state. 
—The canning of fruits and vegetables has be- 
come avery large and profitable industry, es- 
pecially in Harford, Cecil, and Kent counties. 
In Harford co. there are 400 establishments, 
using 180,000 boxes of tin, and employing 
20,000 persons during the season. During the 
past year there were packed over 10,000,000 
3-lb. cans of tomatoes and 5,000,000 cans of corn, 
using the production of 10,000 acres of toma- 
toes and 5,000 acres of corn, the out-door labor 
on which amounted to $200,000, and in the 
canning establishments to $900,000, besides 
$185,000 paid for cans. There are more than 
120 establishments for preserving fruits, vege- 
tables, oysters, &c., which consume 20,000,000 
tin cans per annum, and, together with the 
dredging of the Chesapeake, in which 1,000 
schooners and 8,500 smaller craft are em- 
ployed in securing and bringing to market 
2,000,000 bushels of oysters, $30,000,000 of 
capital and 84,000 hands are employed. In 
the manufacture of fertilizers, of which up- 
ward of 300,000 tons are made annually—half 


MARYLAND 


the consumption of the United States—2,500 
hands are employed in 27 factories. The cot- 
ton mills in the vicinity of Baltimore drive 
125,000 spindles, and employ 4,000 hands in 
the manufacture of sail and tent cloth, netting, 
twine, drills, &c.—The long-disputed boundary 
question between the states of Maryland and 
Virginia was considered in February, at Rich- 
mond, Va., by a joint committee of the legis- 
latures of those two states, appointed to con- 
fer and report on a plan of settlement of the 
boundary lines. The conclusions of the report 
are as follows: ‘‘1. That the following headlands 
of the Potomac river should be the points be- 
tween,which straight lines should be drawn as 
and for the true boundary lines between the 
states of Virginia and Maryland, under the 
award of J. T. Black and Charles J. Jenkins, 
arbitrators appointed by the said states to fix 
the said boundary lines, to wit: Commencing 
at Smith’s point, drawing thence a straight 
line to Oubit’s point, drawing thence a straight 
line to COubit’s island, thence westerly to 
Judith’s point, a point on Judith’s sound, 
thence westerly to Sandy point, thence to 
Ragged point, thence to Church’s point, thence 
to White point, thence to the Upper Machodoc 
point, and from Upper Machodoc to Persim- 
mon point, thence to Machais point, thence 
to Matomkin point, thence to the land on the 
south shore abreast of Maryland point, to a 
point on the Potomac creek opposite Marlboro’ 
point, thence to Brentz point, thence to Olif- 
ton point, thence to Oockpit point, thence to 
Freestone point, thence to High point, thence 
to Hollowing point, thence to Whitestone 
point, thence to Pevy point, thence to Sheri- 
dan, thence along the south shore to Alex- 
andria, thence to Hunter’s point, thence to 
Gravenny point, following the south shore and 
the meanderings of the river to the line of West 
Virginia and Virginia. 2. That oyster-dredg- 
ing should be prohibited in the Potomac river 
west from a line drawn from Point Lookout, in 
Maryland, to the headland of Smith’s point, in 
Virginia. 8. That oyster-dredging should be 
prohibited in Pocomoke sound. 4. That com- 
mon rights of fishing and oystering shall be en- 
joyed by the citizens of both states in that 
part of Pocomoke sound north and east of a 
straight line commencing at Watkins point, 
and running thence in a southeasterly di- 
rection to buoy R, No. 4, as it is now located 
upon coast chart No. 33, of the United States 
Coast Survey sheet, No. 8, Chesapeake bay, 
filed as a part of said award of said Black and 
Jenkins, making off from a shoal from Mes- 
songo creek, thence with a straight line to the 
northern boundary of said creek. The rights 
in any creek or inlet granted hereby by either 
state and the riparian rights upon the shores 
of said sound to be respectively protected in 
the same manner as is provided for in the Po- 
tomac river by the compact of 1785. This 
title to be no longer binding if dredging is 
authorized by either state. 5. That there 
577 VOL. x1.—56 - 


MASSACHUSETTS 879 


shall be concurrent jurisdiction between the 
states of Maryland and Virginia, by which the 
violators of the oyster laws may be punished 
in either state ; that a concurrent law be passed 
restricting the taking of oysters for any lawful 
purpose in the Potomac river and that part of 
Pocomoke sound covered by the concurrent 
act, from the 1st of October to the 1st of May, 
and that they be taken for planting or bed- 
ding, and may be planted or bedded in the 
waters of either state up to and including May 
15, and during all of September, and strictly 
prohibiting their being taken for sale or plant- 
ing from, May 15 to Sept. 1: Provided, how- 
ever, That they may be taken to be eaten with- 
in the county where taken at any time. And 
whereas the said committee have recommended 
that an act be passed to ratify and carry out 
the said agreement entered into by them with 
each other, subject to the action of their re- 
spective legislatures, as is witnessed by their 
signatures.”—The population of the principal 
places in 1880 was: Baltimore, 332,313 ; 
Cumberland, 10,693; Frederick, 8,659; An- 
napolis, 6,642; Hagerstown, 6,627. See map 
in supplement to Volume XIII. 

MASON, George Hemming, an English painter, 
born at Witley, Staffordshire, in 1818, died in 
1872. After studying medicine he embraced 
the profession of art, studied at Rome, and 
lived but a few years after returning. He was 
elected an associate in the academy in 1868. 
Mason was a leader of the modern English re- 
alistic school. He left about 200 works, which 
were greatly admired by a few for their idyllic 
beauty and homely charm; but their unlabored 
simplicity and slightness of composition pre- 
vented them from gaining popularity. Some 
of the best known are “Only a Shower,” 
“Girls Dancing by the Sea,” “The Harvest 
Moon,” “Staffordshire Mill Girls,” ‘The Even- 
ing Hymn,” and “ Blackberry Gathering.” 

MASSACHUSETTS. The population of the state 
in 1880 was 1,783,085, of whom 858,440 were 
males, 924,685 females, 1,339,594 natives, 443,- 
491 foreign, 1,763,782 whites, 18,697 colored. 
The chief agricultural productions were 80,128 
bushels of barley, 67,117 of buckwheat, 1,797,- 
768 of corn, 645,159 of oats, 213,716 of rye, 
15,768 of wheat, 684,679 tons of hay, 5,369,- 
436 lbs. of tobacco, 3,070,889 bushels of pota- 
toes; number of horses, 59,629 ; 14,571 work- 
ing oxen, 150,435 milch cows, 96,045 other 
cattle, 67,979 sheep, 80,123 swine; value of 
manufactures, $631,135,284; of fishery prod- 
ucts, $8,141,750. There were 6,604 public 
schools, including 204 high schools; expended 
for school purposes, $4,720,951; pupils en- 
rolled, 316,630; average attendance, 235,664.— 
The receipts and expenses on account of revenue 
for the year 1882, including cash on hand, were: 


Cashyin the treasury, Jan. 1, 1882. .........- $1,351,639 89 


Revenue receipts during the year............. 8,090,356 59 
ETEOLOM Paice ark orsiarelery, UM able Gpassiuteiovelta: ate wiv o'a $9,441,995 98 
PPBYMISNES 65) s's< ves nlsie vel nialesieieip sib =i ele sloraais s 7,648,062 16 
Revenue cash, Jan. 1, 1883........s00-08 +» $1,793,938 82 


880 


The comparative results for the years 1882 and 
1881 are as follows: 


1882, 1881. 


$1,667,925 40 | $1,648,236 62 
5,049,386 63 | 5,286,167 04. 


$6,717,312 03 | $6,984,403 66 


Ordinary expenses .......... 
Lxceptional expenses........ 


In these aggregates are included the corpora- 
tion and national bank taxes returned by the 
commonwealth to cities and towns, &c. These 
should be deducted, to show the actual ex- 
penses, viz., $2,275, 892 99 in 1882, and $2,243, - 
437 51 in 1881. With these deductions the ex- 
penses of 1882 were $4,441,419 04, and in 1881, 
$4,690,966 15, showing that the expenses of 
1882 were $249, 547 11 less than in 1881. The 
principal expenses of the year 1882 were: 


Interest on the public debt.............-.2e00- $1,647,825 33 
Legislative department........2...0eccece00 se 205,822 40 
Executive and other departments............. 83,864 02 
State house and Pemberton square .......... 25,660 57 
GOMMMMSSION CTA eens eee nes het ee means ome 79,696 16 
PUI GLEE Shee eis totes eicta rate ele mice ein els « Wspetw aes 41,247 89 
Bid WCAG alae (Ad. oi see latcrsetete eh ste nie) s lee! ote eis) chara 87,822 72 
aE UGICLAT Ya aaterd sis d vicinse ois ol nisle's oieje aeace clea cic vinw lee 192,991 72 
(PMDUGIDULIMINGS Aes cade nae letsd aes se earee ne 46,601 36 
Aoricultural department = conacteaces-ce eee 52,487 02 
State and military aid, including expenses of the 
MOMMMISSIONGTS, » lee sews ieee oe aie oeie 427.105 59 
Charitable, ordinary and exceptional........... 452,723 05 
Reformatory and correctional..........-..... . . 819,885 73 
Military, ordinary and exceptional............. 148,755 06 
Gratuition:: 25. sit Peaains eccuttesiote ss SISAL Es 62,865 42 
Exceptional on state house.... .............- 16,998 26 
Troy and Greenfield railroad and Hoosactunnel. 456,278 65 
WbOtal f ciscsteinrs isle asta s ets erarar te siaiole eer es $4,317,630 95 


Including cash on hand at the beginning of the 
year, the following is a summary of the trans- 
actions on account of funds: 


Cash on hand, Jan. 1,1882...... Meese es are tele $3,120,313 14 


Receipts during the year... ....2...s.0--08 16,462,915 18 
Total foie Saticthcnnle acetone oe ers'ois a oomrasts cia $19,583,228 32 
Payments:on this account... anc acne aa untecls 17,143,825 40 
Cashionshand, Jan. 171885 50% tcntetisste oie $2,439,402 92 


The aggregate net indebtedness of municipal- 
ities in Massachusetts in each year from 1871 
to 1881, and the total property valuation, were 
as follows: 


YEARS. Valuation, Debt. 
isi bos ae a5 ar eer $1,497,351,686 $39,421,298 
They aaa le § Be RN ne 1,696,599,969 45,221,745 
Si urcsa et eatie inset eeu: 1,763,429,990 53.380,118 
TS (do eee ees cee 1,831,601,165 64.904,069 
AG (Ose kc cee tes oe 1,840,792,728 71,784,006 
TSC. cect. RACE IE Ae 1,769,359,431 72,165,156 
AST Tee e ein. oie eject ates sete a3 1,668,226,792 72,049,685 
IS(B Me rete dotechicoe et 6 ce 068 988, 210 68,864,685 
a hoy (eee eet ow soba ener u "529. ‘521. 014 67,728,55T 
ASSO Yc ie mame cee eee Ls "G4. 56, 802 68,512,927 
SST 2%, ceeet cee sees 1,684,239.976 65,408,691 


The funded debt of the state on Jan. 1, 1883, 
amounted to $32,399,464, represented by $11,- 
904,000 in dollar bonds, and £4,234,600 in 
sterlings of the value of $4 84 to the pound— 
$20,495,464. The following is a classification 
of the debt: 


Railroad loans.......... A deme so aoe $17,816,757 60 
WSrilOansest Pre secant te comeumenemasnes 10,495,567 80 
Public buildings, &i0.........0+0006sceucepsns 4, 199, 355 50 


Total as above........... iis ia cables ee $32,511,680 90 


MASSACHUSETTS 


The maturity of the debt is shown in the fol- 
lowing statement: 


Re $1,088,000 00 | 1894........... $9,687,148 90 
aS 2 ee No 8,078,061 25 | 1895........... 4'855,537 25 
1500s. ce eae 3,159,381 80 | 1896.......-... 1,100,000 00 
£500 0S EN 505,129 55 |1897........... 520,000 00 
eS 8,884,742 75] 1900........... 8,618,729 40 
4508/52 1,065,000 00 


The amount of sinking funds Jan. 1, 1883, was 
$16,914,263 05, an increase of $2, 118, 988 07. 
Of this increase, $1,737,000 came from the ex- 
change of the stock of the New York and New 
England railroad corporation for its bonds; 
$330,322 94 from the exchange of the stock 
of the Boston and Albany railroad corporation 
for its bonds; $43,757 93 from the sale of Jands; 
$62,040 60 from transfers of balances of ac- 
counts on the books of the treasurer; $9,087 91 
from the income of the old state prison. The 
total valuation of the state in 1882 was $1,684, - 
213,423, of which $1,189,524,370 was real es- 
tate, and $491,689,053 personal property. The 
following table shows the total valuation by 
counties in 1881 and 1882: 


COUNTIES. 1881, 1882, 
Barnstable. <./7).--ds.20+ $15,555,286 $16,212,928 
Berkshire 24 ete s,Sesaicetes 34, 197, 842 84,467,072 
Bristol..:<.iejuas Gareaeouwh 108, 294 547 107,341,008 
DOU OB see: s'8 alt ccape Ss vies es 8, 190,798 3, 197, 431 
HSSOX Satis cs ene en reese op 162,413,423 167, 445, 513 
Franklin 2ischisrdsse oe eees 15,808,509 16, 127, 080 
Hampdene shite cccte cies cee 69, 758, 223 73,07 6.206 
Hampshire .........2-+0e: 95,285,744 25,166,183 

» Middlesex... 2 econ ce: 268, 986,013 278,212,897 
Nantucket 5.5 c.heestihete 2 ‘359, 123 586, 
Dorfolk cssh anbea sates ae 89, 424, 009 90,985,327 
Plymouth es t0e see oe 41 ‘597, 896 44,887,466 
Sudlolk ee eens ss 685, 321,125 693,679,819 
Worcester joes .sce senses 131,054,438 185,878,044 

TOtals:. 0) senses weed $1,648,239,976 | $1,684,213 428 
Total pains nice tne da ba oem etcenie te 35,973,447 


The valuation of the 21 cities of the state was 
as follows: 


CITIES. 1881. 1882, 

Boston: Vi; Reena $665,554,597 $672,497,961 
Brockton #5 stare eet 6,876,427 9,150,702 
Lowellinis tn. famaaceiisteciee 42,785,785 46,414,412 
Worcester 2.02 ot ae eee 42,606,539 45,502,518 
Cambridge x ines cesivehiae & 51,098,290 50,668,280 
Ball Rivers fe ase eicias: 89,650,761 41,900,475 
psig BAN SCUBA Aan Ooe 25,349.410 26,269,506 
AU YN es ana 6 heat ete 24,992,084 24,465,909 
Springfield Se eet co ce 82,746,016 34,282,678 
Balom 2.5 ee se seins aaneise 28,767,679 25,511,242 
New Bedford............. 27,115,322 28,112,887 
Somerville says e teen, as 27,569,100 23, 156, 200 
Holy OK6) dani tee eee 11,977,410 18, B74, ‘055 
Ohelaea taeissecear cee ae 15,761,537 1 6. 898, 328 
PaUntonteyeienae teehee 15,547,611 16,008,677 
Gloucester. 3)..2 0s baie ii 977,559 9,470,813 
Haverbillien ci. scccassteceke 78, 038 11,513,621 
Newton Wticeeton-steeke te 26 408,273 26,885,718 
Newbtiryport..3 2.5 3) «a.4- 7 535,456 7,417,698 
CCH DUNG Sao ss eo nari eee 9,508,584 10,118,596 
Malden....... phy Sai prt 10, 389,075 10,928,859 

Total netigains...6...b lest tee ee $28,034,073 


The total tax levied for state, county, and city 
or town purposes in 1882 was $26,090,914.— 
The 166 savings banks of the state report the 
following for the years ending Oct. 31, 1881 
and 1882: 


MASSACHUSETTS 


881 


DETAILS, 


ee ee er ae ars 


Ste eee eter seer ese Hr eee Sete eeeee ress Be eeseser seer seseeseneees 


1881. 
165 banks. 


788,951 


$280,444,479 10 


1882. 
166 banks. 


172,518 
$241,311,362 49 


Number of deposits during year preceding. ....)..6..ccccesccncccccccccccccces-cseces 615,514 677,422 
Amount of same........ bate plate AA ate By iy im Hla ot USER © og + yiele a a. sa a'sla vw vs Peceaciue $48,223,496 86 $49,234,652 63 
Number of deposits received during year, of and exceeding $300 at one time......,.... 6 36,657 
ADIOUNt OF SAMO)... we cece Bate ci staraars ole meet fal® ais)s5)<ioiaicime.e ole dee oweeea cies $20,758,979 53 $19,773,518 76 
Numaher crow isncrawals during’ the year, o.224cceeen dectilee heli voccccccccssucdveses 419,959 458,494 
Pee IR ecsiit sss 5 2 ti eiaoldig 46 2% a: ctal de a A eR ele Cole's ies cov a6 cincce ee Daweiee $40,212,786 44 $44,318,521 56 
Wuimber ofaccounts opened during the year. ./o2. isos ee boc. cco ciescccccctnccececces 118,381 123,702 
Numero: accounts closed during the yeat ii; .. isc duacsaticcss ce ccscccccscaccauceecs 86,991 89,752 
iO meen ear tnes ON NAGKC..i02 sess yd erent uae te One eaa es Sh elses so scccececnyedaus $4,890,600 67 $5,032,414 74 
PAIRMEUTOL eACOMLOG PECs a's, ce cies vegas ta tema ane OA Sem k nc ccbectosedtinr’ 8,841,062 35 4,027,205 28 
Public Bae eine obsiecies sredsans es SUPE ADCS 0 GriGH SBCA Rian: POC UEC ae Ieee 89,432,620 84 86,153,027 36 
Mapetea OSD Uta LUTIS 3 pals ae ede ested chats ce cence Oe ane vio Boe cai sina oh wikis's sie av be Peb's 1,558,780 00 716,404 62 
MTOR EAC IORE TOOT Sauce Ws ity part a sieis bu oe aaleatb eck onarentee ROI ee a ic bees be Sen 24,937,671 02 25,300,927 03 
GANSU DaN KIBLOCK Pa eae namie eae sete seas eas eM RE Cee s'cleje alec ec 1,008,439 58 1,117,187 29 
Dense anybankeibdarinasinterosteem a. caine em icie eee are ane saa ese wcles 11,770,415 27 12,907,905 40 
(Ral broadMpoOngsrausaee ctra tee aie’s  actatdats dices sees Worciae s Gee eles 7,802,403 05 9,016,755 11 
ENVOSLOG Ia FEAL CSLALOT\ tle rtace soa lte eis ieee tian buh ore etic oes xe 2,546,902 85 2,540,368 83 
Rea NES ALON Y COLCCLOSULG mee meee oe man eis ante Salton Si PanG Maietinctosc sss se ola voce nces 8,052,450 79 7,201,605 50 
ings on iorieare Ol £04) CSLRLGy 2), . wecldac cae r+ 45.46 50 emda ¢eeaiyeis rade dceealecievses 82,518,068 04 86,129,137 61 
OAs LOOUN es Cites ANG CLOWNS aH eh eles ere ties civ ce on cle eat ido sce c.die ce s6 decssuetens §,684,666 39 9,298,505 17 
ORI STON DOL RONBa BOCULIL Yi ta. vei sae aid era saa IAN MM clsiiald ieee cd eninis sé eilicasece ne 48,349,666 59 56,928,185 64 
OORT LINED: Acie 3.5 See oO UES oC tid 6 ARSEACAIE E8 Ai GH RODRIG RET rer IIe aa ane ate 1,061,651 06 1,060,480 21 
Average rate of ordinary dividends for last year..............cccecccccecccccuccee sees 4 per cent, 8-97 per cent. 


A SPrepate amount Of CAININGS.—. aretvesenere te coat sec sees 
Aggregate amount of ordinary dividends....................4. 
Number of outstanding loans not exceeding $3,000............ 
Amount of same.......... ... ASE A ethan eye ale eeiateie ere rrensiav ete 


—From the fourteenth annual report of the rail- 
road commissioners, it appears that the mileage 
of roads in the state was increased during the 
year ending Sept. 30, 1882, by the building of 
214m. The total mileage is 2,778 of main line 
and branches, of which 750 m. is double track. 
The increase in double track is 65 m. The in- 
crease in track was 108m. The average cost 
of standard-gauge roads is returned at $59,767 
18 per mile; the cost of equipment per m. op- 
erated averages $6,211 31—making the aver- 
age cost of a standard-gauge road, with equip- 
ment, $65,978 49. The cost of narrow-gauge 
roads averages $29,373 23 per m., and $7,018 
62 per m. additional for equipment. Returns 
were received from 67 corporations, an increase 
of 2. The aggregate capital stock was $122,- 
976,262 26, an increase of $820,648 14. The net 
debt of the companies—the gross debt less cash 
assets—amounts to $71,913,806, an increase of 
$7,062,915 24. On the other hand, the cash 
assets of all the railroad companies of the state 
have increased to the amount of $2,848,006 28. 
The returns for the last six years are as follows: 


YEARS. Stock, Net debt. 
ASU 22 aise h de tae pene ele $118,170,201 03 $52,914,825 15 
LSS. avers 5 ataerats at netere tess 119,045,229 92 52,646,056 24 
ILSSLO sAio sm. scote ances eeremeeiates 118,890,938 88 55,755,418 06 
LE ORS Soe Aira 118,738'871 58 | 59,172,520 25 
SOU: 2k. sae wees 122,155,614 12 64,850,890 76 
ESSA h sconce, 5 ales ake asses tre coher 122,976,262 26 71,918,806 00 


The total gross income for the year was 
$40,846,370 20, an increase: of $3,081,974 21, 
or 8°1 per cent. The following shows the 
figures for four years: 


YEARS. Gross income, | Increase. 
DO cen ere Pielke: ss. $. cic e's « $30,312,964 54 $1,259,955 78 
18809 yee SiS) oc Spee 85,140,874 TT 4,827,410 23 
LOS amie eins oats wile 2 87,764,895 83 2,624,021 06 
ESOR oe eee ees ae sa ‘40,846,370 10 8,081,974 27 


ee a | 


ere eto ee se eee ee eess sees 


$12,285,345 35 


$12,645,648 65 
8,298,774 87 


8,530,885 21 


Hea py Ce ee ee pe 82,077 34,108 
Ein Sake clk RA tera at $34,020,584 95 | $36,192,801 16 
Paik Bee are 617,672 51 619,829 24 


The total expenses—including rents paid—of 
all the corporations amounted to $29,944,- 
167 15, an increase of $2,881,522 92. The net 
income was $10,902,202 95, being an increase 
of $200,451 35. The passenger earnings were 
$19,567,274 71, an increase of $2,238,779 28 
over the year 1881, when they amounted to 
$17,328,495 48. The freight earnings were 
$19,527,094. 54, an increase of $919,287 15, or 
nearly 5 per cent. over those of last year, which 
amounted to $18,607,807 39. The local pas- 
senger earnings were $12,679,634 51, an in- 
crease of $1,360,702 85 over the figures of last 
year, which were $11,318,931 66. The through 
passenger earnings were $5,162,321 42, an in- 
crease of $564,543 56 over the amount for last 
year, which was $4,597,777 86. The express, 
mail, and other earnings included in total pas- 
senger earnings, as given above, amounted to 
$1,725,318 78, being an increase of $313,532 
82, this item having been in 1881, $1,411,785 
96. The local freight earnings were $9,955,- 
675 74, an increase of $882,388 85. Through 
freight was $9,408,552 48, an increase of $51,- 
324 63. The income from all other sources of 
the freight department amounted to $162,866 
37, as against $177,292 70, a decrease of $14,- 
426 33. The total passenger mileage was 892,- 
321,207; total freight mileage, 1,130,070,652. 
The increase of passenger mileage—or passen- 
gers carried one mile—for the year amounts to 
103,898,446. The increase of freight mileage, 
or tons of freight carried one mile, amounts to 
49,267,856. The total number of passengers 
carried was 55,868,694, showing an increase of 
6,034,208 over the previous year. The whole 
number of tons of freight carried was 19,061,- 
164, as against 17,971,072, showing an increase 
of 1,090,092 tons. The total amount of divi- 
dends paid was $6,271,139 86, a decrease of 
$16,726 96 over last year. Of the 66 corpo- 


882 


rations, 36 paid dividends varying from 2 to 
10 per cent. The following shows the amount 
paid in dividends by all the corporations for 
ten years, with the percentage to capital stock, 
and also the amount of interest paid: 


Amount of Per cent. : 
oar dividends. capital tock Lee 
ABZ 113) ie sales $7,230,456 02 6°34 $1,846,783 16 
1873-"74...... 6,988,170 85 611 2,791,572 28 
1874-75 ...... 6,733,670 93 5°97 8,152,562 45 
IST5—76 ...... 8,858,509 49 4:95 8,704,698 88 
1876-17 ...... 5,429,183 31 4°60 8,437,026 53 
1877-78 ...... 5,589,927 40 4°68 3,126,925 34 
1878-79 ...... 5,264,431 78 4°30 8,172,990 59 
1879-80 ...... 5,987,718 64 5°05 8,423,752 25 
1880-81 ...... 6,287,866 82 5°15 3,148,292 55 
1881-82 ...... 6,271,189 86 5°10 4,291,222 59 


The average number of persons employed 
reaches a total of 27,403, showing an increase 
for the year of 1,880. The number employed 
by all corporations making returns to the board 
is 30,904.—The population of the principal 
places in 1880 was: Boston, 862,839; Low- 
ell, 59,475; Worcester, 58,291; Cambridge, 
52,669; Fall River, 48,961; Lawrence, 39,151; 
Lynn, 38,274; Springfield, 33,340; Salem, 27,- 
568; New Bedford, 26,845; Somerville, 24,- 
933; Holyoke, 21,915; Chelsea, 21,782; Taun- 
ton, 21,218; Gloucester, 19,329; Haverhill, 18,- 
472. See map in supplement to Volume V. 
MASSAGE (Gr. pdoocev, to knead or handle), 
aterm signifying a group of procedures with 
the hands, such as friction, kneading, manipnu- 
lating, rolling, and percussing of the external 
tissues of the body, with some curative, pallia- 
tive, or hygienic object in view. Its applica- 
tion should in many instances be combined 
with passive, resistive, or assistive movements, 
and these are often spoken of as the so-called 
Swedish movement-cure. But there is an in- 
creasing tendency on the part of scientific men 
to have the word ‘‘massage’’ embrace all these 
varied forms of manual therapeutics. The mul- 
tiform subdivisions of the various procedures 
of massage can all be grouped under four heads, 
viz., friction, percussion, pressure, and move- 
ment. Malaxation, manipulation, deep rub- 
bing, kneading, or massage, properly so called, 
is to be considered as a combination of the last 
two. Each and all of these may be gentle, 
moderate, or vigorous, according to the re- 
quirements of the case and the physical quali- 
ties of the operators. Some general remarks 
here will save repetition: 1. All of the single 
or combined procedures should be begun mod- 
erately, gradually increased in force and fre- 
quency to the fullest extent desirable, and 
should end gradually as begun. 2. The great- 
est extent of surface of the fingers and hands 
of the operator consistent with ease and effi- 
cacy of movement should be adapted to the 
surface worked upon, in order that no time be 
lost by working with the ends of the fingers or 
one portion of the hands when all the rest 
might be occupied. 3. The patient should be 
placed in as easy and comfortable a position as 


MASSAGE 


possible, in a well-ventilated room at a tem- 
perature of about 70° Fahr. 4. What consti- 
tutes the dose of massage is to be determined 
by the force and frequency of the manipula- 
tions and the length of time during which they 
are employed. A good manipulator will do 
more in fifteen minutes than a poor one will in 
an hour. Friction has been described as recti- 
linear, vertical, transverse or horizontal, and 
circular. It has been said, and very properly, 
that rectilinear friction should always be used 
in an upward direction, from the extremities 
to the trunk, so as to favor and not retard the 
venous and lymphatic currents. But a slight 
deviation from this method has been found 


‘more advantageous, for though in almost every 


case the upward strokes of the friction should 
be the stronger, yet the returning or down- 
ward movement may with benefit lightly graze 
the surface, imparting a soothing influence, 
without being so vigorous as to retard the cir- 
culation, and thus a saving of time and effort 
will be gained. The manner in which a car- 
penter uses his plane represents this forward- 
and-return movement very well. Transverse 
friction, or friction at right angles to the long 
axis of a limb, is a very ungraceful and awk- 
ward procedure. It has been introduced on 
theoretical considerations alone, and may with 
safety be laid aside; for the method already 
spoken of, together with circular friction, will 
do all and a great deal more than rubbing 
crosswise on a limb can do, A convenient 
extent of territory, to begin with, is from the 
ends of the fingers to the wrist, each stroke 
being of this length, the returning stroke being 
light, without raising the hand. The rapidity 
of these double strokes may be from 100 to 150 
a minute. The whole palmar surface of the 
fingers should be employed, and in such a 
manner that they will fit into the depressions 
formed by the approximation of the phalanges 
and metacarpal bones. The heel of the hand 
should be used for especially vigorous friction 
of the palm, as well as for the sole of the foot. 
From the wrist to the elbow, and from the 
elbow to the shoulder, are separately conven- 
ient extents of surface, and here not only 
straight-line friction, extending from one joint 
to the other, may be used, but also circular 
friction. The form of the latter which has 
been found most serviceable is in that of an 
oval, both hands moving at the same time, the 
one ascending as the other descends, at the 
rate of 125 to 250 each a minute, or 250 to 
500 with both hands, each stroke reaching 
from joint to joint, the upward stroke being 
carefully kept within the limits of chafing the 
skin. These observations apply to the lower 
limbs also, but, as they are larger than the 
arms, the posterior and lateral aspects, from 
ankle to knee, will be a convenient territory, 
while the anterior and lateral aspects will be 
another for thorough and efficacious friction. 
The same systematic division of surface may 
be made above the knees as below; the num- 


MASSAGE 


ber of strokes below will vary from 100 to 
160 with each hand: above, from 75 to 100 
each. From:-the base of the skull to the spine 
of the scapula forms another region naturally 
well bounded for downward and outward semi- 
circular friction, and from the spine of the 
scapula to the base of the sacrum and crest of 
the ilium forms another surface over which 
one hand can sweep, while the other works 
toward it from the insertion to the origin of 
the glutei, at an average rate of 60-or 75 a 
minute with each hand for a person of medium 
size. It will be observed that on the back and 
thighs the strokes are not so rapid as on the 
other parts mentioned, for the reason that the 
skin is here thicker and coarser, in conse- 
guence of which the hand can not glide so 
easily, and the larger muscles beneath can well 
bear stronger pressure; besides, the strokes 
are somewhat longer, all of which require an 
increased expenditure of time. The chest 
should be done from the insertion to the origin 
of the pectoral muscles, and the abdomen from 
the right iliac fossa in the direction of the 
ascending, transverse, and descending colon. 
But here friction is seldom necessary, for the 
procedure about to be considered accomplishes 
all that friction can do, and a great deal more 
in this region. The force used in doing fric- 
tion is often much greater than is necessary, 
for it is only intended to act upon the skin, 
and there are better ways of acting upon the 
tissues beneath it. If redness and irritation 
be looked upon as a measure of the beneficial 
effects of friction upon the skin, then a coarse 
towel, a hair mitten, or a brush would answer 
for this purpose a great deal better than the 
hand alone. The most important, agreeable, 
and efficacious procedure of massage has been 
variously designated as manipulation, knead- 
ing, deep. rubbing, or massage properly so 
called, in contradistinction to the more super- 
ficial method spoken of above. This is done 
by adapting as much as possible of the fingers 
and hands to the parts to be thus treated, 
and, without allowing them to slip on the 
skin, the tissues beneath are kneaded, rolled, 
and manipulated in a circulatory manner, pro- 
ceeding from the insertion toward the origin 
of the muscles, from the extremities to the 
trunk, in the direction of the returning blood 
and lymphatic currents. For this purpose the 
same divisions of surface as for friction will be 
found most convenient. Beginning, then, with 
the fingers from the roots of the nails, the 
thumb of the manipulator will be placed on 
one of the fingers of the patient, and parallel 
to the latter, while on the opposite side the 
index-finger will be placed at right angles to 
this, and between the two the finger of the 
patient will be compressed and malaxated, in 
a rotary manner, at the rate of 75 to 150 per 
minute. The dorsal and palmar surfaces will 
of course receive special attention, while the 
lateral aspects will come in for a secondary 
share. Ifthe manipulator be sufficiently expert, 


883 


he can work with both hands on this small 
surface with the same rapidity as with one. 
Each finger and thumb will be taken in turn, 
and the manipulations extended over the meta- 
carpal and carpal bones as far as the wrist- 
joint, and finally the palm of the hand by 
stretching the tissues vigorously away from the 
median line. Each part included in a single 
grasp may receive three or four manipulations 
before proceeding onward to the adjacent re- 
gion. The advance upon this should be such 
as to allow the finger and thumb to overlap one 
half of what has just been worked upon. Ad- 
vance and review should thus be systematically 
carried on, and this is of general application to 
allthe other tissues that can be masséed. The 
force used here and elsewhere must be care- 
fully graduated, so as to allow the patient’s 
tissues to glide freely upon each other; for, if 
too great, the movement will be frustrated by 
the compression and perhaps bruising of the 
tissues; if too light, the operator’s fingers may 
slip; and, if gliding with strong compression ~ 
be used, the skin will be chafed. To avoid this 
last objection, various greasy substances have 
been employed, so that ignorant would-be mas- 
geurs may rub without injuring the skin. When 
the skin is cold and dry, and the tissues in 
general are insufficiently nourished, as well as 
in certain fevers and other morbid conditions, 
there can be no doubt of the value of inunc- 
tion; but no special skill is required in order 
to do this, and there is no need of calling it 
massage unless it be to please the fancy of the 
patient. The feet may be dealt with in the 
same manner as the hands, using the ends of 
the fingers to work longitudinally between the 
metatarsal as well as between the metacarpal 
bones. Upon the arms and legs, and indeed 
upon all the rest of the body, both hands can be 
used to better advantage than where the sur- 
faces are small. Each group of muscles should 
be systematically worked upon, and for this 
purpose one hand can usually be placed oppo- 
site to the other and in advance of it, so that 
two groups of muscles may be manipulated at 
the same time. When the circumference of 
the limb is not great, the fingers of one hand 
will partly reach on to the territory of the 
other, while grasping, circulatory, spiral ma- 
nipulations are made, one hand contracting as 
the other relaxes, the greatest extension of the 
tissues being upward and laterally, and on the 
forearms and legs away from the median line. 
Subcutaneous bony surfaces, as those of the 
tibia and ulna, incidentally get sufficient atten- 
tion while manipulating their adjacent muscles, 
for, if both be included in a vigorous grasp, un- 
necessary discomfort results. Care should be 
taken not to place the fingers and thumb of one 
hand too near those of the other, for by so do- 
ing their movements would be cramped. The 
elasticity, or want of it, in the patient’s tissues, 
should be the guide, the object being to obtain 
their normal stretch, and in this every person 
is a law to himself, the character of their tis- 


884. 


sues varying with the amount and quality of 
adipose, modes of life, exercise, etc. <A fre- 
quent error on the part of manipulators is in 
attempting to stretch the tissues in opposite 
directions at the same time, especially at the 
flexures of the joints, where the skin is deli- 
cate and sensitive, and where the temptation to 
such procedures is greatest because easiest, the 
effect being a sensation of tearing of the skin. 
The rate of these manceuvres varies from 75 to 
150 with each hand a minute on the arms, from 
60 to 90 on the legs, and from 40 to 80 on the 
thighs, where more force is required on account 
of the greater size and density of the muscles, 
and the need of using sufficient force to extend 
beneath the strong, tense fascia lata. On the 
back the direction of these efforts will be from 
the base of the skull downward, stretching the 
tissues away from the spinal column while 
manipulating in graceful curves at an average 
rate of 60 per minute with each hand. And 
here one hand can often be reénforced by plac- 
ing the other upon it, and thus massage may 
be done with all the strength the manipulator 
can put forth. With the ends of the fingers 
the muscles on each side of the spinal column 
can be rolled, and the supra-spinous ligament 
can be effectually masséed by transverse to-and- 
fro movements. The ends of the fingers and 
part of their palmar surface should also be 
placed on each side of the spinous processes, 
and the tissues situated between these and the 
transverse processes worked upon by up-and- 
down motions parallel to the spine, taking care 
to avoid the too frequent error of making push- 
ing, jerky movements in place of smooth, uni- 
form motions in each direction. On the chest 
and abdomen the same general direction will 
be observed as in using friction, but the ma- 
nipulation will be more gentle than on the back 
and limbs, for the tissues will not tolerate be- 
ing so vigorously squeezed and pinched. Here 
the massage will consist of moderate pressure 
and movement with the palms of the hands, 
and rolling and grasping the skin and superfi- 
cial fascia; and, after this, on the abdomen, 
steady, firm, deep kneading in the direction of 
the ascending, transverse, and descending co- 
lon, using for this purpose the greatest furce 
with the heel of the hand on the side of 
the abdomen next the operator, and on the 
other side the strongest manipulations with 
the fingers, avoiding the frequent and dis- 
agreeable mistake of pressing at the same 
time on the anterior portions of the pelvis. 
Friction and manipulation can be used alter- 
nately, varied with rapid pinching of the skin 
and deeper grasping of the subcutaneous cellu- 
lar tissue and muscular masses, and, when ne- 
cessary, with percussion, passive, assistive, and 
resistive movements, finishing one convenient 
surface or limb before passing to another, and 
occupying from half an hour to an hour with 
all or part of these procedures. Pinching is 
used mainly to excite the circulation and in- 
nervation of the skin, and for this purpose it 


MASSAGE 


is best done rapidly at the rate of 100 to 125 
a minute with each hand. To act on the sub- 
cutaneous cellular tissue, a handful of skin is 
grasped and rolled and stretched more slowly 
than by the preceding method. <A deeper, 
momentary grasping of the muscles is often 
advantageous, and may be called a mobile in- 
termittent compression, and this, indeed, is 
what the whole of massage, strictly speaking, 
consists of.—Percussion, applicable only over 
muscular masses, may be done in various ways. 
In the relative order of their importance they 
are as follows: 1. With the ulnar borders of 
the hands and fingers. 2. The same as the 
first, with the fingers separated. 38. With the 


‘ends of the fingers, the tips being united on 


the same plane. 4. With the dorsum of the 
upper halves of the fingers loosely flexed. 5. 
With the palms of the hands. 6. With the 
ulnar borders of the hands tightly shut. 7. 
With the palms of the hands held in a concave 
manner, so as to compress the air while per- 
cussing. More gentle or vigorous and rapid 
percussion than any of these methods afford 
can be done by securing India-rubber air-balls 
on whalebone or steel handles. With these 
one gets the spring of the handles together - 
with the rebound of the balls, and thus rapid- 
ity of motion with easily varying intensity is 
gained, the number of blows varying from 250 
to 600 a minute with both. The relative im- 
portance of the foregoing procedures has been 
partly indicated while describing them. Ac- 
cording to the needs of individual cases, one 
or more of these will predominate or be omit- 
ted, and it is well that the advice of a physi- 
cian be sought on this subject, for there would 
be no use in giving a patient friction the 
capillary circulation of whose skin was already 
sufficiently good; and it would be a waste of 
time and strength to administer passive and 
resistive movements to patients who were al- 
ready fatigued from overwork.—But we must 
consider how massage acts locally. By up- 
ward and oval friction, with deep manipula- 
tion, the veins and lymphatics are mechanically 
emptied, the blood and lymph are pushed along 
more quickly by the additional os a tergo of 
the massage, and these fluids can not return by 
reason of the valvular folds on the internal 
coats of their vessels. Thus, not only is more 
space created for the returning currents arising 
from beyond the region masséed, but, at the 
same time, a vacuum is formed, which is visi- 
ble in the superficial veins of persons who are 
not too fat; and this is thought by some to 
add a new force to the more distal circulation. 
In this way the collateral circulation in the 
deeper vessels is aided and relieved, as well as 
the more distal stream in the capillaries and 
arterioles. The temporary and momentary in- 
termittent compression causes a dilatation of 
the artery from an increased volume of blood 
above the part pressed upon, and this accumu- 
lation rushes onward with greater rapidity as 
soon as the pressure is removed, in conse- 


MATURIN 


quence of the force of the heart’s action and 
the resiliency of the arteries acting upon the 
accumulated volume of blood. But the same 
pressure also acts upon the tissues external to 
the vessels, causing a more rapid resorption of 
natural or pathological products through the 
walls of the venous capillaries and lymphatics. 
When muscular nerves are stimulated, the vaso- 
dilators are influenced, and this takes place by 
massage, whence follows enlargement of the 
lumen of the vessels, so that an increased flow 
passes through them with greater ease and di- 
minished pressure. When stimuli are applied 
to the skin, reflex vaso-motor action shows 
that the vaso-dilators are acted upon, hence 
the redness and congestion of the skin when 
massage is specially directed to it. It can be 
readily seen now that massage rouses dormant 
capillaries, increases the area and speed of the 
circulation, furthers absorption and stimulates 
the vaso-motor nerves, all of which are aids 
and not hindrances to the heart’s action, as 
well as to nutrition in general. Seeing that 
more blood passes in a given time, there will 
be an increase in the total interchange between 
the blood and the tissues, and thus the total 
amount of work done by the circulation will 
be greater and the share borne by each quan- 
tity of blood less. In practice massage some- 
times proves a valuable ally in the treatment 
of functional and organic diseases of the heart, 
for ‘“‘the peripheral friction of the blood 
against the walls of the capillaries and small 
arteries not only opposes the flow of blood 
through them, but, working backward along 
the whole arterial system, has to be overcome 
by the heart at each systole of the left veutri- 
cle.” This obstacle is in great part lessened 
by massage. While undergoing massage it is 
well for the patient to take frequent and deep 
inspirations, in order to favor the flow of the 
venous und lymphatic currents to the thorax. 
This, however, is often done instinctively, and 
with such ease that the patient feels as if freed 
from an immense load.—The ‘‘ Nouveau Dic- 
tionnaire de Médecine” clearly expresses the 
action of massage in the following words: 
*¢ Massage augments interstitial absorption not 
only by the sur-activité impressed upon the re- 
turning circulation, but also by dividing to in- 
finity pathological and normal products accu- 
mulated in the muscular interstices and meshes 
of the cellular tissue. The dissemination of 
these products multiplies their points of con- 
tact with the walls of the veins and lymphatics, 
whence result their imbibition and diffusion 
into the general circulation.”” Massage (or 
shampooing, as it was formerly called) appears 
to have been a very ancient practice in India, 
where it is still used to restore muscles that 
have become debilitated by the heat of the 
climate. It was introduced into England with 
the Turkish bath. 

MATURIN, Edward S., an American educator, 
born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1812, died in New 
York, May 25,1881. He was ason of the Rev. 


MEEK 885 
Charles Robert Maturin, author of several nov- 
els, poems, and plays. He was educated at 
Trinity college, Dublin, and in 1832 came to the 
United States, where he studied law and was 
admitted to the bar. He did not practise, how- 
ever, but became a teacher of Greek in South 
Carolina, where he married and resided for 
several years. Afterward he removed to New 
York, and for thirty years was an instructor 
in the Greek and Latin languages and belles- 
lettres in that city. When the Bible Union 
was formed, in 1850, he was selected as one 
of the revisers, and the gospel of Mark was as- 
signed to him. He published ‘‘Sejanus and 
other Roman tales,” ‘‘ Benjamin the Jew of Gra- 
nada,” “Eva, or the Isles of Life and Death,” 
‘‘ Montezuma, or the Last of the Aztecs,” 
‘* Melmouth the Wanderer,” ‘‘ Lyrics of Spain 
and Erin,” and ‘‘ Bianca, a Tale of Erin and 
Italy.” 

MAYER, Constant, an American painter, born 
in Besangon, France, in 1831. He studied at 
the academy in Paris, and under Léon Cogniet. 
Since 1857 he has resided in New York. He 
has made a specialty of genre pictures of life 
size, and many of his works have been en- 
graved. They include ‘‘ Good Words,” ‘‘ Love’s 
Melancholy,” ‘‘The Oonvalescent,’”’ ‘* Riches 
and Poverty,” ‘‘Maud Muller,” ‘Street Melo- 
dies,” ‘‘The Organ Grinder,” ‘The Song of 
the Shirt,” and numerous. portraits of living 
celebrities. 

MAYO, Isabella (Fyvie), an English authoress, 
born in London, Dec. 10, 1848. She is the 
daughter of a tradesman, and published poems 
and stories at a very early age. In 1866 a 
publisher announced a series of essays on “‘ The 
Occupations of a Retired Life,” to appear un- 
der the pen name of ‘‘ Edward Garret;” but 
the gentleman who was to write them gave it 
up, and Miss Fyvie accepted the task and the 
signature. The book was successful, and all of 
her subsequent ones have appeared under the 
same pseudonyme. She has published ‘* The 
Crust and the Cake” (1869) ; ‘‘ White as Snow ”’ 
(1870); ‘‘Gold and Dross” (1871); ‘‘ Premiums 
paid to Experience” (1872); ‘‘ The Dead Sin, 
and other Stories’ (1873); ‘By Still Waters” 
(1874); ‘*Crooked Places” (1874); ‘‘ Doing 
and Dreaming” (1875); ‘‘The House by the 
Works” (1878); ‘‘ Family Fortunes” (1882) ; 
and ‘Her Object in Life” (1882). All of these 
have been republished in America. In 1870 
she married John R. Mayo of London. 

MEEK, Fielding Bradford, an American pale- 
ontologist, born at Madison, Ind., Dec. 10, 
1817, died in Washington, D. C., Dec. 28, 
1876. He studied geology when a boy, with- 
out a teacher, and in 1848 became an assistant 
of D. D. Owen in the geological survey of the 
country watered by the upper Mississippi. In 
1852-8 he was Prof. Hall’s assistant at Al- 


bany, for whom, in connection with Dr. Hay- 


den, he procured a fine collection of fossils 
from the Bad Lands of Dakota. In 1858 he 
settled in Washington, where he devoted the 


886 MEGAPHONE 


remainder of his life to the study and classifi- 
cation of the fossils collected by various expe- 
ditions sent out by the government. He pub- 
lished numerous scientific papers, the most im- 
portant of which is a “ Report on the Inverte- 
brate, Cretaceous, and Tertiary Fossils of the 
Upper Missouri Country ” (Washington, 1876). 

MEGAPHONE, a combination of the speaking 
trumpet and the ear trumpet, invented by 
Thomas A. Edison. It consists of two large 
funnels of some light material, as paper, each 
6 ft. 8 in. in length and 274 in. in diameter at 
the larger end, and terminating at the smaller 
end in a flexible tube of such size as to fit into 
the ear. These two funnels are mounted on a 
stand side by side, and a smaller funnel—the 
speaking trumpet—is fixed between them. The 
flexible tubes being inserted in the ears, faint 
sounds, as a whisper, may be heard distinctly 
at the distance of 1,000 ft. The sound of cat- 
tle grazing, or of a person walking through 
heavy grass or weeds, can be heard at even 
greater distances. By the use of two mega- 
phones, the voice being uttered through the 
speaking trumpet, a conversation in the ordi- 
nary tone may be carried on at the distance of 
a mile and a half or two miles. 

MELIKOFF. See Loris-Metixorr, in supple- 
ment. 

METEYARD, Eliza, an English authoress, born 
about 1810. She is the daughter of a surgeon, 
and has long been connected with the press of 
London, writing, under the signature of ‘‘ Silver- 
pen,” on antiquarian subjects, sanitary move- 
ments, and arts of design. Besides many 
juvenile works, she has published a “ Life of 
Josiah Wedgwood ” (2 vols., London, 1865-’6) ; 
“A Group of Englishmen—1795- 1815—being 
Records of the Younger Wedgwoods and their 
Friends; embracing the History of the Dis- 
covery of Photography, and a Facsimile of the 
First Photograph ” (1871): and “‘ Industrial and 
Household Tales” (1872). 

MICHIGAN. The population of the state in 
1880 was 1,636,937, of whom 862,355 were 
males, 774,582 females, 1,248,429 natives, 388, - 
508 foreign, 1,614,560 whites, 15,100 colored, 
28 Chinese and J apanese, and G 249 Indians. 
The chief agricultural products were 1,204,816 
bushels of barley, 413,062 of buckwheat, 32,- 
461,452 of corn, 18, 190 ,793 of oats, 294, 918 of 
rye, 35,532,543 of wheat, 1,393,888 tons of 
hay, 266,010 Ibs. of hops, 10,924,111 bushels 
of potatoes; number of horses, 378,778 ; 5,088 
mules and asses, 40,393 working oxen, 384. 578 
milch cows, 466, 660 other cattle, 2, 189, 389 
sheep, 964,07 1 swine ; value of manufactures, 
$150,715,025; tons of coal mined, 100,800; 
iron ore, 1,837,712; copper ingots, 45,830,262 
lbs.—By the new tax law, property is divided 
into three classes: real, personal credits, and 
personal chattels. Indebtedness continues to 
offset credits, with the provision that the tax- 
payer desiring such offset shall make an item- 
ized statement.—The financial condition of the 
state, Sept. 30, 1882, was as follows: 


MICHIGAN 
Cash balance Sept. 80, 1881.................-- $1,793,862 07 
Receipts for fiscal year iebigtelsintete eis tae tee ofelctaye 2, 916, 084 45 
Total résources:, 4°... 2 caterer cs $4,709,446 52 
Disbursements for the year... 0.0.0.5. ..2.%% 2,951,518 81 
Balance in treasury Sept. 30, 1882........ $1,757, 988 21 21 
Add U. 8. bonds in sinking fund......... "300, 000 00 
Total cash’ and bonds, .< ves tneeie sis ee $2,057,988 21 


This sum stands to the credit of the follow- 
ing funds: 
General fund to meet appropriations and cur- 


TENGWIORPSUSEAM.,.c!e a) siatoeseiale oli e nis steeterererem sents 


$650,920 91 
Normal-school interest fund 925 88 


a a oY} 


University interest fund. n.a ssc rere 8,548 60 
Primary-school interest fund...........--.... 423,394 03 
Sinking? fund—cash 2 suse iis feteisa ares 588,000 00 
Sinking fund—U.)S; bonds.-..cc0ses «6s tales 800,000 00 
St. Mary’s Falls ship-canal fund.............. 68,924 12 
Wear Pundr5sc\ sre iniehvtamiel sietleiety sia ciao eee cereale 11,708 39 
HUNGTY Gepost Smee oceanic olatale siete ticles 5,516 28 

Total oot, aus aivteis erate olenie odes ae a naitee $2,057,988 21 


Balance, due Sept. 80 on specific appropria- 
tions, $392,277 90. The bonded debt of the 
state was decreased during the year in the sum 
of $5,000, leaving the fundable debt Sept. 30, 
1882, as follows: 


Interest-bearing bonds: 


Six per cent. due Jan. 1, 1888.............0.- $590,000 00 
Seven per cent. due May 1, 1§90.............. 298,000 00 
Total interest-bearing debt............ .... $888,000 00 


Non-interest-bearing bonds; 
Part paid $5,000,000 loan adjusted at.......... 12,149 97 


Total bonded debt... sccresiewiel=« satya piers sats $900,149 97 


After a transfer of $305,395 27 to the pri- 
mary-school interest fund, and $16,875 to the 
general fund, the cash and United States bonds 
in hand Sept. 30, 1882, and held for that pur- 
pose, were sufficient to cancel the bonded in- 
debtedness. The trust-fund indebtedness was 
increased during the year from $38,752,476 84 
to $4,032,867 11. It is constituted as follows: 


Prim aryeschoo) find gers ties bsicys tie slot eseaboie tere $2,924,825 17 
Five per cent. primary-school fund............ 837.996 54 
University tadaiemiilsyettee eke che icton ai ecrraert 485,601 80 
Agricultural-college fund...............-...-. 224,868 15 
NOEMSl-SGhOOMTUNG ran atom ee os nist ees ieee 60,075 45 

Total avails of land sold.............-..0 $4,032,867 11 


The state pays 5 per cent. on the second item 
above, 6 per cent. on the last item, and 7 per 
cent. on the other bonds. The receipts on ac- 
count of specific taxes were: 


From railroad companies .. ...... . .--.0s-- $532,215 17 
street-railway companies... ......... P 310 50 
“palace and sleeping-car companies....... 1,058 94 
“ fire-insurance companies...............- 68.628 10 
‘+ life-insurance companies .............:. 28,550 95 
“ plate-glass insurance companies......... T1 95 
OP MININS COMPANIES, ss neers seals lentes nee ate 41,213 89 
"telegraph companies)... econo seminar 4,130 94 
telephone companies sa; 2.25 s- se oeeise 1,073 48 
“S| NOXPLESS COMPANIES sac. 6 dent eee Geeiena ee 1,852 17 
“plank and gravel road companies........ 1,298 &4 
“ river-improvement companies.... ...... 1,351 TT 
“« boiler-inspection insurance companies... 180 59 
Mi) cornet hands :.61.0 ozs oe Ckicn anise meena 4 50 
TOtaL |, oc 36s deans e ty eieesitaceoiiely aeieeners $676,941 29 


A decrease of $73,148 from receipts from 
same sources in 1881. The state taxes for the 
year, as apportioned to the several counties by 


MICHIGAN 


the auditor general in October, were for the 
following purposes: 


PMO GAMO URIES VEE BIE a5 0 e'din'eiv. sim cinia'sie vie es ek enon $126,500 00 
Cee Btate DOrmlal SCLOOl a. ca cece ok ius 19,500 00 
Sane OE TICUILUTAL COMES Oly. I... Joa as sciat ae 16,194 50 
SEBUBLO PUDIC SCHOO]. 2.) 0... 00 dsacc aves 41,650 00 
‘* Michigan school for the blind.......... 29,800 00 
‘* institution for the deaf and dumb.... . 41,600 00 
‘* state reform school for boys........... 110,500 00 
‘* Michigan reform school for girls....... 11,000 00 
** state house of correction... ........... 10,000 00 
‘¢ new asylum for the insane............. 150,000 00 
‘* board of fish commissioners........... 7,500 00 
pmstate board of health: cnccsimaceceswites 2,000 00 
SP MTOUIERE'Y PUTDOSOS,. fas. ssi ncsta ss « ces “_ 57,2TL 78 
‘¢ relief of sufferers by fire of 1881....... 125,000 00 
SE OUCLAL PUY POSES. 4 na sncastee sleet ee 272,575 00 

PUOLElee larshe rare Sees acetal eae) s ose eeale ee eels $1,021,091 23 


The apportionment was made on an equalized 
valuation of $810,000,000, and the tax was 
a slight fraction over $1 26 on each $1,000 of 
such valuation, or much less than that rate on 
the real valuation.—The full reports of the 13 
state banks show their condition July 3, 1882, 
as follows: 


RESOURCES. 
TSNSANG AISCOUN tsa. -)o asian bcslclalete or eae $3,340,083 49 
Bondsvand Mortraces's si. ..cscciee se cewlece.: 108,693 77 
Oashiand cash items’. js.0. ccs cc neis eine dobar 548,145 47 


Real estaba AlGtOresin sic sere vcaceicaterelceen 66,184 95 
Due from banks and bankers................. 696,768 97 
UK PONSGS ds cites oe ors cio wss aia ehotaleinrs elosaplie eisin o/sle lal are 21,622 T1 
OVATOPRICS Som cats cuisine dsc s sities acta nurs sista 14,167 03 
SROGAIE ae sets als conuspicietrs Maat ontt es $4,795,666 389 
LIABILITIES, 
CADIGAN es done blots cis ale dea ce sila ws a pilose anias $797.400 00 
SULHIUS ee aie seh teineiaee craic ale tana tye alee ys ak 231,836 00 
Pie banks and -Dankersiy.cjasieic ce es eelocst se scc0n 74,487 21 
Dae Cepositorstctstustacests saerc esto ces cee ee ols 8,541,812 92 
PRON AMUCIORS gen siecwcitds cia Sens oo ce sree sale wa 98,051 86 
ROGISCOUNES. 3 Pada a aiheales ctebhet anc ae msdione sien 57,011 78 
Triterest and exchanges ices sess sot vsese 5 6 66 
POUR) fame ene ea strecumecas oeirs cones $4,795,666 39 


The reports of the 15 savings banks cover the 
quarter ending Oct. 2, 1882: 


RESOURCES. 


Loans and discounts.......... Sy tole clacaeaie $9,143,104 29 


Bolids and mMortgaces a,c cele: cs cies seleb exes oe 1,708,738 15 
Casiivamarcesh items J..085 oi pee ces oie on es 1,278,405 40 
Real estate and fixtures................ 0000. 344,186 66 
Due from banks and bankers................ 1,214,678 52 
PUSPORSEH secetts crs esses’ wei ay suiariae clic o's a chactiey 84,229 89 
OV OREPSIGE NS ris ot fats sae tlawls dalelele aie esiaeas 25,448 00 

NEOUAI Se an gee teat sats ore ctulale sen lochs taster 6 $13,748,785 91 

LIABILITIES, 

Capitalipaamesacincs cates its. sects siaje S sare $1,262,100 00 
Surplis ee eae wees sats tees ois Seaplane al anew 138,787 93 
PUG DEUS ee mete acts hese te on te ree 111,459 84 
Dierdepositorsie anes y tees enick a ct- leita sires 0 11,905,000 79 
Profle andplosse dec set. «tie oamda ks chwieaioe od 139,891 57 
Interest ANA OXCUABREC son. sols ecraigete se asi ein aly 191,545 78 

Totalte7 yeas cane as lack anaiccscs ttn eieate on $13,748,785 91 


The increase over the preceding year in loans 
and discounts is $1,489,130 53, and in the item 
of due depositors, $1,609,975 43.—The annual 
yeport of the commissioner of swamp lands 
showed but 49,668 acres subject to appropria- 
tion at the close of the fiscal year. Subsequent 
to that date and prior to Dec. 31, 1882, the board 
of control had appropriated 13,980 acres. The 
commissioner of immigration classifies the lands 
sold during the year, and unsold at the close 
of the year, as follows: 


887 
LANDS Acres sold. Acres unsold, 
tate lands. 4. aroseuhiekiteseniess 177,450 683,755 
United States lands............. 474,879 1,232,367 
vallroa@tiand spss. eaan eee re 226,796 2,857,397 


Of the United States lands unsold or subject 
to location 1,004,140 acres are in the upper 
peninsula, or Marquette district, and 1,975,961 
acres of the railroad Jands are also in the up- 
per peninsula.—The tenth annual report of the 
commissioner of railroads bears date Nov. 380, 
1882, but is principally compiled from the re- 
turns made for the year ending Dec. 31, 1881. 
At that date the number of railroad corpora- 
tions doing business in the state was 54, and 
the number of separate managements 32, with 
a total mileage in the state of 4,252. This 
mileage was increased in 1882 (though the de- 
tailed statistics of the increase are not included 
in the report) to 4,545, exclusive of 47 m. of 
ore and forest roads. The commissioner says: 
“Ten years since the railroad system of the state 
was confined almost entirely to the southern 
third of the lower peninsula, the business un- 
der the control of only 30 corporations, and the 
whole value of their property represented by 
a stock and debt account of $259,271,228 40. 
Now of all the counties in the lower peninsula 
there are but eight—Alpena, Alcona, Benzie, 
Gladwin, Leelanaw, Montmorency, Oscoda, and 
Presque isle—without railroad facilities. In 
the upper peninsula the 216°80 m. of railroad 
in 1872 have increased to 897°33 in 1881, and 
all its counties but three are now connected by 
rail with the outside commercial world, and the 
total amount of stock and debt now reported 
to this office is $507,710,593 69. The capital 
stock paid in, as shown by the reports for 1881, 
was $239,505,422 14, being an increase for the 
year of $78,925,102 09, or 49°77 per cent. The 
large increase both in stock and mileage is 
principally credited to the Chicago and North- 
western ; Detroit, Mackinac, and Marquette ; 
and Wabash, St. Louis, and Pacific companies. 
The stock per mile is reported at $20,890, being 
a decrease of $6,486 48, or 20°02 per cent. 
The funded debt was increased during the year 
from $142,212,896 73 to $245,907,462 77, and 
the floating debt from $11,159,142 17 to $22,- 
578,142 02; a total debt increase for the year 
of $115,128,295 89. Notwithstanding this ag- 
gregate increase, the decrease per mile was 
$2,789 54. The total cost of the properties is 
put at $487,560,525 79, being $42,520 per mile 
of road, while the total stock and debt aggre- 
gates $507,710,593 69, or $44,275 71 per mile. 
The amount of stock and debt chargeable to 
mileage operated in Michigan is $188,257,300, 
the cost of which was but $173,682,876 96. 
Excess of stock and debt over cost of road bed 
and equipment, $14,474,423. The total re- 
ceipts for the year were $76,322,484 14, and 
the total operating expenses, including taxes, 
$50,454,951 15, an excess of receipts of $25,- 
867,332 99. Against this excess is chargeable: 
interest on funded debt, $18,825,472 46; on 


888 


floating debt, $310,675 67; for rentals, $3,001,- 
321 75; leaving to the credit of net income 
account, $8,730,063 11. Nine roads failed to 
earn enough to pay their ordinary operating 
expenses, their deficiencies being $109,965 50. 
But ten companies paid dividends, the amount 
being $9,055,250 60. The deficiency in the 
year’s business, after paying expenses, inter- 
est, rentals, and dividends, was $325,187 49. 
The total number of passengers transported 
during the year was 18,914,933. Excess over 
previous year, 5,317,733. The entire passen- 
ger mileage, or passengers carried 1 m., was 
824,103,330, an increased mileage over 1880 of 
262,120,506. The average distance traveled 
by each passenger was 43°57 m., for which he 
paid 98 cents, or an average rate per mile of 
2°238 cents. The tonnage of freight of all 
kinds during the year was 37,779,555, an in- 
crease over 1880 of 10,949,005, or 40°80 per 
cent. The total freight mileage, or tons car- 
ried 1 m., was 5,753,029,778, an increase of 
963,608,964, or 20°12 per cent. The Chicago 
and Northwestern and 


MICHIGAN 


EASTERN MICHIGAN. 


Savinaw valley mills; 220. . se ectquacesae ness a6 1,028,648,505 
‘Flint and Pere Marquette mills, serene oc 0c, 112,688,562 
Saginaw valley and St. Louis railroad.......... 000, 
Detroit, Saginaw, and Bay City division........ » 8,000,000 
Mackinac divisiol.......c.scssscseecseuceeeees 56,550,000 
QUA Ye dapat beh GA AEA ais Jee Ree 42,488,443 
Oscoda: and Au'Sablet.siss. ss see etien tects. 181,908,525 
Alcona pails . 26s. sae coat tess 20,000,000 
ATP ODE 55%. sis aloe Wasgiane rielo tie eta piste tventiae eet ae 179,000,000 
Cheboygan 1.6.2.2. sa c.snis t cetiea itn ioemeeente ste §2,000.000 
Miscellaneous and scattering mulls............. 50,000,000 
Total icc veclodsse dees esteel se epee 1,764,688,935 
WESTERN MICHIGAN. ; 
Lake Michigan townss.......sm.<jeteeeem eran 1,476,996,679 
Chicago and West Michigan railroad........... 206,911,000 
Grand Rapids and Indiana railroad............ 829,910,668 
Detroit, Lansing, and Northern railroad........ 102,748,000 
Miscellaneous and scattering mills............. 97,851,000 
Total iiss naisurte wate cree eoastem wactteemane 2,214,117 847 
Grand total for Michigan.................. 3,978,801,282 
Grand total for northwest, 1882............ 7,513,806,191 
Grand total for northwest, 1881............ 6,768,856,740 


—The same review gives the following table 
of the salt inspected during the year: 


the Wabash system are COUNTIES. weiclateeh geet Gaurcie incre Solar. aS Total, 
credited with the larger seat 
share of both increased gaginaw county........ 290,578 | 951,064} 1,900 | 26,585 | 17,196 | 1,287,278 
tonnage and mileage. Bay countyie =. fe s<snoe 194,270 eee 6,740 4,800 16,485 | 1,158,279 
Huron county..........) cesses 241,95 8158 ola ee 9.899 | 255,012 
The average ton haul j,.¢5 CoUnEY oc ee cate eee 205-7501. 1.760. ts skis 4.152 | 211,667 
was 152°27 m.; the av- Miaiang COUNLY A Lae We tees 69,554 naraig | seteee 10,685 80,289 
4 anistee county........ 7,619 80,143 8,645 | ...... 255 41,562 
erage amount received Goer county 800 ORK | ised ange 1,550 3.985 
for each ton moved, i Ma MUIR EoGl ic 
$1 72, and the rate per Totele 2YS4. 3004 493,167 | 2,485,385 | 17,208 81,385 60,222 | 8,087,317 


ton per mile 1°13 cent, 
an increase of 2°7 mills over 1880. The casu- 
alty list was unusually large. The number of 
passengers killed was 1 for every 492,448 car- 
ried, and the number injured 1 for every 145,- 
234. Of employés, 1 in every 286 was killed, 
and 1 in every 71 injured.—The following 
figures, relative to the lumber-cut of the 70 
Saginaw river mills, and of the mills tributary 
to the Saginaw valley, are abstracted from the 
full tables found in the annual review, com- 
piled and published by order of the Saginaw 
board of trade: 


Pine-lumber cut in 1S81.............06 
Pine-lumber cut in 1882............... 
At inland mills in Saginaw and Bay 

OOUNTIOSE Cer sae oS ak viiiets di Ave ge ie eee 


967,320,317 feet. 
1,011 O74, 905 


17,373,000 
150,000,000 
1,490,582,022 * 

24,649,900 * 
105,073,000 * 
204,009,999 

63,575,000.“ 


Total pine-cut of year........ 6.2.05. 
Hard-wood lumber cut in 1882......... 


Oak and pine square timber... ....... 7,858,000 “ 
Hard-wood lumber at inland mills...... 4, 759, 900°“ 
Salt-barrel staves cut /.......05.-+5...% 49, 372, 116 pieces. 
Salt-barrel headings cut....... ....... 2, B51, 315 sets, 
Shingles cutin Saginaw and Bay coun- 

GIOB: 22 Sas Sac ce eetere ee ee oocemiet a ah cies 295,046,500 


With 275,000 ft. of shingle-logs in boom. Oak 
pipe-staves cut for foreign markets, 758,082, 
against 1,537,073 in 1881. The same publica- 
tion gives in detail the product of the other 
lumber districts of the state, and closes with 
the following summary tables of the cut of pine 
lumber for 1882: 


The total manufacture for the year was 3,204,- 
921 barrels, embracing the grades of fine bulk, 
fine barrels, packers, solar, and second quality. 
The average price of salt for the year was 70 
cents a barrel.—The following table gives the 
iron product for the last 5 years, with the total 
product for 27 years, making the total 20,584,- 
931 tons, valued at $164,830,526: 


* 


YEAR. Ore. Pig-iron. | Ore and pig. Value. 
Tons. Tons. Tons. 
ES (8i7 sis ce « 1,125,093 17.404 1,142,497 $6,884,452 
HSM GE smectic 1,414,182 39,553 1,453,765 11,418,114 
18800042032 1.987.598 48,523 2,036.121 19 "457, 3427 
ESB eomeyes 2,821,315 52,953 2,374,268 20, "498, 613 
Leo T ooe wi 2,942,458 72,962 8,015,450 26,238,251 
27 years. 20,584,931 | 916,213 | 21,501,144 | $164.830,526 


The quartz production of 1882 was 12,623 
tons, valued at $63,115. Total value of ore, 
pig-iron, and quartz, $26,301,366. Excess over 
1881, $5,727,655. The output of the charcoal 
furnaces was: 


FURNACES. Gross tons. Value. 

Carp River Iron Company’s furnaces..) 11,836 $325,490 
Deer: Lakers: fences ok ota eatin 8,838 242.908 
SBCKBON 6 i'n'5c a's sins ¥ baste cake eeu 8,65T 238,066 
HWlorence! 446405 A eS aie elena eee 5,400 148,500 
Menomineo).).'5.(52 cic. nec -cemlcteie orale 10,400 286,000 
Martel e 2 Skis cus ieavs s/s de eeieeele aes 11,217 808,467 
PIONCEL Jo. Vesa ksu cosa accion enna 16,619 457,028 

Total. sz Jict.\nckede cements 72,962 | $2,006,454 


MICHIGAN 


The mines which produced each an ore prod- 
uct valued at over $1,000,000, were: Lake 
Superior, $2,834,835; Republic, $2,351,109 ; 
Chapin, $2,103,810; Cleveland, $1,958,140; 
Champion, $1,590,090; and Norway, $1,076,- 
055. The Florence put out a valuation of 
$960,930; the Jackson, $919,885; the Vulcan, 
$799,357; the Commonwealth, $752,503; the 
Perkins, $626,008; and the New York, $539,- 
657. No other mine produced half a million. 
The product of the Indiana dropped from 
$1,024,500, in 1881, to $36,380.—The product 
of the copper mines is stated as follows, in 
pounds: 


Houghton Company’s mines.................20 50,770,719 
Keweenaw Company's mines..........-..00-2-0. 5,462,648 
Ontonagon Company’s mineS...............0000. 1,025,770 

EL Otal teas dae sei es vole ee se ratalcie oS waaly cists 57,259,187 


Compared with 1881, the output of the mines 
producing over 1,000,000 lbs. each was as fol- 
lows: 


MINES. 1881. 1882. 

Oalumet/and: Hecla... ls ics eses cess 38,924,482 | 31,914,726 

iney Mae SO OR ek Te aly 6,815,485 | 5,553,784 
Oscolanra ante tee deka ates 4.806.880 | 3,841,754 
TOMATO Asie eestor sac en cee Sees eles 3,228,190} 3,179,786 
PA TIATLIG corer erat sa eee ae ma teiaits ote 8,631,995 | 3,014,976 
AM OUEZ ics teins sets ate Che eases 1,939,845 1,839,468 
Contrales spree dec lew a eddie Means Not given.| 1,443,068 
POWaDIC lence ca telel s casandene sien ee 1,247,550 | 1,431,224 


The average price of copper during the year 
was 18°41 cents per pound, which would give 
an approximate value of $10,541,407 12.—The 
superintendent of public instruction furnishes 
the following statistics of the primary schools 
in advance of his annual report for 1882: 


Whole number of school districts............. 6,630 
Increase over preceding year ................ 104 
Whole number of school-houses............... 6,728 
Increase over preceding year.....,........... 153 
Number of children between five and twenty 

WOHUAIOLSAS Bian a siete nuelegs oe ate a aia fee eae ciererata S 538,802 
Increase over preceding year................. 20,508 
Number of children uttending public schools... 885,504 
Increase over preceding year..............00% 13,761 
Number of private and select schools......... 271 
Number of pupils attending private and select 

BCHOOISMR ML Teale as cites eased Ros tees 20,577 
Number of teachers employed in public schools 

SeaTEO Me ttstemrels estos Sica eciss seed dete Dawe sie eee 3,887 
Number of teachers employed in public schools 

aoe OUID CIN a Miecals Criss a) sipth Tals oldie aretevermer rele et slid mets 10,580 

MOtahorUGth Sexes resus M isaac ena etinnees 14,467 
Detrease since tSS iar. ose agence ctnee ein vee secs 5 
Total wages paid teachers..............-...6. $2,193,902 93 
Increase" OverplSsie. ce uc e eee dies chess acs arses 168,983 94 
Estimated value of school property........... . 9,848.493 00 
Amount on hand from preceding year......... 876,852 28 
Amount received from one-mile tax........... 514,504 56 
Amount received from primary-school] interest 

fanid Cece ee rsene i eee oaroaveebcreren t 626,673 56 
Amount received from tuition of non-resident 

pupils.,.2305. Aiictajeial siete’ stabiieie ee the ats aa Be 49,513 18 
Amount received from district taxes.......... 2,269.504 47 
Amount received from all other sources....... 406,948 69 
Total receipts for the year...........sceee eee $4,735,026 T4 
Total expenditures for all purposes........... $3,789,290 93 
Amount carried forward to next year......... 945,785 81 

POLARS ci 3s alcloise ictal cals satame'a, Totals as $4,735,026 74 


The annual report of the acting principal of 
the state normal school gives the following 


889 


summary of students in attendance during the 
school year 1881-2: 


Tn normal department: 344i i so voce. cane aaa eae 
Practice school—grammar department................¢- VT 


« primary department...........0..0-..- 112 

519 

Counted itwiteiby translarsa),..¢0.0s etna eh ope eee ee 8 
QUAL ahiatc g tere G's atesicelet’s Sure wre ae he dia oemee mae 511 


Number graduated during the year: Com- 


‘mon school course, 43; English courses, 18; 


language courses, 21. Total, 82. The disburse- 
ments for the year were: on account of sala- 
ries and current expenses, $26,650 72; for new 
building and special purposes, $24,889 49. 
Total, $51,490 21. The receipts, exclusive of 
balances, Sept. 30, 1881, were $48,266 57: $3,- 
415 came from tuition, laboratory, and diploma 
fees, and $44,851 57 from the state treasury. 
The state agricultural college makes the fol- 
lowing showing for 18812: number of stu- 
dents, 221 (a decrease of 7 from the preceding 
year). Classification: resident graduates, 2; 
seniors, 29; juniors, 31; sophomores, 56; 
freshmen, 82; specials, 21. The annual report 
for 1882 of Michigan university shows the 
number of students, as follows: department of 
literature, science, and the arts, 513; depart- 
ment of medicine and surgery, 380; depart- 
ment of law, 395; school of pharmacy, 100; 
homeopathic medical college, 71; college of 
dental surgery, 75. Of these, 184 were women, 
110 of whom were in the literary department, 
44 in the department of medicine and surgery, 
2 in department of law, 5 in the school of 
pharmacy, 19 in the homeopathic medical col- 
lege, and 4 in the dental college. The receipts 
of the year, exclusive of balance, Sept. 30, 
1881, were $266,740 06; the disbursements, 
$245,884 09; and the balance on hand, Sept. 
30, 1882, $28,118 75. The receipts from stu- 
dents’ fees were $85,979 10, and the payments 
on account of salaries of officers, professors, 
and employés, were $118,390 82.—The annual 
report of the Michigan asylum for the insane, 
for the year ending Sept. 30, 1882, shows: 


Patientsiseptsolwisoles ssecta soe ceurcsis st aserasee 
Received during the year.............. Sarees Ae 


Discharged recovereds. sewdssaie see sites see eee 29 
“e PIM PLOVER claracraistarciotewte eis eis eis wicvaia ots 3T 
UWNIMpProvede. aacaieysaiae bie elie s Meise 80 


ROMAININg SEPENOU Les aaana'caciclecelas ae iciemiesietrsiee 


The report of the medical superintendent of 
the Eastern Michigan asylum makes the fol- 
lowing showing: 


Under treatment Stpt..30, 1881 0.0.62 6... ccuce es 471 
MOMAICCOG GUMBO VOR ad fc cicesis cw a dy oe Swcate a tae 18T an 
Dischareed (recovered sy sa: fescue aceslsele esis seaiviaie 44 
be AIM PTOVOG cha eaieke tse ottotete 591g nisrsiarseinie ate 26 
bg MMU PTOV OCs rater tata tersters stelarate ste lecrmrersiore 10 
TIS as Wh AE an eIRE Ine HCGIC Ce Sis inhib nt Mnmahs rec 86 
LOMIPOLATIY ADSENG. 5c /nisicisiey sist svolals cin sleieiui te wielale ysis 1 
— 117 
Remaining Sept. 8051382 ves cures cine eaictersm eee ate .» O41 


890 MICHIGAN 


Of this number, 273 are males and 268 fe- 
males. The expenditures for 1882 were $175,- 
618 for all purposes, and the average weekly 
cost per capita was $3 91%. The board of 
commissioners of the Northern asylum for the 
insane report the purchase of a site near Trav- 
erse City, overlooking Grand Traverse bay, 
consisting of 339 acres, with contracts for 57 
acres adjoining the same; also that a con- 
tract has been let for the erection of the build- 
ing.—The report of the principal of the Michi- 
gan institution for the education of the deaf 
and dumb gives an enrollment for the session 
of 1881-’2 of 249. The disbursements on ac- 
count of current expenses were $46,589 74, of 
which amount $5,072 76 came from earnings 
and $41,516 98 from the state.—The first bien- 


nial report of the Michigan school for the blind ' 


says: ‘‘ During the period of two years, ending 
June 22, 1882, there have been 73 pupils en- 
rolled, of whom 55 were in attendance the first 
year and 63 the second. The disbursements 
for the year ending Sept. 30, 1882, were: for 
current expenses, $22,140 32; for buildings 
and special purposes, $19,728 81. Total, $41,- 
869 18. Statistics collected by state authority 
in 1881 give the number of blind persons resi- 
dent in the state in that year as 540: 325 males 
and 215 females. Of this number, 67 were 
under 20 years old and 48 between the ages of 
20 and 30 years; 90 are reported as having 
been inmates of institutions for the blind, and 
382 have never been inmates of any institu- 
tion.—From the biennial report of the state 
public school superintendent, the following 
statistics for the fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 
1882, are collated: 


Received during the year............ Drolet case ore sseiate chee 150 
Iidentured during theyear:. 3.6. 5.'. nests facta te ee ive 175 
Returnedsto.counties. sce aetiocee ae dene oie tee eS 
Meturned irom families meri. vicee oe ses hee ete ee 

10) ¥e Uae SS Serr ego eent EUS AUR OME OO Ra AEN oe tl 2 


Remaining in school Sept. 80, 1882.........-.0+00. 


Current expenses for year, $37,200 26, and 
average cost per capita, $119 61.—The super- 
intendent of the Michigan reform school for 
girls, in her first report to the board of con- 
trol, gives the number of girls received up to, 
and in the school, Sept. 80, 1882, as follows: 


During -Aug.rand Sept..186lci4 .2s2ease gece ale ecemaaer 18 
Krom Sept. 30, 1881; to. Sept. 80, 1882 2.225 eo. weet 67 
Returned tovcourt vere. sesae sans heeds ahs coe ee eee 2 
Tn BChoOlssepEn BO, WMsooe a. siepien «sways nn cre emcee eee 83 


—The tables which accompany the report of 
the state house of correction at Ionia, for the 
year ending Sept. 30, 1882, show: 


Number of prisoners Sept. 80, 1681 ...............0 886 
“iben Tecelyed. on SeCHtENCE mre teacesies «cee Selslen 1,267 
“returned from witness .......... ie Rares Seaee 

otals sa), Poe ertesle gee ea aeinn Me menses Seaver « 1,654 

Number discharged by expiration of sentence... 1,034 

ef “ Order Of COUrta-anece: 70 
a . PSrdONnidicwaseeneeete ss 11 
ae cs CGBth lacs csmicoltelreatsciess 4 
i escaped and not recovered............ 
—- 1,125 
Number remaining Sept. 30, 1882.............0.. 529 


MICROPHONE 


Average daily number of prisoners, 510. 
The disbursements on account of current ex- 
penses were $77,381 67; cash earnings for 
same period, $40,348 47; excess of disburse- 
ments over earnings, $37,033 20. Deduct 
from last amount value of labor entering into 
permanent improvements, material paid for 
from current expense fund, and value of ap- 
praised farm products ($27,280 17), and the 
net expenditures exceed the earnings, $9,753 
03.—The annual report of the state prison at 
Jackson shows: 


Number of convicts Sept. 80, 1881 ................ 699 

Received during the year,......¢.c.s +s ems ace ere 202 As 
Discharged by expiration of sentence........ 238 
a aks order of supreme court............ 2 
Pardoned Dy GOvernors cisions ve wewiae's berries oietels 4 
Died 22 yieaie.neunleg ctete seeie cit eve tee arcoieale 8 
HSCAP Od as terete s: eratiate/tieliela of Hlcts ai vlchotetatatichetoltytatietatatMatelatate 3 
Transferred to Detroit house of correction......... 2 

Discharged: formew' trialist os)... oc ves ee eee sere 
— 265 
In‘prison' Sept: 0/1882.) Sea ccee -atonccok plete nee 626 


The net earnings of the year are given as 
$90,360 97, and the net expenditures, $98,- 
040 99. During the year contractors paid 
$11,155 75 to convicts on account of over- 
work, or more than 12 per cent. of the net 
earnings. — The population of the principal 
places in 1880 was: Detroit, 116,340; Grand 
Rapids, 32,016; Bay, 20,693; East Saginaw, 
19,016; Jackson, 16,105; Muskegon, 11,262; 
Saginaw, 10,525; Lansing, 8,319. See map in 
supplement to Volume IX. 

MICROPHONE, an instrument for the detec- 
tion of faint sounds. In conducting the series 
of experiments which resulted in the invention 
of his carbon telephone, and later, while per- 
fecting that apparatus, Mr. Edison was led to 
the discovery of the effects of pressure on the 
electrical conductivity of various bodies; and 
he found that even such slight pressure as is 
produced by the impact of sound waves can 
cause the electrical resistance of bodies to vary 
under certain conditions, Prescott, in his work, 
“The Speaking Telephone,” &c., conclusively 
establishes the priority of Edison’s discovery 
in this matter. Whether Prof. Hughes, in his 
microphone, did or did not appropriate to him- 
self the discoveries made by Edison, he at least 
reduced them to their simplest expression. The 
wire of an electrical circuit is cut, and a com- 
mon nail attached to each of the ends. These 
nails are laid side by side on a table; being sep- 
arated by a slight space, and then they are elec- 
trically connected by another nail laid across 
them. Speech addressed to this nail-will cause 
it to bear with varying pressure on the other 
two nails, and these changes of pressure are 
reproduced at any point in the circuit in the 
shape of vibrations, with the aid of a telephone 
receiver. The effect is improved by building 
up 10 or 20 nails, log-hut fashion, into a square 
structure. With these arrangements the sound 
or grosser vibrations alone are produced, the 
quality (témbre) of the voice being lost.. It was 
early discovered that a metallic powder, such 


MICROTASIMETER 


as white bronze, and fine metallic filings, intro- 
duced at the points of contact of the nails, 
added greatly to the perfection of the results; 
and in the later experiments these materials 
were employed under various conditions, and 
the first crude form of the microphone, that 
made of nails, gave place to instruments of 
greater precision. The form ultimately adopt- 
ed by Prof. Hughes consists of a lozenge-shaped 
piece of gas carbon an inch long, a quarter of 
an inch wide at its centre, and an eighth of an 
inch thick. The lower pointed end pivots on 
a similar block; the upper rounded end plays 
free in another carbon block. All of these 
pieces of carbon are impregnated with mer- 
cury. This instrument is capable of detecting 
very faint sounds made in its presence. If a 
pin, for instance, be laid upon or taken off a 
table, a distinct sound is emitted; or if a fly 
be confined under a glass shade, it can be heard 
walking with a peculiar tramp of its own. 
MICROTASIMETER, a measure of infinitesimal 
pressure, and incidentally of infinitesimal varia- 
tions in bodies, caused by changes of tempera- 
ture, moisture, &c. It is at once an exceedingly 
sensitive thermometer, barometer, and hygrom- 
eter. This instrument, invented by Edison, 
was employed very successfully during the so- 
lar eclipse of 1878 in measuring the heat given 
out by the sun’s corona. The change of tem- 
perature causes expansion or contraction of a 
rod of vulcanite, which changes the resistance 
of an electric current by varying the pressure 
it exerts upon a carbon button included in the 
circuit. The substance whose expansion or 
contraction is to be measured is shown at A in 


Microtasimeter. 


the figure. 
lower end fits into a slot in the metal plate M, 
which rests upon the carbon button C. The 
latter is an electric circuit which includes also 
a delicate galvanometer. Any variation in the 
length of the rod changes the pressure upon 
the carbon, and alters the resistance of the 
current. This causes a deflection of the galva- 


It is firmly clamped at B, and its | 


MIDHAT PASHA 891 


nometer needle—a movement in one direction 
denoting expansion of A; an opposite motion, 
contraction. In order to ascertain the exact 
amount of expansion in decimals of an inch, 
the screw $ is turned until the deflection pre- 
viously caused by the change of temperature is 
reproduced. The screw works a second screw, 
causing the rod to ascend or descend, and the 
exact distance through which the rod moves is 
indicated by the needle N on the dial. When 
the microtasimeter is to be used for measuring 
atmospheric humidity, the strip of vulcanite is 
superseded by one of gelatine, which changes 
its volume by absorbing moisture. 

MIDHAT PASHA, a Turkish statesman, born 
about 1824. In 1845 he was secretary of two 
commissions appointed for the introduction of 
reforms in the provinces, and afterward he 
was chief of the bureau of confidential reports, 
and was sent to investigate the finances of 
Syria. On his return he was for a short time 
second secretary to the grand council of state. 
Being employed to put down brigandage in 
Roumelia in 1857, he performed the work most 
effectively and thoroughly, and on his return 
to Constantinople was made a member of the 
grand council. He was for a short time tem- 
porary governor of Bulgaria, where he sup- 
pressed an incipient rebellion. He visited the 
capitals of Europe, to study the constitution of 
the various governments. In 1860 he was cre- 
ated pasha and appointed governor of the prov- 
inces of Nish, Uskup, and Prisrend, where he 
introduced several reforms. Afterward he was 
recalled to Constantinople, and with two asso- 
ciates drew up the code called ‘‘ the Law of the 
Vilayets.” This provided for a separation of 
executive and judicial powers, and the or- 
ganization of civil and criminal tribunals and 
administrative councils, to which Christians 
as well as Mohammedans were to be admit- 
ted. Midhat Pasha was made governor gen- 
eral of Bulgaria, where the new code was 
first tried in 1864. During his administration 
he built 2,000 miles of road, 1,500 bridges, 
and numerous schools and hospitals, includ- 
ing the schools of arts and manufactures at 
Rustchuk, Nish, and Sophia. He was next 
made president of the council of state, and af- 
terward governor of Bagdad. Recalled once 
more to Constantinople, he was successively 
grand vizier and minister of justice; but the 
palace party thwarted all his attempts to in- 
troduce reforms at the capital. With the 
grand vizier Hussein Avni, he deposed Ab- 
dul Aziz, whom they had unsuccessfully 
urged to reform his government, May 31, 
1876. They also deposed Murad V. on the 
ground of insanity; and when Abdul Hamid 
II. became sultan, Midhat Pasha was made 
grand vizier, Dec. 19,1876. But in February, 
1877, he was banished. In 1878 he obtained 
permission to reside in Orete, and in November 
was made governor general of Syria. He was 
subsequently transferred to Smyrna. In 1881 
he was sentenced to death for the murder of 


892 MILLER 


Abdul-Aziz, but the sentence was commuted 
to banishment to Arabia. 

MILLER, William Hallowes, a British mineralo- 
gist, born in 1802, died May 20, 1880. He grad- 
uated at St. John’s college, Cambridge, in 
1826, and became a fellow and tutor of his col- 
lege. He succeeded Dr. Whewell as professor 
of mineralogy in 1832, and occupied that post 
till his death. He devised a system of crys- 
tallographic notation. A great deal of his 
reputation is due to the delicate work he ac- 
complished in connection with the national 
standards of weight and length, and with the 
standard meter of France. In mineralogy his 
name is indissolubly connected with the famous 
hklsystem. Prof. Miller was the author of 
a ‘Treatise on Crystallography,” “Tract on. 
Crystallography,” ‘‘ Elementary Introduction 
to Mineralogy,” “‘ Hydrostatics,” ‘ Ditferential 
Calculus,” and other works. He also invented 
the goniometer. 

MINNESOTA. The population of the state in 
1880 was 780,773, of whom 419,149 were males, 
361,624 females, 513,097 natives, 267,676 for- 
eign, 776,884 whites, 1,564 colored, 25 Chinese 
and Japanese, and 2,300 Indians. The chief 
agricultural productions were 2,972,965 bush- 
els of barley, 41,756 of buckwheat, 14,831,741 
of corn, 23,382,158 of oats, 215,245 of rye, 34,- 
601,030 of wheat, 1,636,912 tons of hay, 5,184,- 
676 bushels of potatoes; number of horses, 
257,282; 9,019 mules and asses, 36,344 work- 
ing oxen, 275,545 milch cows, 347,161 other 
cattle, 267,598 sheep, 881,415 swine; value of 
manufactures, $76,065,198.—The receipts from 
taxes and other sources of ordinary revenue, 
for the biennial period 1881-2, exceeded the 
estimates by $346,000, but the expenditures 
were $764,000 in excess of the estimated 
amount. The revenue fund was overdrawn 
nearly up to the legal limit of $150,000, because 
the legislature, while making appropriations in 
excess of the usual amounts, had failed to in- 
crease the tax levy. The advances of $142,810 
were mostly taken from the trust funds of the 
state. The extraordinary expenditures were 
on account of the extra session of 1881, the 
Cox impeachment trial, the new capitol, inter- 
est on the railroad readjustment bonds, &ec. 
The capitol building has finally been replaced, 
on the responsibility of the governor, by a fire- 
proof structure at an outlay of about $300,000. 
—The ordinary receipts for the two years were 
as follows: 


RECEIPTS. 1881, 1882. 

State tax. c. corer cones $411,518 $311,205 
Railroad and telegraph taxes..... 830,625 470,556 
Miscellaneous sources........... 70,717 107,719 
Balance in treasury Noy. 30, 1880. TEE a BBA 
SSULDIUS|s sre sass eel oie eae eee eee ee ete see 10,634 
Overdraft less balances..........]  .-. + 115,745 

LOU poss ch sx pitn essa e ea here $951,778 | $1,015,861 


The disbursements for the state government 
and maintenance of the state institutions were 
as follows: 


MINNESOTA 


DISBURSEMENTS. 1881 1882, 
Legislature, regular session ............ $13,206) 0) = seee 
Legislature, extra session .............. 46,182) gece 
TmapeachnientCourtccas «sie eee casera eel mee ae cele $28,885 
ISXOCULLVE. hao os hee te neue eee 68,545 59,980 
SUGICIA cui. falestele sae ene 69,796 79,502 
PINGING. 5.4.0 ve ae a wkod oirele eet tee ee . 83,689 $3,208 
Miscellaneous and overdrafts........... 143,000 70,095 
Support of institutions ................ 800,465 812,418 
Interest on state bonds... 22... -2..0s00 19,485. 11,706 
Interest on railroad readjustment bonds.| ...... 88,086 
Buildings tac veckscsriselne cere tome ena 174,617 831,983 

Total® cid serawvetadlsteie the eveverattat eee $924,952) $1,015,861 


The sources of revenue are expanding at a 
very rapid rate with the settlement and agri- 
cultural development of the state. The taxable 
property of Minnesota increased from $258,- 
055,548 in 1880, to $311,200,841 in 1882. The 
taxation for all purposes, state and local, in 
1881 and 1882 is shown in the following table: 


TAXATION, 1881, 1882, 

State-taws git causes seater re $379.689 $741.686 
Seed grain taxes.....5.0. 00800006 56,616 12,000 
General school (1 mill) .......... 270,787 810,116 
Special schoolse seems sac nee 1,190,086 1,381,861 
County reyenue..<2.020. «526s ces 875,640 1,009,465 
County. interest....cse-see eos rae 99,881 100,741 
County poor see As lecmtss catiesien 140,116 153,641 
County special purposes......... 91,0389 164,102 
Oity taxes 5 trecnederuneessictaaes 807,393 1,185,261 
LOWnShIps taxes citys ssf antec 297,018 803,785 
Delinquent,roadiis. ..-- dene oe 146,420 166,266 
Interest on town bonds.......... 72,624 120,799 
Special city and town’... 5.-....55 271,505 526, 122 

Total taxes for all purposes ..| $4,698,771 | $5,725,859 


The average rate of taxation was 17:3 mills 
in 1881 and 18°4 mills in 1882. The total 
transactions of the state treasury, including 
the sales of public lands and investments for 
the trust funds, conversion of investments, &c., 
reached $1, 979, 558 of receipts and $1,421,- 
812 of disbursements in 1881, and $3, 201, 416 
of receipts and $3,058,317 of disbursements in 
1882. The allowance of 5 per cent. on the 
sales of United States lands amounted to $3,- 
115 in 1881, and rose to $49,561 in 1882; the 
sales of pine timber on the state lands amount- 
ed to $26,638 in 1881, and $89,174 in 1882; 
principal paid on sales of school lands to $37,- 
025 in 1881, and $20,718 in 1882; on former 
sales to $184,774 in 1881, and $210,863 in 1882; 
interest on contracts of school lands to $171,- 
587 in 1881, and $167,157 in 1882; interest on 
sales and contracts of internal improvement 
lands to nearly $100,000 for the two years; 
principal from sales of agricultural college and 
university lands and interest on contracts, to 
about $70,000. The interest paid on the per- 
manent school fund bonds, amounting to $108,- 
698 in 1881, was $81, 295 in 1882; $687,000 
was realized from sales of United States bonds. 
A portion of the Missouri bonds held for the 
trust funds were also sold, and the main part 
of the trust fund investments converted into 
the new 44 per cent. railroad adjustment bonds, 
of which $1,596,000 were taken for the several 
permanent funds: $204,000 of state bonds of 


MINNESOTA 


1873 and 1878 were redeemed. The expenses 
of the university in 1881 were $47,000; in 
1882, $43,881; the apportionments of school 
funds in 1881 were $259,414; in 1882, $259,- 
097. In accordance with the act of Nov. 4, 
1881, providing for the adjustment of certain 
alleged claims @vainst the state, there were re- 
deemed 2,232 Minnesota state railroad bonds 
of $1,000, and other claims settled to the 
amount of $53,088. For the settlement of the 
recognized bonds and claims, $4,253,000 of 
new 44 per cent. bonds were issued. The only 
other acknowledged indebtedness of the state 
is $25,000 bonds issued in 1873 for building 
purposes, which mature in 1883, and $61,000 
issued in 1868 for seed-grain distribution, for 
which the state is to be reimbursed by the 
counties. The people at the last general elec- 
tion approved the proposition for the applica- 
tion of the internal improvement land fund to 
the payment of the principal and interest of 
the railroad adjustment bonds. This will leave 
only an insignificant portion of the debt asa 
burden on the taxable resources of the people, 
as the Jands are now marketable, and when all 
disposed of will swell the fund to at least $3,- 
000,000.—There was an increase in the enroll- 
ment of the public schools of 22,638 in the 
two years, the total number enrolled at the 
end of 1882 being 196,238, as against 173,600 
in 1880. There were 567 new school bnildings 
erected, at a cost of $759,022, making the total 
number 4,260, valued at $3,947,857. The ex- 
penditures on the public schools for the two 
years amounted to $3,844,866. The three nor- 
mal schools, at Winona, Mankato, and St. 
Cloud, had an aggregate enrollment of 939 pu- 
pils in 1881, and 1,028 in 1882. Their com- 
bined expenses were $45,859 in 1881, and $46,- 
081 in 1882. The schools graduated 129 teach- 
ers in two years. Aid was extended in 1882 
to 38 schools under the act to encourage higher 
education. New buildings for the university 
are to be erected.—Most of the state institu- 
tions of charity and correction require to be 
enlarged. The number of inmates in the state 
prison at the end of 1882 was 279, an in- 
crease of 29 in two years. The earnings were 
$26,277 in 1881, and $30,952 in 1882; the cur- 
rent expenses were $49,964 and $54,972. In 
the reform school there were 123 inmates. 
The expenses in 1881 were $30,101; in 1882, 
$31,550. In the institute for the deaf, dumb, 
and the blind there are now separate depart- 
ments for the education of the mutes and the 
blind. The imbecile school was removed to a 
new building in February, but its accommoda- 
tions, as well as those of the school for the 
.blind, are insufficient, there being 59 applicants 
waiting admission, for whom there is no room 
in the imbecile, and 84 blind and 233 deaf- 
mute youth who have never received instruc- 
tion. There were 125 pupils in the deaf and 
dumb, 34 in the blind, and 41 in the imbecile 
departments. The current expenses were $44,- 
278 in 1881, and $49,807 in 1882, The burned 


893 


portion of the insane hospital at St. Peter has 
been rebuilt, and the one at Rochester enlarged, 
but the 635 inmates of the former and 236 of 
the latter already tax their capacity. The 
weekly cost per capita in 1882 was $3 82 at 
St. Peter, and $4 13 at Rochester.—The capi- 
tal stock of the banks is reported as $9,351,- 
208 in 1882, and $7,990,850 in 1881; the sur- 
plus funds as $1,600,977 and $1,191,425 for 
the respective years; the deposits as $22,810,- 
306 and $20,109,435 ; loans and discounts, $27,- 
147,343 and $22,910,609. This is only a par- 
tial exhibit of the banking business, as there 
are 116 private banks, many of which would 
not furnish reports.—The amount of insurance 
risks written in 1882 was $122,070,500, 250 per 
cent. more than ten years before; the amount 
of premiums collected, $1,596,353; of losses 
paid, $914,950—nearly three times as much as 
in 1872.—The total number of immigrants who 
settled in the state during the two years is es- 
timated at over 100,000.—The surveyors gen- 
eral of logs and lumber report 276,595,640 ft. 
of logs scaled in 1882, and 260,045,720 ft. in 
1881 in the first district; and 312,211,780 ft. 
in 1882, and 238,648,210 in 1881, in the second 
district. The quantity of lumber manufactured 
in 1882 is reported as 126,820,590 ft. in the 
first, 423,009,250 ft. in the second, and 239,- 
000,000 ft. as the estimated quantity in the 
fifth district—The agriculture of Minnesota is 
improving in character as well as extending. 
The state is also making marked progress in 
stock-raising. Fine breeds have been imported 
in considerable numbers. The wheat produc-, 
tion has increased every year, owing to the 
settling up of new lands, but in the older dis- 
tricts the acreage under wheat has diminished 
largely. Constant cropping and the chinch- 
bug have reduced the yield and made other 
crops more valuable. The number of cattle in 
the state increased 100 per cent. in 1882, of 
sheep 25 per cent., of hogs 40 per cent. The 
production of cultivated hay nearly doubled, 
of butter more than doubled, of cheese quad- 
rupled, of wool more than doubled, of corn 
more than doubled, and of oats, barley, rye, 
buckwheat, &c., largely increased. Flax has 
recently become a staple agricultural product 
in Minnesota. There were 505,717 bushels of 
flax-seed produced in 1881, on 83,947 acres, an 
average of a little over 6 bushels per acre. The 
acreage planted in 1882 was 98,309 acres, and 
the estimated production about 7 bushels an 
acre. — During 1882 there were constructed 
within the state 581 miles of new railroad, 
making the total mileage 3,749 m. The total 
cost is returned as $149,312,631, or $48,934 
per mile. The value of the subsidies in bonds 
and lands given to the companies by the state 
of Minnesota is stated by the railroad commis- 
sioner to be $76,489,790. The earnings of the 
lines within the state for the year ending June 
30th were reported as $4,816,218 from passen- 
gers and $13,158,697 from freight; the total 
earnings as $18,805,193; the operating ex- 


894. MISSISSIPPI 


penses as $10,221,783. There were 9,962,393 
passengers carried and 5,883,120 tons of freight 
transported during the year. The amount of 
taxes paid to the state by railroad companies 
was $470,593 in 1882, against $315,482 in 1880, 
$200,171 in 1878, and $145,794 in 1876; the 
aggregate amount of taxes collected from the 
companies since 1864 was $2,641,334. Two of 
the railroad corporations have refused to pay 
taxes on a part of their incomes.—The popu- 
lation of the principal places, by the census of 
1880, was: Minneapolis, 46,887; St. Paul, 41,- 
473; Winona, 10,208; Stillwater, 9,055. See 
map at beginning of this supplement. 
MISSISSIPPI. The population of the state 
in 1880 was 1,131,597, of whom 567,177 were 
males, 564,420 females, 1,122,388 natives, 9,209 
foreign, 479,398 whites, 650,291 colored, 51 
Chinese, and 1,857 Indians. The chief agricul- 
tural productions were 21,340,800 bushels of 
corn, 1,959,620 of oats, 218,890 of wheat, 8,- 
894 tons of hay, 18 hogsheads of sugar, 536,- 
625 gallons of molasses, 1,718,951 lbs. of rice, 
963,111 bales of cotton (more than any other 
state), 414,663 lbs. of tobacco, 303,821 bushels 
of Irish and 3,610,660 of sweet potatoes; num- 
ber of horses, 112,309; 129,778 mules and 
asses, 61,705 working oxen, 268,178 milch 
cows, 387,452 other cattle, 287,694 sheep, and 
1,151,818 swine; value of manufactures, $7,- 
518,302. There were 5,166 public schools, in- 
cluding 2,147 for colored children, and 106 
high schools; expended for school purposes, 
$679,475 ; pupils enrolled, 237,065, of whom 
.121,602 were colored; average attendance, 
156,824.—The revenues of the state for 1882 
and 1883 are computed as follows: 
Taxation on real and personal property, on a 


total valuation of $115,150,120, at the rate of 
24 mills, the rate now fixed by law, will pro- 


duce.Jor EWO, Vents sells ona eels cectuse edie aie $575,750 60 
Cashinithe treasury oetcce. on ee eee tenes 500,000 00 
General tax on privileges... .........cecececeees 848,612 29 
Collections of 1881 not reported..... ......... 800,000 60 
Probable revenue from land office............. 40,000 00 
Probable revenue through revenue agent...... 25,000 00 
Derived from compromise with Mississippi and 

Tennessee railroad...... Lua ab Bes eb regi ae 65,000 00 

Votal Seekers ecu ee sion ere a ets eee $1,849,362 89 
Uxpenditures for the same period: 

SAVATIOR Sante tein crates er banat era ety Benn, Vase a $105,750 00 

FAD PrOPrigtions asi eiee sae ss viscoeee tees 722,847 T1 

Emimniorationy SNe ees cides cle chat ieee te ens ke 25,509 00 

TRO PIS IACUEO mst oe eat see graicte lyclone acters Lk tione 70.495 00 

University of Mississippi............-....... 64,000 00 

Commonschoolse sear sues he aes teeta tas 600,000 00 

Probable expenses not yet ascertained....... 100,000 00 


Total eee Mendete ae lace as cokes $1,688,592 71 


Deducting this sum from the total revenue, 
there will remain a balance in the treasury on 
Jan. 1, 1884, of $160,770 18. To the above 
computation of cash in the treasury on that date 
should be added the taxes on 1,000,000 acres 
of land sold by the state, which will be hence- 
forth subject to taxation. The entire recog- 
nized bonded debt of the state is $518,150, with 
funds in the treasury to pay it off at par. The 
estimated number of feet (board measure) of 
pine timber now standing in the state is about 
25,000,000,000.—The population of the princi- 


MISSOURI 


pal places, by the census of 1880, was: Vicks~ 
burg, 11,814; Natchez, 7,058; Jackson, 5,204. 
See map in supplement to Volume VII. 
MISSOURI. The population of the state in 
1880 was 2,168,380, of whom 1,127,187 were 
males, 1,041,193 females, 1,956,802 natives, 
211,578 foreign, 2,022,826 whites, 145,350 col- 
ored. The chief agricultural productions were 
123,031 bushels of barley, 57,640 of buck- 
wheat, 202,414,413 of corn, 20,670,958 of oats, 
535,426 of rye, 24,966,627 of wheat, 1,077,458 
tons of hay, 20,318 bales of cotton, 12,015,657 
Ibs. of tobacco, 4,189,694 bushels of Irish and 
431,484 of sweet potatoes; number of horses, 
667,776; 192,027 mules and asses; 9,020 work- 
ing oxen, 661,405 milch cows, 1,410,507 other 
cattle, 1,411,298 sheep, 4,553,123 swine; value 
of manufactures, $165,386,205; tons of coal 
mined, 543,990; iron ore, 386,197; lead ore, 
28,315; zinc ore, 34,3844; copper ingots, 230,- 
717 \bs—The whole indebtedness of the state 
on Jan. 1, 1883, was $13,979,000, of which 
$3,031,000 is in the form of certificates of in- 
debtedness to the school and seminary funds, 
which will be due in 1911. This part is an 
amount which the people owe to themselves. 
The debt proper, therefore, of the state 
amounts to $10,948,000, and bears 6 per cent. 
interest. The assessment of property for taxa- 
tion for 1882 was $649,267,242. It will be ob- 
served, therefore, that the interest charge on 
the peopleisreally only about onemill, The last 
of this debt will fall due in 1895. A constitu- 
tional provision fixes the interest and sinking 
fund as follows: ‘There shall be levied and 
collected an annual tax of one fifth of one per 
centum (20 cents on the $100) on all real estate 
and other property and effects subject to taxa- 
tion, the proceeds of which shall be applied to 
the payment of the interest on the bonded 
debt of this state as it matures, and the sur-. 
plus, if any, shall be paid into the sinking fund, 
and thereafter applied to the payment of such 
indebtedness and to no other purpose.”—Dur- 
ing the two years of the administration of 
Gov. Crittenden, the public debt was reduced 
$712,000; of which $252,000 was paid in 1881, 
and $460,000 in 1882. This sum shows the 
amount of bonds taken up and retired since 
Jan. 10, 1881, with the surplus revenue prop- 
er of the state, and does not include the $250,- 
000 renewal revenue bonds—also paid in 1881 
—issued under act of May 9, 1879, making a 
total reduction of $962,000 of the liabilities of 
the state-—The bonded indebtedness of the 
counties, as shown by the report made by the 
auditor under date of Jan. 1, 1883, is $10,- 
840,082, and that of the townships $2,649,- 
331—total, $13,489,414. The interest on much 
the Jarger portion of this is promptly paid, and 
a sinking fund provided for the liquidation of 
the principal. No more county or township 
debts are created. The bonded indebtedness 
of cities and incorporated towns in Missouri, 
omitting St. Louis, is small. The amount is 
set down at $3,938,970. Of this amount Kan- 


MISSOURI 


sas City and St. Joseph owe about half. The 
debt of St. Louis is nearly equal to that of the 
state—omitting the certificates to the school 
and seminary funds—the counties and the 
towns combined.—The total taxable wealth in 
Missouri, exclusive of railroads, telegraphs, 
and bridges, returned for 1882, is $615,000,000, 
and of this amount $190,145,000 is returned 
from St. Louis city. The total amount of 
state taxes assessed for 1882 was $2,462,000, 
and of this $760,000 was assessed against St. 
Louis city. The collections from merchants’ 
and manufacturers’ tax-books in 1881 were 
$179,000, of which sum $106,000 was collected 
from St. Louis, and the ad valorem taxes and 
licenses collected in 1880 were $200,000, of 
which St. Louis paid $108,000. The whole 
amount of revenue paid into the state treasury 
from the general property tax, merchants’ and 
manufacturers’ taxes, and licenses was, there- 
‘fore, $2,841,000; and of this St. Louis paid 
$974,000, or more than one third. 


STATE SCHOOL FUNDS. 
Total amount of permanent productive funds in 
the several counties (county, township, &c.) 
and.in.the.city of St, Lonis....2 5... .tserdes sss. $6,124,083 84 


Add state fund (proper)............ | Sridona ages 2,912,517 66 
Addssominary: find 4207 setoees cetne sec oe enemies 122,095 08 
Add agricultural college fund (sale of lands) 213, 000 00 
MOUS Wpetete irs etyaare cities c'a.e ety Hgotrddenatdn $9,371,696 58 

Add university fund (bonds not heretofore re- 
POLLS iastenckislatw owls nilaekenien sae sector tts 200,000 00 
BE bal scescettarerslomre sit ievecisrsttses taste tisteeeieaietee' els $9,571,696 58 


Comparing these figures with those given in 
the last published report of the school de- 
partment (1880), there is an increase in the 
county funds: 


Actual increase, or part not heretofore reported 


by county clerks in two YEATES OL ose veneers $205,165 87 
Anite state, funds, jenyci dis sielecscretevptiesidals cb oie 2,275 00 
And the university funds of Re Nasiciate aa eeeaave bon 813.000 00 

Motsl increase sis.) S698 <siele viele s og aes abl seule $520,890 87 


—The report of 1880 showed that Missouri 
was the second state in the Union in the 
amount of permanent funds set apart for pub- 
lic education—Indiana surpassing her $114,- 
449 02. But as Indiana has no county or 
township funds, and no fixed or certain pro- 
visions for the increase of her state fund, Mis- 
souri now has considerably the largest amount 
devoted to public education of any state in the 
Union. 
SCHOOL CENSUS oF 1882. 


Total enumeration ceeds. seat silek sett ameieer 741,632 
otal. enrollment wanccacre oetvanee take dao oeoe ce 488. 091 
Per cent. of enrollment to enumeration............. *6581 
This is an increase (in two years) of enumeration of.. 18,148 
And an increase (in two years) of enrollment of ..... 5,105 


SCHOOL STATISTICS, 


Expenditures for the last school year.......... $3,468,737 67 
Which is a per capita, on enumeration, of....... 4°677 


Which is a per capita, on attendance, of........ 7T°106 


Five large, wealthy, and populous counties 
make no report of expenditures (on account of 
township organization), while they do report 
_ school population and receipts: 

5TT* VOL. x1.—57 


a dramatic author. 


MODJESKA 895. 

Schoolihouses*owned i. coi cece os ee ciedices suiaieel 8,272 
ImereaserovertlSe0 ras osicmjea casera) Nese tec teste 23 
Schools in operation (white), 8,321; (colored), 

DOUS—COMAI He taleme Gita ein astaiecslerayicieb sa ebieaieacrelere 8,822 
Increase (white), 172; colored, 9—total in 

CSC Toh Ans iy eine Waterton pip terse arate. cic 181 
Teachers) wages: pald Sigs..s2)tas cca aches oes sete $2,226,609 58 
Increase over 1880........0+.scueceeseeevevees 8,972 22 
Number of teachers employed Saad Wrarsis oe eesay aerate 10,607 
Decrease! since 18S0re ca. esic cee eto saree cna: 1,052 
Average salaries paid teachers per year........ $209 91 


The estimated value of school property in the 
state, exclusive of the university, four nor- 
mal schools, and the schools for the blind and 
deaf and dumb, is $7,521,695 08. 

An increase since 1880 of .............eeeeeee00 Maret 86 


The estimated seating capacity of the schools i is. 516,942 
PATININGYCASS ‘Ol, .'. severe ent onaee de meta cece 27,807 


The total amount of taxes levied by the school 
districts (DeKalb and Macon not included) 
is $2,286,191 66, which is $0°41 on the $100 of 
assessed valuation.—There were 500 patients 
in the asylum at Fulton, 250 in the one at St. 
Joseph, and 400 in the one at St. Louis. But 
this aggregate of 1,150 does not represent half 
the number of insane in the state. According 
to a special report, there are 2,300 insane per- 
sons in the state outside the asylums,—The 
population of the principal places in 1880 
was: St. Louis, 350,518; Kansas City, 55,785 ; 
St. Joseph, 32,431; Hannibal, 11,074; Sedalia, 
9,561; Joplin, 7,083; Springfield, 6,522; Mo- 
berly, 6,070; Jefferson City, 5,271. See map 
at. the beginning of this supplement. 

MIVART, St. George, an English naturalist, 
born in London, Nov. 30, 1827. He was edu- 
cated at Harrow, at King’s college, London, 
and at St. Mary’s, Oscott; being debarred from 
Oxford and Cambridge, as he had become a 
Roman Catholic. He was called to the bar in 
1851, and became lecturer at St. Mary’s hos- 
pital medical school in 1862, and professor of 
biology in University college, Kensington, in 
1874. He is the author of numerous papers in 
the publications of the royal, Linnean, and 
zodlogical societies, and in scientific periodi- 
cals, and has published in book form ‘ Genesis 
of Species ” (1871); ‘‘ Lessons in Elementary 
Anatomy ” (1872); ‘‘ Man and Apes ” (1873); 
‘‘Lessons from Nature” (1876); and ‘ Con- 
temporary Evolution ” (1876). In the “ Gene- 
sis of Species,” while he accepts evolution, he 
opposes Darwin, denying that the principle 
extends to the human intellect, and rejects 
the theory of natural selection. His argument 
is largely founded on the independent origin 
of similar structures. In ‘‘ Lessons from Na- 
ture’? he endeavors to define the distinction 
between the human intellect and the highest 
intelligence of brutes. 

MODJESKA (properly MoprzEsewsKa), Helena 
Benda, a Polish actress, born in Cracow in 
1844. She belongs to a family of actors and 
musicians, and was herself taught by Jasinski, 
Her father, a musician of 
note, had her educated in other arts besides 
her own profession ; and she developed a strong 
taste for classic literature, poetry, and sculp- 


896 


ture. She married G.S. Modrzejewski in 1860, 
and made her first appearance on the stage in 
the small town of Bochnia, Galicia, in 1861. 
Afterward she travelled with her two brothers, 
who were also actors, and performed in 18638 
at a theatre of her own in Czernowitz. In 
1865 she was the leading actress in Cracow. 
In 1868 she played in Warsaw, and in 1869 
made a permanent engagement at the Imperial 
theatre there. During the seven years of her: 
stay in Warsaw she popularized among the 
Poles the plays of Shakespeare, Corneille, 
Moliére, Goethe, Schiller, and Victor Hugo, 
through translations. With her second lhus- 
band, Count Charles Bojenta Chlapowski, 
whom she married in 1868, she came to the 
United States in the summer of 1876. He had 
left an editor’s chair in Poland, because he was 
persecuted on account of his patriotism, and 
they intended to spend the rest of their lives 
on aranch at the west. They tried the experi- 
ment of farming in southern California, after 
which Madame Modjeska studied English, and 
in June, 1877, accepted the chief réle in a play 
in San Francisco. She made a decided success 
in ‘‘ Adrienne Lecouvreur,” and soon received 
numerous offers of engagements. She has 
played Juliet, Frou-Frou, and Cleopatra, and 
has idealized Camille. In 1879 she appeared 
in Cracow, at the celebration in honor of Kra- 
szewski, and subsequently acted in Warsaw. 
In 1880 she appeared in London in La dame 
aux Camélias, rewritten for the occasion. 
MOLLY MAGUIRES, the name given to an or- 
ganization among the coal miners of Pennsy]- 
vania, which from 1862 to 1875 committed 
many murders, destroyed much property, and 
established a reign of terror over portions of 
the counties of Schuylkill, Carbon, Columbia, 
Luzerne, and Northumberland. Its members 
were all Irish Catholics, and employed the ma- 
chinery of the ‘‘ Ancient Order of Hibernians,” 
to which they belonged, for their purposes, 
making use of its passwords, signs, and organi- 
zation; so that, in the counties named, the or- 
der and the society of Molly Maguires were 
identical. Its members were originally called 
‘* Buckshots,” and the later name grew out of 
its use as a signature to the threatening letters 
sent by them to obnoxious mine officers or oth- 
ers. Its operations were most marked during 
such popular convulsions as resulted from the 
draft of 1862 and the “long strike ” of 1875; 
and troops even had to be sent into the mining 
districts to protect the property of the coal 
companies and preserve order. A favorite de- 
vice of the organization was the perpetration of 
murder by the hands of members of some other 
lodge, or division, as it was called, than that 
which had a grievance against the victim, thus 
increasing the mystery of the crime. For in- 
stance, policeman Yost, of Tamaqua, Schuylkill 
co., was killed, at the instigation of a Tamaqua 
man whom he had offended, by Carbon county 
Mollies; in return for which, mine superinten- 
dent Jones, of Lansford, Carbon co., was killed 


MOLLY MAGUIRES 


by Schuylkill county men. When it came to 
a trial, the Mollies relied upon manufactured 
evidence, and upon the terror which they in- 
spired, to secure their acquittal. The order is 
believed to have numbered about 200 persons, 
and to have committed at least 12 assassina- 
tions, besides numberless attempted murders, 
arsons, robberies, and other crimes. Among 
the victims of the order were F. W. Langdon, 
a ‘ticket boss” at Audenried, in 1862; G. K. 
Smith, an Audenried coal operator, in 1863; 
A. W. Rea, superintendent of a Northumber- 
land county colliery, in 1868; Patrick Burns, 
a clerk in a Tuscarora coal office, in 1871; 
Morgan Powell, superintendent of the Lehigh 
and Wilkesbarre coal company, in 1871; Fred- 
erick Hesser, a colliery watchman in North- 
umberland county, in 1874; Gomer James, in 
Shenandoah, Thomas Sanger, an “inside boss,” 
and William Wren, who chanced to be with 
the latter at the time, at Raven Run, in 1875 ; 
as well as Yost and Jones, already alluded to, 
who were likewise assassinated in that year. 
The inciting cause of the murders was usually 
a refusal of employment to some member of 
the order, a reduction of wages, or some simi- 
lar grievance, although Rea was killed purely 
for the purpose of robbery. Pistols were the 
usual instruments employed, the victims being 
in most cases shot down on the highway in 
broad daylight ; but Langdon and Hesser were 
beaten to death with clubs. The overthrow of 
the order seems to have been chiefly due to 
the Philadelphia and Reading coal and iron 
company, which, finding that the reign of ter- 
ror was injuring its business, employed a de- 
tective named McParlan to ingratiate himself 
into the confidence of the Molly Maguires. 
This he did successfully, being initiated into 
the order and obtaining information regarding 
the commission of many of its most atrocious 
crimes. Then Mr. F. B. Gowen, president of 
the company, went into court as a volunteer 
commonwealth’s attorney, and no pains were 
spared to root out the order. In January, 
1876, one of the murderers of Jones, who had 
been taken almost in the act, was convicted. 
Thereupon a panic seized the Mollies, many of 
whom were willing to save their necks by in- 
forming upon their companions, and no diffi- 
culty was experienced thenceforth in procuring 
convictions. On June 21, 1877, six Mollies were 
hanged at Pottsville—five for the murder of 
Yost, and one for the murder of Sanger. On 
the same day three for the murder of Jones, and 
one for that of Powell, were hanged at Mauch 
Chunk. Three were executed at Bloomsburg 
on March 25, 1878, for the Rea murder; one 
at Mauch Chunk on March 28, for that of 
Powell; one at Pottsville on June 11, for kill- 
ing Sanger; and one at Pottsville on Dec. 18, 
for the Langdon affair. During 1879, two were 
executed on Jan. 14 at Mauch Chunk, for the 
killing of Smith; one at Pottsville on Jan. 16, 
for that of Burns; and one at Sunbury on Oct. 
9, for that of Hesser. Most of these men were 


MONTANA 


ordinary miners; but three were more sub- 
stantial citizens, and politicians in a small way. 
Many of them had been concerned in several 
murders. Besides those executed, a large num- 
ber of Mollies were sentenced to long terms of 
imprisonment. See “ The Molly eae ay DY. 
F. P. Dewees (Philadelphia, 1877). 

MONTANA, a territory of the United States, 
bounded N. by British America, E. by Dakota, 
S. by Wyoming and Idaho, and W. by Idaho; 
area, 145,310 sq. m. Capital, Helena. The 
population in 1870 was 20,595; in 1880, 39,- 
159, of whom 27,638 were native and 11 p21 
foreign born; a1; 765 were Chinese and 1 663 
civilized Indians. The population by counties 
in 1880, with the total vote in November, 
1882, is shown in the table in the next column. 
The total vote was 23,318. Silver Bow co. 
was formed in 1881 from Deer Lodge. At the 
close of 1882 the territory was virtually free 
from debt, there being $70,000 of bonds out- 
standing, with moneys in the treasury suffi- 


DESCRIPTION OF PROPERTY. 


Acres of land and improvements...............-sccecceseees 


Town Jots and improvements, 65). sc ioc dais sree aa catse sais cies 
PLOMSOS eas tiets sot cists tal ones ag eiacersem ea tereaccis ste, neisiets es Vee 6 


Wearonsiand Carriages crs s:cfi tarsi siceiele «clove slats pee tieleefeieie leva seid 
SWitt CHES ANC CLOCKS .c calle atvtadsitaisvasie soleiotnie s e.s1ata slevaie's sfoia & aheye 
IPiecesiof JOWwelry And plate, oi..5 cece cats mecnieelecies nies es @ elas 
Misicalsinstruments .ciceccst dacs cus oviccstcsss cs tte ch ee cise sie 
PP UISNCIS OL OTALIIS aa vectors Sar etcverd site sicicie civ: a a iniciaielcia sists ajetceeiae 
SLOTESEO ould Varteta ote tey=-curioeestatecpcta ctetere elev nutics saaisyec ais os cis = sine’ aistaieies 
Acres of patented mining ground..............-..eceeseee0s 
Shares of stock 
IMU OIG ATICIB Greta etsretele sialcte s 6/si bite sialeseletatcte) crstclsicrsi='e/slele'stnieie scales 
Capital invested in manufactures .............c0.ccecceeecs 
Moneys Snalerediteaer.s dsaaci elects st stepicitevesiaal lt sictele aye stetale cis 
HOUseDOIG furniture rts. el’ aeisiciee sos ce cielo s = see arias cial cise 
Improvements on public lands ..........c0.0s0 se secesensccs 
Improvemeuts on mines............ GAL OURRHE ShGaM RE UC Rat 
BubltonNeSNAl Oreja «steers cle cele ahaie «ole! ears oa nialeraie cs lesiers.ujcieyerciale 


ee ee ee ee ee ee er a) 


EROCRIS Gere scree esate aint de See GSTS Ola mF alee eh oat aee Bik ee whiers 


According to the report of the territorial audi- 
tor, covering the year 1881, there were raised 
424,466 bushels of wheat, 31,081 of barley, 
10,934 of corn, 1,406,749 of oats, 360,845 of 
potatoes, 84,340 tons of hay, 1,445,462 Ibs. of 
wool; gross receipts of placer mines, $637,- 
911; of quartz mills (84), $1,916,645; acres of 
Jand cultivated, 61,770. At the beginning of 
1882 there were 232 m. of railroad in the ter- 
ritory, viz: Northern Pacific, 116 m.; Utah 
and northern, 116 m. Since then there has 
been a considerable addition to the mileage. 
According to the census of 1880, the value of 
farms was $3,234,504; bushels of barley raised, 
39,970; Indian corn, 5,649; oats, 900,915; 
wheat,” 469,688; Irish potatoes, 228,702; 

pounds of wool, 995 ,484; tons of hay, 63, ‘947 + 

value of live stock, 25, 151,554 ; number of 


MONTI 897 
COUNTIES Population Vote. 

Beaverhesd s2/)sn ssh acme csioswint bee cee 2,712 1,168 
Choteatinedetactesarte cisiere onieitente seat 8,058 967 
Ouster ey, so cices scoters oie comicnenaites 2,510 2,890 
Dawsontes Afcndave detiiac os denote sees 180 641 
Deer, Lodgeus caetasess fas lata es 8,876 1,644 
Gallatin’ ween one cae cence ea cat oe 8,643 8,280 
JS CHTOrsOM Re date tat Coton cae aet 2,464 1,820 
Lewis’ and. Olarke*. % est) .ss. ee eee. 6,521 2,502 

ISONY Sc eideh ae eee eek eaten 8,915 1,279 
Moaghersitser see eat. esta ee 2,743 1,985 
Missowlaey 2 G2 ew esac ts cee on onee 2,537 2,129 
Silver; Bowes sees scctestasi aac aeaen Be 8,063 


cient to redeem them. The total liabilities 
were $75,288 19; assets, $89,294 09; surplus, 
$14,005 90. The revenue collected during 1881 
amounted to $75,286 64; during 1882, $90,- 
863 47; increase, $15, 576 83. The estimated 
expenditures for the year 1883 are $70,500. 
The aggregate net indebtedness of counties in 
1881 was $676,360 72; in 1882, $658,974 32. 
The table below exhibits the assessment of 
property in the territory in 1881 and 1882: 


1881, 1882, 

No. Value. No. Value. 
424,700 $3,511,646 50 51610134 | $4,476,118 00 
7147 8,030,772 00 7.193% | 4,163,618 00 
63/114 2:406,328 00 67,802 "197,020 00 
2,267 151,907 00 1,958 143,518 00 
260,402 729,228 50 862,776 1,018,124 50 
253,440 8,694,871 00 287,210 “3 699, 812 00 
8,347 38,248 00 7.101 45,249 00 
7,761 536,715 00 9,281 619.979 00 
4,562 102,067 00 3,900 106,031 50 
217 32,096 00 811 86,206 50 
523 56.8038 09 498 90,023 00 
15,833 17,955 00 12,632 22'830 00 
804 5,135 00 17 2,875 00 
4,111 28. 964 00 5,307 27,915 00 
5 507, "639 00 61 523,122 00 
2,628,433 00 8,095,224 00 
527,450 00 695,975 00 
8,780,097 50 4,276,040 40 
9-747 00 97,221 00 
72,805 00 1,050 00 
176,692 00 868,977 00 
42,373 00 81,787 00 
45,451 00 60,589 00 
1, 850, 882 80 5, 413, 014 22 
$24,043,806 30 $33,212,819 12 
3,000 00 1,000 00 


$24,040,806 30 $33,211,819 12 
horses, 85,114; milch cows, 11,308; other cat- 
tle, 161,079; sheep, 184,277; swine, 10,278; 
value of manufactures, $1,835,867; gold mined, 
$1,805,767 ; silver mined, $2,905,068. See map 
in supplement to Volume XV. 

MONTI, Raffaelle, an Italian sculptor, born in 
Milan in 1818, He is a son of Gaetano Monti, 
a sculptor of some celebrity, who gave him his 
first instruction. He received a gold medal 
for his ‘‘ Alexander taming Bucephalus,” ex- 
hibited ‘‘ Ajax defending the Body of Patro- 
clus” in 1888, and was then invited to Vienna, 
where he spent four years and executed many 
commissions. In 1847 he visited England, 
where he exhibited a now celebrated veiled 
statue executed for the duke of Devonshire. 
He took part in the revolutionary movement 
in Italy in 1848, and since then has resided in 


898 


England. His later works include “ The Sis- 
ter Anglers,” ‘‘ Eve after the Fall,” ‘ Italy,” 
‘Truth,’ and some colossal figures on the ter- 
race at the crystal palace. 

MOON. The large map of the moon by Beer 
and Madler was published in 1837, and this, 
with four sections of a lunar map published by 
Lobrmann of Dresden in 1836, has been until 
lately the main authority on the subject of lu- 
nar topography. Mr.G. H. Darwin’s investi- 
gations into the effect of frictional tides upon 
a planet in which they are raised, and on the 
satellite which raises them, have led him to 
some conclusions which are certainly among 
the most remarkable of recent physical astron- 
omy, and which have engaged general inter- 
est if not acceptance. 
think that owing to such tides, which he be- 
lieves to have been far higher in the past than 
they are now, the earth is rotating more slowly 
and the mean distance of the moon is increas- 
ing. He suggests that the moon had its origin 
in the rupture of a primeval planet partly fluid 
and partly solid, and that the moon has at- 
tained its present distance from the earth by 
means of the reaction of the tides in the lapse 
of ages, and believes that we can trace back 
the history of our planet to a time when the 
day was but six hours and the sidereal month 
but twelve hours long. The admirable illus- 
trations in the work of Nasmyth and Carpen- 
ter give the general student a series of vivid 
pictures of the lunar surface as seen in power- 
ful telescopes. Mr. W. H. Pickering has shown 
that the moon’s reflection of light is selective, 
z. é., that it reflects certain of the rays which 
fall on it in preference to others; the blue rays, 
for instance, being more absorbed than the red. 
The quantity of heat reflected by the moon is 
so minute that it has defied detection except 
with the most delicate instruments known. 
By collecting the rays of the moon in the 
focus of one of his large reflecting telescopes 
Lord Rosse was able to show that a certain 
amount of heat is actually received from the 
moon, and that this amount varies with the 
moon’s phase as it should do. He also sought 
to learn how much of the moon’s heat is re- 
flected, and how much radiated, by ascertain- 
ing its capacity for passing through glass. A 
very much greater proportion of the heat radi- 
ated by the sun or other extremely hot body 
will pass through glass than of heat radiated 
by a cooler body. Lord Rosse’s experiments 
appeared to show that 86 per cent. of the sun’s 
heat passed through a certain glass, but that 
the same glass transmitted only 12 per cent. 
of the lunar heat. He concluded that the lat- 
ter was not transmissible through the glass be- 
cause it was not so much reflected as radiated 
from the moon’s surface, which had first been 
warmed by the sun, according to him, to a 
temperature nearly equal to that of boiling 
water, and then radiated this heat of low tem- 
perature. Recentinvestigations by Prof. Lang- 
ley at Allegheny are understood, however, to 


They have led him to: 


MOON 


prove that part of the sun’s heat rays are not re- 
flected by the moon’s surface, so that this exer- 
cises a selective absorption, and that the com- 
position of the heat is changed in the act of 
reflection. According to his experiments, the 
proportion of lunar heat to lunar light is greater 
than that found by Lord Rosse, and the real 
cause of the phenomenon is in any case wholly 
different from that assigned by the latter, being 
altogether referable to selective reflection of the 
sun’s heat, and not to radiation from the moon 
itself, the surface of the moon being so cold as 
to radiate no sensible heat whatever. Accord- 
ing to these latest investigations, then, the sur- 
face of the airless moon is like the surface of 
the earth where the air is nearly absent (7. e., on 
the tops of high mountains), intensely cold even 
in the sunshine; a conclusion, it: may be added, 
already reached on quite independent grounds 
by Ericsson. Sir George Airy, astronomer 
royal, is engaged in-what he calls a numerical 
lunar theory. In this method the algebraic 
expressions for the moon’s codrdinates, which 
have been given by Delaunay in his Théorie de 
la lune, are first converted into numbers, and 
then substituted in the differential equations 
of motion. Then the symbolical variations are 
determined which would be introduced into 
these equations by symbolical variations in 
such numerical results of Delaunay’s compu- 
tations as can be supposed liable to error. By 
a comparison of the corresponding terms in 
these equations, the correction of each of De- 
launay’s terms is to be found. The only pub- 
lications on the subject of the numerical lunar 
theory (on which several computers are now 
employed at Greenwich) are to be found in 
the annual reports of the astronomer royal, 
and in an appendix to the Greenwich obser- 
vations for 1875. Prof. J. C. Adams of Eng- 
land, and Dr. G. W. Hill of the United States, 
have published two important papers on the 


‘lunar theory—one on the motion of the moon’s 


node, the other on the motion of the perigee. — 
The latter, by Dr. Hill, is the more difficult 
problem, but both have been solved by the same 
or essentially the same mathematical device. 
The (new) method of solution published by Dr. 
Hill leads simply to a numerical result of far 
greater accuracy than that of Delaunay, which 
was reached by a most laborious process.—The 
lunar tables of Hansen of Gotha represent the 
motion of the moon well for the period 1750- 
1860. Since 1860 they have been growing 
less and less accurate, until in 1877 the error 
in longitude was as great as 12”. The ob- 
servations of the moon previous to 1750 have 
been collected, printed in great detail, and dis- 
cussed by Prof. Newcomb in an appendix to 
the Washington astronomical observations for 
1875. The data made use of consist of the an- 
cient eclipses quoted by Ptolemy in the Alma- 
gest, of the eclipses observed by the Arabian 
astronomers (about A. D. 900), and of the 
eclipses and occultations observed by European 
astronomers during the years 1600~1750. From 


MORRIS 


these data the observed places of the moon are 
derived and compared with the places com- 
puted from Hansen’s tables. This comparison 
shows that the coefficient of secular accelera- 
tion, which Hansen placed at 12°17”, should be 
reduced to 8°41’. Laplace’s theoretic value 
was 6°17". It may be added that a seleno- 
graphical society now exists in England, and 
publishes a journal on the day of new moon. 

MORRIS, Clara, an American actress, born in 
Cleveland, O., in 1850. At the age of 15, to 
assist her mother after her father’s death, she 
became a member of the ballet corps at the 
academy of music in Cleveland. Under the in- 
struction of the manager, Mr. Ellsler, she ad- 
vanced rapidly in her dramatic education, and 
was promoted to the line of leading juvenile 
lady, which she held until 1869, when she be- 
came leading lady at Wood’s theatre, Cincinnati. 
In 1870 she went to New York, and entered 
into an engagement at Daly’s Fifth Avenue the- 
atre. She was there employed in comedy and 
smaller parts until, almost at the beginning of 
the season, a happy chance substituted her for 
the actress who was cast for Annie Sylvester in 
‘* Man and Wife.” In this character her dramat- 
ic abilities were brilliantly displayed, and she 
afterward appeared in “ Divorce;”’ and her 
reputation was enhanced by her Cora in ‘‘ Ar- 
ticle 47,” Camille, and other emotional parts. 
She excels in grief and death-bed scenes. When 
the theatre was burned, Jan. 1, 1873, she, with 
the rest of the company, made a starring tour 
through the west. She next appeared at the 
Union Square theatre, creating a great sensa- 
tion in ‘** The Geneva Cross,” and afterward 
from time to time at Daly’s new theatre. In 
the winter of 1880 she filled an engagement in 
San Francisco. In 1874 she married F. OC. 
Harriott of New York. 

MORRIS, Francis Orpen, an English naturalist, 
born March 25, 1810. Heisason of rear ad- 
miral Henry Gage Morris. He graduated at 
Worcester college, Oxford, in 1833, and be- 
came rector of Nunburnholme, Yorkshire. His 
works include ‘A History of British Birds,” 
‘‘ Bible Natural History,” ‘‘ Natural History of 
the Nests and Eggs of British Birds,” ‘ Nat- 
ural History of British Butterflies,” ‘‘ Anec- 
dotes in Natural History,” ‘‘ Natural History 
of British Moths,” ‘‘ Records of Animal Saga- 
city and Character,” ‘Scientific Nomencla- 
ture,” “ Difficulties of Darwinism,” and ‘‘ Dogs 
and their Doings.” 

MORRIS, Philip Richard, an English painter, 
born in Devonport, Dec. 4, 18388. He was em- 
ployed in his father’s iron works, and began to 
study art in his hours of leisure. By the ad- 
vice of Holman Hunt, who gave him his first 
regular training, he nade a study of the Elgin 
marbles, and afterward entered the schools of 
the royal academy, where he carried off nu- 
merous prizes and finally won the travelling 
scholarship. His principal works are ‘‘The 


MORTON 899 


Good Samaritan,” ‘‘ Peaceful Days,” ‘‘The Wid- 
ow’s Harvest,” ‘‘ Where they Crucified Him,” 
“The Battle Scar,” ‘‘ Voices from the Sea,” 
“The Captive’s Return,” ‘‘ The Riven Shield,” 
“Drift Wreck from the Armada,” ‘‘ The Mow- 
ers,” ‘The Sailor’s Wedding,” ‘The Last 
Heir,” ‘“‘The Reaper and the Flowers,” and 
“The Shadow of the Cross,” 
MORTON, Oliver Perry, an American statesman, 
born in Wayne co., Ind., Aug. 4, 1823, died in 
Indianapolis, Nov. 1, 1877. He was educated 
at Miami university, Oxford, O., studied law, 
and settled at Centreville, Ind. He was elect- 
ed a circuit judge in 1852. In early life he was 
a democrat; but on the repeal of the Missouri 
compromise in 1854, he left the party, and was 
an active republican from the formation of 
that party till the end of his career. In 1856 
he was defeated as candidate for governor of 
Indiana, but in 1860 was elected lieutenant 
governor, and a few day after his inaugura- 
tion became governor because of the election 
to the United States senate of Gov. Henry S. 
Lane. In his manageinent of the affairs of the 
state for the next four years, Mr. Morton be- 
came famous as one of the ‘‘ war governors.” 
His activity in raising troops for the national 
armies was opposed in 1863 by a democratic 
legislature, which attempted to take the direc- 
tion of military affairs out of his hands and 
place it in the hands of four democrats. There- 
upon all the republican members withdrew, 
leaving both houses without a quorum, and 
Gov. Morton borrowed money on his own re- 
sponsibility to carry on the government of the 
state. When the democratic attorney general, 
to compel the governor to convene the legisla- 
ture, gave an opinion that there was no author- 
ity for drawing money from the treasury to 
pay the state bonds, the governor again bor- 
rowed on his own responsibility, and thus was 
enabled to furnish promptly the necessary quo- 
tas for the support of the federal government. 
In 1864 he was elected governor by a majority 
of over 20,000. He was elected to the United 
States senate in 1867, and reélected in 1878. 
Here he served on the committees on foreign 
relations, agriculture, military affairs, elections, 
and land claims, and was prominent in advo- 
cating the 15th amendment to the constitution 
and the acts for the suppression of lawlessness 
at the south, and in opposing amnesty to the 
insurgents. On all these questions he took a 
leading part in the debates. In the republican 
national convention held in Cincinnati in 1876, 
Mr. Morton received 124 votes on the first bal- 
lot for a presidential candidate. He was a 
member of the electoral commission appointed 
to settle the dispute in congress over the count- 
ing of the electoral votes, and made a strong 
effort to secure the passage of an amendment 
which would prevent such disputes hereafter. 
He suffered a stroke of paralysis in 1865, and 
was afterward obliged to walk with crutches. 


5 Ea 


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on 


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1 ye hs 
‘a ue 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 
Maen etismiis. Serie shite tle 5, «(alsa hose 
Magnetism, Animal. See Animal 
Magnetism. 
Magnetism, Terrestrial............. T 
Magneto-Hlectricity ...............- 11 


Magnifying Glass. See Microscope. 
Maonin » Charlesive y2. occ <asweee eee 


Mar nolianetincts fas: c.acieetloe «iene 18 
Magnus,? Mdtlardes se.).ghte fenicsciem 21 
Magnus, Heinrich Gustay.......... 21 
IMASNUSSON, | Hine. velees ceils 21 
UM Se OLLI) COW. aah sara lase ue, tera craavacaieleenia as 22 
Magoon, Elisha L............ ae aie 22 
Magot. See Macaque. 

Magpie Evctisveterats fate iia adobe t Bre’ stonamtvavagietets 22 
Maguire, John Francis............. 23 
Magyar Laszloy. csc cecae saints -- 23 


Magyars. See Hungary, vol. ix. pp. 
50 and 62. 


Mahanrca' sa sece tes. sted eco artaae 28 
Mahan Dennis) Hart jysec.cctaceie cs 23 
Mahan, MALO Serarart Se ence svete Sateen areaets 23 
Mahanoy Bind Rea ge eRe OGRE BOOt 24 
With Ani Ciyeeeia se ea aes So orselt tat 24 
Mahaska @0us cm ikore aac uae Wolele eee 24 
INGA IM OUG Deere acc altar craters stats 24 
Mahmoud: Eh caaecs oo mains oak 24 


Mahmoud, Sultan of Ghuzni. See 
Ghuzni. 

NEAT OS ATE? «ces acne else winstalsvorsy avers 25 

Mahomet. See Mohammed. 

Mahon. See Port Mahon. 

Mahon, Lord. See Stanhope, Earl. 


Pan OnIn SCO. 112, ,3, Moise serene eeisrers 26 
Mahony.) Wraneis, 927). Josie acerca 26 
MAN TrAGtARY fie =, 5 o:0.s'laest ip cites wee atece 26 
Msi A Talos mie seecienic « <5.2, daria 27 
MAIGSTONG eee sate bowtie ies me Bares 27 


Mail, and Mail Coaches. See Post. 
Mail, Coat of. See Armor. 

Mailath, Janos Nepomuk, Count..... 27 
Maimachia. See Kiakhta, 


Meainrhoures Louise. gacccuytan nee sare 27 
Maimonides, Moses................ 27 
Maines tare nite tarsi haaiks es aumete 28 
Maime@e tries apie cscs tina sie ae deter 28 
Maines Mrance. t 3 sacccct eeles waives 388 
Maine, Sir Henry James Sumner... 38 
Mainé-et-Lioires: 2 on vets ctesie aten 38 
Maine de Biran, Frangois Pierre 
Gonthier sr eon aeadauadeolecs = hat 89 


Maintenon, Francoise abs 
Marchioness/ det seas. taniains sleet 
Mainz. See Mentz. 


IMAI DUrES .. ss <-simsc ey tensa ee 40 
Maisonneuve, Jules Germain Fran- 
COIS Se sie: 0's ae ad ete me ae tle 
Maisonneuve, Paul de Chomedey, 
PUITLTNCLES: |<) «sas a a kieh oreaelateneeteloers . 40 
Maistre, Joseph, Count de.......... 40 
Maistre, Xavier, Count de.........- 41 
Maitland, East and West.......... . 41 
Maitland, Sirkkichard vis ete eee eater 41 
Maitland, Samuel Roffey.......... . 41 
AN AIZ EN ee ee, so cls nde wen wale 42 
DAA OR Ree is Saiaie b onin s dawte sis 


Majorano, Gaétano. See Caffarelli. 


OF VOLUME XI. 


Manhattan Island. See New York. 


PAGE PAGE 

MeV eTeteeta Sotsntelsiel« hstsielela,sieis 46 | Malvoisine, William de............. 72 

See Lemur. Malwa. ccnp ave scate cn ae et eae 73 

Se AS SLA ara ce any ea 46 | Mame, Alfred Henri Armand....... 73 

Malabar: Coasters. cde sesamiae. et 454) Mametukes’)s! 20. . eee em 13 

Later ccialclas ai Soua-uislelahe rate le atarenchelaps 48 | Mamertines. See Messina. 

Malacca, Straits of.......-...-..... 49 ; Mamiani, Terenzio della Rovere, 

Rectan tis chel We arerealnue Ccaene Rutue sislensr: A) SI MAACOUNG cote tertclehn ce ste eomtect wie tte ee ee ECL 

See Copper, vol. v., p. WEADAIMATIANS come Ge pense s quate ate Td 

3 Manimary, Glandsessee sar etsey de 83 

Malachyy Saints. messes terse eee a MLaTMIMee! Apple: a. csslsie nee el aate a! . 83 

cts clea Salccal ee Siena sioisth erste OOM Manan thier mses sees cele ey cess or 84 

Malacopterygians........:...50..+6 OL |. Mammoth Cave. oo. Gu ue oe 85 

URES rele cist eae Savarese ea cal 52 | Man. See Anatomy, Archeology, 
Malakhoff. See Crimea. Comparative Anatomy, Ethnology, 
Malan, César Henri Abraham ...... 53 Mammalia, Philosophy, and Phys- 
Malan, Solomon Cesar............. 53 iology. 

al a abaudic east Aadalolave re aia ctetereit era Wot | ahaha IGN eine admin wn enide ces neice Melt 
Mialatestastarally: Ofsacercis sey. aise 54 Managua ie a/a¥ estate qclor etait eiereataterers 8T 
Malay _ Archipelago, See Indian Manarna lake. wens) eee een mar tex’ 

Mane kines err sic ceca tmetiok ees ere 87 
Malayo-Polynesian Races and Lan- Manassas Junction, Battle of. See 
> EERO SARE Cee AE EOES 55 | Bull Run 

iMalayebeningula:. va. daertace..c) estas «13 59 | Manasseh, son of Joseph............ 88 
Malbone, Edward G................ 60 | Manasseh, King of Judah........... 83 
Maleolms Sir) OMT see ciate) sstolers slolesss cle Gls eManatee. fries acmcy sctsaer setae Oe! tes: 
Malcolm, Howard.............. siafeiagiOLa | MMLAR ALES? COnsc. cece tess cauilemteme 90 | 
Malezewski, PATTON ecetetsistente sharers 61 | Manayunk. See Philadelphia. 

Prats epee ete 2 otis er esayetarayareta 62 | Manby, George William............ 90 
Maldives sate acrtr eerste s lortele'e pete rsa Ni Eyal eed DERE Seirnge nanan bane cea y-- 90 
Malebranche, Nicolas............... OS ie Manche. Lae. sc. . ss. soos iniees 90 

Para cepare( eee rer ay asta cunts ce echt sie 6 Manchester oN. Hiv). cose uieeemoo 
Malesherbes, Chrétien Guillaume de Manchesters Comm: 22. oni ete ate mpage 
Lemolononndesk w.aee ascnctee tee 64 | Manchester, Eng..........:....... Se: 
Malet, Claude Francois de ......... 64) |p Manchineelii yn. i ir. sfrcesies == elie saiete 95 
Malherbe, Francois de.............. 64 | Manchooria. See Mantchooria. 
Malibran, Maria Felicia............. Goo Mancinigtamily: Ofn).ceisucine + seine ee 95 
i See Mechlin. Mancini, Daureliaar: «anmilecs cise 96 
Mallard. See Duck. Mancinis Olympeiieresee ae cceiescl sare 96 
Mallet, Charles Auguste............ Gde Mancini, Maricvscetactiaccter oe selena 96 
TOiae srutela ts sate orstatete ais; sysiaiers 65 | Mancini, Hortense..............2-. 96 
Mallet. Paul Henric.3) .....-6. ee 66 | Mancini, Marie Anne .............. 96 
Mallow 20 stacle ss shame nisanees wave eicrats 66 | Mancini, Pasquale..... A ORG Bee Oi 96 
Malmaison, Ua. ).,<cieeissssieies'ss 521% 67 | Mancini, Laura Beatrice Oliva...... 97 
Malmesbury we altipaesl eidor sistotelasabelece Glvi Manco Cana? cats csicts ce seo ciavemvels aD il 
Malmesbury, James Harris, Earl of. 67 | Manco Capac, Inca of Peru........ Sng 
Malmesbury, James Howard Harris, Mandamitgiiancstens cs ts casein cie ee 97 
Sete eee oti at gs la oie enatea oil he TW lplandanss a. scct anensisiens, «msn ceckinmenes 
Malmesbury, William of............ G (ab Nlandatotes soos ices cncsslece = Nate Wide 99 
OR anette Seite cutie sensi a erenara cumin Oi Mandelayocccsss. cscs c cess use arin 100 
Malmsey. See Greece, Wines of. Mandeville, Sir John............. . 100 
Malone; Edmond icy js miss cies + ceeeoe GS MEANT OMS UL, «arn Sek rope a Mretepale a ava aye 101 
Malpichiy Marcello t...as: sce cee sen 68 | Mandragora. See Mandrake 
Way Nah avahe''s ele var Seo crt ke eas OSmpe Mandrake, . os saivemea uae ionic aol 
See Brewing. Mandrill. See Baboon. 
IMT alt einty aternta we esiste eve atch ch eiave aterelereeetepe 68 | Manes. See Manicheans, 
Malte-Brun, Conrad................ LOW ONEANEB Sn aiciot, ss ctejeyssoton © austere eaten 101 
Malte- Brun, Victor Adolphe.....:.. MOL We Maneth ons .s\s tains aster oe nar se arcge 101 

Ge sr alevet ahs ers atecw watvier apurabete: oe ed Ch ly Manfred). racks 2588 lee ca.e welaa eerie 
Malthus, Thomas Robert .......... Ul |p Mantredonias, sc asics eernnagsa sae 102 
Maltitz, ‘Apollonius von, Baron ..... We \ Manganese. ; 2 cact seca Geese crores 102 
Maltitz, Gotthilf August von......, 72 | Mangel Wurzel. See Beet. 

Maltzan, Heinrich Karl Eckhardt Mangles, James.........-..0 raja LOS 
MMT Grote ae eters ornare ERE WLAN Ours messes Gate bees t cenete 104 

Malus, Etienne Louis .............. MO), |) WLAN POBRLOOM) sc tlainacrateic tie ia semereieee 105 

Malvériiy Greabt cc ceri uri rcsters tc 72 | Mangouse. See Ichneumon. 

Malvern Hill, Battle of. See Chick- MAN GTOVG an cious cetsisisiect rs felt eae 105 


i 

PAGE 
Manheim. See Mannheim. 
MADICH@PANS oe talaceict sce aelttoke ere oye 106 


Manikin. See Anatomical Prepara- 
tions. 


Manila A:ClCV A ces c clslveeuipice dees 109 
Manila Tem piiacranetss ale siktesieias ce 110 
Manis Marcus au os siciesam ones 111 
Manin Daniele eiisi es toeiee vices 111 
Manioec, See Cassava, 
Manis. See Pangolin. 
IN EATITS SB ey orci caste Sore eeete (eer e 111 
Miamistee coc iis pisc acy gotitrs ole were 112 
MAT BEGG els ce SCs yao eakes nc tie 112 
[Manito Daten tenn en eeic caine On see 112 
Manitoba iuak@cn cauesen setts 115 
INTANIGOU MO Seman iks seve vance sees win 115 
Manitownco. oo. els aac eee me . 115 
Manitoulin Islands..............+. 115 
IMGNItOWOG, COs sme nee solution 115 
Manito woe aise nou. aise ee teen 115 
Man Kato 45 56:05 ae coctaisioniiaiteoretaare 115 
Manley JOun ocr te nei oer 116 
IMLS HOV INTAIY Sa istercnicierteyetsisteiais cents 116 
MEAT AE reese delete hs weet ere ea Cer 116 
Manlius, Marcus (Capitolinus)..... 116 
Mann, Horace }:° bcd be omen 116 
Manna Se SEAL: cuSusc aim camel since niateanither site 118 
Manners, John. See Granby 
Mann helms ioe Mess aes ena 118 
Manning, Henry Edward.......... 119 
Manning James: acineoe + cml ste. 6. 119 
Maninitemers tee c anaes ketete 120 
Man-of-War Bird. _ See Frigate 
Bird. 
IMandmeterias cise esc estos . 120 
IMGTIFGSA: wotets Fret o ticles u's a ee 
UA TIS LOU Case pti cca erecta Be eal 
Mansart, Francois......... isha ciate Fe val 
Mansart, Jules Hardouin........ -. 122 
Mansel, Henry Longueville........ 122 
Mansfeld, family of................ 122 


Mansfeld, Peter Ernst, Count of... 122 


Mansfeld > sHrnst ys sclasc cesses ste ners 122 
Mansteld Connie we veneennscaiee 122 
Mansfield *Ohionsr nace. cence eee 123 
Mansfield. William Murray, Earl of. 123 
Manslaughter enrmivniici ernie seine 124 

Matt URICHARG) neces ties Wh eints 126 
Mantchooria .......... wis owt atenaters 126 
Mantegna, ‘Andrea..)\\. 2.5... se 127 
Mantell, Gideon Algernon......... 127 


Manteuffel, Otto Theodor, Baron.. 127 
; Manteuffel, Edwin Hans Karl, Ba- 


TOD: vise pices ceieitia tis sere en tems 128 
MEAT CINeH ihren ntact tects ee GS alse atstere 128 
MAN tS* 2.2 sateen etomiast nine mee ce 128 
Mantiat i snicc ates oben Sete mane 129 
Manuel I. Comnenus............. . 180 
Manuel IJ. Paleologus............ 130 
Man UmissiOn ys cee seuss ieee ete 130 
Manures. See Agricultural Chem- 

istry, vol. i., p. 197. 

Mannseripts5 hem cece een cee 131 
Manutius, Aldus (two)............ 134 
Manutius, Pause orate tee 134 
Manzoni, “Alessandro Countess 135 
Maori. See New Zealand. 

Map ects cise ese scorenes reer stetetces 135 
Mapes, Walter ....-.......+.0000. 137 

ADIT ie aes ras cisisic cles eicre Se tate 1387 
Maples te ee tears cgi a dclec men s 137 
Maquet, Auguste. 72./.2004...0 0 141 
Marabou" wre cementite sn. e 141 
MM BTAOAY DOs veo cates weinee os + 142 
Mlaracay bo; uakesaveewenes series vee 142 
Maracaybo, Gulf of. See Venezuela. 
Maraye Oli sa wuncestons nid cae . 142 
Maranhio, a province............. 142 
Maranhio, San’ Douizdenae eee eee 143 
Maranhao River. See Mearim. 
Maranon. See Amazon. 

Marat, Jean Pauls. 1c) ome eee 148 
Marathon io: eat hee eee 144 
Marathon ico, ocr uscce sere meee 145 
Maratti sCarlocncnc ei eee 145 
Marbeau, Jean Baptiste Frangois .. 145 
Marbeck, John.......... oe diate ees .. 145 
1) EN 1) it rad dh cea aan gated iat tat otal Je5 2) . 145 
Marbles Manton $2203) 0 3... 148 
Marblehead: Set cence eee ee se 148 
Marbles, Playing. /6s5.02dscnss ele 148 


Marbois, Barbé. See Barbé-Marbois. 


CONTENTS 


Marburg s.i cs -ceteleacnicioe aisces ss 
Mare’ Antonio. See Raimondi. 
Marceau, Francois Séverin des Gra- 


Wiers.ae sommes ict ate3 eye edad 
Marcello, Benedetto............... 150 
Marcellus, Marcus Claudius........ 150 
Marcellus, NOUNS UMpIe ale ce cele les ies 150 
Marehisc, meptieeiseeanties «iste tai 150 
March a riveterenaescc sss ss os 151 
March? Gharlosiwy catrsr <c +.«,-/cece sree 151 
March, Earl of. See Mortimer, 

Roger. 

Naor Francis Andrew........... 151 
Marche, DPN ie ccis eis wa sa'a) els eveseave 151 
Marchese alos ss sss + sie ess see oer 151 
Marehesi, Pompeo... .....0-0+-s0+ 151 
Marchisioy @arlotta: 0... . ste se sa 152 
Marcion. See Gnostics, vol. viii., 

pp. 58, 54 
Muardomirnies. ... Jess le. cselsce Se LOS 
Marco Polo. See Polo. 

Marcomtpe MOS 0). cecinecouleeies bee 152 
Marcus Aurelius. See Antoninus. 
Marcy, William Learned.......... 152 
Marae yet a aise ans Cheam oe at 153 
Mardonius. See Greece, vol. viii., 

pp. 189, 190. 

Maremme...... Fe dea clelciieciuerentas 153 
Marengo c0s.0.52 ss 2 ncateeee teste . 1538 
Marengo ties 2. state: BEG ciat dseeee 153 
Marengo, Carlona se scoe seats ce 153 
Marenzio, Lucas: ous acscs cee comme 153 
Maréotis Shi etiavecs. wees eee ee 154 
Mares¢h) J: VA sscadsen cleo cur 154 
Maret, Henri Louis Charles........ 154 
Maret, Hugues Bernard. See Bas- 
sano 

Marey, Etienne Jules............. 154 
Marezoll, Gustav Ludwig Theodor. 154 
Margaret of Angouléme.......:... 155 
Margaret, Queen of Scotland....... 155 
Marparetof*Anjous..:2-. 9+ .c ere 156 
Margaret of Austria .............. 157 
Margaret of Denmark............. 157 
Margaret of Parmasc.c..c.e as ee . 15T 
Margaret of Valois...............- 158 
Margarine: asians e ate eesce eset 158 
Margarita, Island of. See Nueva 

Sparta. 

Margaritone d’Arezzo AA eh a Sih cides 158 
Marpate sa. seh cee uee cote tee Paepric 158 
Margay. See Ocelot. 

Margrave. See Marquis. 

Marheineke, Philipp Konrad ...... 158 
Maria: Christinayiecro. semiesiictes « 159 
Maria II. da Gloria, Queen....... 22, Lb9 
Maria de’ Medici, Queen........... 160 
Maria Louisa. See Bonaparte, vol. 

iii., p. 47. 

Mariana, Juan........ ercent Papen hi) 
Marianna x 1a. ienieaetct recto ae ners 160 
Marianna Isles. See Ladrones. 

Maria Theresa, Empress........... 160 
Maria-Theresiopel. See Szabadka, 
Mariazelly ioe niacteo eee tiene 161 
MaricopaCOTitacnanaren cee meet 161 
Maricopas. See Coco-Maricopas. 
Marie, Charles Francois Maximilien. 162 
Marie Amélie, Queen ............. 162 
Marie Antoinette, Queen.......... 162 
Marienbad stats secre clee ce soy 164 
Marienbure rc iontcst cee neehe 164 
Marienwerderi..hsce sce ewe see ee es 164 
Mariess cor sii kiss ih atest ee 165 
Marietta re messes eee 165 
Marietta, Auguste Idouard........ 165 
Marignano. See Melegnano, 

Marigold aadeatcseas sae ncaees een - 166 
Marinycosseccjaacentek era eee 167 
Marinas ae etellcitt tetas sled rere 167 
Mariner’s Compass. Sce Compass. 
Marini, Giambattista............. A polis 
Mario, ‘Giuseppe. io se etchant eh Aakeestis seatats 167 
Marion 0.7 Vartos ene aneeeet tee 168 
Marion co., 8. Cui, Soe on oan 168 
Marion co., Gall see. nae 168 
Marion ¢0., Play i Pore te. eee 168 
Marion co.,,Alai 2 yo250 5 acne sepeies . 168 
Marion co. Miss: <i2 secse oemenes 168 
Marion co., Texas..... see ere wih ole ototets 168 
Marion co." ATK ste ccs feck cone 168 
Marion co., "Tenn... ...5.0..0ngeene 169 


PAGE 
Marion Co:tKivae. ce: orl. opococrn Lut) 
Marionrco. ,ObiOn cit as. ueemeeme sist 269 
Marion co., Indie. « . cscs spaces 169 
Marion co., UR es. eee 169 
Marion co; lowacn.. s2o.s 0s ee 169 
Marion \¢0;MOter. sacs). < achien ote 169 
Marion co., Kansas........... Lop: 2) 
Marion ‘co: Oregorre. 2s... 2s see 170 
Marion :::...a.'s0 Ueber ee te rss cote bee rg 
Marion, ‘Mrancisme se. +. 22 cs evr .. 170 
Mariotte, Edmesiavar tc. cccceeen 5a, ail 
Mariposa co.......... erettele a oer fsa hte 
Maritaa.: *... cSuseee nates bane 172 
Marius, Calusl ioe aac scree sere 172 
Marivaux, Pierre Carlet de Cham- 
Dlain Ge Nor. Jectasmanee ne tee eens 174 
Marjoramisie. sek ee Saisie et edie eee 174 
Mark, 'Saint?s. ogee eee ke oe eee 175 
Mark Antony, See Antony. 
Markham, Clements Robert....... 176 
Markirch . 32 02). ashes etait 176 
Marit, ailing «cise norte aerate eee 176 
Marlborough'co:s...0.20s0 eee 176 
Marlborough, Mass............... 176 
Marlborough: Hng.2.)¢.mse. eee 176 
Marlborough, pone Churchill, Duke yes 
Of: Side. ieee $5.5 ee Meee ‘ 
Marliani, Aurelio, Count. osu ieee 178 
Marlitt, E. Seed ohn, Eugenie. 
Marlowe, Christopher see teaanoeene 178 
Marmara, Sea of. See Marmora... 
MArmaros ¢o...... cba ea inee es eeeltg 
Marmier, Xavier) scica.ts see eee 179 
Marmont, Auguste Frédéric Louis 
Viesse devetsci) . ana a 3 
Marmontel, Jean Frangois......... 180 
Marmora, Sea/of:; 54.452 0ceeaeeee 181 
Marmora, Island of................ 181 
Marmoset;<:).).. <6 Gaus anaeeeeee 181 
Marmotaes.lcind s Sak sie we cea nee 182 
Marne, a-river)..6onk so cease .. 182 
Marne, a department.............. 152 
Marne, Haute. See Haute-Marne. 
Marnix, Philip van. See Alde- 
gonde, Sainte. 
Marochetti, Carlo, Baron......... . 182 
Maronites ss scsi: st see toclasenieee 183 
Maroonscs secant cc enemies sere -- 183 
MALOS: anccdecsadaer Pace see 185 
Maros-Vasarhely..............0006 185 
Marot, Clémentic... sc.< en eeeios 185 
Marque, Letter of. See Privateer.. 
Marquesas Islands. .... 22. Speen 185 
Marquetry. See Buhl Work. 
Marquette co.,; Mich.........4 50 sees 186 
Marquette co., , Wis Palelare loka te hehe . 186 
Marquette. ..0f2eay. css cee ae .. 186 
Marquette, Jacques.............-. 186 
Marquez, Leonardo........... Sri. 2 tN) 
Margulis ih i isteietesctele she nietete treaty Opie 187 
Marracci, Ludovico................ 188 
Marriage... sii. s(ca ha orc emcee rane 188 
Marriage Settlements....... Acti 189 
Marrow. $0 0s..cs bie Benen 190 
Marryat. Frederick o0).4).. 2 .cmiee ae 190 
Marryat, Samuel Francis.......... 190 
Mare cin coctsdte cet ete win Oe dele wal Sint engts 190 
Mars,-a planets. ciscer aemeenis 191 
Mars, Anne Francoise Hippolyte 
Boutet sloritctosiei tapers iehito st Mieeeseoraes 193 
M ars alas atociapeda:ddtaenholt cee cert one 193 
Marschner, Heinrich......... ee te 
Marsden; William s:;5-40.240.0 ese 194 
Marseillaise...2 000 oac.ee en oe eects 194 
Marseilles i#.s.3.010...2 000 eee 194 
Marsh, Anne (Caldwell) ........... 196 
Marsh, Dexter .o:.290 0% 3-0 semen -- 196 
Marsh, George Perkins.......... 5 BEY 
Marsh, Caroline (Crane)..........- 197 
Marsh, Herbert... -.:./.-~ sapere 197 
Marsh, VAMOS ic oi cidv is rele eteetarere sts 197 
Marsh, Othniel Charles ........... 197 
Marshal saec2 si. seciseceieere over 6 197 
Marshall e0., Viavcsstadercielte= 22 0c 198 
Marshall:co,,Al@smmeacie sss «tesa. 198 
Marshall co., Miss,.....-.-......0 198 
Marshall-co., Dentiiger ss sic - vi ce es 198 
Marshallico. icyisenetee'< «<0 01d vieleiole 198 
Marsghallico., indsdec.as soci ss x sictins 198 
Marshall co., Ill.......... exes oxeeles 
Marshall co., Iowa....... PER 2198 
Marshall co., Kansas...... 2 oon . 199 


CONTENTS . iii 


PAGE PAGE y PAGE 
Marshall sacscdevec aces ae iV seua epee 199 | Mask, Iron. See Iron Mask. Matthison, Friedrich von.......... 283 
Marshall, Humphrey.............. 29973) Maskell william. <2 9 cugsiemeeee.cere Zo0F | Mattison, Hirants sctcccm precise ete 283 
Marshall: sonnser sons vise eeee teats 499") (Maskelynel Nevilo...ccdee chen coe 289. |e Matto: Grossoneeeee en oetiee on 284 
Marshall, Thomas Francis......... 20D PMaskinong C0. 1../sccevetes sees oe 239 | Maturin, Charles Robert.......... . 284 
Marshall, William Calder.......... ZOLA) SMABOME COl) VIG ciorcs! Sars decaraeidelnt ee 289) Manbeuge s iin ciel Avelirclnalstecsraphetette 284. 
Marsh Hawk. See Harrier. MasonicOswhOXas. scscdcasae seen ee 239) Mauch) Chunk \)2enesenieeeamancaes 284. 
Marsh Hen. See Rail. Masonic Keynes seek uv cbeten ewe 289 | Maudgley, Henry .....0..2s.e0sees 285 
Marsh Mallow. See Althea. MasOnsCOstlltr swears cae nateerne 289°) Maui ss... ss cteeieeee sae rena 285 
Marshman, Joshua.............5.. 2027) Masonicon Mich’. 505.246. ceeeee 240 Male Sis ce wimale sip bch at ule a ate Rta oN erate ltere 285 
Marsh Rabbit. See Hare. Mason co., ” Washington Territory,.0240) |) Maulmainicn.c omc een e nities 286 
Morais ltalyce aided 6 scciteeedeide sexes 202 | Mason, family OL Sitstcitstrsaeaecoeue 240) | Mauna Keal../\n)4/csiecueonoeceeee 286 
iMarsite German yic << croroe ete aie nets 202 | Mason, George (two).............. 24007 Manna Tioassace ten. sack tine eee 286 
Marsigli, Luigi Ferdinando, Count. 202 | Mason, Thomson................. 240 | Maundy Thursday. See Holy Week. 
Mlars-1a- TOUr ays. .)c siete eft haterstecanete elec 202 Mason, Stevens Thomson.......... 240 | Maupertuis, Pierre Louis Moreau de 287 
BT AU SLON is) Osc <« sic < visigeis oe ete aes 202 | Mason, Armistead Thomson....... 240 | Maur, Congregation of St. See 
Marston, Westland........:....-0. 203 Mason, RICH ANGER, grctactaercrerersl crete ate 240 Saint-Maur. 
Marstons Moors 10 fcfelsie-le'clecteeia ste 203 Mason, James Murray............ 240 | Maurepas, Jean Frédéric Phely- 
Marstrand; Wilhelm: .)5;3.5.05 ¢seseee 203 Mason, Stevens Thomson.......... 241 peaux, Count: sence sae acleinere 287 
Marsupials fice dascceseceatooees 20de| "Mason; JOHN exseranecs ccs syle ce ae 241 | Maurer, Georg Ludwig von........ 287 
MATS VaSirc sae ads casa geeouereae Oa Masons Wrancisweaan och. cst. lene 241) Maurer. Konradiaes sie. eee ae 287 
Martel, Charles. See Charles Martel. Mason Jeremiahiqeee cuss 0s 20s 8 241 | Mauretania. See Mauritania. 
Martens. icas scae ee tata eros tes 20d Magan. J Ohnssaeee ence ce. cs ok ees 242 +) Maurice’ Prinice.t ic eee. sce a mieen 287 
Martens, Georg Friedrich von ..... 205 | Mason, John Mitchell............. 242 Maurice, Dukei ii, sccaie es erie 288 
Martens, Karl Von eich. aeewss oes ZO Om MASONS UTS KING rae veel enta iss ae 248 | Maurice, John Frederick Denison.. 289 
Martha's Vineyardssu0) oe.e.28 sss DOOM MASON LZOWEll Say tetas at deo: che! oie tislole the 243 Maurice, LHOMNAS his ceecelersrcvoravero tole 259 
Martial Piticess Valerius Martialis). one Mason; Wiailliamive jsitcies cs cscs s 243 | Maurice of Saxony. See Saxe, 
Martial Law so sect ess dsies ea ceccs Mason and Dixon's Line........... 243 | Mauricius, Flavius Tiberius, Em- 
IMEI rEInl 2 creer ate tater arel Nels c: tiche te t¥e erecnatane 207 Masora. See Bible, vol. ii., p. 610. POPOTiA eae ie insert ae miielon barnes 289 
Martinico.sNi OC ssiscicinene ss se. eae 20 GWM asOvia tssascnacetion sooo ah a on ee 2435\ (Mauritaniat--n2.cceeet eee ee 290 
Martin co. Kye scadea sess ee one ote OTS «MasQueey a fstalts Foret s oe Uyare te yee 248" |) Mauritiug, 3. dik se ee oo eee 290 
Martin coi, Inds ssacacisoctvoss see 20 Ta MASSsSivds oder hatciceonneine cometectr te 244 | Maurocordatos. See Mavrocordatos. 
NL arbinteor NNT eae sete seria. OST MASE AS 5 cae s 244 a1e Selec asain sie) Sommers DAG PMA COscik ct Hialcan Nee ean mtaee 293 
Martins Popes: fie soe\rests cece as sete s 2080 | gMassa 6 Carrara.tgeceds Juste o.ccles 245 | Maury, Jean Siffrein............... 293 
Martin, Aimé. See Aimé-Martin. IN ASSAG COW saysteloratersheretoropaleraiche sie age 245 | Maury, Louis Ferdinand Alfred.... 294 
Martin: Alexander? :.2...0c08-.a> 5s Z0S |e Massachusetts cc... >0 vi tileee sels 245 | Maury, Matthew Fontaine......... 294 
Martin, Arthur. pts titenneariaeatd ey 209 | Massachusetts Indians............ 260 | Mausoleum. See Halicarnassus. 
Martin), Béla. ones sets dee cs wants 209 Die Massap obey, <..<jostb eee teens sare 260 Ml auve S50. ade aa dacelee de daeie ee 295 
Martin, Bon Louis Henri.......... OGM M BSBA rt ycreterna oto iae e ciereeimecte sis cles Q26Ea) Maverick: c0.s, tacaa siee ah stetie vars.e 295 
Martin WDA Vid a nics clerclets ee che iste OO 4 MLASSASOlbi aa .\cisle cael cicldis dale osanacotere 261 | Mavrocordatos, Alexander......... 295 
Martin, Francois Xavier........... ZOOM MM ASSe. GADPIOl, cases cieese sires, oes 261 | Mawmoisine. See Malvoisine. 
Martin PORN E Ss c.0 cbs oie eee ate PAO UNEMRSSONA sara crceteieieteslobinetace era's atte 2617) Maxcy, Jonathan .).c1scei seen eee 295 
Martin, Louis Aimé. See Aimé- | eMassona, Andrésan.uin doce suk bss 261 | Maxentius. . See Constantine L., 
Martin. Massey Geraldy ta cits 1s ores elrisrese 262 the Great 
Martin, Luther. irae cccs.ces cee oe 210 | Massilia. See Marseilles. Maximianus I. See Diocletian. 
Martin Saints ya2cccaeatieeiccen dee MLO RIGMASSillONe. .c)sicistelcieiaiststsicie <\/nie Rs aote's 263 | Maximianus II. See Galerius. 
Martin, Theodore.....:........06. 211 | Massillon, Jean Baptiste........... 263 | Maximilian I., Emperor........... 295 
Martineau, Harriet................ 211 | Massingberd, Francis Charles...... 263 | Maximilian (Ferdinand Maximilian 
Martineat, James: cranes wae cete tev 22s Massinger, Philip is siaessrecie «ce 263 Joseph), Emperor of, Mexico..... 296 
Martinet, Achille Louis............ 212 | Massinissa. See Masinissa. Maximilian Joseph, “ Duke in Ba- 
Martinez de la Rosa, Francisco..... DIB a MNURABSON, LIAVIG s44.50,0 ose ere ele caret 264 VATE 78). cic sesens ove seopegeren eee reretaes aie 297 
Martini, Giambattista............. ZWARLEMASSOM Nas ag.nc e oreele's conic hie che aoe 264 | Maximin (Caius Julius Verus Maxi- 
Martinique itn .ick.chibaten st seh ticle 212 | Master and Servant............... 264 minus), Emperor.......... a. SoeneOe 
MMartinsburgtu.c. snacteess saecle tiven 203 ti Master Singers... cers s'slejsicslaieves cise 265 | Maxwell, James Clerk............. 297 
Martius, Karl Friedrich Philipp von MESUIG Hos ued numa asehiacins nveieeere ZOU MAY, vearae canter sala sree ote tree 298 
Martos, Ivan Petrovitch........... NOG WIMASTIE, crsjs;srcto os) sla e ciate eal ae alse 266 ci yMay. Caroline ic asccc dearest oie 298 
Martyn, HL Onry's caidiidaciieresivwsc sree ZISaLOMastod onlgmeucdeica teres cicccschos creed 266 | May, Samuel Joseph.............. 298 
Martynia A CREE carer ay 214 | Mastodonsaurus. See Labyrintho- May, Sir Thomas Erskine......... 298 
MACKEY Ts icaass te aess es ulew al naiertans 214 don. MAY AS. ts oa « ceas co:sini a fstetes Potala terete 298 
Martyr, Peter. See Anghiera. Masudi, Abul-Hasan Ali ben Husein May Bug. See Cockchafer. 
Martyr, Peter. See Vermigli. OIE AI gare nie Macerelal Sese aleeiee oe ope 269 | Mayence. See Mentz. 
Martyrology. See Acta Sanctorum, Ma siili pe tamale os tate acctaatareiorsine ets PO Me MAVERNO Mayan os soe Meraetamiede sete 299 
Bolland, and Martyr. Mate th IE NA eanciane te Gettiotia aca ce 270 | Mayer, Alfred Marshall............ 800 
Marvell, Andrewesis052 2.05.68. s006 ZLOR MAtagordaicO.. us sce sts a; «.ateeiioe 20 aMaver Brantg.\..os vance anes 800 
Marvel of Peru..... Es vorowkapnente SLO? | MMALAMN OOS se acc winttgeae dees las rere 270 | Mayer, Johann Tobias............. 800 
Marwar. See Joodpoor. Matamoros, Mariano.............. 270 | Mayer, Julius Robert............. 800 
Marx, Adolph Bernhard........... 1 GBie MatanZagsscmen ter ae. atcl<.ce cae aar Zia Maver (Karl ivciesk ase statin cee 801 
Marcy Karlin eis 05.1.3 crecceae fete 216 | Matapan, Cape. See Cape Matapan. Mayer, Karl Friedrich Hartmann.. 801 
Maryan eae cece oe womtaa cise QVGA BMatarGnvac sc sacs anes siaclectoe ses om mVLaVily, Soro caue es cana ce alae en eee 801 
Maye Din 82 056 siereters ct chara ones thee eieane ESB RMIAUCI, stelelciers ePieiai civics sierhio estore etnies 2(2u aMayhew, Henry. ... vase a%laaeireeine 802 
Marya Bucirc'spte a sta efelwia taestelstaees DLOMIONIALOF.  Meheraictavelarerale eens suite oceeker aie & 2783 | Mayhew, Edward............-e+08 803 
Marylandanc. arictt sn cule eels <ieieleicle ZLORIRMALOLE es lsldies occ ss qsi ts ccscstegien 274 | Mayhew, Thomas................. 803 
Bak, of Burgundy. See Maximil- Materia Medica. See Medicine. Mayhew, Horace. 2... 103 ts). oes 808 
ni. IMG ENCOIBEICE esis cits ain ene ielnasiere 274 Mayhew, Apustusin- toss ee -eeree 803 
Moxy of the Incarnation (Marie IMiather; ichard)ive.acr. sate ohieat 277 | Mayhew, Jonathan..............-. 803 
Guyard) 5055. hsa)34's terior numer 2515) Mather) Increase... 2% 26.52 'is/0 os Ziel me May NOOtliecrinaek ehewue ene sate fate 803 
Mary Magdalene. \.s oneness a si 25 ia Mather Coton se. cscs .cuiebreat HSM MAY.O CO.= 5624s sy ones sec were mee 804 
Mary Stuart; Queen’ 0.4 v.25 s..< a 232 | Mathew, Theobald..............0. 278 | Mayo, Amory Dwight ............ 304 
Marysville. 2s am ctsrerin seltie dors cicls tyre 236 | Mathews, Charles (two)........-... 279 | Mayo, Sarah C. (Edgarton)........ 804 
Mary-villo: .%-aiigt3 co. ho adeinns belies» 236 | Mathews, Cornelius............... 279 | Mayo, Richard Southwell Bourke, 
Masaccio..... 7. ae ese mdidat en wear 237 | Mathias, Thomas James........... 279 Hearl of. vei dsaaick cet eee 804 
Mas 4 Fuera. See Chili, and Juan Matsnmad. 53. < «aseue > qhese memes 280 Manet William Starbuck........... 804 
Fernandez. Matyas, Quintinin.cuiancaiviene cane ret 250 PT EMAVOM ss dessus ce spares eee 804 
MT ARARICLIO,....:.%. ncieroarterste schemes aele 23 ia)| Matter, Saequesy.nits dass cease 280 Mehce ofthe Palacec:\.2.smismene 805 
Mas 4 Tierra. See Juan Fernandez. Mattethorn .:5:.sfec-ssacee. a 280" se Maysville.) is... cas ons eaptaemeans 805 
MASaye ... 2... ccvcccveceweseecces 2387 | Matteucci, Carlo.........0..0000es PELE | MMAY WEED, sso Cc cs nas sss sae enreey 805 
Mascagni, Paolo ...%%. svete s oct 27a aMatthew, Saint, . is.ctiactscmvastetet devel 281 | Mazaca. See Cesarea (IL). 
EASORT Os oo c0it'. vce ss 3 VNU mem oleate 238 | Matthew Paris. Rarer ech COE 2820] (Mazarin tles.. ccs a« cance 55 nee 805 
Wasnarene sled... cr. velevebeee ees Q3S8ale Matthews CO: +oc.ne siren aio sieier 2824 (A Mazatlan, .ccscavaaes san deatewears 806 
MBRCOMEING. Ss Us sta sae eee ommeen Q88% |e Matthias. (02. ielilestts ctelels tele e016 282 Mazeppa J AaNacs cs aes oll Meee 80T 
MABAROSABTADCIS:........c'cworedvieats 238 | Matthias, Emperor................ 282 | Mazzini, Giuseppe...............+: 807 
Masham, Abigail, Lady.........--. 938 | Matthias I. (Corvinus yieits scusir ete 283 | Mazzolini, Lodovico............... 809 


Samii AMA RING ois ais os vic age ve gee 238 | Matthias, John. See Anabaptists. Mazzuchelli, Giovanni Maria, Count. 809 


1V 

PAGE 
Mazzuola, Francesco. See Parme- 

giano. 

Mead, Larkin Goldsmith.......... 809 
Meads Richard vee tisensiae cer 809 
RTOAMCECO iss Baie rele oe iacse ye sv eters 810 
Meade, Richard Kidder............ 310 
Meade, William Hinsahoooenqasna Gor 310 
Meade, Richard Worsam.......... 310 
Meade, George Gordon............ 310 
Meadow; Lark. .4)c.0c. oe oes 811 
Meadow Mouse..............-20% 811 
Meadow Saffron. See Colchicum. 
Meadvillercrte st eas soem seein 812 
Meagher 60:5 Sats scat vine bie etoile cite 812 
Meagher, Thomas Francis......... 812 
MOST EIUG sais asset an robes oe cle 3813 
MeabW orm 22.550 2c. epee eens 813 
Meandrina. See Coral. 
Meariny Sacto esas cet eta sion 813 
Mearns, The. See Kincardineshire. 


IMCASIGS 25 cc aa oe BERR tee Sa 8138 


Measures. See Weights and Mea- 
sures. 

Meath: COs eta. & ce itaenee tees ete 814 

INDORE A aosans jowiaapevseceicsboalatee ee eee 314 

IM GeCale.< SNe ieeen sn Saeeeee erie 814 


Méchain, Pierre Francois André... 


Méchanics. 2% 22s acer ee een 315 
Mecheln, Israel vons72 one. ser ce es 330 
Mecherino. See Beccafumi, Do- 
menico. 
Mechi, John Joseph............... 830 
Mechitar. See Mekhitar. 
Me CHU eee ca eiaek cea sek adheceias 830 
Mechoacan. See Michoacan. 
Mecklenburg co., Va............- 330 
Mecklenburg co., N. C............. 830 
PPOCKIEN OUT so teh eis eocoicietieanieas 831 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin............ 8381 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz.............. 831 
EMIGCOStA SCO ou asecus cine rem ects 831 
Medals. See Numismatics. 
Mode Joseph. io) ico.e. sac at eae 8381 
WC? GEE Freie UCR eg ore 832 
Medford oo asain eeen ocho eee 832 
Medhurst, Walter Henry.......... 332 
MG Ia A iiitre ot atric em tonte hci eietotteueets 332 
Medical Electricity...........0..+- 333 
Medical Jurisprudence.......... +. 8386 
Medici familyion.s-teeeeer see 842 
Medici, Cosme ee een tates 342 
Medici; Bictro.Liv. acces ates eee 843 
Medici, Lorenzo...... gs ceo eats eeetaaete 843 
Medici. Pietrow lye rcntelrecater eines 844 
Medici;:Ginliano. 2. cups eee enioes 844 
Medici, Fppolito 2 seis welok we tes 344 
Medici, Lorenzo Ligeeerienreet cee. 844 
Medici, Alessandro................ 345 
Medici, Catharine de’. See Catha- . 


rine de’ Medici. 


Medici, Maria de’. See Maria de’ 


Medici. 

IMPOdICING 2 nares secon cee coe 845 
Medill, Joseph .......0 02 .0.-c.05 852 
Medina Co., lexas os sa. Mesheeeuene 852 
MEdina icon ION. ccs ne cee 852 
IMPe@dins Ween clot Ch cele do auseree 852 
Neding id ONiGe sce Aleces teecees 853, 
Mediterranean Sea................ 853 
Medzidioh cece heen omen 855 
NEC IETS te Sikes tate Ce eee 855 
Médoc. See France, Wines of. 


Medusa, in mythology. See Gor- 
gons. 
edad in zodlogy. See Jelly Fish. 


INIGOW.AY dys ai\ shee etre eee atte Me 56 
Meek, Alexander Beaufort......... 856 
M eeker CO. Fa Pee oe iste oie tiene ee 856 
Meéraneit 25525 ees Pee aie 856 
Meerschavm’ yes. . tn cesewne tee 856 
IMGOLIb is ian Chemie mn ee tee 85T 
INCOR RIONY Kiss neces core eee ne 857 
Megalopolis. iiccices Sees eveee cee 358 
Meralosaurus | .,ac1 cer ere ssioreeenee 858 
Mogantic 160.22. sucess aan 859 
Mapara 22.52.) Saetone peieee see 359 
IMG Para AS, clan's chee sierlese en Ee 359 
Mogasthenes ios... cipesiicie clo aeene 859 
Mesatherium’e.., 222 see entree 859 


Megerle, Ulrich von, See Abraham 
a Sancta Clara. 
Cha s,s saps adrate eisai , 361 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 
Mehomoti All eee eeta cite. zee 361 
Mehul, Etienne Henri ............ 362 
Meigegs, Henrys poree rere. s csleess 3862 
Meigs co., Tenniautite aehass «cece 363 
Meigs cO., Ohiowrercpune es. aaeae 863 
Meigs, James AREA BI ses cia. aus’ p ere 3863 
Meigs, Return Jonathan........... 863 
Meiners, Christoph................ 868 
Meéiningenin cacti sicts ci scale e\sbiaete 363 
Meissen ss siraclae one sleice ia's « alles ahs 363 
Meissner: Alired tie. caw ese i ls.ahe 363 
Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest..... 364 
Meissonier, Jean Charles.......... 864 
Mejerda sic somertnasin sci witeie 864 
IMejiawy Oman nanyeet’. cise tlle dose se 364 
Mekhitan sy ees fis ne kctelih cece es 864 
Mek qn see crates ais's «ate te siste swe 365 
MOIR EON DONIUE 5.0.5 s's's oidis'se sien’ = the 365 
MGlnmODHAMN ES cop scmra veers aoe 365 
Melancholia. See Insanity. 
Melanchthon, Philipp............. 865 
Melanesia. See Micronesia. 
Mean OBIS.) cine oie uctases ste cea 867 
Melazzo. See Milazzo. 
Melboprne sere cere ccs neck tenon 867 


Melbourne, William Lamb, Viscount. 369 


Melbourne, Caroline (Ponsonby)... . 869 
Melohizedaly .1.h. 0g aah wee Nes ase 869 
Melchthal, Arnold vom............ 869 
Melcombe, Lord. See Dodington. 
Melos er: (three) Aer teminee eee 869 
Melegnano. S223.) ascents ecrneaiae a 310 
Melendez Valdez, Juan Natanek . 870 
Meletlusy wo Site we tis ieee ie nine 370 
Meletius. Saintic. oc os aie ees 370 
Meli/ Giovanni: iac-eseee seeiecherne 371 
Melita. See Malta. 
Mellen, Grenville ................. 871 
Mellin, Gustaf Henrik............. 371 
Melloni, Macedonio................ 371 
Melmoth, William (two) .......... 3871 
Melo, Francisco Manuel de......-.. 871 
Melodeon es. hock 4c sae acee 872 
Melodrama. See Drama, vol. vi., 

p. 247. 
Melody. See Music. 
Meloni /<...d0 ohn elation ne cceeecea 872 
MClOSIN < oc. tcistsccismepeinciren tle soem 874 
Melpomene?eee eee sees eens 874 
Melrose tA DDOY Aig eisisisaicl-oiaeeee sent 874 
Melton Mowbray...............-6- 875 
UMP@ UU ae. cic. ssnsecaqsscrslevsest seereneiate testy aie 815 
Melville, Andrew .....:.....+-+¢-. 875 
Mel ville, Terman <ivicrcie sic sects ster 376 
Melville, Sir James ............... 376 


Melville. Lord. See Dundas, Henry 
and Robert. 


Melville Island, America. See Mel- 
ville Sound. 
Melville Island, Australia.......... 376 
Melville Sound <cccucc shinee sielo ete 876 
Membertou, Henry................ B1T 
MeOM DIANE so ieduce teogaieioyors a elotele state 3871T 
Membré, Zenobius................ 378 
IME GIN OL ocretversiavel ora ee ate iel area tetereio 3878 
Memel River. See Niemen. 
Memling Hansen o-menecciieecnerete 878 
Memmi"Simone?...a.seeseeentee 878 
Memmingen : ci.c. ccc eerie ee 379 
Memminger, Charles Gustayus..... 379 
IMemnon ie .ceieeb cane eee neeeeee 879 
Memphis, (Denne sitci.putentenes eeiee 379 
Mem phis vn. aie 2 'cle cos ugha) sitio atetet 3880 
Memphremagog, Lake ............ 881 
Ménage, Gilles: i0).2sanau cack eel 881 
Moenal Straits). ccm sewer eRe 881 
Menander cet nace eee ee iene 881 
Menard. Co.,“Texasentite cee wer ects 882 
Menard co.sUle oa eer nies meee 382 
Menard, Renéshensen Anecieee thee 882 
Menasseh ben Israel............... 382 
Mencius. See China, vol. iv., p. 473. 
Mendeans. See Christians of St. 
John. 
Mendana Islands. See Marquesas. 
Mendelssohn, Moses.............- 882 
Mendelssohn- -Bartholdy, Felix..... 383 
MTGTIOGS ohh, o. coo sie Pee cree pees 884 
Mendez Pinto, Fernam............ 884 
Mendicants. See Religious Orders. 
Mendizabal, Juan Alvarezy ....... 885 
IM GrdneINGICOl.. ctink «cicineh eieeineies 885 


PAGE 

Mend 078... acettanusie te cise cso 885 
Mendoza, family of............ se2- 386 
Mendoza, Inigo Lopez de .......... 386 
Mendoza, Pedro Gonzales de....... 886 
Mendoza, Diego Hurtado de....... 886 
Mendoza, Antoniod6..3... .canemest 887 
Menelaus.) 722) het) .a.k. ieee 887 
Menendez de Aviles, Pedro........ 887 
Menes. See Egypt, vol. vi., p. 459. 
Mengs, Anton Rafael.............. 888 
Menifee ¢0.7.3. tactenas ot os ee 888 
Meningitis. See Brain, Diseases of 

the, vol. iii., p. 200. 
Menippus seAcer tad alayaesie unis eee 888 
Menhaden (34224 ore eters beer 888 
Mennonites .5:% wane tegen oe ane 889 
Menno Symons oi. .5 5-1 oceiecinen 890 
Menobranehus. 2. ¢.gcmiscscee seams 891 
Menominee CO..0).)..6 iss eee -. O91 
Menomonees,.,./.:.0.caeswcke ete 392 
Menopoma.;, 55+ sis © + eae 892 
Menses. See Catamenia. 
eee Alexander Tantloxiteeae 
Menshikott Aiskattereaero aie 

PYINCESh a3 Bhs os. eu oh ether eee 893 
Mensuration:; ..< «5 <i <ciee eel 894 
Mentchikoff. See Menshikoff. 
Mentone: £3 5 s/acsictem she siete OPES 895 
Mentor. ois 2jeches' os hee eee 886 
MOMNtZ)s 5 :<e.ateege catant comin ree 396 
Menu. See Brahma. 


Menzel, Adolf Friedrich Erdmann. 397 


Menzel, Kar] Adolf ..............- 897 
Menzel, Wolfgang..:: .ad.cchiaehs slate 389T 
Mephistopheles. .....:...... cw sees ewe 398 
Mequinesieesceatees a ajalacteometeets 398 
Mercadante, Saverio.............. 898 
Mercator, Gerard... .;..0. 016 s=seeislels 398 
Merced 0.0% ...stueun ce eae ieee 398 
Mercer’ co. Na Js. «/ iaislaleugiue tees 898 
Mercer €0., PAs). inh ice sees ee 898 
Mercer 60.4. V8... os.5:00n seine 399 
Mercer'co., Ky 22.0055 5-Beeeeerere 899 
Mercer co, Ohio. . 2/7/12 ssce ae ee 899 
Mercer'co.;Vliic4 0.4 vemectnae poems 399 
Mercer co.,, MO. <i 3 5/21. 005 lethal 399 
Mercer co., Dakota..........$....- 899 
Mercer, Hugh... ; ce. sete seme dea 399 
Mercersburg asics sb sincere tach see 399 
Merchant, Commission. See Factor. 
Mercia (6.5/5 0.c)de nies Seon ae sete eee 400 
Merck, Johann Heinrich........... 400 
Mereuryii ins ib ci-11 satoetemete oie erie 400 
Mercury, in mythology............ 404 
Mercury. 8 planet... 2. ache seieeee 404 
Mercy, Sisters Ofe-, encores os diene AEOD 
Merganser... ajoatet dieisiase aie aye oat 405 
Merian, Matthdus (two)......... 1. 407 
Merian, Maria Sibylla............. 40T 
Méridas Spain @ane-: shee santero 407 
Mérida, Mexico 11. .)aca. ecice tomiants 407 
Mérida, Venezuela................. 408 
Meriden... i. se..ei nes Hom aeeeehe 408 
Meridian. See Longitude. 
Mérimée, Prosper .........--..008 408 
Merino Sheep. See Sheep. 
Merinthus. See Cerinthus. 
mMierionethshire fais <2ccscnrce ees 408 
Merivale, John Herman........... 409 
Merivale; Herman ..'.32...%~.ieaee 409 
Merivale, Charles........0.... 00. 409 
Meriwether CO) .5 a4... a sie se acute 409 
Merle d’Aubigné, Jean Henri...... 409 
IMErIN: 5; sisc's'e: o's o's wales soe a 409 
Merlin Ambrosius..........seee0+ 410 
Merlin Caledonius Sylvestris ...... 41¢ 
Merman and Mermaid...........-- 410 
Merodach 2. .cic is oso. ie sin le eietee 410 
Mérode, Frangois Xavier Marie Fré- 
déric Ghislain de ............... 
Mer06 5 eseee.s os be seule are 411 
Meropis. See Cos. 
Merovingians.........+-cesessoees 411 
Merrick C0...,)...csse pews asereis sails 412 
Merrick, JameS........--seeeseees 412 
Merrimack... .. sss sicielein's += +010 sie 412 
Merrimack C0......0-.s0ccveessees 412 
Merritt, Timon yuetretrelsis/s 5 clare 6's 121 412 
Merseburg.......scecceeress ES plepeiest 413 
IMGrseyiiz capi tiieGir> of tlris > 41» pislelais 413 
Merthyr. Tydfil, ¢. 06.260 ccs ssesel 413 


PAGE 

Aah allen aaa d se disce foes 
TUOREDMerisiients calsles sec acta 

Maseala 5 ts TASMAN ee oe vd See eeioees 413 
Mesembryanthemum ............. 413 
Meshedi deci esnscsees ces sce e canes 414 
IMeSIIR Ps teatecsinccisc oes tes cee e ee 415 
Mesmer, Friedrich Anton ......... 415 
Mesolonghi. See Missolonghi. 
Mesopotamia soc... ss ccc ccceccccce 415 
IUGR MBL elclte cPorerslacs ais-s.v's weasel dale satere s 415 
Messalina, Valeria..........000.-.. 415 
Messalina,’ Statilia’. 2... Vo. ere ee 416 
Messana. See Messina. 
INMGSSADIA sie acec ds toes iene es octees 416 
IM GSSONOM ccc eons seicee etait 416 
IMGSSORIA a eicca dads ececeheseecte 416 
IMGSBGrarA BAl Oe nccise secede nee 417 
Messiah, See Jesus Christ. 
IMGSSING Se eae ot stcicie cia. dloatere came 41T 
IMOSUIZOgretas. cist cave dee hoa e noes 418 
Méazaros. LAZAL .\s.2ecdees cote ctor 418 
MGtaLe. Si dtc ss cel ccomats s ceetin: 419 
Metalloids. See Metal. 
MECtalluirgyycaace< vaicla Sacvecie sive «ccc ¢ 421 
Metaphysics. See Philosophy. 


Metastasio, Pietro Antonio Domenico 


Bonaventura... 5.6% se san conte 427 
IMIGtESLASIS tae tate oS ereislee «.c.ce cloveei ele 428 
Metcalfe, COs acslce's savas vee eile 428 
Metcalfe, Frederick ............... 428 
Metellus, Lucius Cecilius ......... 428 
Metellus, Quintus Cecilius,........ 428 
Metellus, Quintus Cecilius Mace- 

AOnICUS Sooke in atte een ene 428 
Metellus, Lucius Cecilius Dalmati- 

GUSH Cee loca Secon ete os eon mee ae 
Metellus, Quintus Cecilius Numi- 

UGS. Bartolo harcteiavs tolete Vo ane Someta ee 428 
Metellus, Quintus Cecilius Pius..... 428 
Metellus, Quintus Ceecilius Celer... 428 
Metellus, Quintus Cecilius Pius 

SClMOM rst ecw. Usaeaee earl eens 429 
Metellus, Quintus Cecilius Creticus ae 
Metempsychosis...............00% 
IMGCCODMR & shies doar lonclee se enccets 499 
IMBTCOPOlOR Ye Were cicinciere's pacman eet: 432 
Meter. See Gas, vol. vii. p. 638, 


and Water Meter. 
IMethodisnisaantcatince cess saree. 448 


Methodius. See Cyril and Metho- 
dius. 
Metre, and Metric System. See 
Weights and Measures. 
IMBironomenncy sed: wtie. oa css lowes 460 
Metternich, Clemens Wenze! Nepo- 
MUksWOthary Princes. ..)cn ee ce 460 
Metternich, Richard, Prince........ 461 
Metternich, Pauline, Princess...... 461 
pasty BoC CLC ODIO EO DCEO AEEIGE 461 
2d GOCE CECE DUDE Cece Sane 462 
rai Gabriclity sets cswites ares oes 463 
LCM ODE Mee era leeaclnrxicdelowou One tens 463 
Meulen, Antoine Francois van der.. 463 
Meursius, Johannes (two)......... 463 
Meurthe-et-Moselle................ 463 
INFOUSGr. ANTIVIR Aiies' ceded se se gee 463 
Meuse, a department.............. 464 
OWrarids dsideltesaecies tat aed oslo 464 
Mexican Picture Writing. See 
Hieroglyphics. 
Mexico facies cise. cierto vases oe 464 
Mexico, aistatewne cece: teens dete. 479 
Mexico; a:0liyererauss + d)eets ee ee 480 
Mexico; Gultofterrn seccdoces diese. 483 
Meyendorff, family of.............. 484 
Mey-endorft,, Petetiio.. ..)te stents veers 484 
Meyendorff, Alexander............ 484 
Meyendorff, Helixtccaesces ot o's 484 
Mevor;. Welix).c 2 o- satsccor staan ss 484 
Meyer, Johann Georg............. 484 
Meyer, Johann Heinrich........... 484 
ECVE? L600 v,2-. o> sidedereie nts toes 484 
Meyerbeer, Giacomo.............. 484 
Meyerheim, Friedrich. Eduard..... 486 
Meyerheim, Wilhelm Alexander... 486 
Meyerheim, Eduard Franz......... 486 
Meyerheim, Paul Friedrich........ 486 
BLOF hs oon oe vie wre wld tute 486 
DVS V IR MGIOMIOR, 5o5 <'c0502 se eels wee 486 
Mézeray, Frangois Eudes de....... 48T 
PASTIGPOMM IAI Naee scr cast esos se sea 487 
DLGzibFesy AUTEN 1 os oie cue ences 487 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

MGzAQUIO Ree ordi coc ow cdadccet ene 487 
Mezzofanti, Giuseppe Gaspardo.... 488 
Mezzotinto. See Engraving, vol. 

vi., p. 653. . 
Miako. See Kioto. 
MinllA Md warditagts << c ve eee cutee 488 
Miami seteieesctcscietiaceaete 489 
Miamicon Oboe. : sis hie seeo cee. 489 
Miami-coxpindtene <2 5.8 23s euecee 489 
Miami co., Kansas ..s. 22.06.0005 489 
Miamiis paeeasee eis dace. ese eee 489 
Miantonomohiese- 2.0566 iN 0k 490 
Miasma. See Malaria 
IMianlisWANGYOsteetats.e8. sss sse oc 490 
Miaulis, Athanasios ............... 490 

ICRU acacia ota deeea eee deeecay see 490 
IM Cal recs attire metas sic ¢ es e's 6 491 
MicalisGinseppounsaceuessese. sce. 491 
Mica Slates etic. nststteerss cia ns. 0% 6 491 
Michael* Saint’ 2 c.cce ast ss <s « 491 
Michael Angelo. See Buonarotti. 
Michael Paleologus. See Byzan- 

tine Empire, vol. iii., p. 517. 
Michael Romanoff. See Russia. 
Michaelis, Johann David........ +. 492 
IMIChRelMAaSM esa. cen Suntec sete. 492 
Michaud! Josephiiy. 22 assess ss 492 
Michaud, tone Gabriela. aces 492 
Michaux, AndrGin esha. icielen cote 492 
Michaux, Francois André ......... 493 
Michel, Francisque MAVIEIAsutilee ne 493 
Michelet, Jitlesisjnieertsin,.0t ane cere 493 
Michelet, Athanaise............... 494 
Michelet, Karl Ludwig............ 494. 
Michelissiriedrich,..0....cs:ceers 494 
IMELCHI GAINEY, ote cciase este aisio'e wit altte seals 494 
IMichivan puakOlcc cas .ceaese tees 506 
Michigan, University of........... 507 
Michiran. Cityani sce. oan es 508 
Michilimackinac. See Mackinaw. 
IMI CH ORGAN» .forsteroverara ces cltelelhe at siete) stale 508 
Micipsa. See Jugurtha. 
Mickiewlez, pAGaIN 2a ccccieloslercee 509 
Mickle, William Julius............ 510 
IMIGMACS proc ciacieraesrcciceics tite sheers 510 
NEcrometenice ites Soe ate otto w 511 
Micronesia and Melanesia ......... 512 
IMICPOSCOPE a epettcints atriow ctersisete ee 513 
Microscopic Animals. See Animal- 

cules. 
Microsthenes. See Megasthenes. 
IMIG siete aie cualurr esti ate oloeta, aaverle 523 
Middelburg: atpcrca oes raion: 523 
Middle Ages. See Ages. 
Middlebury eccste vate aac aeree 523 
Middilesborough cence cpacek ccaktes 524 
Middlesex co., Mass............... 524 
Middlesex: co: Conny ics. cy-c1rte entre 524 
Middlesex: cor, Nid’ sir. ecie ctarsis ole ae 524 
Middlesexc0s, Viascsaseniescer cee 524 
Middlesex ©0., Ont., Canada..:.... 524 
Middlesex co., Eng..........-000 524 
Middle Thibet. See Ladakh. 
Middletony family; Of ceric cvelsiesiere 525 
Middleton, Edward............... 525 
Middleton, Arthur (two)........... 525 
Middleton, Henry (two)........... 525 
Middleton, Conyers............... 525 
Middleton ss Phomas ./2 ou.) won 525 
Middleton, Thomas Fanshawe..... 526 
Middletown Conni....dacesons eee 526 
Middletown: Nag Voseatis cccihecrtas ae 526 
Midge. See Diptera. 
Midianiitea se etpaceicias caricly olsisistate ieee 526 
IM dlands COs Aas aicissrcrtersere egrets 526 
Midlothian. See Edinburghshire. 
Midshipmantinaesta ceases sree 527 
Midwifery. See Obstetrics. 
IMAOIS Daniva.ins adteltadae,-lndeteneie ci tse ate 527 
Mioriss Eransieaces sce ctere i ccters onre 527 
MierisscWailllemiy tat. .fa.(ciro dens onto 527 
Mierig:t rans sa dace. co ees ae 528 
Mieroslawski, Ludwik ............ 528 
MAB CO es 6) <a: ess a.e'e cra a: tm rere eee 528 
Milne OMLAS! {itive scl rere aie ateiete 528 
Mioene, Jacques, Pauls oi es. ane 528 
Mignet, Francois Auguste Marie... 529 
Miononettern scnia a acc tacitaee side 529 
Miguel, Dom Maria Evaristo...... 529 
Mikado a Seder sle's\s teas, Gade eee 530 
Miklosich, Franz yon ............. 530 
Milam OG baie Afsle antes cteinsccaccsettis etale 561 


Vv 
PAGE 
Milan, a province..........+66 veo sd ODL 
Milan. a city as,es3 consencessaneaes 531 
MilazZOiiserc ato ctstcarat cotetey nell xormortestld 534 
Milburn, William Henry .......... 534 
Mil@ewes du senestadogsa seca rtremacte 584 
Milos took y ce fs a7 igdadee cee dted tmtae 535 
Miletus: isis ck eaeeseenae aan 535 
Milford )2.ccu Jas ccseradoon andes 536 
Milford: Havens soasissercsreiete scene 536 
Milfort.; Le Cloreac ans. teste e tote 537 
Milhau.. See Millau. 


Milltarye Wrontions. tc aces saci ces 537 
Military Law. See Court Martial, 
and Martial Law. 


Military Schools -(suige.e sos eetrcncels 537 
MT lithas sce. sels sisaicleysiaicie ote a eaete 538 
MAK ccs sais as dines edate otoheterae ten 541 
Milk. Sugar Of; 7 av acteaee acre tee 544. 
Milk eg i ee at terete ane ee 545 
Milk Tree. See Cow Tree. 
IMIR Weede ite agrccriaeeera se cee 045 
Milky Way. Sce Galaxy. 
Milly James 2.1505. se cdese seca 546 
Mille JohneStuart. Je sncscseeeeecs 547 
Milly Johan Sere esvasicase eee 548 
Millais, John Everett............. . 548 
Millard cous../8i 01 er eee 548 
Millard) David's... o: cass heen ees 548 
MSHA SS os as acls.cre teleeioeros eter 549 
Milledges Johnr.. Sos) nce oe cee dats 549 
Milledrevillostas ties, cee cone 549 
Milledoler, Philip........... Voeatereret 549 
IMP eE ACS COs Mie asetels ates < orcte/ tates 549 
Millennium: seers etnies cca: 549 
Millepede. See Centipede 
Milleporevatriasticstecaesiecse tate 550 
Miller’c0., Gace jets asais cee. ocices 551 
IMG eRICO: 5 MLOeric ae steer: ae riereciciere ele 551 
Miller, Bénigne Emmanuel Clément 551 
Miller, Edwards ii. s2/clsceie waders OL 
Millori® ELUp I atte a cloistered aerate ddl 
Miller, James (two)...........0... 554 
Miller® SF oaquint.iaccasctctteh eet 554 
Miller, Minnie Theresa (Dyer)..... 554. 
Miller, Joseph. © stickier sete eueite 554 
Miller? Samuel) ermeasawcioe eles cies 554 
Millers Thomas/g.e..c stoner ones 555 
Miller, Willianae aon sale cen oe metoe 555 
Miller, William Allen. 2..2..2:.%.. 555 
REN ets ere ee ASS. ee eee 555 
IMillety A im6\', ..caeteoctec ee dace mete 556 
Millet, Jean Francois.............. 556 
Millet® Pierre gg wicis a siteralcteraoetoes 556 
Millin, Aubin Louis............... 556 
Millot, Claude Francois Xavier.... 556 
Millsico:; lowas. ...o.casea emer oe 55T 
Mills*eo;, Dakota sisccceaes eee 557 
Mills?‘ Charleshaeneicss coneuten eee 55T 
Mills\:Clarkgee vise ce ae s st ote ode ae 5dT 
Mills; Samuel John, jr............ 55T 
Millstone sc Piha. Nav ose se ectele Soleere 55T 
Millstone: Gritiiaa cae tte niet cists stele 558 
NTA G fetes tts icis oie aiciels create omen te 558 
Milman); Henry Wart... 220.6 eee 558 
Milne, Willaunesxt coe kee on 559 
Milne-Edwards, Henri............ 559 
Milner), Jones sass Sercord tect clee 559 
Milner, SOSOD Ds ieve detalles ve Verere? 559 
Milners [saaeaaetsnitan.c oh cise s aeiee 559 
Milnes, Richard Monckton. See 
Houghton, Lord. 
IMaInorhl Ainesiensie creo cules stet cee ate 559 
Milo. See Melos. 
MI Geeta strain ote tris Sranmaie ccisuctaie ale 560 
Milo, Titus Annius Papinianus .... 560 
MGR CSIs: %sicveyo: c'ovatc picvareutetetietenel stare 560 
IMMITOND CON shes svete eiaterstorelaketeyeteretaveretd 560 
MLC ONAN Sea cled aol steal exereleietctcicraletretete 561 
(Miltony JObN A, cccdescwacmonectee 561 
Milutin, Nikolai Alexeyevitch..... 564 
Milwankee cone ionii.cccctcle meee 564 
Mil WAUK GOs 3 Word ccoscktaeisioge coneinene sie 565 
Milyas. See Lycia. 
Mimnermus..... SRP ROCIATIE pe CXL 567 
Mimosaiacs, fac sowie oct ae sister ane 567 
Mina Bird. See Mino Bird. 
Minas: Geraes 5.3.2.1. slschaientare atetets 568 
Minatitlan”, 222, swiesedecash vetorete 568 
MINION sj cigeks ioe) aoe atthe eratans 569 
Minds, Gottfried) ...c.cresterrs: voeten ts 509 
Mindanao. See Philippine Islands. 
Mini deni eii5'c sian) sussehete feo clete’- Gites 569 


Vil 
PAGE 

Mindoro. See Philippine Islands. 
IMEI sie sciecefsiecarsiarniesie austere taisicvche rates sta 569 
IM IneE COl Ans eU ak ebaue anc enue oor 576 
Miner, Alonzo Amés.............. 576 
Miner, PROMS ec cccisisrieistsiPicisicie nie 5TT 
Mitral consultees dso, 51T 
Mineral Deposits: si2:. cers qn eicisines 577 
INIMOLAIORY co rance ee icisslakiohcasion 583 
Mineral Pomt..3 ces aa gaebeeeen 591 
Mineral Springs vo carac.ceeecere atoueiei ae 591 
Mineral Waters, Artificial.......... 595 
IMiin GES VINE 2 sjniegeistescsinr= aloleebiels ieiste 597 
IMINEYVA ais dela taee Saitos 4 oe was Sete 59T 
Min ghetti, Marco, <cle ews ise anes 598 
Mingrella (esl ae, «.ajsievotelsetatelerg arora 598 
Minho: a TIVER .. ocncnseaae uae eesan 598 
Minho? 8 provinces. fis seeseieie isis 598 
Miniature Painting ............... 598 
Minié, Claude Etienne............ 600 
Minium. See Lead, vol. x., p. 245. 
IM es a er ote ce isang cela octeeeete 600 
Minneapolis... tics cattens waeetel ae 601 
Minnehaba'co...2. 44.6 cen eee 602 
MINN ESING OLE 44:4 hoi vce wstelals nie pete teens 602 
IMINNESOTS. 10:4 cassisn'aas cae seme es 602 
Minnesota, 8 Tivertieriele/ sale ee sie 611 
Minnesota, University of.......... 611 
MINN Stas veiacaaae desaeled sieeeciee 612 
IMUTINO PY Jac gis sini eataciaretaristall atu seo 613 
INTO Binds costars Wats Meltvcte oe tens 613 
MINORS «acid pea magaee ase Sleeps es 613 
Minorites. See Franciscans 
IMEEN OB ieeia's cisicsinie sere 4.04 <tc las Reels ¢ 614 
Minot, George Richards........... 614 
Minotaur. See Minos. 
Minot’s Ledge. See Lighthouse. 
Minsis. See Munsees. 
INUINSK rahi, ores oc soe heat eee 614 
Minstrels: 7c sctsie acces a eenerae ee 614 
MUNG PA Dlamts Osos) de ne een. 614 

IG iS wide Se aiatole miaaves ete Tee 616 
Minto, Gilbert Elliot, Earl of.. 621 


Minto, Gilbert Elliot- -Murray- Ky- 


nynmound, Warl of79-2.02- ce. 2 621 
Minucius Felix, Marcus........... 621 
IMI eL Sse ja states alare sprsieteiee Sener 621 
Minuit, Peter: jccasdan asceciuin eee 621 
NEIniiGesies ad dotted oa ete eae 622 
eee Heinrich Menu von, 

Baron Wore tis cia aaa area 622 
Minutoli, Wolfradines..2 0. euvceeuls 622 
Minutoli, LUliiSEVOnaireeik see ies 622 
MIOCOHS. ian cvishsaiad 402. ee 622 
Miolan-Carvalho, Caroline Marie 

WOlUX Cee: aso aoe chet eE es 622 
Miot, André Frangois,............2 622 
Miquelon. See Saint-Pierre. 

Mirabeau, Gabriel Honoré Riquetti, 

Count desea cite weeds meee on 623 
Miracle: .oe scence s eens 625 
Miracles and Moralities............ 626 
Miratiores, Manuel de Pando, Mar- 

QUIS OL. cvalereaaccpaow ace or eine 628 
INUIT OT ORE ais aloo tane bee Eee ane 628 
INEIra nicht ty nace ss st tee ae ee 629 
Miramon, Miguel .............0006 6380 
Miranda, Francisco... 0.0.06. .e. ee 630 
Mirandola, Giovanni Pico della .... 681 
Mirbel, Charles Francois Brisseau 

CL OseAge ciate ele@ cle cm oe ae as 631 
IMirecourte ee ince vente ecc.vee eee 631 
MATOS Zo UCB Se cig eve aas shel eee 631 
Miriam 2 su GoWae ). Aulals oath. 631 
IMirnonecie shee ante emeries oe bt ceae 632 
Mirzanores umes oy epiataes tee... 633 
Misdemeanors. cuckasieoktuniiees 633 
MISGLGEG se ices caster baron eee aoe 634 
IMishtidlivswcssna cts chester. ne pie 634 
IMiskOleZ, .scsescasca ew bday Sree 635 
Misnia, See Meissen. 
Mississagas.........020%>scer aera 635 
Missal.ssosiba sees canker eee oes 635 
Missankee: ¢0). 02s sc enon eee ee 636 
Missinnippi River. See Churchill. 
Missions, .Horelon...cas sae connee 636 
Missisquoi COV (iden Rieter pester 650 
MLississippl «2. xu iccsce ns centre ee 650 
Mississippi co., Ark... .2.-oceiaentaee 658 
Mississippi co., Mo...............- 658 
Mississippi Blver..;.. Jeo 658 
Missolonghi .saaesscc 6 thee sean 662 
Missovla C0.) cissc.m es xcmandamitle 662 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 
Missouri... Deere Lac ccc viteaehe 662 
Missouri Riverine ccc idee ds cesta 673 
Missouris siemens oats oo elena 674 
IMIStak 6s sn vanttesiels ose: arene aes 674 
Mistletoe ee aaeouscas op esha 675 
Mistral irédéricme,...)0 <7 asaens 676 
Mii tay Se eer eee o coic accutane ie 676 
uMitehel ohn ieecuyyes soins es cues 676 
Mitchel, Ormsby macknight seleeeens 677 
Mitchell LON NGC cin cisisinrsis Sonis.gitte bie 617 
Mitchell co, Ga ele aelazele:aavoroe ee 617 
Mitchell ¢0., TOW AS. 3 .i\5: ead 617 
Mitchell cos Kansaswves vss ccs ore 677 
Mitchell, Donald Grant............ 678 
Mitchell Blisha «2 5. ics sciecerels -2 a0 678 
Mitchell, John Kearsley........... 678 
Mitchell, DaNVelrisle coucaeseeesone 678 
Mitchell, IMATIA | ss iecoue abe nioade te ee 678 


Mitchell, Sir Thomas Livingstone.. 678 


Mitchell's Peak. See Black Moun- 


tains. 
Mitchill, Samuel Latham.......... 679 
MIO Re iers oe Cate stye foe colts) nee ome ee 679 
Mitford, Mary Russell............. 679 
Mittord:= Williamyo: 2. eee seas 680 
Mithridatess® Vcc vac got hie Ses 680 
Mitrailleuse. See Artillery, vol. i, 

p. 792. 
PNET OO, on Vion gia Cralelagaes oe eet atetne DEO 681 
Mitscherlich, Hilhard.............. 681 
Mittermaier, Karl Joseph Anton... 682 
IMItti OATES ce ia, dines alae ete ee 682 
IMAtEOO in. Ssk. lew sae Gh ie ne Ee 682 
Mitylene. See Mytilene 
Mixtecas .ic% 3). ctcarcaciecemae ates 683 
Mnemonics............ ona ek ieee 6838 
IMNeMOSYNG ac uin cer oe srepiinteeinetee 684 
Moa. See Dinornis. 
IMoap.. occa ces oetons cpmonen Me meee 684 
Moawiyahi (two)... .eseects deeaiee 685 
Moberly, George.........++s00s0s6 685 
Mobile; a rivers cjassen eta eee 685 
Mobile Coiias<.'eee ab ene tases 686 
Mobile <... cacti cis ait beter oAe cee ee 686 
Mobile Point. {. cs: cesne une eee 688 
Mobius, August Ferdinand........ 688 
Mobius, Theodor Faee ae 688 
Mobius, Paul Heinrich August Pee 688 
Mocanna. See Atha ben Hakem 
Mochiageect.n) B22%, cia, cee eink eee aan 688 
Mochuana. See Bechuana. 
Mocking; Birdie asec svete pamaicnes 688 
Modena te schaonet ens sents teenies 689 
Modes ices. eee ees ale hie ate 691 
Modlin. See Novogeorgeievsk 
MOUOCSS, - b sivsiaa cise osvateielitene sere 691 
IM GEtriSF2 cs. cps: clove cettstawe » atc Memes 691 
IM CBSISS poe ve veces Sibel ne tet 692 
Moffat. Robeért:..&. ae: ke salsteeeirs 692 
Mogadore bab aie Aen cae ee ita eee 692 
Moghilev. See Mohilev. 
Mogild-Peter scsi sition bales 693 

OPUS. iets Meets loeeteny leer 693 
MORWGCE 2 pis bss Lome tem iete «ee aoe 693 
Mohammed siccec cones eabeeeens 693 
Mohammed LL: Sris. eee oe 695 
Mohammed UN cs aaaeiiot tiie cee 696 
Mohammed Ali. See Mehemet Ali. 
Mohammedanism................- 696 
Mohave cowmitie f..20 Werte ojaele ties 700 
IMONAVES : 5. base cna cake oeieie Cee 700 
IM ONAWK sc cae o cane scone 700 
Mohawks. See Agmegue 
Mohegansi. is scsedcasancuthecens 700 
IMODUCY sos ie ete tone cack cents 701 
Mohl, Hugo yonined.in «ween 701 
Mohl Roberts cusses: sceleencieeey 701 
Mohl. dD uliaseacine seek pene aaah Ol 
Mohler, Johann Adam............ 701 
Mohs. iF riedrichsans:cews erence utes 702 
Moigno, Francois Napoléon Marie.. 702 
Moir, David. Macheth............... 703 
Moira, Earl of. See Hastings, 

Francis. 
Moivre, Abraham de.............. 703 
Mokanna. See Atha ben Hakem. 
Mola, Pietro Francesco............ 703 
Mola, Giambattista.............. meus 
Molasse:.... d.niscihl Sais. Seeee da 703 
IM@IGSSON oi. </s.5 pee nee te eines 703 
Mold atic? 5; haciciienct ett = cee 703 
IMOIMSVIS...<.3's sac ¥ecc cactnse ne eee 703 


PAGE 
M016 55.5 eb ctstets: «brass. ci eee 105 
Molé, Louis Mathieu, Count....... 706 
Mole CriCK OTRO oo. ace ere ee rg 
Molecule, Sige esiciik ois asco 107 
Molenbeek-St.-Jean.............2. 718 
Moleschott, Jacob..............0<. 718 
Molesworth, William Nassau...... 718 
Molfetts. deci Ves abeieetien 718 
Motiére gn toes i eee eieciatas 
Molina, Liaisiiiee ooo s:das's seen 719 
Moline gained ielemte eevee tae pee 720 
Molinists. See Molina. 
Molinos, Miguel de.............00 720 
Molique, Wilhelm Bernhard....... 720 
Molise. See Campobasso. 
Moller, Georg .jch sincacceitececnes 720 
MoOllhausen, Balduin.............. 720 
Mollusea i; .angea aoeien eee 720 
Moillnscoids: 230 :c..: hehe, selene 724. 
Moloch). 3:,) cca deeuse ac ee 725 
Moloch, a reptile. ......-i5.05.2 ieee 725 
Mologsia. <5 cidsiguaelenece bere 725 
Moltke, Helmuth Karl Bernhard 
VON, Count.,.icisjs.s.c/0 9s eieeeeetene 725 
Moluceasshaiss stands eee 726 
Molybdenum 2/3) is aisle atop eon 727 
IMomDas, icc Uh aciend ec cre een tere [27 
Mommsen, Christian Matthias 
Theod orcaeccdoo. ae kas ae ee {27 
Momotombo:s...) .s2 sheen eeee ees 728 
Mom pos: \ae isles tne See ee 728 
Momus, ... ccc Wests taltelew eee ee seas 728 
Monachisin;i2h acs. andaetee seeted 728 
MONACO: does eo Gans hose eee 732 
Mona inate oe aitlsis Werte Ae cele rae ee 783 
Monadnock, Grand; ,...<<seueueee 733 
Monaghan. 4. /22is/a,.:. tit lester 133 
Monastery... - <n cees nists peeoeiem 134 
Monastir (fois 6 ake eheeeeeeeee 734 
Monboddo, James Burnet, Lord... 734 
tue ee Selecdwiad« sleie merges sieieteeee 134 
BCK A eka ca oaiee ese ee 735 
Monereiit (Wellwood), Sir Henry... 785 
Moncton, socis ees cee eee eee 785 
Mondays: osc o0's sees os cheep OD 
Mondonedo.n< 5.0.0 cans on ete 735 
Mondoviv.... Js 52 shes ce eee 735 
Mone, Franz Joseph.. 735 
Money... cs csdaaidiein cele 735 
Monge, Gaspard. ; x.misei.-S s slemiaets 745 
Mong hing), sve sine sine eater mine 746 
Mongolia. et hicnte eee cee 746 
Mongous. See Ichneumon, and 
Lemur. 
Moniteatl: covesi as aii acleree tenet 748 
Monitors... 2 cs daecene eo kieeeee 748 


Monitor, in naval architecture. 
Iron-clad Ships. 

Monk. See Monachism. 

Monk, George, Duke of Albemarle. 749 


See 


Monk, James Henry. ..eleceer ee 750 
Monkey, sac ds isi deeds tee ee 750 
Monkshood. See Aconite. 

Monmouth coc uos sewer tan eee 753 
Monmouth, Ill. :oos.d2a0 se eneeeee 753 
Monmouth, Eng... 2.4.0. sine ee pie 753 
Monmouth, Battle of.............. 154 


Monmouth, Geoffrey of. See Geof- 
frey. 


Monmouth, James Scott, Duke of.. 754 
Monmoythshire....)-ss.e0++eesnie 759 
Monnard, Charles, (i, 5s niestelat aire 755 
Monnier, Venri Bonaventure...... 155 
Monnier, Marc. , 2). oscleh ceieei ae T58 
MONO COs. 5b:a's 0 o'o10 sso sine Saree 755 
Monod, Jean... css mise stle leer 156 


Monod, Frédéric Joél Jean Gérard.. 156 
Monod, Adolphe Frédéric Théodore 756 
Monogram semicdipe ct) toate 756 


Monomania. See Insanity. 

MONQDA CO, . « »olsioicicteniamiueietetnglt s\diale 756 
Monongahela River.......++.++-.. 756 
Monongalia CO,.,.s..csccessccvsee 157 
Monophysites,..3.c;e-2ece 1255-54 TST 
Monoapolilics, sda atetueiter ole pier alsin aie 758 
Monothelites, ccccieatewisis ss » aincielsieicie 758 
Monotremata........ tO TERA, 758 
Monrenle, oasis ees e's + > >» (c.ct late 158 
Monro, Alexander. Pe iaiays Sasha se 759 
Monroe co,, N. Y....... Aiptdals sae 759 
Monroe co. PR aalca cas 430d 000. 759 
MOHTOOLCOs ViS5scee vx-ais'd hdc 759 


MOnrOR CO.,, GAL seers Acewu cect 


Monroo'cor Flay svat. rs ees 8 oe TOO 
Monroe co., Ala 


a a a ie a 
Pee ee ese see eeseeee 
ee a ey 
ey 


ee ee ey 


Monroe co., Ky 
Monroe co., Ohio 
Monroe co., Ind 
Monroe co., [Il 


ee ee ee 
i ea) 
CeCe es cere re sees aoseos 
i ee ay 
i Ce ec) 
Ce ey 
Ce a | 
ee ay 
eee eee rasreseeeorse 
ee 
seme meer erases aereses 
Cr ee) 
ee ee 
i ee 


ee a i er a a? 


Montagu, Basil 
Montagu, Edward Wortley 
Montagu, Elizabeth 
Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley 


er ee ey 
ay 


CC ee ee ay 


Montague, Charles, Earl of Halifax. 768 
Montaigne, Michel, Seigneur de.... 769 
Montalant, Mile. 
Montalembert, Mare René de, Mar- 


See Damoreau. 


Montalorabort; Ohariea Worben Hand 
Montalvan, i orc nee ae 
Montanelli, Giuseppe de dewscse see 
“See Montanists. 
See Arias Mon- 


ee 


Montanus, Arias. 


CC i a a 
ee ee | 
eee eee sec eee esas reson 
ey 

ee ee a) 


Montcalm de Candiac. 


Montcalm de 

Joseph, Marquis de 
Mont de Marsan 
Mont de Piété 


Saint-Véran, Louis 


ee ee ee 
Cee ee 


ee ee ee ee ey 


Monte Casino. A 
Montecuculi, aiesre Count. Bt 
Montefiore, Sir Moses 
Montégut, ‘Emile 
Montemolin, Count of. See Carlos, 

vol. iii., p. 793. 
Monten, Dietrich 


Montépin, Xavier Aymon de.. 


Ce ee ee ary 


er 


see teres eres essen 


ee ee ery 


Montespan, Francoise Athénais de 
Rochechouart de 

Montesquieu, Charles de’ ae 
Baroniderera otek ke eoese ae oed ke! 

Monteverde, Claudio 


ey 


ee) 


ey 


ee ee ed 


ee eT 


Montfort, Jean (IV.) de 
Montfort, Simon de (two) 
See Aéronautics. 
Montgomery cO., 

Montgomery co., Pa 
Montgomery co., Md 
Montgomery co., Va. .... 05.0255 786 
Montgomery co., N. C 
Montgomery co., Ga 
Montgomery co., Ala 
Montgomery co., Miss 
Montgomery co., ' Texas 


Ce 


ee ee i 


eee e eset eee eases 


eee ee re eereees 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 
Montgomery co., Ark............-. 786 
Montgomery co., Tenn............ 787 
Montgomery co., Ky.........0.24 T8T 
Montgomery co., Ohio............. T8T 
Montgomery co., Ind.........5..... 787 
Montgomery co., Ill............... 787 
Montgomery co., lowa............ TST 
Montgomery co., Mo.............. 787 
Montgomery co., Kansas.......... T8T 
Montgomeryinsts. . 2. es hdsb eee see 187 
Montgomery, James.............. 788 
Montgomery, Richard............. 789 
Montgomery, Robert.............. 789 
‘Montgomeryshire................ . 789 
Months tase citemics ces cess tenes 789 
Montholon, Charles Tristan, . Mar- 

QuIishdectre emer artis. : sca ses 

Monthyon. See Montyon. 
Monti Vicenzomuneecenc ss vs. S 790 


Montigni, Rose Marie Cizos Le- 
moine. See Chéri. 


IMontluconite setae cn aera tee « 6s 790 
Montmapniyr COs. 4-h acters = «6: 790 
Montmartre. See Paris........... 790 
Montmeédy cic asec on Pacer 790 
Montmorency co., Mich............ 791 
Montmorency co., Canada......... 791 
Montmorency, ariver............. 791 
Montmorency, a town............. T9L 
Montmorency, family of........... 791 
Montmorency, Anne, Duke de..... CEB 


Montmorency, Henri II., Duke de.. 791 

Montmorency, Matthieu Jean Fé- 
BOUG sss cudees scones pereee 792 

Montmorency, Francois de. See 


Bouteyille. 
MOntOUr: CO's ¢ ays:c15. 2 cise Heeteie eetees 792 
Montpeller Viele: c.cec peewee at ae 792 
Montpellier, France ............... 793 
Montpensier, Anne Marie Louise 
d’Orléans, Duchess of........... 793 


Montpensier, Antoine Marie Phi- 
lippe Louis d’Orléans, Duke de.. 793 


Montrealadeatacecncer oe oa caaes 794 
IM ODGPOUX ec rrera srkecererecersrrarte hee el ohare 796 
INFOTT OBO. t oe cnt omen oars 796 
Montrose, James Graham, Marquis 

CY ae ae Oa PAM HOR HOD ODAC 796 
Montserrat. 69. ore cece ee T9T 


Montserrat, 2 mountain of Spain. 
See Monserrat. 


Montucla, Jean Etienne........... 797 
Montyon, Antoine Jean Baptiste 

Robert Auget, Baron de......... T9T 
MONZA esata tion ciate aie are) d sis 6: sisters 798 
MOOG Yi GORE. trains les rs chere wal s'g Seale 798 
Mooltanee caceuncadcsts seat en visdee 798 
MOONS a5 teen aes eacrdis ocerneceeies 798 
Moorcrofts William 2272-5 2 se cetee- 801 
MOore cont Ni Chaser ce se circ 801 
Moore cos) Tennee mentee ss csc ueias 801 
MooreieA lfred:\ccjeviciaectenc sine ome creene 801 
Moore, Benjamine. cca ssns dese 801 
Moore, Clement Clarke............ 801 
Moore, WOWard.x, seve tate ocles ae trae 801 
Moore, Hlonryostiestics «cistoanore ne ctag 802 
Moore, Jacob Bailey............... 802 
Moore, George Henry............. 802 
Moores Mrankiistcs 32s tela e ates 802 
Moore Johns sis coe aececees een 802 
MG0re; Si SOR sure scac cures aetna 802 
Moore, Nathaniel F............... 803 
Moore, Richard Channing......... 803 
Moore: Thomas tyta.es tale ls slaresitsys 803 
Moore, Zephaniah Swift........... 804 
Moor Fowl. See Ptarmigan 
MOOES Gaecnittceracisieiatels Saver encke toys 804 
MOOrsheGabad'.ea. coe sacra seestae 805 
IMLOOrUK Saar aearctevalas clets siatets olcrerats 805 
Moose, See Elk 
Moosehead Laken. ..cc seca. 66th oe 805 
Moose Wood. See Maple, vol. xi, 

p. 139 
IM OGUUS ie uiala av sarctsiefasvacsisa cctasienyan 806 
IML OMA Cave icraia siete ieleis oid eww siasteleieeats 806 
Moradabad. cviaisrats aNeicte irae cictendeele 806 
Morales, Luis de........4.....2006 806 
Moral Philosophy................. 806 
Moran, Thomaston. sesee te seven ates 816 
Moran, Peter vase ciccaeva eats aye aes 816 
IMLOPA UG cracs sehow atitate ol eee e neces goers 816 


cy 


Moravians.s taice eee .e eae Wet. < 


Moray, Earl of. See Murray. 
i See Elginshire. 
Morazan, Francisco 


Coe eser seer sere oereeorene 


Ce ee 


ee | 


Mordaunt, Charles. See Peterbor- 


ee ee a i) 
ee ee 


ee a | 


More, Sir Thomas 
See Peloponnesus. 
Moreau, Jean Victor 
Morehouse parish 


Cee eee eer ese seers esesessenene 


ace ed 


ee ) 


Foes eet e sere ee ere 


Cr 


Morella, Count de, 


Morelos, a state 


ee er 


eee e ee se se eeee seen 


ee ee oereressate 


Moreto, Agustin 


See Bonyicino. 
Morgagni, Giovanni Battista 


ee 


Morgan co., Ala 
Morgan co., Tenn 
Morgan co., Ky 
Morgan co., Ohio 
Morgan co., Ind 
Morgan co., Ill 
Morgan co., Mo 
Morgan co., Utah 
Morgan, Daniel 
Morgan, Sir Henry 
Morgan, Lewis Henry 
Morgan, Sydney (Owaneany Lady.. 
Morgan, Sir Thomas Charles 
Morgan, William. 


Peres eee ceeserssoee 
ee ee ee | 
sees sere eer sc eensee 
i ee a) 
Pee ee ee tener eee rece 
ee ee ary 
ay 
Ce ee ee a) 
a 


sere eer ee cores 


See Anti-Ma- 


See Fata Morgana. 
Morganatic Marriage 
Morgenstern, Christian........-.-. 
Morghen, Raffaelle Sanzio 


ee ey 


ee Ce eee eee eee ees eeeseseees 


8 
Morhof, Daniel Georg 
Moriah, Mount. 
Morier, James 
Morike, Eduard 


oa 


See Jerusalem. 


Oe ey 


ey 


Morley, Henry....... Kiclays sietaratstalaters 


be: acne Ee Te ae ae 
Morny, Charles Auguste Louis Jo- 
seph de, Duke 


eee eer eer eeesce 


Ce i ee) 


see ee er ereese ser oreeee 


Morocco, a sultanate 
Morocco, a city 


Ce ee ee ee a) 


ee | 


ee 


Morphy, Paul Charles. 


ee eer eee rec ee eesese 
to eeer neers seeee 


peer eee neater ese seers rese ee 


Morris, Charles 
Morris, George P 
Morris, Gouverneur 
Morris, Lewis 

Morris, Robert 
Morris, Thomas A 
Morris, William 
Morris Dance 


Ce 
Se ae | 
ee a 
Se ee ee ay 

ee | 
ee) 
ee 
ee a | 
a) 


Morrison, Robert 


ee ee ey 


eee eee reer een eres 


ee ee ey 


Morrow, Jeremiah 


Morse, Edward 8 
Morse, Jedidiah 


ee ee 


ee a) 


Vill CONTENTS 
PAGE PAGE PAGE 

Morse, Sidney Edwards........... 8505] CMoschus saci eet tine tsa e ses 858 | Mosquito. See Gnat. 
Mortar. nor Artillery, and Cannon. MOSCOW: ier cisectssteriseistes cm sis) teers 858 | Mosquito Coast. See Nicaragua, 
INT OTE Pag eS ate chess cis tee cceselerainieveisrnde os Moseley, Henry ..........00s0% 268502 "| MOSKOS ..cccto elec ociseus peer eres . 863 
Morten eaoeard Adolphe Casimir Moselle 2. vee s cesemistnbrs sels 5.6 oie cies 862 | Mostar. formes. cos seers 867 

J oseph BS Arian Se ater Sy 852 | Moselle Wines. See Germany, Mosttl) cee cacnicez is 2 Pee aie 867 
Mortification. See Gangrene. Wines of, vol. vii., p. 775. Motagua, Rio. See Guatemala, 
Mortimer, Rogers a+ ae <= creat se 852 | Mosen, J SULT pad, oe 862 vol. viii., p. 289. 
IMortmain £.2).1c) os sieen eee aees oeue 853 Mosenthal, Salomon Hermann..... 8627}. Moth 3). ..2¢s oeeeask . Soe ene 867 
MOrtON ‘COsses sccsigeiieics selena tee 854 | Moser, George Michael............ 862 | Mothe Cadillac. See Cadillac. 
Morton, James Douglas, Earl of.... 854 | Moser, Johann Jakob............- 862 | Mother Carey’s Chicken. See Pe- 
Morton, ODN cio. senesced oe 854 | Moser, Friedrich Karl von......... 863 trel. 
Morton, Nathaniel 2): dees. cic /eltts S54 cl MGser SUStUBEy oot ero: oils -:5 ee.) plates 863 | Mother of Pearl. See Pearl. 
Morton, Samuel George........... 854 | Moses. See Hebrews,vol. viii., p. 583. Motherwell, William.............. 870 
Morton, William Thomas Greene.. 855 | Mosheim, Johann Lorenz von ..... 863, | Motherwort...... 22.02 00k". eee 871 
PMOSSIC rics ices isieretsieieinie sialpree ace 856 | Moskva, Battle of the. See Boro- Motion. See Mechanics. ; 
IM[OSASAUNUSIs.. «1. civics weccbisinc.eetetteG 857 dino. Motley, John Lothrop ............ 871 
Moscheles, [gnazi. wis. ccvcen cele sacle 858 | Moslem. See Mohammedanism. Motmot..i.0% sc neeiccn sen tate mites 872 
Moschi....... eaten BSE 2 aaietetaas SOSii| SMOSqueyetetsisisie:s «2.0/5 Fie asieisie's atmiciries SOS i Mo trilt ts acre cuneiier ines a) /e PRR 

SUPPLEMENT TO VOLUME XI. 

Mahaffy, John Peytland........... STS Massage.ae cwisacene «sie sattele sens 882; Mississippin. 223 achat sclee ale mieiseys 894 
Maine. sc. cite ment aes tein « 873 | Maturin, Edward 8............... 8S0))| “Missouriaie osc. spiaee A ieemae $94 
Major, Richard (Henry, 2-7../tomee 1-6 STOu) Maver, ‘Constantzsenc-stanec see 885 | Mivart, St. George..........-+-+-+ 895 
Makart. Hanis sy. cette ies sci tees see 876 | Mayo, Isabella. Sc eta. a eicsiiainie ee 885 | Modjeska, Helena Bends.......... 895 
Mallock, William Hurrell.......... 876 | Meek, Fielding Bradford.......... 885 | Molly Maguires,........-.5. sce 896 
Maltby. sMOward circles etic. lefcice SiGciv Meraphonerteng ce aeritesee ieee ee 886 | Montana...........ee cess eee eeeee 897 
Manby. Chariogcns ss Vee ee eee SI6\| Melikelf. 02) ge tiam ce eee 886 | Monti, Raffaelle..............20005 89T 
INVADILODS teiot iets ovine saleeietee mele o's 876 | Meteyard, Eliza............2.eeee. 886 | Moon ssc. ee Joe sew esemolmeale 898 
Manners, John James Robert...... STG} Michigan. sos sors come ctac sl eteretere 88611) Morris, Clara .:2. in. cse cae eines 899 
Mardi MPAs. Veoutcee che et cele es STI Microphone soja nae eesicwe seme 890 | Morris, Francis Orpen............. 899 
Marks, Henry Stacy............... 877 | Microtasimeter.........--.+.ee0 891 | Morris, Philip Richard ............ 899 
Maryland Sale isla SWE ais siete amie SU 4) MidhatiPasha nicgetas stasis tcrestete §91 | Morton, Oliver Perry...........+- 899 
Mason, George Hemming......... 879 | Miller, William Hallowes.......... 892 
Massachusetts 1 3.))cs\0 ces nee ses 879) |) Minnesota.) versielcisies seieieie sine np bos tt 


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